MGT 301

Research Tools & Techniques

Lecture Notes
 Section I
(Lecture 01, 02 & 03)
Introduction to the Course of Research Tools & Techniques

Objectives
Information and knowledge are indispensable tools for helping ensure the continuity and
sustainability of any organization. They have to be acquired first and then assessed before
they can be utilized in the decision-making process. This is where the usefulness of research
tools and techniques or business research lies. Through the application of careful scientific
methods, and by using proven analytical and evaluative tools and techniques, corporate
managers can acquire insights into issues and problems which they come in contact with.
From this knowledge they can use to help themselves accomplish their organizational goals
and objectives, set correct priorities, adopt prudent strategies and approaches, handle risks
effectively and efficiently manage their resources.

Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of the course, the students will be able to
1. Know comprehensively about the subject of Research Tools & Techniques.
2. Apply their knowledge to a research undertaking of their own.
3. Write a research proposal and can apply to various research programs offered within
Pakistan and abroad.
4. Know how to work diligently in successful completion of a reserch project.
5. Use their mind analytically and logically in any business/research related situation.
CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Research
1. What is Research?

Research is a process of finding solutions to a problem/research question after a thorough study

and analysis of the situational factors pertaining to the problem.

2. Definition of Research

Research is an organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or

investigation into a specific problem undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or solutions
to it.

3. Types of Data:

1. Primary data: Data gathered first time by the researcher.

2. Secondary data: Data already available.
3. Qualitative data: Data comprising of letter and words i.e. Faisal, Islamabad, Reluctance.
4. Quantitative data: Data comprising of some numerical value or numbers i.e. 24,
0334567786, 1010 etc.

4. The Research Process:

The research process consists of the following steps

Step 1: Observation
You observe with your five senses where the problem lies and what it is.

Step 2: Preliminary Data Gathering

You gather data about the observed problem with the help of interviews and library search etc.

Step 3: What actually is the Problem

You narrow down the problem after preliminary investigation.

Step 4: Identification of factors/variables in a problem taking help from step two i.e. due to
which reasons the problem occurred.

Step 5: Investigating do these variables are related with/causing problems = Hypotheses

Statements development for possible acceptance or rejection.

Step 6: Crafting of Research Design i.e. how to collect data which might support/not support
hypotheses.
Step 7: Further data gathering for the approval or rejection of hypotheses following the Research
Design.

Step 8: Analysis of the gathered data.

Step 9: Interpreting the meaning of gathered data. Deduction or coming to a solution on the basis
of data analysis.

5. Managers and Problem Solving

Managers are constantly engaged in studying and analyzing issues; they make decisions and
solve problems. Managers can make right decisions as well as wrong decisions. Good decision
making depends on

a) Do managers identify where exactly the problem lies.

b) Recognizing the relevant factors in a situation.
c) What type of information to be gathered regarding the factors making the problem.
d) How to gather information.
e) How to make use of the information.
f) How to draw appropriate conclusions.
g) How to implement the result.

So research knowledge is essential for managers and right managerial decision making.

6. Benefits of Research Knowledge

a) A manager can interact with research consultant.

b) He can discriminate between good studies and poor studies published in professional
journals.
c) He can himself undertake the research.
d) Better sift the information from the required sources.
e) Understand the factors, variables, models.
f) The answers to what, why, when and which can be sought.
g) He can take right course of action and choose from alternatives the best possible solution
helping him in informed decision making.

7. Business Research in Academic & Organizational Setting (What to study in research?)

These are some of the examples and topics of what topics broadly can be investigated using
research knowledge for both academicians and managers.
(I). Issues to Investigate in Research for Academicians and Students

A. Accounting:
(i). Inventory costing methods.
(ii). Accelerated depreciation.
(iii). Taxation method.
B. Finance:
(i). Optimum financial ratios.
(ii). Mergers/Acquisitions.
(iii). Behavior of stock exchange.

C. Management:
(i). Employee attitude and behavior.
(ii). The impact of changing demographics on management practices.
(iii). Information system requirements.
D. Marketing:
(i). Product image
(ii). Product distribution.
(iii). Packaging.
(iv). Pricing.

(II). Examples of Organization Wide Issues which can be Investigated by Managers

a) How to increase profit/revenue?

b) Factors contributing to attain the best employee work schedule.
c) What would be the response rate for a new product launch that is a home loan etc.

