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1 Number Systems

Animation 1.1: Complex Plane

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1.1 Introduction 1.2 Rational Numbers and Irrational Numbers

In the very beginning, human life was simple. An early ancient herdsman compared
p
sheep (or cattle) of his herd with a pile of stones when the herd left for grazing and again on We know that a rational number is a number which can be put in the form where p,
q
its return for missing animals. In the earliest systems probably the vertical strokes or bars
such as I, II, III, llll etc.. were used for the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. The symbol “lllll” was used by qUZ / q ≠ 0. The numbers 16 , 3.7, 4 etc., are rational numbers. 16 can be reduced to the
many people including the ancient Egyptians for the number of fingers of one hand.
Around 5000 B.C, the Egyptians had a number system based on 10. The symbol p 4
form where p, qUZ, and q ≠ 0 because 16 = 4 = .
q 1
for 10 and for 100 were used by them. A symbol was repeated as many times as it was
needed. For example, the numbers 13 and 324 were symbolized as and
p
respectively. The symbol was interpreted as 100 + 100 +100+10+10+1+1+1 Irrational numbers are those numbers which cannot be put into the form where
q
+1. Different people invented their own symbols for numbers. But these systems of notations
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proved to be inadequate with advancement of societies and were discarded. Ultimately the p, qUZ and q ≠ 0. The numbers 2, 3, , are irrational numbers.
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set {1, 2, 3, 4, ...} with base 10 was adopted as the counting set (also called the set of natural
numbers). The solution of the equation x + 2 = 2 was not possible in the set of natural
numbers, So the natural number system was extended to the set of whole numbers. No 1.2.1 Decimal Representation of Rational and Irrational Numbers
number in the set of whole numbers W could satisfy the equation x + 4 = 2 or x + a = b , if
a > b, and a, b, UW. The negative integers -1, -2, -3, ... were introduced to form the set of 1) Terminating decimals: A decimal which has only a finite number of digits in its decimal
integers Z = {0, ±1, ±2 ,...). part, is called a terminating decimal. Thus 202.04, 0.0000415, 100000.41237895 are examples
Again the equation of the type 2x = 3 or bx = a where a,b,UZ of terminating decimals.
and b ≠ 0 had no solution in the set Z, so the numbers of the form Since a terminating decimal can be converted into a common fraction, so every
terminating decimal represents a rational number.
a
where a,b,UZ and b ≠ 0, were invented to remove such difficulties. The set
b
2) Recurring Decimals: This is another type of rational numbers. In general, a recurring or
a
Q = { I a,b,UZ / b ≠ 0} was named as the set of rational numbers. Still the solution of equations periodic decimal is a decimal in which one or more digits repeat indefinitely.
b
It will be shown (in the chapter on sequences and series) that a recurring decimal can
such as x2 = 2 or x2 = a (where a is not a perfect square) was not possible in the set Q. So the be converted into a common fraction. So every recurring decimal represents a rational
irrational numbers of the type ± 2 or ± a where a is not a perfect square were introduced. number:
This process of enlargement of the number system ultimately led to the set of real numbers A non-terminating, non-recurring decimal is a decimal which neither terminates nor
_ = Q~Q’ (Q’ is the set of irrational numbers) which is used most frequently in everyday life. it is recurring. It is not possible to convert such a decimal into a common fraction. Thus a
non-terminating, non-recurring decimal represents an irrational number.

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Example 1: Squaring both sides we get;

25 p2
i) .25 ( = ) is a rational number. 2 = 2 or p2 = 2q2 (1)
100 q
1
ii) .333...( = ) is a recurring decimal, it is a rational number. The R.H.S. of this equation has a factor 2. Its L.H.S. must have the same factor.
3
Now a prime number can be a factor of a square only if it occurs at least twice in the
iii) 2.3(= 2.333...) is a rational number. square. Therefore, p2 should be of the form 4p‘2
so that equation (1) takes the form:
1
iv) 0.142857142857... ( = ) is a rational number. 4p‘2 = 2q2 ....(2)
7
i.e., 2p’2 = q2 ....(3)
v) 0.01001000100001 ... is a non-terminating, non-periodic decimal, so it is an In the last equation, 2 is a factor of the L.H.S. Therefore, q2 should be of the form 4q’2 so
irrational number. that equation 3 takes the form
vi) 214.121122111222 1111 2222 ... is also an irrational number. 2p‘2 = 4q’2 i.e., p’2 = 2q’2 ....(4)
vii) 1.4142135 ... is an irrational number.
viii) 7.3205080 ... is an irrational number. From equations (1) and (2),
ix) 1.709975947 ... is an irrational number. p = 2p‘
x) 3.141592654... is an important irrational number called it p(Pi) which and from equations (3) and (4)
denotes the constant ratio of the circumference of any circle to the length q = 2q‘
of its diameter i.e.,
p 2 p′
circumference of any circle ∴ =
p= q 2 q′
length of its diameter.
22 355 p
An approximate value of p is ,a better approximation is and a still better This contradicts the hypothesis that is in its lowest form. Hence 2 is irrational.
7 113 q
approximation is 3.14159. The value of p correct to 5 lac decimal places has been
Example 3: Prove 3 is an irrational number.
determined with the help of computer.

