Statistics and Probability

A BRIEF HISTORY OF STATISTICS

A systematic collection of data on the population and the economy was begun in the Italian city states.
The term statistics, derived from the word state, was used to refer to a collection of facts of interest to the
state. The idea of collecting data spread from Italy to the other countries of Western Europe.
Indeed, by the first half of the 16th century it was common for European governments to require parishes
to register births, marriages, and deaths. Because of poor public health conditions this last statistic was of
particular interest.
Two of the most important areas of applied statistics in the early 20th century were population biology and
agriculture. This was due to the interest of Pearson and others at his laboratory and also to the remarkable
accomplishments of the English scientist Ronald A. Fisher. The theory of inference developed by these
pioneers, including among others Karl Pearson’s son Egon and the Polish born mathematical statistician
Jerzy Neyman, was general enough to deal with a wide range of quantitative and practical problems. As a
result, after the early years of the 20th century a rapidly increasing number of people in science, business,
and government began to regard statistics as a tool that was able to provide quantitative solutions to
scientific and practical problems.
Nowadays the ideas of statistics are everywhere. Descriptive statistics are featured in every newspaper and
magazine. Statistical inference has become indispensable to public health and medical research, to
engineering and scientific studies, to marketing and quality control, to education, to accounting, to
economics, to meteorological forecasting, to polling and surveys, to sports, to insurance, to gambling, and
to all research that makes any claim to being scientific. Statistics has indeed become ingrained in our
intellectual heritage.
Definition of statistics
Statistics is concerned with scientific methods for collecting, organizing, summarizing, presenting, and
analyzing data as well as with drawing valid conclusions and making reasonable decisions on the basis of
such analysis.
In a narrower sense, the term statistics is used to denote the data themselves or numbers derived from
the data, such as averages. Thus we speak of employment statistics, accident statistics, etc.
Collection of data: the first step of an investigation is the collection of data. Carful collection is
needed, because further analysis is based on this. There are different method of collection of data
(Census, Sampling, primary and secondary …) and they must be reliable. If the collected data are
faulty, results is also be faulty. Therefore the investigator must take special care in collection.
Organizing of data: A large mass of figures that are collected from a survey frequently needs
organization. The collected data must be edited very carefully so that the omissions, inconsistencies
irrelevant answer and wrong computations in the returns form a survey may be corrected or adjusted.
Presentation of data: the collected of data are generally in an unintelligible form and needed to be
classified and tabulated before they can be analysed. Therefore the collected data are to be presented in
tabular or diagrammatic or graphs form.
Analysis of data: After the presentation of data, the next step is to analyses the presented data.
Analyses includes condensation, summarization, conclusion …through the measures of central
tendencies dispersion, skewness, kurtosis, correlation, regression …etc.
Interpretation of data: figures do not speak of themselves. The duty of the statistician is not complete
with mere collection and analyses of data, but valid conclusions must be drown on the basis of
analysis. A high degree of skill an experience is necessary for the interpretation. Correct interpretation
lead to valid conclusion.
Two Types of Statistics: Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Descriptive statistics include the techniques that are used to summarize and describe numerical data
for the purpose of easier interpretation. These methods can either be graphical or involve computational
analysis.
Inferential statistics include those techniques by which decisions about a statistical population or
process are made based only on a sample having been observed. Because such decisions are made under
conditions of uncertainty, the use of probability concepts is required.
POPULATION AND SAMPLE; INDUCTIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
In collecting data concerning the characteristics of a group of individuals or objects, such as the
heights and weights of students in a university, it is often impossible or impractical to observe the entire
group, especially if it is large. Instead of examining the entire group, called the population, or universe,
one examines a small part of the group, called a sample.
A population can be finite or infinite. For example, the population consisting of all bolts produced in a
factory on a given day is finite, whereas the population consisting of all possible outcomes (heads, tails) in
successive tosses of a coin is infinite. If a sample is representative of a population, important conclusions
about the population can often be inferred from analysis of the sample.
Types of data and variables
Data types are an important concept because statistical methods can only be used with certain data types.
We have two types of data. Quantitative and qualitative
1) Quantitative data
Quantitative data is defined as the value of data in the form of counts or numbers where each data-set has
an unique numerical value associated with it. Quantitative data is data that can be measured numerically.
Types of quantitative data:
(a) Discrete data
Discrete Data can only take certain values.

Example: the number of students in a class , number of family members.

(b) Continuous Data can take any value (within a range)

Examples:

 A person's height: could be any value (within the range of human heights), not just certain fixed
heights,
 Time in a race: you could even measure it to fractions of a second,

2) Qualitative data
Qualitative data consist of names or letters or words and narratives.
Types of qualitative data:
(a) Nominal data
Nominal scale is a naming scale, where variables are simply “named” or labeled, with no specific
order.
(b) Ordinal scale has all its variables in a specific order, beyond just naming them. Interval scale offers
labels, order, as well as, a specific interval between each of its variable options.
 Exercise (1)

1)) Explain in nowadays how the statistics become important and in what fields can be applied?

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2)) Define the Statistics.

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3)) What are the methods of collection of data

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4)) explain the types of Statistic

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5)) Summarize the part of data and variables

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 Methods of data presentation
After collecting great mass of data we must use one of different methods to classify, summarize and
present the data.
We can present the data by: (a) Table methods (b) Graphs methods
We have different types of tables
1- Simple Tables
A simple table usually used when the number of data is not large and the range of data are also not large.
Simple table contain tree columns, the first for the values of the variable, the second for the tallies and the
third for the frequencies . Simple table summarize and present quantitative and qualitative data with
different ways
(i) Quantity data
Example: suppose the following data are degree of the student in the subject of Computer

22 20 21 21 22 23 20 21 20 21
23 25 20 23 25 21 25 22 21 24
Sol:-

Variable Tallies Frequencies

x f
20 //// 4
21 //// / 6
22 /// 3
23 /// 3
24 / 1
25 /// 3
sum 20
(ii) Qualitative variable
Example: the following data shows the marks of the student in the subject of Computer.

