Chemistry 1

Class Notes

Mr. Bigler
Lynn Public Schools
September 2018

http://www.mrbigler.com/Chemistry-1
Copyright © 2006–2018 Mr. Bigler.

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ISBN-13: 978-1517557300
ISBN-10: 1517557305
Chemistry 1 Note to Students Page: 3

This is a set of class notes for a first-year high school chemistry course. These notes can be used for any
honors or CP1 chemistry course by omitting information that is specific to the higher-level course.

This hardcopy is provided so that you can fully participate in class discussions without having to worry
about writing everything down.

While a significant amount of detail is included in these notes, they are intended to supplement the
textbook, classroom discussions, experiments and activities. These class notes and the textbook
discussion of the same topics are intended to be complementary. In some cases, the notes and the
textbook differ in method or presentation, but the chemistry is the same. There may be errors and/or
omissions in any textbook. There are almost certainly errors and omissions in these notes, despite my
best efforts to make them clear, correct, and complete.

About the Homework Problems

The homework problems include a mixture of easy and challenging problems. (Remember that these
notes are intended for use in both regular-level and honors-level chemistry classes.) The process of
making yourself smarter involves challenging yourself, even if you are not sure how to proceed. By
spending at least 10 minutes attempting each problem, you build neural connections between what you
have learned and what you are trying to do. Even if you are not able to get the answer, when we go
over those problems in class, you will reinforce the neural connections that led in the correct direction.

Answers to the problems are often provided so you can check your work and see if you are on the right
track. Do not simply write those answers down, in order to receive credit for work you did not do. This
will give you a false sense of confidence, and will actively prevent you from using the problems to make
yourself smarter. You have been warned.

Using These Notes

As we discuss topics in class, you will want to add your own notes to these. If you have purchased this
copy, you are encouraged to write directly in it, just as you would write in your own notebook. If this
copy was issued to you by the school and you intend to return it at the end of the year, you will need to
write your supplemental notes on separate paper. If you do this, be sure to write down page numbers
in your notes, to make cross-referencing easier.

You should bring these notes to class every day, because lectures and discussions will follow these
notes, which will also be projected onto the SMART board.
Chemistry 1 Note to Teachers Page: 4

These notes, and the course they accompany, are designed to follow both the 2016 Massachusetts
Curriculum Frameworks, and the 2016 Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks, which are based on the
Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS). The notes also utilize strategies from the following popular
teaching methods:

 Each topic includes Mastery Objectives and Success Criteria, as presented in the Studying Skillful
Teaching course, from Research for Better Teaching (RBT).
 Each topic includes Tier 2 vocabulary words and language objectives, from the Rethinking Equity
and Teaching for English Language Learners (RETELL) course.
 Notes are organized in two-column notes format, with a top-down web at the beginning of each
unit and a page for students to summarize the unit at the end, from Keys To Literacy.

The order of topics in a chemistry course is a hotly-debated subject. These notes and the course they
accompany are organized as follows:

The most controversial decision was to place gases & gas laws at the beginning of the course, right after
matter. The rationale is to keep the macroscopic study of matter together, and to have a topic that is
rich in lab experiments and demonstrations early in the course. One downside to this approach is that
moles need to be introduced in a rudimentary fashion early in the course, and re-introduced and
expanded on later.
Chemistry 1 Acknowledgements Page: 5

These notes would not have been possible without the assistance of many other people. I cannot
mention everyone, but I would particularly like to thank:
 Every student I have ever taught, for helping me learn how to teach, and how to explain and
convey challenging concepts.
 Every teacher I have worked with, for their kind words, sympathetic listening, helpful advice and
suggestions, and other contributions great and small that have helped me to enjoy and become
competent at the profession of teaching.
 Many of the department heads and principals I have worked with, for mentoring and encouraging
me and allowing me to develop my own teaching style. In particular, Mark Greenman, Marilyn
Hurwitz, Scott Gordon, Barbara Osterfield, Wendell Cerne, John Graceffa, Maura Walsh, Lauren
Mezzetti, and Tom Strangie.
 The chemistry teachers I have worked with over the years who have generously shared their time,
expertise, and materials. In particular, Kathy McGrane, who shared her teaching notes with me,
which ultimately inspired me to create these; Kirstin Bunker, who gave significant help with the
Keys to Literacy® top-down webs; Beth Hocking, with whom I have had more discussions than I
can count about creative ideas for teaching chemistry; and Harvey Gendreau, whose contributions
to the AP Chemistry email discussion forums and ChemEd conferences have taught me much
about the chemistry that high school students need to understand in order to be successful.
 Everyone else who has shared insights, stories, and experiences in chemistry, many of which are
reflected in some way in these notes.