Solution: Suppose, if possible 3 is rational so that it can be written in the form p/q when
Example 2: Prove 2 is an irrational number.
p,q U Z and q ≠ 0. Suppose further that p/q is in its lowest form,
then 3 = p/q , (q ≠ 0)
Solution: Suppose, if possible, 2 is rational so that it can be written in the
Squaring this equation we get;
form p/q where p,q U Z and q ≠ 0. Suppose further that p/q is in its lowest form.
p2
3 = or p2 = 3q2
........(1)
Then 2 = p/q, (q ≠ 0) q2

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The R.H.S. of this equation has a factor 3. Its L.H.S. must have the same factor. same Universal set.
Now a prime number can be a factor of a square only if it occurs at least twice in _ usually denotes the set of real numbers. We assume that two binary operations
the square. Therefore, p2 should be of the form 9p‘2 so that equation (1) takes the form: addition (+) and multiplication (. or x) are defined in _. Following are the properties or laws
9p‘2 = 3q2 (2) for real numbers.
i.e., 3p = q
’2 2
(3)
1. Addition Laws: -
In the last equation, 3 is a factor of the L.H.S. Therefore, q2 i) Closure Law of Addition
should be of the form 9q’2 so that equation (3) takes the form [ a, bU_, a + bU_ ([stands for “for all” )
3p‘2 = 9q2 i.e., p’2 = 3q’2 (4) ii) Associative Law of Addition
From equations (1) and (2), [ a, b,cU_, a + (b + c) = (a + b ) + c
P = 3P’ iii) Additive Identity
and from equations (3) and (4) [ aU_, \ 0U_ such that a+0=0+a=a
q = 3q’ (\ stands for “there exists”).
0(read as zero) is called the identity element of addition.
p 3 p′
∴ = iv) Additive Inverse
q 3q′
[ aU_, \ (- a)U_ such that
p
This contradicts the hypothesis that is in its lowest form. a + ( - a ) = 0 = ( - a) + a
q
Hence 3 is irrational. v) Commutative Law for Addition
[ a, bU_, a + b = b + a
Note: Using the same method we can prove the irrationality of 2. Multiplication Laws
5, 7,...., n where n is any prime number. vi) Closure I.aw of Multiplication
[ a, bU_, a. bU_ (a,b is usually written as ab).
vii) Associative Law for Multiplication
1.3 Properties of Real Numbers
[ a, b, cU_, a(bc) = (ab)c
viii) Multiplicative Identity
We are already familiar with the set of real numbers and most of their properties. We
[ aU_, \ 1U_ such that a.1 = 1.a = a
now state them in a unified and systematic manner. Before stating them we give a prelimi-
1 is called the multiplicative identity of real numbers.
nary definition.
ix) Multiplicative Inverse
Binary Operation: A binary operation may be defined as a function from A % A into A, but
for the present discussion, the following definition would serve the purpose. A binary oper- 1
[ a(≠ 0)U_, \ a-1U_ such that a.a-1 = a-1.a = 1 (a-1 is also written as ).
ation in a set A is a rule usually denoted by * that assigns to any pair of elements of A, taken a
in a definite order, another element of A.
x) Commutative Law of multiplication
Two important binary operations are addition and multiplication in the set of real num-
[ a, bU_, ab = ba
bers. Similarly, union and intersection are binary operations on sets which are subsets of the

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3. Multiplication - Addition Law c) [ a,b,c,dU_ and a,b,c,d are all positive.

xi) [ a, b, c U _, i) a > b / c > d ⇒ ac > bd. ii) a < b / c < d ⇒ ac < bd
a (b + c) = ab + ac (Distrihutivity of multiplication over addition).
(a + b)c = ac + bc Note That:
In addition to the above properties _ possesses the following properties.
i) Order Properties (described below). 1. Any set possessing all the above 11 properties is called a field.
ii) Completeness axiom which will be explained in higher classes. 2. From the multiplicative properties of inequality we conclude that: - If both the sides
The above properties characterizes _ i.e., only _ possesses all these properties. of an inequality are multiplied by a +ve number, its direction does not change, but
Before stating the order axioms we state the properties of equality of numbers. multiplication of the two sides by -ve number reverses the direction of the inequality.
4. Properties of Equality 3. a and (-a) are additive inverses of each other. Since by definition inverse of -a is a,
Equality of numbers denoted by “=“ possesses the following properties:- ∴ - (-a) = a
i) Reflexive property [ aU_, a = a 4. The left hand member of the above equation should be
ii) Symmetric Property [ a,bU_, a = b ⇒ b = a. read as negative of ‘negative a’ and not ‘minus minus a’.
iii) Transitive Property [ a,b,cU_, a = b/b = c ⇒ a = c
1
iv) Additive Property [ a,b,cU_, a = b ⇒ a + c = b + c 5. a and are the multiplicative inverses of each other. Since by
a
v) Multiplicative Property [ a,b,cU_, a = b ⇒ ac = bc / ca = cb. 1
vi) Cancellation Property w.r.t. addition definition inverse of is a (i.e., inverse of a-1 is a), a≠0
a
[ a,b,cU_, a + c = b + c ⇒ a = b
vii) Cancellation Property w.r.t. Multiplication: 1
∴ (a-1)-1 = a or =a
[ a,b,cU_, ac = bc ⇒ a = b, c ≠ 0 1
5. Properties of Ineualities (Order properties ) a
1) Trichotomy Property [ a,bU_
Example 4: Prove that for any real numbers a, b
either a = b or a > b or a< b
i) a.0 = 0 ii) ab = 0 ⇒ a = 0 0 b = 0 [ 0 stands for “or” ]
2) Transitive Property [ a,b,cU_
Solution: i) a.0 = a[1+ (-1)] (Property of additive inverse)
i) a > b / b > c ⇒ a > c ii) a<b/ b<c⇒a<c
= a (1 -1) (Def. of subtraction)
3) Additive Property: [ a,b,cU_
= a.1-a.1 (Distributive Law)
a) i) a > b ⇒ a + c > b + c b) i) a > b / c > d ⇒a+c > b+d
=a-a (Property of multiplicative identity)
ii) a < b ⇒ a + c < b + c ii) a < b / c < d ⇒ a+c < b+d
= a + (-a) (Def. of subtraction)
4) Multiplicative Properties:
=0 (Property of additive inverse)
a) [ a,b,cU_ and c >0
Thus a.0=0.
i) a > b ⇒ ac > bc ii) a < b ⇒ ac < bc.
ii) Given that ab = 0 (1)
b) [ a,b,cU_ and c < 0 .
Suppose a ≠ 0, then exists
i) a > b ⇒ ac < bc ii) a < b ⇒ ac > bc