D B C A F C D B B C
C F D C B A C A C D
Sol:-

Variable Tallies Frequencies

x f
A /// 3
B //// 4
C //// // 7
D //// 4
F // 2
sum 20
 (iii) Qualitative variable contain different properties

Example: the following data shows the Gender of the student in a class

M F F M F M M F F M
F F M F M F F M M F
Where (M=Male & F=Female)

Solution

Gender Total
tally M tally F
//// //// 9 //// //// / 11 20
2- Dual tables

Dual tables usually to classify two or more qualitative variables each one have different characters like
the types of computers by quality or the infections by gender

Example: the following table shows the type(Dell, Toshiba) and quality(high, low) of computers

Tosh-high Dell-high Tosh-high Dell-low Dell-high Thos-low Dell-high

Dell-low Dell-high Dell-low Dell-high Tosh-high Dell-low Thos-low
Dell-high Dell-low Thos-low Dell-high Dell-low Dell-high Tosh-high
Sol:

Quality High Low Sum

Type
Toshiba 4 3 7
Dlell 8 6 14
sum 12 9 21
3- The frequency table

When the number of data and the range is large, we cannot use the simple table. The classes is a method
to put many numbers between two terms called “ classes’’ , so any class contain two terms like (10 – 19),
(20 – 29)… (10 – 19) called first class, (20 – 29) called second class and so on. The smallest number in
each class is (lower class limit) and the biggest number in each class is (upper class limit)

The following example shows how the steps to make frequency table.

5 20 25 31 40
9 20 25 32 42
12 20 29 33 42
14 21 30 36 49
18 23 31 38 50
The steps

1- Arrange the data and find the range (R)

R = greatest value – smallest value
2- Find the Number of Classes NC

Take any number of classes but don’t less than 5 and greater than 15. There is approximation rule to
determine the number of classes
NC= 1+ 3.2Log(n) n: number of data

NC = 1+ 3.2 Log (25) = 5.4 ≈ 5

3- Find the length of class “ C ”

Length of class is the range divided by the number of classes

Range R 45
C= = = =9
number of classes NC 5

4- Find the classes

Start by the smallest number in the arranged data to be first class limit for the first class, and add the
class length minus one to get the upper class limit. Repeat the procedure to get other classes

First class ( 5 – 14), Second class (15 – 24), Third class (25 – 34), Fourth class (35 – 44), Fifth class (45 –
54)

5- Form the table and find the frequency of any class

6- Find the Center of class
lrower+upper
Center of class X =
2
7- Find the class boundaries
The class boundaries make the distribution of the table continues that by subtracting 0.5 to any
lower class and adding 0.5 to any upper class

Classes Class Tallies Frequency f X

boundaries
5 – 14 4.5 – 14.5 //// 4 9.5
15 – 24 14.5 – 24.5 //// / 6 18.5
25 – 34 24.5 – 34.5 //// /// 8 27.5
35 – 44 34.5 – 44.5 //// 5 36.5
45 – 54 44.5 – 54.5 // 2 45.5
total
Types of frequency tables

a) Relative and percentage relative frequency table

Relative frequency table (RF) is dividing the frequency of any class by the total number of frequencies.

Percent frequency (RF%) is multiplying any relative frequency by 100 %

Classes Frequency f X RF RF %
5 – 14 4 9.5 0.16 16
15 – 24 6 18.5 0.24 24
25 – 34 8 27.5 0.32 32
35 – 44 5 36.5 0.2 20
45 – 54 2 45.5 0.08 8
total 1.00 100 %
 b) Ascending and Descending frequency table
In ascending frequency table we find the total of numbers less than or equal to any upper class
boundary
In descending frequency table we find the total of numbers greater than or equal to any lower
class boundary

Classes Frequency f Ascending Descending

4.5 – 14.5 4 4 25
14.5 – 24.5 6 10 21
24.5 – 34.5 8 18 15
34.5 – 44.5 5 23 7
44.5 – 54.5 2 25 2
total 25 0
(b) Graphs Methods
Graphs methods gives and makes the data more clear. That by different methods
(i) Line Chart

Line chart usually used with quantitative variables arranged according to the time or with qualitative
data to describe one or more variables. In the line chart the variable of time or names or places writes on
the X-axis and the values on the Y- axis

Ex: the following table for sold computers in a company

year 200 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201
s 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2018 2019
x 15 25 40 56 30 22 60 70 40 20 30
Slo:

x
80
70
60
50
x
40
30
20
10
0
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020

Ex: the following table for tow variables (x=computers, Z=Telephones)

200 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201

years 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2018 2019
computer 15 25 40 56 30 22 60 70 40 20 30
Telephon 22 19 35 40 60 55 70 45 30 55 40
e
Sol:

80

70

60

50

40 x
z
30

20

10

0
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020

Ex: distributions of computers on the towns

Madan Khartuo Elfashi

town i Kasala m Obaid r
n 30 60 45 20 65
Sol:

Numbers
70
60
50
40 n

30
20
10
0
Madani Kasala Khartuom Obaid Elfashir

(ii) Bar Chart

Bar chart usually used to compare between different variables or different properties in one variable.

One variable

years 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

 computer
s 60 70 40 20 30

Sol:

Two variables:

years 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Computer
s 60 70 40 20 30
Telephone
s 70 45 30 55 40
Sol:

(iii) Pie chat

In pie chat we can compare the variable which contain different properties like Gender (Male, Female)
sold of computers ( Dell, Toshiba, HP …) But the properties don’t be much.
To draw Pie chart find the angle size of any sector and multiply by the total area of the

Circle (360)
fi
Angel size = ∗360
∑ fi
Where; fi: is the value of the property (i) and Σfi is the sum of properties.