I am reminded of Sir Isaac Newton’s famous quote, “If I have seen further it is by standing on the
shoulders of giants.”
Chemistry 1 Page: 6

Table of Contents
MA Curriculum Frameworks for Chemistry ............................................................................... 7
Two-Column Notes .................................................................................................................... 9
1. What Is Chemistry? ..................................................................................................................15
2. Laboratory ................................................................................................................................25
3. Math & Measurement .............................................................................................................71
4. Matter ....................................................................................................................................107
5. Gases ......................................................................................................................................127
6. Atomic Structure ....................................................................................................................161
7. Nuclear Chemistry..................................................................................................................189
8. Electronic Structure ...............................................................................................................211
9. Periodicity ..............................................................................................................................251
10. Nomenclature & Formulas.....................................................................................................275
11. Bonding & Molecular Geometry ............................................................................................303
12. Intermolecular Forces ............................................................................................................327
13. The Mole ................................................................................................................................347
14. Solutions ................................................................................................................................369
15. Chemical Reactions ................................................................................................................399
16. Oxidation & Reduction ...........................................................................................................431
17. Stoichiometry .........................................................................................................................443
18. Thermochemistry (Heat) ........................................................................................................469
19. Kinetics & Equilibrium ............................................................................................................511
20. Acids & Bases .........................................................................................................................531
Appendix: Chemistry Reference Tables .................................................................................549
Periodic Table of the Elements ..............................................................................................563
Index ......................................................................................................................................564
Chemistry 1 Page: 7

MA Curriculum Frameworks for Chemistry

Standard Topics Chapter(s)
Periodic table & periodic trends: ionization energy, atomic & ionic
HS-PS1-1 9
radius
Types of chemical reactions. Predicting products. Intermolecular
HS-PS1-2 12, 14, 15
Forces (IMF) vs. physical state at room temperature
IMF vs. bulk properties (melting point/boiling point, density, vapor
HS-PS1-3 11, 12
pressure, etc.)
HS-PS1-4 Energy of reaction, heat of formation 18
Reaction kinetics as related to Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) &
HS-PS1-5 19
collision theory
HS-PS1-6 Equilibrium, Le Châtelier’s principle, as related to KMT 19
Conservation of mass & atoms, balancing equations, law of constant 4, 13, 15,
HS-PS1-7
composition, moles, stoichiometry, percent yield 17
pH as measure of acid/base strength, Arrhenius & Brønsted-Lowry
HS-PS1-9(MA) 20
theories as related to bases & monoprotic acids
Oxidation/reduction (REDOX) reactions, oxidation numbers,
HS-PS1-10(MA) 16
predicting products of REDOX reactions, conceptual electrochemistry
Mixture separation based on chemical & physical properties (e.g.,
HS-PS1-11(MA) 2, 4, 14
chromatography, distillation, centrifuging, precipitation reactions)
Molecular structures of ionic compounds, acids, bases, metals &
HS-PS2-6 10, 11
polymers
HS-PS2-7(MA) Solvent polarity & why ions dissolve in polar solvents 11, 12, 14
KMT & gases (electrostatic forces, interactions between molecules in
HS-PS2-8(MA) 5
solids, liquids & gases), combined gas law
Conservation of energy with respect to enthalpy, entropy, and free
HS-PS3-4b 18
energy (conceptual)

MA Science Practices
Practice Description
SP1 Asking questions.
SP2 Developing & using models.
SP3 Planning & carrying out investigations.
SP4 Analyzing & interpreting data.
SP5 Using mathematics & computational thinking.
SP6 Constructing explanations.
SP7 Engaging in argument from evidence.
SP8 Obtaining, evaluating and communicating information.
 Two-Column Notes Page: 9
Big Ideas Details Unit: Introduction

Two-Column Notes
Unit: Introduction
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Use the two-column note-taking system to take effective notes, or add to
existing notes.
Success Criteria:
 Notes are in two columns with appropriate main ideas on the left and details
on the right.
Language Objectives:
 Understand and describe how two-column notes are different from other
forms of note-taking.