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1 1 iv) =a ka
(1) gives: (ab) = .0 (Multiplicative property of equality) ,(k ≠ 0) (Golden rule of fractions)
a a b kb
1 1 a
⇒ ( .a)b = .0 (Assoc. law of %)
a a b ad
v) c
= (Rule for quotient of fractions).
bc
⇒ 1.b = 0 (Property of multiplicative inverse). d
The symbol ⇔ stands for iff i.e.. if and only if.
⇒ b = 0 (Property of multiplicative identity).
Thus if ab = 0 and a ≠ 0, then b = 0
Similarly it may be shown that Solution:
if ab = 0 and b ≠ 0, then a = 0. a c a c
Hence ab = 0 ⇒ a = 0 or b = 0. i) = ⇒ ( bd ) = ( bd )
b d b d
a.1 c.1
⇒ ( bd ) = ( bd )
Example 5: For real numbers a,b show the following by stating the properties used. b d
1 1
i) (-a) b = a (-b) = -ab ii) (-a) (-b) = ab ⇒ a.( .b).d = c.( .bd )
b d
1
= c(bd . )
Solution: i)(-a)(b) + ab = (-a + a)b (Distributive law) d
⇒ ad = cb
= 0.b = 0. (Property of additive inverse) ∴ ad = bc
\ (-a)b + ab = 0 1 1 1 1
i.e.. (-a)b and ab are additive inverse of each other. Again ad =bc ⇒ ( ad ) × . = b.c. .
b d b d
\ (-a)b = -(ab) = -ab (Q -(ab) is written as -ab) 1 1 1 1
⇒ a. .d = b. . c.
ii) (-a) (-b) -ab = (-a)(-b) + (-ab) b d b d
a c
= (-a)(-b) + (-a)(b) (By (i)) ⇒ =.
b d
= (-a)(-b + b) (Distributive law)
= (-a) .0 = 0. (Property of additive inverse) 1 1 1 1
(-a)(-b) = ab ii) ( ab ). .= (a. ).(b =) 1.1
= 1
a b a b

Example 6: Prove that 1 1

Thus ab and . are the multiplicative inverse of each other. But multiplicative inverse
a c a b
i) = ⇔ ad =bc (Principle for equality of fractions 1
b d of ab is
ab
1 1 1
ii) . = 1 1 1
a b ab =. .
∴
ab a b
a c ac
iii) . = (Rule for product of fractions). a c 1 1
b d bd iii) . = (a. ).(c. )
b d b d
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2. Name the properties used in the following equations.

1 1 (Letters, where used, represent real numbers).
= ( ac ) ( . ) (Using commutative and associative laws of multiplication)
b d
3 3
i) 4+9=9+4 ii) (a + 1) + = a + (1 + )
1 ac 4 4
= ac
= . .
bd bd
a c ac iii) ( 3 + 5) + 7 = 3 + ( 5 + 7) iv) 100 + 0 = 100
= = .
b d bd
v) 1000 % 1 = 1000 vi) 4.1 + ( - 4 .1 ) = 0
a a a k ak vii) a-a=0 viii)
iv) = =.1 .
=
b b b k ak ix) a(b - c) = ab - ac x) (x - y)z = xz - yz
a ak
∴ = . xi) 4%(5 % 8) = (4 % 5) % 8 xii) a(b + c - d) = ab + ac - ad.
b bk

3. Name the properties used in the following inequalities:

a a 1
(bd ) ad ( .b)
b b= b ad
v) = = .
c c 1 bc i) -3 < -2 ⇒ 0 < 1 ii) -5 < - 4 ⇒ 20 > 16
(bd ) cb( .d )
d d d iii) 1 > -1 ⇒ -3 > -5 iv) a < 0 ⇒ -a > 0

Example 7: Does the set {1, -1 } possess closure property with respect to 1 1
v) a>b ⇒ < vi) a > b ⇒ -a < -b
i) addition ii) multiplication? a b