The following example shows soled of computers in a company

types Number fi fi/Σfi (fi/Σfi)*360

Toshiba 65 0.168831 60.7792208
Dell 200 0.519481 187.012987
HP 120 0.311688 112.207792
Σ 385 1 360
Sol:

Chart Title
Thoshiba
HP

Dell

Method of presenting frequency table

A frequency table has the continuous distribution, so we present the frequency table through (a)
Frequency polygon (b) Histogram ( c ) Curve

(a) Frequency polygon is a columns has classes as a bases of the columns drown on the X-axis and
the frequencies at the Y-axis

classes 2.5-5.5 5.5-7.5 7.5-9.5 9.5-11.5 11.5-13.5

f 2 7 9 5 3
Frequency polygon
 Chart Title
10
8
6
Axis Title
4
2
0
2.5-5.5 5.5-7.5 7.5-9.5 9.5-11.5 11.5-13.5
Axis Title

(b) Histogram

Histogram is a line passes thorough the centers in the frequency polygon closing the X-axis

Histogram

Chart Title
10
9
8
7
6
Axis Title 5
4
3
2
1
0
2.5-5.5 5.5-7.5 7.5-9.5 9.5-11.5 11.5-13.5
Axis Title

(c ) The Curve

A curve is olso used line from the histogram

 Chart Title
10
8
6
Axis Title 4

2
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Axis Title

Types of the Curves

Exercise (2)
1)) Given the following data Y W Y G W Y G Y W W
Use the simple table to classify the data
50 56 60 51 54 55 52 52 54 55
55 54 55 58 54 51 58 55 52 55 Variable X Tallies Frequencies F
59 60 58 50 53 58 59 60 59 35
Use the simple table to classify the data

Variable X Tallies Frequencies F

sum
3)) the following table is for gender and blood
category

F – o+ M – o+ F – o+ F – o+ M – o- F – o-

M – o- M – o- F – o- M – o+ F – o+ M – o+

Classify the data in dual or clustered table

Gender
sum Blood
2)) for the following numeric data,e where:
G=green, Y=yellow, W= white, R= red

W Y G W G Y W Y G Y
4)) Given the following data 5)) for the frequency table in problem 4)) find the
Relative, percentage, Ascending and descending
50 55 57 60 67 70 80 95
frequency table
53 56 58 62 68 70 87 96
54 57 58 63 68 72 88 98 -----------------------------------------------------------
54 57 59 65 69 75 90 100
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Construct the frequency table
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6)) for the frequency table in problem 4)) find the
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histogram and frequency polygon.
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polygon :
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7)) the departments in Albayan collages contains

the following numbers of Students

years 201 201 201 201 201 202

5 6 7 8 9 0
male 150 170 200 80 190 160
femal 180 120 189 100 70 130
e
a)Construct a line chart for the male students

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b)Construct the Bar chart for the male and

female

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8)) for the department by the following numbers

departments IT CS IS
Numbers 150 200 100
Find the pie chart
 n RF RF(360)
IT 150
CS 200
IS 100
sum 350

Statistical Measurements

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Central Tendency are measures to summarize great mass of data in a unique or single
number. that single number tends to lay in the middle or in the center of data. These measures are:
Mean , Median Mode, Harmonic Mean and Geometric Mean

(1) The mean, Arithmetic Mean

The mean or Arithmetic mean or average represent that value lay in the middle of data, mathematically
is the sum of data divided by total number of data. The mean usually denoted by X́ (for sample data) or
μ for a population data. In any way:

The mean X́ =
∑ X = X 1 + X 2 +…+ X n
n n

Example:

Find the mean of the following data 7, 5, 10, 12, 6

Sol:

X́ =
∑ X = X 1 + X 2 +…+ X n = 7 +5+10+12+6 = 40 =8
n n 5 5

Mean of different elements

If the mean of different n1 things is X́ 1 and the mean of other different n2 things is X́ 2, so the mean of
all things is obtained by

n1∗ X́ 1+n2∗ X́ 2
X́ =
n1 +n2

Example: suppose the class contains 20 female their mean is 70, and 30 male student their mean is 65
find the mean of all class.

Sol:
m1∗n1 +m2∗n2 ( 70 )∗( 20 ) + ( 65 )∗(30) 1400+1950 3350
X́ = = = = =67
n1 +n2 20+30 50 50

The mean of frequented of n things

If the items or elements is K frequented f times we can find the mean by the following rule .
f 1∗k 1+ f 2∗k 2 +…+ f n∗k n
X́ =
f 1+ f 2 +… f 3

Example: suppose the following numbers 4, 5, 10, 8, 6 is occurred by the following frequencies 3,
2, 1, 3, 2 respectively.

Sol
3∗4+2∗5+1∗10+3∗8+ 2∗6 12+10+10+24 +12 78
X́ = = = =7.09
3+2+1+3+2 11 11

Mean form the frequency table

If the values are in the frequency table contain classes and midpoints of the classes we can find the mean
by the following rule:

X́ =
∑ fx = f 1 x 1+ f 2 x2 +…+ f n x n
∑f f 1 + f 2 +…+ f n

Where:

X : is the midpoint of the classes .

f : is the frequencies of the classes.

Example: Given the following table

Classes 4.5 – 9.5 9.5 – 14.5 14.5 – 19.5 19.5 – 24.5 24.5 – 29.5
f 5 9 8 6 2
Sol:

Classes f x fx
4.5 - 9.5 5 7 35
9.5 - 14.5 9 12 108
14.5 - 19.5 8 17 136
19.5 - 24.5 6 22 132
24.5 - 29.5 2 27 54
sum 30 465

X́ =
∑ fx = 465 =15.5
∑ f 30
~
(2) The Median X or Med

The median is that value in the middle of arranged data

So: if the number of values is odd, there is only one value in the middle
n+1
The Median Rank is the median is value of that arranged number.
2
Example: the numbers 8, 12, 30, 18, 16,

Sol: after arrange the data

n+1 5+ 1
The median rank is = =3; the value is number 3 in arranged data.
2 2

8, 12, 16, 18, 30

~
X =16

The value in the middle 16 it’s the median

And: if the number of values is even there are two numbers in the middle
n n
The Median Rank is ( , + 1) the median be the mean of that tow arrange values in the middle
2 2

Example: the median of the following number 25, 20, 75, 50, 40, 80

Sol: arrange the data; 20, 25, 40, 50, 75, 80

There are two values in the middle 40, 60. Values number 3 and 4 respectively

~ 40+50 90
The median X =Med= = =45
2 2

Median form the frequency table

If the data are organized in the frequency table we can find the median by the following rule:
∑ f −∑ f
~
X =L1+
2
( fm
1
c )
Where:

L1 = is the lower class boundary of the median class

∑ f 1 = is the sum of the frequencies before the median class

∑f = is rank of the median class ( the class contain the median )
2
f m= is the frequency of the median class