Notes:
The two-column note-taking system is based on the Cornell note-taking system,
which was developed in the 1950s at Cornell University. Besides being a useful
system for note-taking in general, it is an especially useful system for interacting
with someone else’s notes (such as these) in order to get more out of them.

The main features of the two-column note-taking system are:

1. The main section of the page is for the details of what actually gets covered
in class.
2. The left section (officially 2½ inches, though I have shrunk it slightly to 2¼
inches for these notes) is for “big ideas”—the organizational headings that
help you organize these notes and find details that you are looking for.
These have been left blank for you to add throughout the year, because the
process of deciding what is important is a key element of understanding and
remembering.
3. In the Cornell Notes system, the bottom section (2 inches) is officially for
you to add a 1–2 sentence summary of the page in your own words. This is
always a good idea, but you may also choose to use that space for other
things you want to remember that aren’t in these notes.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Two-Column Notes Page: 10
Big Ideas Details Unit: Introduction
How to Get Nothing Worthwhile Out Of These Notes
Because this book serves as a combination of your textbook and a set of notes, you
may be tempted to sleep through class because “it’s all in the book,” and then use
these notes look up how to do the homework problems when you get confused. If
you do this, you will learn very little chemistry, and you will find this class to be both
frustrating and boring.

How to Get the Most Out Of These Notes

These notes are provided so you can pay attention and participate in class without
having to worry about writing everything down. However, because active listening,
participation and note-taking improve your ability to understand and remember, it
is important that you interact with these notes and the discussion.

The “Big Ideas” column on the left of each page has been deliberately left blank.
This is to give you the opportunity to go through your notes and categorize each
section according to the big ideas it contains. Doing this throughout the year will
help you keep the information organized in your brain—it’s a lot easier to
remember things when your brain has a place to put them!

If we discuss something in class that you want to remember, mark or highlight it in

the notes! If we discuss an alternative way to think about something that works
well for you, write it in! You paid for these notes—don’t be afraid to use them!

There is a summary section at the bottom of each page, and a Keys to Literacy® style
summary template at the end of each chapter. Utilize both of these. If you can
summarize something, you understand it; if you understand something, it is much
easier to remember.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Reading & Taking Notes from a Textbook Page: 11
Big Ideas Details Unit: Introduction

Reading & Taking Notes from a Textbook

Unit: Introduction
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Use information from the organization of a textbook to take well-organized
notes.
Success Criteria:
 Section headings from text are represented as main ideas.
 All information in section summary is represented in notes.
 Notes include page numbers.
Language Objectives:
 Understand and be able to describe the strategies presented in this section.
Notes:
If you read a textbook the way you would read a novel, you probably won’t
remember much of what you read. Before you can understand anything, your brain
needs enough context to know how to file the information. This is what Albert
Einstein was talking about when he said, “It is the theory which decides what we are
able to observe.”

When you read a section of a textbook, you need to create some context in your
brain, and then add a few observations to solidify the context before reading in
detail.

René Descartes described this process in 1644 in the preface to his Principles of
Philosophy:
"I should also have added a word of advice regarding the manner of reading this work,
which is, that I should wish the reader at first go over the whole of it, as he would a
romance, without greatly straining his attention, or tarrying at the difficulties he may
perhaps meet with, and that afterwards, if they seem to him to merit a more careful
examination, and he feels a desire to know their causes, he may read it a second time, in
order to observe the connection of my reasonings; but that he must not then give it up
in despair, although he may not everywhere sufficiently discover the connection of the
proof, or understand all the reasonings—it being only necessary to mark with a pen the
places where the difficulties occur, and continue reading without interruption to the
end; then, if he does not grudge to take up the book a third time, I am confident that he
will find in a fresh perusal the solution of most of the difficulties he will have marked
before; and that, if any remain, their solution will in the end be found in another
reading."

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Reading & Taking Notes from a Textbook Page: 12
Big Ideas Details Unit: Introduction
The following 4-step system takes about the same amount of time you’re used to
spending on reading and taking notes, but it will probably make a tremendous
difference in how much you understand and remember.

