A road bridge

A road bridge is a structure constructed

along the direction of travel to cross a
river, canal or another highway.

The basic geometry of a bridge is

dependent on the size of the feature it has
to cross,

the intersection angle between the road and

the feature and the levels of the terrain in
the immediate vicinity..
The main components of a bridge will be

the foundations,

the abutments,

piers,

the deck

and the wing walls.

Single and Multi Span Bridges
In the case of single span bridges the deck will span over the two abutments.

Multi span bridges will have intermediate piers and the deck will span from
abutment to pier and from pier to pier.

The abutments are founded on strong foundations.

These can be on piled foundations, caisson foundations, raft foundations or

on a simple spread footing.

The type of foundation will depend on the traffic loading, the span, the
ground conditions and the soil bearing capacity
The abutment foundations will be constructed below the water level in
the case of a river or stream crossing.

The techniques and methods adopted should take into consideration the
problems associated with such construction.

Most often temporary coffer dams, temporary river diversions, sheet

piling and well point dewatering systems are commonly adopted
methods to overcome the problems posed by flowing water.
The form of a road bridge and the materials used for its construction will be
based on the cost, aesthetics and the maintenance requirements.

Concrete and Steel are the most commonly used materials for the main
structural elements of a bridge.

However masonry and timber are also materials used for the construction of
bridges.

Most road bridges are designed as constant depth beam or slab decks
supported by concrete abutments and intermediate piers.
For longer span bridges steels decks are as equally popular as concrete.

Most steel decks are of composite construction with steel universal beams,
plate or box girders combined with an insitu concrete top slab.
An integral bridge can be defined as bridges without joints it is usually a
small span structure of one to three spans with a total length of not more
than about 50 meters.

They span from one abutment, over intermediate supports to the other
abutment without any movement joint in the deck.

Integral bridges are not new, masonry arches being a typical early
example.
.It has no joints and is fixed to its supports without bearings.

Abutments are cast as integral parts of the deck structure.

Because of its fixed nature the bridge becomes integral with the soil mass
abutting the structure and on which it rests.

The advantages of integral construction are greater durability and lower

maintenance costs when compared with jointed bridges.
A frame abutment effectively creates a portal frame with the bridge
superstructure and retains the backfill behind the abutment. There is full
moment continuity between the deck beams and the supporting structure at
the ends.
The supporting structure is founded well below the beams, either on a spread
footing or on an embedded wall.

Thermal expansion and contraction of the deck beams give rise to horizontal
displacements at the top of the supporting elements, but at the base of these
elements there is no horizontal sliding at the interface with the soil; the
supporting elements must therefore flex.

The presence of intermediate supports in a multi-span bridge, does not alter the
basic portal-type configuration.

In multi-span integral or semi-integral bridges, the deck is made continuous

between abutments and there are no joints in the deck at intermediate piers.

Intermediate pier to deck connections may be fully continuous or the deck may
be supported on bearings
One major incentive to build integral bridges is to create slender bridge
structures through judicious design.

If piers and abutments do not require bridge bearings, the sub-constructions can
be simplified and designed for a more attractive appearance, since it is no longer
necessary to provide storage and floor space for the jacks.

And it allows for a more slender design of piers, because their accessibility does
not have to be guaranteed.

Aside from more flexibility in the planning process, leaving out bearings and
joints has other advantages, in particular with regard to maintenance:
Integral piers and pier walls

Integral bridges feature a monolithic connection of the sub-constructions,

abutments and piers to the superstructure.

Together they form rigid frames without bearings and joints, which would
otherwise separate the components from each other.
Modern materials, such as high-strength concrete can be used to build slender
pier walls.

Not having to provide accessibility and floor space for the jacks significantly
simplifies the construction of piers.

The pier (walls) can thus be pre-fabricated and then mounted. In addition to
this, the maintenance and up-keeping effort is much lower. Therefore costs can
be reduced.
The main advantages of such bridges are the reduced maintenance costs
resulting from the elimination of damage from poorly installed expansion
joints and improperly functioning bearings.

Man made arch bridges could be considered as the some of the first
examples of purpose built integral structures.
For lengths up to 50 to 60 meters there is evidence of satisfactory behaviour.

Beyond 60 meters the magnitude of movements at abutments could become

sufficient to precipitate a pavement joint type of maintenance problem that
integral bridges are supposed to eliminate

For a variable depth bridge deck, the depth of continuous multi-span bridge
deck is increased in pier supports and this absorbs sagging moments in the
mid-span with the consequent increase in hogging moments in pier supports.