4. Prove the following rules of addition: -

Solution: i) 1 + 1 = 2, 1 + (-1) = 0 = -1 + 1
-1 + (-1) = -2 a b a+b a c ad + bc
i) + = ii) + =
c c c b d bd
But 2, 0, -2 do not belong to the given set. That is, all the sums do not belong to the
given set. So it does not possess closure property w.r.t. addition. 7 5 -21 - 10
5. Prove that - - =
ii) 1.1= 1, 1. (-1) = -1, (-1) .1 = -1, (-1). (-1) = 1 12 18 36
Since all the products belong to the given set, it is closed w.r.t multiplication. 6. Simplify by justifying each step: -

Exercise 1.1
1 1
+
4 + 16 x 4 5
1. Which of the following sets have closure property w.r.t. addition and multiplication? i) ii)
4 1 1
-
4 5
i) {0} ii) {1} iii) (0 , - 1 ) iv) { 1, -1 }

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11
Thus 2i, -3i, 5i , - i are all imaginary numbers, i which may be
a c 1 1 2
+ - written 1.i is also an imaginary number.
iii) b d iv) a b
a c 1 1 Powers of i :
- 1- .
b d a b i2 = -1 (by defination)
i3 = i2.i = -1.i = -i
1.4 Complex Numbers i4 = i2 % i2 = (-1)(-1) = 1
Thus any power of i must be equal to 1, i,-1 or -i. For instance,
The history of mathematics shows that man has been developing and enlarging his i13 = (i2)6.2 = (-1)6.i = i
concept of number according to the saying that “Necessity is the mother of invention”. In i6 = (i2)3 = (-1)3 = -1 etc.
the remote past they stared with the set of counting numbers and invented, by stages, the
negative numbers, rational numbers, irrational numbers. Since square of a positive as well 1.4.1 Operations on Complex Numbers
as negative number is a positive number, the square
root of a negative number does not exist in the realm of real numbers. Therefore, square With a view to develop algebra of complex numbers, we state a few definitions.
roots of negative numbers were given no attention for centuries together. However, recently, The symbols a,b,c,d,k, where used, represent real numbers.
properties of numbers involving square roots of negative numbers have also been discussed 1) a + bi = c + di ⇒ a = c b = d.
in detail and such numbers have been found useful and have been applied in many branches 2) Addition: (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
o f pure and applied mathematics. The numbers of the 3) k(a + bi) = ka + kbi
form x + iy, where x, y U_ , and i = ,are called complex numbers, here x is called real 4) (a + bi) - (c + di) = (a + bi) + [-(c + di)]
part and y is called imaginary part of the complex = a + bi + (-c - di)
= (a - c) + (b - d)i
number. For example, 3 + 4i, 2 - i etc. are complex numbers. 5) (a + bi).(c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i.
6) Conjugate Complex Numbers: Complex numbers of the form (a + bi) and (a - bi) which
have the same real parts and whose imaginary parts differ in sign only, are called conjugates
Note: Every real number is a complex number with 0 as its imaginary part.
of each other. Thus 5 + 4i and 5 - 4i, -2 + 3i and - 2 - 3i,- 5 i and 5 i are three pairs of
Let us start with considering the equation. conjugate numbers.
x2 + 1 = 0 (1)
⇒ x2 = -1 Note: A real number is self-conjugate.
⇒ x=± -1
-1 does not belong to the set of real numbers. We, therefore, for convenience call it 1.4.2 Complex Numbers as Ordered Pairs of Real Numbers
imaginary number and denote it by i (read as iota).
The product of a real number and i is also an imaginary number We can define complex numbers also by using ordered pairs. Let C be the set of ordered
pairs belonging to _ % _ which are subject to the following properties: -

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i) (a, b) = (c, d ) ⇔ a = c ∧ b = d .
 a -b 
ii) (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d) ( a, b)  2 2
, 2 2 
= (1, 0), the identity element
 a + b a + b 
iii) If k is any real number, then k(a, b) = (ka, kb)

iv) (a, b) (c, d) = (ac - bd, ad + bc)  a -b 

= 2 2
, 2 2 
( a, b)
Then C is called the set of complex numbers. It is easy to sec that (a, b) - (c, d) a +b a +b 
= (a - c, b - d) v) (a, b)[(c, d ) ± (e, =
f )] (a, b)(c, d ) ± (a, b)(e, f )
Properties (1), (2) and (4) respectively define equality, sum and product of two complex Note: The set C of complex numbers does not satisfy the order axioms. In fact there is no
numbers. Property (3) defines the product of a real number and a complex number. sense in saying that one complex number is greater or less than another.