1. Make a two-column notes template. Copy the title/heading of each section

as a big idea in the left column. (If the author has taken the trouble to
organize the textbook, you should take advantage of it!) Leave about ¼ to ½
page of space for the details for each big idea. (Don’t do anything else yet.)
This should take about 1–2 minutes.
2. Do not write anything yet! Look through the section for pictures, graphs,
and tables. Take a minute to look at these—the author must have thought
they were important. Also read over (but don’t try to answer) the
homework questions/problems at the end of the section. (For the visuals,
the author must think these things illustrate something that is important
enough to dedicate a significant amount of page real estate to it. For the
homework problems, these illustrate what the author thinks you should be
able to do once you know the content.) This process should take about 10–
15 minutes.
3. Actually read the text, one section at a time. For each section, jot down
keywords and sentence fragments that remind you of the key ideas. You
are not allowed to write more than the ¼ to ½ page allotted. (You don't
need to write out the details—those are in the book, which you already
have!) This process is time consuming, but shorter than what you’re
probably used to doing for your other teachers.
4. Read the summary at the end of the chapter or section—this is what the
author thinks you should know now that you’ve finished the reading. If
there’s anything you don’t recognize, go back and look it up. This process
should take about 5–10 minutes.

You shouldn’t need to use more than about one sheet of paper (both sides) per
10 pages of reading!

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Taking Notes on Math Problems Page: 13
Big Ideas Details Unit: Introduction

Taking Notes on Math Problems

Unit: Introduction
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): SP5
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Take notes on math problems that both show and explain the steps.
Success Criteria:
 Notes show the order of the steps, from start to finish.
 A reason or explanation is indicated for each step.
Language Objectives:
 Be able to describe and explain the process of taking notes on a math
problem.

Notes:
If you were to copy down a math problem and look at it a few days or weeks later,
chances are you’ll recognize the problem, but you won’t remember how you solved
it.

Solving a math problem is a process. For notes to be useful, they need to describe
the process as it happens, not just the final result.

If you want to take good notes on how to solve a problem, you need your notes to
show what you did at each step.

For example, consider the following problem:

How much heat is needed to increase the temperature of a 25 g sample

of a metal with a specific heat capacity of 0.375 gJ C by 40 °C?

The process of solving this problem involves applying the equation Q  mC T ,

where Q is the amount of heat, m is the mass of the metal, C is the specific heat
capacity of the metal, and ΔT is the temperature change. (Note that ΔT is only one
quantity, even though it uses two symbols.)

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Taking Notes on Math Problems Page: 14
Big Ideas Details Unit: Introduction
A good way to document the process is to use a T-chart, in which you show the
steps of the solution on the left side, and you write an explanation of what you did
and why for each step on the right side.

For this problem, your T-chart might look like the following:

Step Description/Explanation
m = 25 g
C  0.375 gJ C
Declare variables.
ΔT = 40 °C
Q = quantity desired

Choose a formula that gives the desired quantity.

Q = m C ΔT
Make sure we have values for the other variables.

Q= m C ΔT Look up the values of any constants needed to solve

the problem. Substitute for the variables and solve.
Q = (25) (0.375) (40)
(Show as much of the algebra as you think you’ll need
Q = 375 later.)

Round to the appropriate number of significant

Q = 380 J
figures, include the units, and box the final answer.

You will notice that the answers are provided for many of the homework problems
in these notes. This is because students are often unsure of whether they are doing
a problem correctly until they see whether or not they got the correct answer. This
means that if your teacher assigns these problems for homework, it is not sufficient
to just write down the answer.

When a teacher says “show work,” this does not necessarily mean you should show
what you did to obtain the answer. Rather, it means:
1. Declare variables and assign them to values (with units).
2. Write down the relevant equation.
3. Substitute numbers for variables in the equation.
4. Solve for the missing variable.
5. Round to the appropriate number of significant figures and tack on the
correct units.
This process would correspond to the left column of the above T-chart.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: What Is Chemistry? Page: 15
Big Ideas Details Unit: What is Chemistry?

Introduction: What Is Chemistry?

Unit: What is Chemistry?
Topics covered in this chapter:
Chemistry ....................................................................................................... 16
The Scientific Method.................................................................................... 19

Standards addressed in this chapter:

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):

No 2016 MA curriculum frameworks are specifically addressed in this chapter.
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):
No 2006 MA curriculum frameworks are specifically addressed in this chapter.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Chemistry Page: 16
Big Ideas Details Unit: What Is Chemistry?

Chemistry
Unit: What Is Chemistry?
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Explain what chemistry is and what is studied in different branches of
chemistry.
Success Criteria:
 Explanation describes what is studied in each of the branches of study
described in this section.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: matter
Language Objectives:
 Understand and correctly use terms relating to each branch of chemistry.