C = is the length of class

Example: find the median of the following table

Classes 24.5 – 99.5 29.5 – 34.5 34.5 – 39.5 39.5 – 44.5 44.5 – 49.5 sum

f 5 9 8 6 2 30
Sol:
First find the class contain the median

∑f =
30
=15
2 2

The class contain the median is 34.4 – 39.5

The lower class is L1 = 34.5, the median class is fm = 8, Σfi = 14, C= 5

∑ f −∑ f
~
X =L1+ ( 2
fm
1

) ( 15−14
c=34.5+
8 ) 5
∗5=34.5+ =35.125
8
+

The mode: ^
X ,∨Mod

The mode is the number of value frequented more than others

Example: A class contains some student if (success P , failed F)

F,F,P, P, P, F,F,P,F,F,F,P,P,F,P,P,F,F,F,P,P,F,P,P,P,F,P,P,P

Sol: the mode is: Mod = P

Example(2): the mode of the following numbers

2, 3, 6, 5, 7, 5, 8, 9, 5, 3,

Sol: the number 5 is frequented 3 times more than others so

Mod = 5

The mode from the frequency table

If the data are organized in the frequency table the mode is

∆1
X =L1+
^
( ∆1 + ∆2)∗c

L1 = is the lower class boundary of the median class

∆ 1: is the difference between the frequency of modal class and before frequency

∆ 2: is the difference between the frequency of modal class and after frequency

C = is the length of class

Example:

Classes 24.5 – 29.5 29.5 – 34.5 34.5 – 39.5 39.5 – 44.5 44.5 – 49.5 sum

f 5 9 8 6 2 30
Sol:-
The model class is the class contains greater frequency is (29.5 – 34.5).

∆ 1=( 9−5 )=4 , ∆2 =( 9−8 )=1 , C=5

∆1 4 4
X =L1+
^
( )
∆1 + ∆2
∗ c=29.5+( )
4+1
∗5=29.5+ ∗5=33.5
5

Geometric Mean: G

Geometric mean of any n number is the n th root for multiplying the values, usually uses in index
numbers and growth rates .

The rule

G= √n X 1∗X 2∗…∗X n

1
log G= (log X 1 + log X 2+ …+log X n )
n

Example: Find the Geometric Mean for the following mean. 1, 3, 9

Sol:- n=4

G= √n X 1∗X 2∗…∗X n = √3 ( 1 )∗( 3 )∗( 9)=√3 27=3

Example: find the Geometric Mean for the following numbers 5, 9, 13,17, 21

Sol: n = 5
1
log G= (log X 1 + log X 2+ …+log X n )
n
1
Log G = ( log5+ log 9+log 13+ log 17+ log21)
5
1 5.317
Log G = ( 0.698+0.954 +1.113+1.230+1.322 ) = =1.063
5 5

G = 101.063 = 11.56

The Geometric mean form frequency Table:

If the data are in the frequency table contain frequencies and midpoint the Geometric Mean is
f log X 1+ f 2 log X 2 +…+ f n log X n ∑ f log X
logG= 1 =
f 1+ f 2 +…+ f n ∑f
Example: Find the mean of the following table

Classes 24.5 – 29.5 29.5 – 34.5 34.5 – 39.5 39.5 – 44.5 44.5 – 49.5 sum

f 5 9 8 6 2 30
Sol:
 Classes f X Log X f*log X f
X
24.5 – 29.5 5 27 1.431 7.156 0.185
29.5 – 34.5 9 32 1.505 13.546 0.281
34.5 – 39.5 8 37 1.568 12.545 0.216
39.5 – 44.5 6 42 1.623 9.739 0.143
44.5 – 49.5 2 47 1.672 3.344 0.042
sum 30 46.330 0.867
f 1 log X 1+ f 2 log X 2 +…+ f n log X n ∑ f log X
logG= =
f 1+ f 2 +…+ f n ∑f
46.330
Log G = =1.544 ∴ G=101.544=34.9
30

The Harmonic Mean H

As one of the measures of central tendency uses in the data of Speeds, or times or Areas
n n
H=
The rule: 1 1 1 = 1
+ +… .+
X1 X2 Xn ∑ X

Example: Suppose a car passes through 3 towns A,B,C. from A to B with spead 90K/H and from B to C by
120 K/H. and form C to A by 80K/h. fine the mean of all speeds between the towns.
Sol:
3 3 3
H= = = =95.2
1 1 1 0.011+ 0.008+0.0125 0.0315
+ +
90 120 80

The Harmonic mean from the frequency table:

∑f =
∑f
H = f1 f2 f
The rule:
X1
+
X2
+ …+ n
Xn
∑ Xf

Find the harmonic mean of the above frequency table

∑f =
∑ f = 30 =34.6
H = f1 f2 f
X1
+
X2
+ …+ n
Xn
∑ Xf 0.867
 Exercise (3)
1)) for the numbers 5, 2,9, 6, 10,6, 8 find -----------------------------------------------------------
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a.. the mean: -----------------------------------------------------------
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b.. the median. -----------------------------------------------------------
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c.. the mode. -----------------------------------------------------------
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3)) for 20 of Dell computer the memory mean
2)) for the following frequency table, find was 360 GB and for 30 Toshiba computer the
mean of its memory was 250GB. Find the mean
classes f X FX logx f*logx f
of all types.
X
1-5 2 -----------------------------------------------------------
6 -10 4 -----------------------------------------------------------
11-15 7 -----------------------------------------------------------
16-20 5
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21-25 2
total 20 -----------------------------------------------------------
a.. the mean: -----------------------------------------------------------
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----------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------.
----------------------------------------------------------.
4)) Given the following two groups
b.. the median. X:5,3,7,26,14 and Y:1,9,20,2,8,16,9 find the
mean of the two groups.
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------. -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
c.. the mode.
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------. ---------------------------------------------------------.

d.. the harmonic mean. 5)) X́ 1=25 , n 1=9∧ X́ 2=30 , n2=5 find the
mean.
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------. -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
e.. the geometric mean -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- a.. Find the mode.
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------. -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
6)) if the numbers 60, 80, 70 occurs by the -----------------------------------------------------------
following weights 2, 4, 3 find the weighted -----------------------------------------------------------
mean. -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------.
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- b.. Find the median
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------. -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
7)) for the following data find -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
G VG EX VG G P EX G P G -----------------------------------------------------------
VG P G P G P G EX G VG -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------.