Example 1: Find the sum, difference and product of the complex numbers (8, 9) and (5, -6) 1.4.4 A Special Subset of C

Solution: Sum = (8 + 5, 9 - 6) = (13, 3) We consider a subset of C whose elements are of the form (a, 0) i.e., second component
Difference = (8 - 5, 9 - (-6)) = (3, 15) of each element is zero.
Product = (8.5 - (9)(-6), 9.5 + (-6) 8) Let (a, 0), (c, 0) be two elements of this subset. Then
= (40 + 54, 45 - 48) i) (a, 0) + (c, 0) = (a + c, 0) ii) k(a, 0) = (ka, 0)
= (94, -3) iii) (a, 0) % (c, 0) = (ac ,0)

1.4.3 Properties of the Fundamental Operations on Complex 1 

iv) Multiplicative inverse of (a, 0) is  , 0  , a ≠ 0.
Numbers a 
Notice that the results are the same as we should have obtained if we had operated on
It can be easily verified that the set C satisfies all the field axioms i.e., it possesses the
the real numbers a and c ignoring the second component of each ordered pair i.e., 0 which
properties 1(i to v), 2(vi to x) and 3(xi) of Art. 1.3.
has played no part in the above calculations.
By way of explanation of some points we observe as follows:-
On account of this special feature wc identify the complex number (a, 0) with the real
i) The additive identity in C is (0, 0).
number a i.e., we postulate:
ii) Every complex number (a, b) has the additive inverse
(a, 0)= a (1)
(-a, -b) i.e., (a, b) + (-a, -b) = (0, 0).
Now consider (0, 1)
iii) The multiplicative identity is (1, 0) i.e.,
(0, 1) . (0, 1) = (-1, 0)
(a, b).(1, 0) = (a.1 - b.0, b.1 + a.0) = (a, b).
= -1 (by (1) above).
= (1, 0) (a, b)
If we set (0, 1) = i (2)
iv) Every non-zero complex number {i.e., number not equal to (0, 0)} has a
then (0, 1)2 = (0,1)(0,1) = i.i = i2 = -1
multiplicative inverse.
We are now in a position to write every complex number given as an ordered pair, in
 a -b  terms of i. For example
The multiplicative inverse of (a, b) is  2 2
, 2 2  (a, b) = (a, 0) + (0, b) (def. of addition)
a +b a +b 
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= a(1, 0)+ b(0, 1) (by ( 1) and (2) above) 16. Separate into real and imaginary parts (write as a simple complex number): -
= a.1 + bi
2 - 7i (-2 + 3i ) 2 i
= a + ib i) ii) iii)
4 + 5i (1 + i ) 1+ i
Thus (a, b) = a + ib where i2 = -1
This result enables us to convert any Complex number given in one notation into the
other.
1.5 The Real Line
Exercise 1.2

1. Verify the addition properties of complex numbers. 

2. Verify the multiplication properties of the complex numbers. In Fig.(1), let X ′ X be a line. We represent the number 0 by a point O (called the origin)
3. Verify the distributive law of complex numbers. of the line. Let |OA| represents a unit length. According to this unit, positive numbers are
(a, b)[(c, d) + (e, f)] = (a, b)(c, d) + (a, b)(e, f) represented on this line by points to the right of O and negative numbers by points to the
(Hint: Simplify each side separately) left of O. It is easy to visualize that all +ve and -ve rational numbers are represented on this
4. Simplify’ the following: line. What about the irrational numbers?
The fact is that all the irrational numbers are also represented by points of the line.
21 Therefore, we postulate: -
i) i9 ii) i14 iii) (-i)19 iv) ( - )
2 Postulate: A (1 - 1) correspondence can be established between the points of a line l and
5. Write in terms of i
the real numbers in such a way that:-
-16 1 i) The number 0 corresponds to a point O of the line.
i) -1b ii) -5 iii) iv)
25 -4 ii) The number 1 corresponds to a point A of the line.
Simplify the following: iii) If x1, x2 are the numbers corresponding to two points P1, P2, then the distance
6. (7, 9 ) + (3, -5) 7. (8, -5 ) - (-7, 4) 8. (2, 6)(3, 7) between P1 and P2 will be |x1 - x2|.
9. (5, -4) (-3, -2) 10. (0, 3) (0, 5) 11. (2, 6)'(3, 7). It is evident that the above correspondence will be such that corresponding to any real
number there will be one and only one point on the line and vice versa.
 (2,6) 2 + 6i 3 - 7i  When a (1 - 1) correspondence between the points of a line x′x and the real numbers
12. (5, -4) '(-3, -8)  Hint for 11: = × etc. 
 (3,7) 3 + 7i 3 - 7i  has been established in the manner described above, the line is called the real line and the
real number, say x, corresponding to any point P of the line is called the coordinate of the
13. Prove that the sum as well as the product of any two conjugate
point.
complex numbers is a real number.
14. Find the multiplicative inverse of each of the following numbers:
1.5.1 The Real Plane or The Coordinate Plane
i) (-4, 7) ii) (2, - 5 ) iii) (1, 0)
15. Factorize the following: We know that the cartesian product of two non-empty sets A and B, denoted by A % B,
i) a2 + 4b2 ii) 9a2 + 16b2 iii) 3x2 +3y2 is the set: A % B = {(x, y) I xUA / yUB}
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The members of a cartesian product are ordered the coordinate plane and every point of the plane will represent one and only one complex
pairs. number. The components of the complex number will be the coordinates of the point
The cartesian product _%_ where _ is the set of real representing it. In this representation the x-axis is called the real axis and the y-axis is called
numbers is called the cartesian plane. the imaginary axis. The coordinate plane itself is called the complex plane or z - plane.
By taking two perpendicular lines x′ox and y′oy as By way of illustration a number of complex numbers have been shown in figure 3.
coordinate axes on a geometrical plane and choosing
a convenient unit of distance, elements of _%_ can
be represented on the plane in such a way that there is
a (1-1) correspondence between the elements of _%_
and points of the plane. The figure representing one or more complex
numbers on the complex plane is called an
The geometrical plane on which coordinate system has been specified is called the Argand diagram. Points on the x-axis represent
real plane or the coordinate plane. real numbers whereas the points on the y-axis
Ordinarily we do not distinguish between the Cartesian plane _%_ and the coordinate represent imaginary numbers.
plane whose points correspond to or represent the elements of _%_.
If a point A of the coordinate plane corresponds to the ordered pair (a, b) then a, b are
called the coordinates of A. a is called the x - coordinate or abscissa and b is called
the y - coordinate or ordinate.
In the figure shown above, the coordinates of the pointsB, C, D and E are (3, 2), (-4, 3), In fig (4), x, y are the coordinates of a point.
(-3, -4) and (5, -4) respectively. It represents the complex number x + iy.
Corresponding to every ordered pair (a, b) U_%_ there is one and only one point in The real number x 2 + y 2 is called the modulus
the plane and corresponding to every point in the plane there is one and only one ordered of the complex number a + ib.
pair (a, b) in _%_. 
In the figure MA ⊥ o x
There is thus a (1 - 1) correspondence between _%_ and the plane.