Notes:
matter: the “stuff” that everything is made of. Matter is anything that has mass
and takes up space (has volume).

chemistry: the study of matter, its properties, how it behaves, how it’s put
together, and how it can be changed or rearranged .

chemical: a specific substance (regardless of size or shape) that has a specific

arrangement of the atoms that it’s made of, and has specific properties because
of that arrangement.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Chemistry Page: 17
Big Ideas Details Unit: What Is Chemistry?
The major units we will study this year include:

 macroscopic properties of matter

o solids & liquids
o gases
o when a change is or is not caused by a chemical reaction
 atoms
o what they’re made of (protons, neutrons & electrons)
o what properties they have (periodic table and periodic properties)
 chemicals
o how atoms combine
o how the names tell us what’s they’re made of
o the shapes of the molecules or crystals (bonding and molecular geometry)
o how the shapes affect the properties they have
o dissolving in water (solutions) and forces between molecules

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Chemistry Page: 18
Big Ideas Details Unit: What Is Chemistry?
 chemical reactions
o different ways atoms can rearrange (chemical reactions & equations)
o calculating how much of the reactants you use and products you make
(stoichiometry)
o heat produced (or consumed) by chemical reactions
o how fast chemicals react (kinetics)
o how much chemicals react (equilibrium)
o acids & bases

Branches of Chemistry
The study of chemistry is divided into different branches, including:

organic chemistry: the study of chemicals and reactions involving molecules that
contain carbon and hydrogen.

inorganic chemistry: the study of chemicals and reactions involving molecules that
do not contain both carbon and hydrogen.

biochemistry: the study of chemicals that play important roles in biological

processes, such as amino acids, lipids, and sugars.

physical chemistry: the study of energy changes in chemistry. Some sub-fields

include thermodynamics (the study of heat energy), statistical mechanics (the
study of molecular collisions and momentum), and quantum mechanics (the
study of discrete energy changes at the sub-atomic level).

analytical chemistry: quantitative aspects of chemistry, such as determining what a

chemical is made of, how much of it reacts under certain conditions, etc.

green chemistry: the study of making decisions about how chemicals are made or
used in order to reduce the impact on the environment.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Scientific Method Page: 19
Big Ideas Details Unit: What Is Chemistry?

The Scientific Method

Unit: What Is Chemistry?
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): SP1, SP2, SP6, SP7
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Explain how the scientific method can be applied to a problem or question.
Success Criteria:
 Steps in a specific process are connected in consistent and logical ways.
 Explanation correctly uses appropriate vocabulary.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: theory, model, claim, law, peer
Language Objectives:
 Understand and correctly use terms relating to the scientific method, such as
“peer review”.

Notes:
The scientific method is a fancy name for “figure out what happens by trying it.”

In the middle ages, “scientists” were called “philosophers.” These were church
scholars who decided what was “correct” by a combination of observing the world
around them and then arguing and debating with each other about the mechanisms
and causes.

During the Renaissance, scientists like Galileo Galilei and Leonardo da Vinci started
using experiments instead of argument to decide what really happens in the world.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Scientific Method Page: 20
Big Ideas Details Unit: What Is Chemistry?
A Mindset, Not a Recipe
The scientific method is a mindset, which basically amounts to “let nature speak”.
Despite what you may have been taught previously, the scientific method does not
have specific “steps,” and does not necessarily require a hypothesis.

The scientific method looks more like a web, with testing ideas (experimentation) at
the center:

from the Understanding Science website*

*
Understanding Science. 2018. University of California Museum of Paleontology. 1 July 2018
<http://www.understandingscience.org>. Reprinted with permission.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Scientific Method Page: 21
Big Ideas Details Unit: What Is Chemistry?
Each of the circles in the above diagram is a broad area that contains many
processes:

from the Understanding Science website

When scientists conclude something interesting that they think is important and
want to share, they state it in the form of a claim, which states that something
happens, under what conditions it happens, and in some cases gives a possible
explanation.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Scientific Method Page: 22
Big Ideas Details Unit: What Is Chemistry?
Before a claim is taken seriously, the original scientist and any others who are
interested try everything they can think of to disprove the claim. If the claim holds
up despite many attempts to disprove it, the claim gains support.
peer review: the process by which scientists scrutinize, evaluate and attempt to
disprove each other’s claims.