8. How Modern Technology Helps the Researcher?

Modern technology helps in

a) Information Gathering Internet (Searching past research during preliminary data
gathering making use of Google Scholar), Interviewing using
Skype.
b) Data Collection Questionnaire development from past research and data
gathering through e-mail, checking and downloading online
records.
c) Data Analysis Using software such as SPSS, STATA, AMOS etc.
d) Data Presentation SPSS Graphs, PP presentations etc.
9. Types of Business Research

I. Applied research:
“A type of business research to solve a current problem faced by the managers in his/her work
setting demanding a timely solution”.
Example: A product (water heater) is not selling well for an organization say PEL appliances.

II. Basic/Fundamental/Pure research:

“The research done to generate a body of knowledge to understand how certain problems that
occur in the organization can be solved”.
Example: Research done by a college professor to find out leave taking behavior in
organizations.

Why Basic Research is done?

a) More knowledge is generated.

b) Such knowledge can be applied later.
c) Theories can be built on it.

Examples
i. Research into the causes and consequences of global warming.
ii. Research done by a college professor to understand job involvement & interest.

10. The Manager and the Consultant Researchers

They are of two types i.e. external and internal research consultants.

A. From Where to Locate and Select an Outside Researcher:

The external research consultants are hired from outside the organization i.e. from
a) Organizational consulting firms and area experts at
b) Business colleges.

The Manager Researcher Relationship:

a) The roles and expectations of both parties should be made explicit.

b) Relevant philosophies and value systems of the organization should be clearly stated and
constraints if any communicated.
c) A good rapport should be established between all concerning parties.

B. Internal Research Consultants:

On the other hand sometimes the company has its own department dealing in research by the
name of Management Services Department or Organization and Methods Department or
Research and Development Department. The team members from these departments are known
as internal consultants.

C. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Internal Consultants

Advantages of Internal Consultants

a) They are readily accepted as they are the part of the organization.
b) They require less time to understand the organizational environment.
c) They are available for the implementation of the research findings as well therefore costs
less.

Disadvantages of the Internal Consultants

a) Stereotyping of the organization i.e. lack of broader vision which at sometimes is

required.
b) Influence of the powerful coalition groups within the organization.
c) False perceptions about the internal consultants by the company employees.
d) Biases by the internal consultants themselves about dealing with the problems.

D. External Team Advantages/Disadvantages

Advantages

a) They are generally more experienced.

b) Possess more knowledge of current sophisticated problem solving models.

Disadvantages

a) The cost of hiring is more.

b) It takes time for them to adjust with the organization environment.
c) Charge additional fee for assistance in implementation.

11. Ethics in Business Research

Ethics or moral lapses can occur in the following two areas

A. Malpractices by the Researcher vis-à-vis Data Collection & Presentation

a) Errors and negligence in data collection.

b) Data supporting self-serving assumptions.
c) Wrong presentation of the facts.
B. Malpractices by the Researcher vis-à-vis the Subjects of Research

a) Human subjects review board at universities/colleges should approve the research

proposal. Research subjects are those individuals on which experiments are conducted
and the data is sought from.
b) Researchers should not identification the subject and their name addresses should be kept
confidential.
c) Subjects placed at risk of criminal liability, employability, reputation or mental or
physical harm should be avoided.
CHAPTER 2

Scientific Investigation

1. What is Scientific Investigation?

Scientific research focuses on solving problems and pursues a step by step, logical, organized
and rigorous method to identify the problems, gather data, analyze them and draw valid
conclusions therefrom. Scientific research is not based on hunches, experiences & intuition
though these may play a part in final decision making. Another property of scientific research is
that it has comparable findings i.e. two people investigating the same topic would come up with
same results. Scientific research is applied to both basic and applied research. Lack of time is the
hindrance in undertaking step by step scientific research but in such cases the probability of
making wrong decisions rises.

2. The Hallmarks/Characteristics of Scientific Research

These are eight in number and are

a) Purposiveness.
b) Rigor.
c) Testability.
d) Replicability.
e) Precision and confidence.
f) Objectivity.
g) Generalizablilty and
h) Parsimony.

a. Purposiveness

The scientific research has a definite aim or purpose (Why we are doing it?)