∴ OM= x, MA= y

In the right-angled triangle OMA, we have,
1.6
Geometrical Representation of Complex Numbers The by Pythagoras theorem,
Complex Plane 2 2 2
OA
= OM + MA
We have seen that there is a (1-1) correspondence between the elements (ordered
pairs) of the Cartesian plane _%_ and the complex numbers. Therefore, there is a (1- 1)
∴ OA = x2 + y 2

correspondence between the points of the coordinate plane and the complex numbers.
We can, therefore, represent complex numbers by points of the coordinate plane. In this Thus OA represents the modulus of x + iy. In other words: The modulus of a complex
representation every complex number will be represented by one and only one point of number is the distance from the origin of the point representing the number.

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The modulus of a complex number is generally denoted as: |x + iy| or |(x, y)|. For convenience,
So, - z =-a - ib, z =a - ib and - z =-a + ib
a complex number is denoted by z.
If z = x + iy = (x, y), then
2 2
∴ - z= (-a ) 2 + (-b) 2= a 2 + b 2 (1)
z
= x +y
Example 1: Find moduli of the following complex numbers :
z
= a 2 + b 2 (2)
(i) 1 - i 3 (ii) 3 (iii) -5i (iv) 3 + 4i z = (a ) 2 + (b) 2 = a 2 + b 2 (3)

Solution:
-z = (-a ) 2 + (b) 2 = a 2 + b2 (4)

i) Let z = 1 - i 3 ii) Let z = 3
By equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) we conclude that
or z =1 + i ( - 3 ) or z = 3 + 0.i
- z =z =z =- z
(ii) Let z = a + ib
z
∴= 2
(1) + (- 3) 2

z
∴= 2
(3) + (0)= 32
So that z= a - ib

= 1+ 3 = 2
Taking conjugate again of both sides, we have
iii) Let z = -5i iv) Let z = 3 + 4i

or z = 0 + (-5)i z
∴= (3) 2 + (4) 2 z =a + ib =z
(iii) Let z = a + ib so that z= a - ib
z
∴= 02 + (-5)=
2
5 ∴ z.z = (a + ib)(a - ib)
=a 2 - iab + iab - i 2b 2
= a 2 - (-1)b 2
Theorems: [z, z1, z2 U C,
2
= a 2 + b2 = z
(iv) Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id, then
i) - z = z = z = - z ii) z=z z1 + z2 = (a + ib) + (c + id)
= (a + c) + i(b + d)
iii) z z = z iv) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
2
so, z1 + z2 = (a + c) + i (b + d ) (Taking conjugate on both sides)
= (a + c) - i(b + d)
= (a - ib) + (c - id) = z1 + z 2
z  z1 (v) Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id, where z2 ≠ 0, then
v) =
1
 , z2 ≠ 0 vi) z1.z2 = z1 . z2
 z2  z2
z1 a + ib
=
Proof :(i): Let z= a + ib, z2 c + id

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(vii) Algebraic proof of this part is tedius. Therefore, we prove it geometrically.

a + ib c - id
×= (Note this step)

c + id c - id
(ac + bd ) + i (bc - ad ) ac + bd bc - ad

= = + i
c2 + d 2 c2 + d 2 c2 + d 2
 z  ac + bd bc - ad
∴ 1 =  2 2
+ i
 z2  c + d c2 + d 2
ac + bd bc - ad
= 2 2
-i 2 2
(1)
c + d c + d
z1 a + ib a - ib
Now = =
z 2 c + id c - id
a - ib c + id
= ×
c - id c + id
(ac + bd ) - i (bc - ad ) In the figure point A represents z = a + ib and point C represents z = c + id. We complete
= 1 2
c2 + d 2 the parallelogram OABC. From the figure, it is evident that coordinates of B are (a + c, b + d),
ac + bd bc - ad therefore, B represents
= 2 2
-i 2 (2)
c + d c + d 2
z + z = (a + c) + (b + d)i and OB= z1 + z2 .
From (1) and (2), we have 1 2

 z1  z1 Also OA = z1 , AB
= OC
= z2 .
 =
z
 2  z2
In the 3OAB; OA + AB > OB (OA = mOA etc.)
(vi) Let z = a + ib and z = c + id, then
1 2
z1.z2 =(a + ib)(c + id )
∴ |z |+ |z | > |z + z | (1)
1 2 1 2
= (ac - bd ) + (ad + bc)i