Measures of Variation

To compare between the groups of data, the dependence on the measures of central tendency alone is
not enough. Because we need to know the variation or the dispersions in the groups of data. For
example the first group contains the following numbers 3, 5,1,2,4 and other group contains 1, 8, 1, 2. The
mean of each group is 3 in spite of different data but we know the variations in each group are different.
So to know the variation in data use

The Range – the Mean Deviation – the Variance – the Standard Deviation – the Coefficient of Variation
and the Standard Score

(a) The Range : R

The range is the difference between the largest and smallest value in a set of data. And we denote for
the range be “R”
R=X L− X s

X L : is the largest value in the group of data

X s : is the smallest value in the group of data

From the frequency table we can fine the range through two methods

(1) From the classes

 The range is the difference between upper class limit for the last class and the lower class limit of
the first class limit.
(2) From the midpoints
The range is the difference between the last midpoint of the last class and the first midpoint of
the first class.

Example (1): Given the following numbers 15,20,30,8,10,16, 27,18

Sol:

R = X L −X s=30−10=20

Example (2): from the following frequency table find the range

classes 24.5 – 29.5 29.5 – 34.5 34.5 – 39.5 39.5 – 44.5 44.5 – 49.5 sum
f 5 9 8 2 6 30
x 27 32 37 42 14
Sol:-

First way: form the classes

R=49.5−24.5=25

Second way: from the midpoints

R = 47 – 27 = 20

(b) The Mean deviation : MD

The mean deviation is the sum of the absolute difference of the values from its mean divided by the
number of data.

MD=
∑|X− X́|
n

And from the frequency table MD is

MD=
∑ f |X − X́|
∑f
Where:

X: are midpoints

f: are the frequencies

X́ :is the mean form the frequency table X́ =

∑ fX
∑f
Example: find the Mean Deviation of 2, 5, 1, 4, 3
Sol:

First: find the mean X́

2+5+ 1+ 4+ 3 15
X́ = = =3
5 5

|2−3|+|5−3|+|1−3|+|4−3|+|3−3| 1+2+2+1+ 0 6
MD= = = =1.2
5 5 5

Example(2)

Find the MD for the frequency table:

Classes f X fx |x – X| f|x – X|
24.5 – 29.5 5 27 135 8.5 42.5
29.5 – 34.5 9 32 288 3.5 31.5
34.5 – 39.5 8 37 296 1.5 12
39.5 – 44.5 6 42 252 6.5 39
44.5 – 49.5 2 47 94 11.5 23
sum 30 1065 148

MD=
∑ f |X − X́| = 148 =4.9
∑f 30

(c) The variance and the Standard Deviation:

The variance is the sum of the squares of the deviation for the values from its mean divided by the
numbers of the values. In the variance we compute the variance for the population and the variance for
the sample.

The Standard Deviation is the root of the value of the variance

Sample Variance : the sample standard deviation

∑ ( x− X́ )2 ∑ ( x − X́ )2
2
s=
n−1
S=
√ n−1

Population Variance the population Standard Deviation

σ 2=∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ σ =√ ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

Other forms:
2
∑ x2 − ∑ x
σ 2
=
n ( ) n
And the variance and the standard deviation from the frequency table.

Sample Variance : the sample standard deviation

∑ f (x− X́ )2 ∑ f ( x− X́ )2
2
s=
∑f
S=
√ ∑f
Population Variance the population Standard Deviation

σ 2=∑ f ¿ ¿ ¿ σ =√ ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

Other forms:
2
∑ fx 2 ∑ fx
σ 2
=
∑f ∑f
−
( )
Example: find the population variance and the standard deviation for 2,5,1,3,4

Sol:

First: find the mean X́ =

∑ x = 2+5+1+3+ 4 = 15 =3
n 5 5

( 2−3 )2 + ( 5−3 )2 + ( 1−3 )2+ ( 3−3 )2 +(4−3)2 1+ 4+ 4+ 0+1 10

Then σ 2= = = =2
5 5 5

The standard deviation σ =√ ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

2
∑ x2 ∑ x
By other form σ 2
=
n
− ( )
n

∑ x 2=22 +52 +12 +32 + 42=55 , ∑ x =2+ 5+1+ 3+4=15

55 15 2
σ 2=
5
− ( )
5
=11−9=2 ,the standard deviation σ= √2=1.42

Example: find the variance and the standard deviation for the following table

Classes f X fx X2 fx2 (x – X) (x-X)2 f(x-X)2

24.5 – 29.5 5 27 135 729 3645 8.5 72.25 361.25
29.5 – 34.5 9 32 288 1024 9216 3.5 12.25 110.25
34.5 – 39.5 8 37 296 1369 10952 1.5 2.25 18
39.5 – 44.5 6 42 252 1764 10584 6.5 42.25 253.5
44.5 – 49.5 2 47 94 2209 4418 11.5 132.25 264.5
sum 30 1065 38815 1007.5
Sol:

∑ f ( x− X́)2 ∑ f ( x− X́)2
By using the form σ =
2

∑f
σ=
√ ∑f
 1007.5
σ 2= =33.58 and σ =√ 33.58=5.8
30
2
∑ fx 2 ∑ fx
And by using the form σ
2
=
∑f ∑f ( )
−

38815 1065 2
σ 2=
30
− (
30 )
=1293.83−1260.25=33.58∧σ= √33.58=5.8

d)Coefficient of Variation

To compare between two or more different elements which have different mean and different units of
measurements, we need to calculate the coefficient of variation C.V
standard deviation σ
CV = × 100∨ × 100
mean X́
Example: the first group has the following numbers.3,5,1,2,4 and other group has 1,8,1, 2.

Which group has the smallest CV.

3+5+ 1+ 2+ 4 15
G1: the mean is x´1= = =3∧the standard deviation σ 1=1.41
5 5
1+8+ 1+ 2 12
G2: the mean is X́ 2 = = =3∧the standard deviation σ 2=2.9
4 4
σ 1.41
CV(1) = × 100= ∗100=47 %
X́ 3

σ 2.9
CV(2) = × 100= ∗100=0.97
X́ 3

The first group has the smallest CV.

e) The standard Score Z

Its uses to change the natural values to the standard form by the following formula

X− X́
Z=
σ
For the values 2,1,5,4,3 compute the standard score.