As a result, the mid-span depth can be significantly reduced due to the

reduction in sagging moment.

In essence, this sucker deck principle is applied in locations where headroom

requirement is of great concern.
Advantages of multi-span deck continuity
Moreover, in terms of structural performance, sucker decks are effective in
reducing dead loads than voided slab of equivalent uniform depth for span
length between 20-40m.

In terms of aesthetics point of view, the public tends to appreciate the structural
form of arches and curved soffit rather than boring uniform deck alignment

Elimination of deck joints

Saving in the depth of the deck
Reducing the number of bearings on the piers
Sucker deck principle can be applied effectively
Advantage of prestressed precast concrete beam decks

Ease and speed of erection

Elimination of complex formwork

Culvert
A modern day example of a pure form of integral
bridge is the humble culvert structure which
achieves total integrity with the surrounding soil.

A culvert is a small bridge type structure provided

to enable water streams and other drainage canals
to cross the roadway.

Culverts can be constructed with pipes which pass

under the roadway and are termed pipe culverts.

Concrete box sections could also be used instead

of pipes and are commonly termed box culverts.
Culvert

The pipes utilized for the construction of culverts is most often made of
concrete though steel and sections made of profiled steel sheets are also
popular.

The pipes in a culvert will be usually laid on a foundation.

This foundation could be in concrete and will have cut off walls at either end
to provide stability and to prevent scouring at the interface between the
concrete and the soil.
For larger culverts which have to provide for higher flows a transition is
incorporated to the culvert structure.

This would comprise of wing walls and apron and trains the water into the
pipe or box openings in the culvert.

The head wall over the culvert on both ends provides confinement to the
carriageway
Causeway
A causeway is a submersible road bridge across a stream.

It is designed and built in such a way that the normal dry weather flow of the
river passes entirely through the openings below the roadway

The occasional flood passes through the openings as well as over the
roadway
Viaduct
A viaduct is along continuous structure carrying a road or a railway line
over a dry valley instead or over a stream.

It essentially consists of a series of spans.

A coffer dam is a temporary enclosure built to exclude water from the
working area and to permit free access to the area within, during
construction of a foundation or another structure that must be constructed
below water level.

Coffer dams are usually made of earth, timber or sheet piling.

An earth coffer dam will suit situations where either the water is standing or
has a very low velocity and where the depth usually does not exceed around
three meters.

A caisson is a water tight box like structure or a chamber usually made of

steel or concrete and is a commonly used foundation system when water
depths are somewhat high.
Caissons are usually sunk by excavating within it, for the purpose of gaining
access to the bed of a stream and placing the foundation at a prescribed depth.

The caisson will subsequently form part of the foundation itself.

Caissons are generally built on shore and launched into the river, floated to
the site and sunk at the proper position.
Bridge Bearings
In long span bridges deflection and change in temperature give rise to heavy
stresses.

This expansion or contraction, movement and deflection due to loads act on

the superstructure of the bridge and are transferred to the piers through
bearings

The bearings allow such movements to take place quickly and safely.
Hence bearings are the bridge components which transfer the loads of' the
superstructure to the piers and abutments.

The design of the piers will also depend on the type of the bearings and
subsequently they affect the design of the foundation.

Bearings are essential components of bridges, and require scientific design,

skill in construction and: maintenance.
Reasons for the use of bearings in bridges
The load intensity to be distributed evenly to the supports.

To allow the girder of the bridge to take, free angular movement at the
ends when loaded preventing any moment transfer.

The simply supported girders deflect under loads causing their ends to
take, angular movements over the support.

The bearings allow both the ends of the girder to assume a position
tangent to the deflected bottom shape of the girder.
If one end of a simply supported member is kept free to move
longitudinally, and the other end is kept hinged by the bearing, the
changes in temperature will not cause any stresses on the substructure
and will make the bridge safe.
Whole Life or Life Cycle costs of bridges

The costs of all activities associated with a bridge during its lifetime which in
UK is now designed for a period of 120 years.

These can be attributed to the following

The high initial cost of design and construction

The regular inspection and maintenance costs over the bridge lifetime

The repairs which could be expected during its lifetime and will include the
cost associated with the disruption to traffic

The cost associated with strengthening or widening if the need arises over
time