Have fewer turnovers, less absenteeism and better performance might be the aim of one research
performed to understand the commitment of employees at some workplace.

b. Rigor

Research and all data collection should be done with carefulness, scrupulousness and a degree of
exactitude.

c. Testability

The hypothesis developed from a good theoretical foundation can be tested by applying
statistical tests to the data collected.
Example
Those employees who perceive greater opportunities for participation in decision making would
have a higher level of commitment this hypothesis can be tested by applying correlational
analysis, chi-square test or t-test. Our data should support what we are saying.

d. Replicability

From testing the data we can prove again and again the similar results (for the same hypothesis)
over time and over different locations – Provided conditions remain constant.

e. Precision and Confidence

Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to reality based on a sample. Confidence refers to
the probability that our findings are correct. If we set alpha value to 0.05, we say that 95% of the
time our results would be true and there are only 5% chances that we may be wrong. This
probability of error can be statistically calculated. In management sciences which are a part of
social sciences this percentage or value of alpha is acceptable.

f. Objectivity:

Conclusion drawn on the basis of facts not based on subjective values should always be
acceptable to the researcher. If a research finding “The involvement in decision making will
improve the commitment level of employees” proves false after data gathering the researcher
who still advocates this statement loses objectivity. The more objective our interpretation the
more scientific research is. The findings should be stripped of personal values and bias.
Objectivity not subjectivity should be the focus of researcher.

g. Generalizability:

If the conditions are same in different organizations; the research findings can be applied to
others as well. Applied research is less generalizable than basic research.

h. Parsimony:

Simplicity in explaining the phenomena is preferred to a complex research framework. If 2 to 3

factors can explain 80% of phenomena and the rest 7 factors explain the 20% then one can skip
the 7 factor to make the research simple. Parsimony is simply economization within the research
model.
3. The Building Blocks of Science in Research

Answers to issues can be found by two processes

Deduction:
Deductive method is when we arrive at a decision by logically generalizing from a known fact
e.g. all high performers are proficient in their jobs, if john is a high performer then he is
proficient in his work.

Induction:
Induction is a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at
conclusions e.g. production process are the main features of factories, therefore factories exist for
production purpose.

4. Introduction to the Hypothetico-Deductive Method:

If a problem is “The aversive noise in the environment decreases the performance of individuals
in solving mental puzzles”, theory can be developed that “Noise adversely effects mental
problem solving”. Likewise a hypothesis can be developed from this theory

Hypothesis: If the noise is controlled then mental puzzles can be solved more quickly and
correctly.

Based on this hypothesis a research project can be designed then the testing of hypotheses is
done.
Conclusion can be drawn if we find enough facts that controlling the aversive noise do indeed
help the participants in their performance on mental puzzles. This method of finding answers to
the problems is known as Hypothetico-deductive method.

5. Seven Steps of Hypothetico-Deductive Method in Detail:

a) Observation
b) Preliminary information gathering
c) Theory formulation
d) Hypothesis
e) Further scientific data collection
f) Data analysis
g) Deduction

a. Observation:

Observation is the first stage, in which one senses that certain changes are occurring or that some
new behaviors, attitudes and feelings are surfacing in one’s environment (i.e., the work place).
b. Preliminary Information Gathering:

It involves the seeking of information in depth, of what is observed. This could be done by
talking informally to several people in the work setting or to clients or to other relevant sources,
thereby gathering information on what is happening and why i.e. unstructured interviews. Then it
is followed by structured interviews – the interviews with a predetermined format. Additionally
by doing library research or obtaining information through other sources, the investigator would
identify how such issues have been tackled in other situations.

c. Theory Formulation:

It is an attempt to integrate all the information in a logical manner, so that the factors responsible
for the problem can be on conceptualized and tested. The theoretical framework formulated is
often guided by experience and intuition. In this step the critical variables are identified and
examined as to their contribution or influence in explaining why the problem occurs and how it
can be solved.

d. Hypothesizing:

It is the next logical step after theory formulation. From the theorized network of associations
among the variables, certain testable hypotheses or educated conjectures can be generated.
Hypothesis testing is called deductive research. Sometimes, hypotheses that were not originally
formulated do get generated through the process of induction.

e. Further Scientific Data Collection:

After hypothesis development, data with respect to each variable in hypothesis need to be
collected. Further data are collected to test the hypotheses that are generated previously in a
study.

f. Data Analysis:

Data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were generated have been
supported. Correlations would be used to analyze and determine the relationship of two or more
factors in the hypotheses for example: stock availability and customer satisfaction etc.

g. Deduction:

Deduction is the process of arriving at conclusions by interpreting the meaning of the results of
data analysis.
6. Other Types of Research:

A. Case Studies

Case studies involve in depth, contextual analyses of similar situations in the other organizations,
where the nature and definition of the problem happen to be the same as experienced in the
current situation. Many organizations need to be studied for greater generalizability.

B. Action Research:

The researcher begins with a problem that is already identified and gathers relevant data to
provide a tentative problem solution. This solution is then implemented, with the knowledge that
there may be unintended consequences following such implementation. The effects are then
evaluated, defined and diagnosed and the research continues on an ongoing basis until the
problem is fully resolved.