Sol: X́ =3 ,∧σ=1.41
2−3 1−3 5−3
Z 1= =−0.70 , Z 2= =−1.41 , Z 3= =1.41
1.41 1.41 1.41
 4−3 3−3
Z 4= =0.70 , Z 5= =0
1.42 1.41

The standard scores are -0.70, -1.41, 1.41, 0.70, 0

Exercise (4)

1)) Given the following numbers 12,10,14,8,6 find: --------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------
a.. the Range R --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- ----.
--------------------------------------------------------------
c.. the variance and the standard deviation.σ 2∧σ
---.
--------------------------------------------------------------
b.. The mean deviation MD
--------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- ----.
-------.
2.. the mean deviation
d.. the coefficient of variation.
--------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- ---.
---.
3.. the variance and the standard deviation
e.. the standard score for the numbers 12,10,14,8,6
σ 2=∑ f ¿ ¿ ¿-----------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------
2 2
-------------------------------------------------------------- 2 ∑ fx ∑ fx
--------------------------------------------------------------
σ =
∑f ∑f
−
( ) =
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------
-------. --------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------.

σ =√ ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿----------------------------------------------
2)) for the following frequency table: find --------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------.
classes f X f*X f|x-x́| f(x-x́)2 fx2
1-5 3 4.. the coefficient of variation
6 -10 4
11-15 6 --------------------------------------------------------------
16-20 4 --------------------------------------------------------------
21-25 3 --------------------------------------------------------------
total 20 -.
1.. the Range by different ways.

The Probability

Probability theory, a branch of mathematics concerned with the analysis of random phenomena. The
outcome of a random event cannot be determined before it occurs, but it may be any one of several
possible outcomes. The actual outcome is considered to be determined by chance.

Probability is the likelihood or chance of an event occurring.

Experiments, sample space, events, and equally likely probabilities

An experiment is any process or procedure lead to a result or outcome like,

- The experiment of tossing one coin, the results (H: head or T tail )

- The experiment of tossing one die, the results (1, 2,3,4,5,6)

The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called a “sample space.” And denoted by S.

The experiment of tossing a coin once results in a sample space with two possible outcomes, “heads” and
“tails.” S={H,T}.

The sample space of tossing two coins S = {(HH), (HT), (TH), (TT)}

Tossing two dice has a sample space with 36 possible outcomes,

1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6

{
2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6
S= 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 3,6
4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 4,6
5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5 5,6
6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 6,5 6,6
}
An event is a subset of the sample space denoted by E, like:

The event of get odd number in tossing of one die E ={1,3,5}

The event of get sum equal 5 in tossing of two dice E = {(1,4), (2,3),(3,2),(4,1)}

the value of probability

Probability is a type of ratio where we compare how many times an outcome can occur compared to all
possible outcomes.

We denote for the occurrence of event by P(E) or P and the probability of non occurrence by q(E) or q.

If dented for the number of ways of outcome by h and all possible outcomes by n then:

number of ways of event number of favourable outcome h

P(E) = ∨ =
total numbers of ways all possible outcomes n

 The probability of something which is certain to happen is 1.

 The probability of something which is impossible to happen is 0.
 The probability of something not happening is 1 minus the probability that it will happen.

P + q = 1 this mean q=1-p or p = 1-q

Example: suppose an experiment is tossing one dice and recorded the following events

S = { 1,2,3,4,5,6}
E1={1,3,5}, E2={2,4,6}, E3={1,2} E4= {3,4,5,6}

Find the following

(a) The probability of get odd number

h 3 1
P(E1) = = =
n 6 2

(b) The probability of get even number

h 3 1
P(E2) = = =
n 6 2

(c) The probability of get number less than 3

h 2 1
P(E3) = = =
n 6 3

(d) The probability of get number greater than 2

h 4 2
P(E4) = = =
n 6 3

Example: in a tossing of two dice find the probability of sum equal (a) 5 (b) 8 ( c) 11

Sol:

(a) The probability of sum equal 5 is (1,4) (2,3) (3,2), 4,1)

h 4
P(sum =5) = =
n 36

(b) The probability sum equal 8 is (2,6) (3,5) (4,4) (5,3) (6,2)

h 5
P(sum =5) = =
n 36

(c) The probability of sum equal 11 is (5,6) (6,5)

h 2
P(sum =5) = =
n 36

Example: suppose a box contain 5 black balls and 3 Red balls , one ball must be drawn from the box

What the probability of that ball is (a) Black (b) Red

Sol:

The black balls = 5 and the Red balls = 3. All the balls in the box = 8
 number of ways of event
Then: P(E) =
total numbers of ways

¿
(a) Probability of Black ball =number of ¿ balls all number of balls

h 5
P(Black) = =
n 8

¿
(b) Probability of Red ball =number of ¿ balls all number of balls

h 3
P(Red) = =
n 8

The probability and set theory

Some operation in the set theory uses in the probability

a) The union

The union of two sets AUB is the set of elements in set A or set B or both.

AUB = { x: xεA or x ε B }

b) The intersection

The intersection of two sets A ∩ B is the set of elements in set A and set B , or the common
elements between AB

A∩B = { x: xεA and x ε B }

c) The complement

The complement of the set A / are those elements belong to the universal and don’t belong set A.

A' ={ x : x ∈ S∧x ∉ A }

Conditional probability
In sometime we compute the event of E2 given that E1 is occurred this type is called conditional
probability. We write P(E2 given E1) or P(E2/E1)
P ( E 1∩ E 2)
P(E2/E1) =
P( E1)

Example: two dice tossed, if known the appeared face was even what the probability that face is 4?
Sol:

S={1,2,3,4,5,6}
 3 1 1 1
E1 = {2,4,6} , E2= {4}, P(E1) = = ∧P ( E 2 )= , E 1∩ E 2={ 4 } , P ( A ∩ B )=
6 2 6 6
1
P ( E 1 ∩ E 2) 6 1
P(E2/E1) = = =
P( E 1) 3 3
6

INDEPENDNT AND DEPENDENT EVENTS

INDEPENDNT EVENTS : If the occurrence or nonoccurrence of E1 do not affect on the occurrence of
E2 is called independent event. And dented by P(E1,E2)
P ( E1 , E 2 )=P ( E )∗P (E 2)

DEPENDENT EVENTS: If the occurrence or nonoccurrence of E1 affect on the occurrence of E2 is

called dependent event. And dented by P(E1,E2)