= (ac - bd ) 2 + (ad + bc) 2 Also in the same triangle, OA - AB < OB

= a 2c 2 + b 2 d 2 + a 2 d 2 + b 2c 2

∴ |z |- |z | < |z + z | (2)
2 2 2 2
= (a + b )(c + d ) 1 2 1 2

= z1 . z2 Combining (1) and (2), we have

This result may be stated thus: -

|z |- |z | < |z + z | < |z |+ |z | (3)
The modulus of the product of two complex numbers is equal to the product of their 1 2 1 2 1 2

moduli.

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z1 z3 (2 + i ) (1 + 3i ) (2 - i ) (1 - 3i )
= =
z2 3 - 2i 3 - 2i
(2 - 3) + (-6 - 1)i -1 - 7i
= =
3 - 2i 3 - 2i
which gives the required results with inequality (-1 - 7i )(3 + 2i )
=
signs. (3 - 2i ) (3 + 2i )
(-3 + 14) + (-2 - 21)i 11 23
= = - i
Results with equality signs will hold when the 32 + 22 13 13
points A and C representing z and z
1 2

a c Example 3: Show that, ∀ z1 , z2 ∈ C , z1 z2 =

z1 z2
become collinear with B. This will be so when =
b d
(see fig (6)).
Solution: Let z1 =
a + bi, z2 =
c + di

z1zz1 2z2==
(a(a++bibi)()(cc++didi) )==
(ac
(ac--bd
bd)()(ad
ad++bc
bc)i)i
In such a case z1 + z2 = OB + OA ==(ac
(ac--bd
bd) )--(ad
(ad++bc
bc)i)i (1)

= OB + BC
z1.zz1.2z= (za(a+=
z2 .= +bi ) +=
(abi (c)(c
) bi
= += +di(cdi
)+) di )
1 2
= OC (a(a-=
bi (cad +-)bc
== ) --)(bi
(abi
- - cdi
)( di))i
= z1 + z2 (ac(-acbd-)bd
= = + )(-+ad - bc-)bc
(-ad i )i
Thus z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 z1.z2 =+
(a bi ) (c + di )
(a bi ) (c - di )
=-
The second part of result (vii) namely = (ac - bd ) + (-ad - bc)i (2)
z1 + z2 ≤ z1 + z2 Thus from (1) and (2) we have, z1 z2 = z1 z2

is analogue of the triangular inequality*. In words, it may be stated thus: - Polar form of a Complex number: Consider adjoining diagram
The modulus of the sum of two complex numbers is less than or equal to the sum of the representing the complex number z = x + iy. From the diagram, we
moduli of the numbers. see that x = rcosq and y = rsinq where r = |z| and q is called argument
of z.
z z
Example 2: If z = 2+ i, z = 3 - 2i, z = 1 + 3i then express 1 3 in the Hence x + iy = rcosq + rsinq ....(i)
1 2 3 z2
form a + ib -1
y
-1
y
where= r andtanq =x tan x
x 2 + y 2 and
(Conjugate of a complex number z is denoted as z )
Equation (i) is called the polar form of the complex number z.

Solution:
z1 z3 (2 + i ) (1 + 3i ) (2 - i ) (1 - 3i ) *In any triangle the sum of the lengths of any two sides is greater than the length of the third
= =
z
2 3 - 2i 3 - 2i side and difference of the lengths of any two sides is less than the length of the third side.
(2 - 3) + (-6 - 1)i -1 - 7i version: 1.1 version: 1.1
= =
3 - 2i 3 - 2i
(-1 - 7i )(3 + 2i26) 27
=
(3 - 2i ) (3 + 2i )
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ii) Let x1 + iy1 = r1 cosq1 + r1 sinnq1 and x2 + iy2 = r2 cosq2 + r2 sinnq2 then,
Example 4: Express the complex number 1 + i 3 in polar form.
n n
 x1 + iy1   r1 cos q1 + r1 i sinq1  r1n (cosq1 + i sinq1 ) n
Solution: =  = 
 x2 + iy2  r
 2 cos q 2 + r2 i sin q 2  r2 n (cosq 2 + i sinq 2 ) n