P ( E1 , E 2 )=P ( E )∗P (E 2/E 2)

Example:- Two dice thrown, what the probability of get 4 from the first and 5 from the second.
1
SOL:- E1 is the first event of get the number 4, P(E1) =
6
1
And E2 is the second event of get the number 5, P(E2) =
6
Then E1 and E2 are independents
1
∗1
P(E1,E2) = 6 1
P ( E )∗P ( E 2 )= =
6 36

Example: A box contains 5 red balls and 7 black balls. Two balls drown without replacement find the
probability of get two red balls
Sol:-
Let E1 is the first event Red ball in the first drown P(E1)
And E2 is the second event red ball in the second drown given that the first drown is red ball. P(E2/E1)
So the two events are dependents
5 4
P(E1) = and P(E2/E1) =
12 11

P ( E1 , E 2 )=P ( E )∗P ( E 2/ E 1 )= ( 125 )∗( 114 )= 132

20

Mutually Exclusive event

For two events E1,E2 if the occurrence of each of them is exclude the occurrence of the other is called
exclusive events that mean only one event is occurred E1 or E2 (E1 + E2)
If two events are exclusive: P(E1+E2) = P(E1) + P(E2)
If two event are not exclusive: P(E1+E2) = P(E1) + p(E2) – P(E1 ۰ E2)
Example:- If two dice thrown, what the probability of get even number or the number 5.
Sol:
The event of the even number is { 2,4,6} and the event of the number 5 is { 5}
3 1
The probability of even number is P(even) = = and
6 2
1
The probability of get number 5 is P{ number 5} = , the two event are exclusive
6
1 1 2
E(E1+E2) = P(E1) + P(E2) = + =
2 6 3
Example: if two dice tossed what the probability of get odd number or get number greater than or equal 3.
Sol:-
3 1
E1 is the event of odd number E1 = {1,3,5} so P(E1) = =
6 2
4 2
E2 is number greater than or equal 3 E2= {3, 4,5,6} so P(E2) = =
6 3
But E1&E2 are not exclusive events because 3,5 is occurs in both E1 and E2 so
2 1
P(E1E2) = =
6 3
1 2 1 3+ 4−2 5
P(E1+E2) = P(E1) + p(E2) – P(E1 ۰ E2) = + − = =
2 3 3 6 6
Example: A box contains 5 Red balls and 7 blue balls and 4 white balls. one ball must be drown what the
probability of get red or blue
Sol:-
5 7
P(Red) = P(E1) = and P(Blue) = P(E2) = the two events are exclusive
16 16
5 7 12
E(E1+E2) = P(E1) + P(E2) = + =
16 16 16
The random variable
A random variable is a function that assigns number to each outcome in the sample space of the
experiment.
Example: The probability distribution table of the experiment of tossing one die.
Sol:-
 X 1 2 3 4 5 6 sum
P(X) 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1
Where : X is the random variable
And P (X) is the value of the random variable.
Form the probability distribution we note
(a) P(X) is between [0,1]
(b) ∑ P ( X )=1

Example: find the probability distribution table for tossing one coin three times.
Sol:-
Each face in a coin may appear 0,1,2 or 3 times; so the sample space is
S={(HHH), (HHT), (TTH), (HTT), (THT), (HTH), (THH), (TTT)}
The probability distribution is

X 0 1 2 3 sum
P(X) 1/8 3/8 3/8 1/8 1
The Mathematical Expectation
If X is a random variable takes the following values X1,X2, … Xn By the following probabilities P1, P2,
…Pn.so the mathematical expectation denoted by E(X) is given by the following form
E(X) = P1X1+ P2X2+ … + PnXn

E ( X ) =∑ P∙ X

The mathematical expectation mean the arithmetic mean or the average of the distribution.
Example:
Given the following table

X 0 1 2 3 4
P(X) 0.25 0.30 0.18 0.17 0.10
Find the mathematical expectation or the mean or the average
Sol:-
E(X) = P1X1+ P2X2+ … + PnXn
P(E) = 0(0.25)+1(0.30)+2(0.18)+3(0.17)+4(0.10) = 1.57
Properties of the mathematical expectation.
If a and b are a constants then
a) E(a) =a also E(b) = b
b) E(ax) = aE(X)
c) E(ax+b) = aE(x) + b
Example: if E(x) = 10 find
 a) E (2X) b) E(0.5X – 2)
Sol:-
a) E(2x) = 2E(X) = 2(10) =20
b) E(0.5X – 2) = 0.5E(x) – 3 = 0.5(10) – 3= 5 – 3 = 2
Methods of Counting
These methods use to determine the all numbers of the ways in the experiment.
A] if the ways of anything is n1 ways and other things is n2 ways. The total number of all thing is n1*n2
ways.
Example: suppose there are five men are available to be a director and 7 women are available to be
secretary. How many ways are available for the director and secretary?
Sol:-
n1: is the ways of a director and n2 is the ways of secretary.
All ways is n1*n2 = 5(7) = 35 ways.
B] N – Factorial
We use n! for refer to the multiplication of integer numbers from n to 1 or to 0! Where 0! Is equal 1.
n! = n(n-1)(n-2)(n-3) ….. 3(2)(1)
1!=1
2!= 2(1) = 2
3!= 3(2)(1) = 6
5!= 5(4)(3)(2)(1) = 120
C] The Permutation:
The number of permutations of n objects is the number of ways in which the objects can be arranged in
terms of order: and denoted by. nPx
n!
n P x= =n ( n−1 )( n−2 ) …(1)
(n− x)!
5! 5 ( 4 ) (3 )( 2 ) (1)
1)) 5P3 = = =60
(5−3)! 2(1)
8! 8 (7) 6 !
2)) 8P2 = = =8 ( 7 )=56
(8−2)! 6!
D] The Combination
A combination of n different objects taken x at a time is a selection of x out of the n objects, with no
attention given to the order of arrangement. The number of combinations of n objects taken x at a time is
denoted by the symbol nCx and is given by:
n! n ( n−1 ) ( n−2 ) …(n−x +1)
nCx= =
x !( n−x )! x ( x−1 )( x−2 ) … (1)
6! 6 (5 ) 4 ! 30
1)) 6C4 = = = =15
4 ! (6−4) ! 4 ! ×2! 2
 10 ! 10 × 9 ! 10
2)) 10C1= = = =10
1! (10−1)! 1! ×9 ! 1
The Probability distributions
The probability distribution is a function describe the random the random variable.
a) The Binomial Distribution:
When the case study have two property like ( male and female), or (smoking and not smoking ) … and we
need to compute the probability of the random variable takes specific value we use the Binomial
distribution under the following conditions;
a) The experiment or the trails must be repeated n times
b) And the trails are independent
c) The results of any experiment is one of two cases (success or failure ) or (p or q )
d) And the probability of success is fixed in all the trails.
If all condition satisfied we apply the following rule
P(X=x) =nCx (Px )¿ , x = 0,1,2,…. n and where:
n!
- nCx is the combination given by
(n−x)!
- P is the probability of success, and q is the probability of failure
- x is the random variable.
Example: A piece of coin tossed 5 times, if x is a random variable refer to the head face. What the
probability of get 3 head
Sol:
n=5, x = 3 P=0.5 q=0.5
P ( X=3 )=5 C 3 ( 0.53 ) ¿
Example: if a die tossed 6 time what the probability of get the number 4
a)) (X=0) b) (x=1) c( X=2)