Step-I: Put rcosq = 1 and rsinq = r1n

= n
(cosq1 + i sinq1 ) n (cosq 2 + isinq 2 ) - n
Step-II: =r 2 (1) 2 + ( 3) 2 r2
⇒ r 2 =1 + 3 = 4 ⇒ r = 2 r1n
= n (cosnq1 + isin nq1 ) ( cos ( - nq ) 2 + i sin ( - nq 2 ) ) ,
r2
3 (By De Moivre's Theorem)
Step-III:
= q tan
= -1
tan
= -1
3 60
1 r1n
= n (cos nq1 + isin nq1 )(cosnq 2 - isin nq 2 ), (cos( - q ) = cosq
Thus 1+ i =
3 2cos 60 + i 2sin 60 r2
sin( - q )= - sinq )
De Moivre’s Theorem : - r1n
= ,[ ( cos nq1 cos nq 2 + sin nq1 sin nq 2 )
(cosq + isinq)n = cosnq + isinnq, [n d Z r2 n
Proof of this theorem is beyond the scope of this book. + i ( sin nq1 cos nq 2 - cos nq1 sin nq 2 ) ]
r1n
= n [ cos (nq1 - nq 2 ) + isin(nq1 - nq 2 ) ] cos (α - β )= cosα cosβ +sinα sinβ
1.7 To find real and imaginary parts of r2
and sin(α - β ) = sinα cosβ - cosα sinβ
n
 x + iy1 
i) (x + iy)n ii) 1
 , x2 + iy2 ≠ 0 r1n

 x2 + iy2  = n [ cos n(q1 - q 2 )+isin n(q1 - q 2 ) ]
r2
for n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ... rn
= 1 n [ cos n(q1 - q 2 )+ isinn (q1 - q 2 ) ]
i) Let x = rcosq and y = rsinq, then r2
(x + iy)n = (rcosq + irsinq)n
= (rcosq + irsinq)n r1n r1n
Thus n cos n (q1 - q 2 ) and n sin n(q1 - q 2 ) are respectively the real and imaginary parts of

= [r(cosq + isinq)]n r2 r2

= rn(cosq + isinq)n n
 x1 + iy1 

= rn(cosnq + isinnq) ( By De Moivre’s Theorem)   , x2 + iy2 ≠ 0
x
 2 + iy 2 

= rn cosnq + irn sinnq y1 y2
-1 -1
Thus rn cosnq and rn sinnq are respectively the real and imaginary parts of (x + iy)n. where r1 = x + y ; q1 =tan
2 2 x1
and r2 = x2 + y2 ; q 2 =tan
2 2 x2
1 1

x x
Where r = + yx22 +and
xr 2= yq2 = q -=
tan 1
tan -1 .
y y

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Example 5: Find out real and imaginary parts of each of the following
complex numbers.
( cos(300o ) - isin(300o ) )( cos(300o ) - isin(300o ) )  cos( - q ) = cosq
=

and sin( - q ) = - sinq
5
 1- 3 i 
( )
3 2
i) 3 + i ii) 1 3  -1 3
  =  + i  = + i
1+ 3 i  2 2  2 2

Solution:
5
i) Let r cos q = 3 and r sin q = 1 where -1 3  1- 3 i 
Thus , are respectively real and imaginary parts of  
2 2  1+ 3 i 
1
r 2 = ( 3) 2 + 12 or r = 3 + 1 = 2 and q = tan -1 = 30o Exercise 1.3
3
( )
3
So, 3 +i = (rcosq + irsinq )3
1. Graph the following numbers on the complex plane: -
= r 3 (cos3q + isin3q ) (By De Moivre’s Theorem)
i) 2 + 3i ii) 2 - 3i iii) -2 - 3i iv) 2
- + 3i

= 23 (cos90o + isin90o )
3 4
= 8 (0 + i.1) v) -6 vi) i vii) - i viii) -5 - 6i
5 5
= 8i
2. Find the multiplicative inverse of each of the following numbers: -
( )
3
Thus 0 and 8 are respectively real and imaginary Parts of 3 +i .
i) -3i ii) 1 - 2i iii) -3 - 5i iv) (1, 2)
ii) Let r1cosq1 = 1 and r1sinq1 = - 3 3. Simplify
3
⇒ r1 = (1) 2 + ( - 3) 2 = 1 + 3 = 2 and q1 = tan -1 - - 60o i) i101 ii) (-ai ) 4 , aU_ iii) i -3 iv) i -10
1
Also Let r2 cosq 2 = 1 and r2sinq 2 = 3 4. Prove that z = z iff z is real.
5. Simplify by expressing in the form a + bi
2 3
⇒ r2 = (1) 2 + ( 3) = 1 + 3 = 2 and q 2 tan -1 = 60o i) 5 + 2 -4 ii) (2 + -3)(3 + -3)
1
2 3
iii) iv)
 2 ( cos( - 60o ) + isin( - 60O ) ) 
5 5
 1 - 3i  5 + -8 6 - -12
So,   =  
 1 + 3i  
 2 ( cos(60 o
) + i sin(60 O
) )  6. Show that [z U C
2
( cos(-60 ) + i sin(-60 ) ) i) z 2 - z is a real number. ii) ( z - z ) 2 is a real number.
  5

=
( cos(60 ) + i sin(60 ) )
  5

= ( cos( - 60 ) + isin( - 60 ) ) ( cos(60 ) + isin(60 ) )

o O 5 o O -5

= ( cos( - 300 ) + isin( - 300 ) )( cos( - 300 ) + isin( - 300 ) )
o o o o

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7. Simplify the following

3 3
 1 3   1 3 
i)  - + i ii)  - - i
 2 2   2 2 
-2
 1 3   1 3 
iiii)  - - i - - i iv) (a + bi ) 2
 2 2   2 2 

v) (a + bi ) - 2 vi) (a + bi )3
vii) (a - bi )3 viii) (3 - -4) - 3

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