sol:
n=6 P = 1/6 q = 5/6
a)) if (X=0) mean in 6 time the number 4 disappeared
P ( X=0 )=6 C 0¿
b)) P(X=1) = 6 C 1 ¿
c) P(X=2) = 6 C 2 ¿
the properties of Binomial distribution
(1) the mean is E(X) = nP
(2) the variance is σ 2=nPq
for example in the first example E(X) = nP = 5(0.5) = 2.5
and the variance σ 2=nPq = 5(0.5)(0.5) = 1.25
in the second example E(X) = nP = 6(1/6) = 1
and the variance σ 2=nPq = 6(1/6)(5/6) = 5/6.
b) Poisson distribution
The experiment that gives the success in specific time or area is called Poisson distribution for example
the number of telecommunication in specific time or the number of cars accidents in the road in specific
time .. the conditions of Poisson distribution
- the average of successes denoted by λ occurs in specific time or area.
- The success are independents
The formula
λ x e−λ
P ( X=x )= ; x = 0,1,2, ….
x!
Example: if the Poisson function is
P ( X=x )=¿ ¿
Find: (a) P(X=0) (b) P(X=1) (c) P(X=2)
Sol:-
a) P ( X=0 )=¿ ¿
b) P ( X=1 ) =¿ ¿
c) P ( X=2 )=¿ ¿
The properties of the Poisson distribution
1) The mean E(X) = λ from the example E(X) = 0.65
2) The variance = σ 2=λ from the example σ 2=0.65

Exercise (5)

Define the following -----------------------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------------------
b.. the experiment -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------.
-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------. f.. mutually exclusive events and the rule.

b.. the -----------------------------------------------------------

event:---------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------. ----------------------------------------------------------.

c.. the sample f.. the random variable

Space:---------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------.
----------------------------------------------------------.
d.. define the probability.
g.. the mathematical expectation
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------. ----------------------------------------------------------.
d.. the mean and the rule of conditional h.. The union of events
probability
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------.
----------------------------------------------------------.
i.. The Intersection of events
e.. Dependent and Independent events. And the
rule -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------. -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------.
The conditions of Binomial distribution and the
function b.. Black ball

----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------.
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- c.. Green Ball
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------. -----------------------------------------------------------
The function and condition of Poisson ----------------------------------------------------------.
distribution. d.. Black or Green
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------.
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------.

2)) suppose three pieces of coins tossed

a.. what the sample space e.. Red or Green

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-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------.
-----------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------. 4)) two dice tossed once. What the probability of
get sum equal 9 or 4.
b.. what the event of getting two heads
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c.. what the probability of get one tail -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------.
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- 5)) what the probability of get Ace from the deck
----------------------------------------------------------. and 3 from the die

3)) suppose a box contains 3 Black balls, 6 Red -----------------------------------------------------------

balls, 8 Green balls. One ball must be drown -----------------------------------------------------------
what the probability of get: -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
a.. Red ball
----------------------------------------------------------- 10)) complete the following table by getting the
----------------------------------------------------------. value of K

6)) if one card is drown from the deck, what the X 0 1 2 3 4 sum
probability of get heart or king. P(X) K 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.2 1

-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------. -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------.
7)) if one die tossed. What the probability of get
odd number or number greater than 4. 11)) for the following table

----------------------------------------------------------- X 1 2 3 4 5 sum
----------------------------------------------------------- P(X) 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 1
----------------------------------------------------------- a.. Find the expectation
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------. -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------.

8)) suppose two cards must be drown from a

deck without replacement what the probability of b.. E(5x)
get Spade and queen. -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------.
----------------------------------------------------------- c.. E(4x+8)
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------. -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
9)) construct a probability distribution table for -----------------------------------------------------------
the families contain three children assumed equal ----------------------------------------------------------.
probability of male and female (0.5 to each).
12)) suppose a coin tossed 6 times, if x refer to
----------------------------------------------------------- head. Find the probability of get
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- a.. P(X= 0)
-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------.
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- a.. P(X=0) defective
----------------------------------------------------------.
-----------------------------------------------------------
b.. P(X=1) -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------.
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- b.. P(X=1)
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------. -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
c..P(X=2) -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------.
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- c.. P(X=2)
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------. -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
d..(X=3) ----------------------------------------------------------.

----------------------------------------------------------- d.. the mean and the variance of the distribution.

-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------. -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------.

e.. find the mean of the distribution 14)) Given a Poisson function is

----------------------------------------------------------- 8 x e−8
P ( X=x )= ; x=0,1,2 , … find:
----------------------------------------------------------- x!
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- a.. P(X=0)
----------------------------------------------------------. -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
f.. find the variance of the distribution -----------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------.
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- b.. P(X=1)
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------. -----------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------.
13)) A store contain 50 computers, found 10
computers was defective and the remained was c..P(X=2)
good if selected 6 computers randomly. What the -----------------------------------------------------------
probability of get -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------.

15)) the average of students absents form the

lecture is 10 students each lecture. If a random
lecture is taken. What That the probability of get

a.. no student absente

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b.. one student absente

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----------------------------------------------------------.

c.. five student absents

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----------------------------------------------------------.

d.. the mean and variance

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