If a claim has gained widespread support among the scientific community and can
be used to predict the outcomes of experiments (and it has never been disproven),
it might eventually become a theory or a law.

theory: a claim that has never been disproven, that gives an explanation for a set of
observations, and that can be used to predict the outcomes of experiments.
model: a way of viewing a set of concepts and their relationships to one another. A
model is one type of theory.
law: a claim that has never been disproven and that can be used to predict the
outcomes of experiments, but that does not attempt to model or explain the
observations.
Note that the word “theory” in science has a different meaning from the word
“theory” in everyday language. In science, a theory is a model that:
 has never failed to explain a collection of related observations
 has never failed to successfully predict the outcomes of related experiments

For example, the theory of evolution has never failed to explain the process of
changes in organisms caused by factors that affect the survivability of the species.

If a repeatable experiment contradicts a theory, and the experiment passes the peer
review process, the theory is deemed to be wrong. If the theory is wrong, it must
either be modified to explain the new results, or discarded completely.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Scientific Method Page: 23
Big Ideas Details Unit: What Is Chemistry?
Theories vs. Natural Laws
The terms “theory” and “law” developed organically over many centuries, so any
definition of either term must acknowledge that common usage, both within and
outside of the scientific community, will not always be consistent with the
definitions.

Nevertheless, the following rules of thumb may be useful:

A theory is a model that attempts to explain why or how something happens. A law
simply describes or quantifies what happens without attempting to provide an
explanation. Theories and laws can both be used to predict the outcomes of related
experiments.

For example, the Law of Gravity states that objects attract other objects
based on their masses and distances from each other. It is a law and not a
theory because the Law of Gravity does not explain why masses attract each
other.

Atomic Theory states that matter is made of atoms, and that those atoms
are themselves made up of smaller particles. The interactions between
these particles are used to explain certain properties of the substances. This
is a theory because we cannot see atoms or prove that they exist. However,
the model gives an explanation for why substances have the properties that
they do.

A theory cannot become a law for the same reasons that a definition cannot
become a measurement, and a postulate cannot become a theorem.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Laboratory Page: 25
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory

Introduction: Laboratory
Unit: Laboratory
Topics covered in this chapter:
Designing & Performing Experiments ........................................................... 27
Laboratory Equipment ................................................................................... 33
Accuracy & Precision ..................................................................................... 36
Uncertainty & Error Analysis ......................................................................... 38
Significant Figures .......................................................................................... 47
Keeping a Laboratory Notebook.................................................................... 55
Internal Laboratory Reports .......................................................................... 59
Formal Laboratory Reports............................................................................ 64

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 Introduction: Laboratory Page: 26
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Standards addressed in this chapter:
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
SP3: Planning & carrying out investigations
SP4: Analyzing & interpreting data
SP6: Constructing explanations
SP8: Obtaining, evaluating & communicating information

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):

No MA curriculum frameworks are specifically addressed in this chapter.

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 Designing & Performing Experiments Page: 27
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory

Designing & Performing Experiments

Unit: Laboratory
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): SP1, SP3, SP8
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Create a plan and procedure to answer a question through experimentation.
Success Criteria:
 Experimental Design utilizes backward design.
 Experimental Design uses logical steps to connect the desired answer or
quantity to quantities that can be observed or measured.
 Procedure gives enough detail to set up experiment.
 Procedure establishes values of control and independent variables.
 Procedure explains how to measure dependent variables.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: inquiry, independent, dependent, control
Language Objectives:
 Understand and correctly use the terms “dependent variable” and
“independent variable.”
 Understand and be able to describe the strategies presented in this section.

Notes:
Unlike many biology experiments in which the purpose is to observe something,
most chemistry experiments involve observing changes to find out what happens,
under what conditions it happens, and measuring to what extent it happens. Part of
the purpose of chemistry experiments is to get practice making things happen, but
another part of the purpose is for you to figure out how to get them to happen and
how to measure them. This makes chemistry well-suited for teaching you how to
design experiments.

The education “buzzword” for this is inquiry-based experiments, which means you
(or your lab group) will need to figure out what to do to perform an experiment that
answers a question about some aspect of chemistry. In this course, you will usually
be given only an objective or goal and a general idea of how to go about achieving
it. You and your lab group (with help) will decide the specifics of what to do, what
to measure (and how to measure it), and how to make sure you are getting good
results. This is a form of guided inquiry.

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 Designing & Performing Experiments Page: 28
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Framing Your Experiment
Experiments are motivated by something you want to find out, observe, or
calculate.

Independent, Dependent, and Control Variables

In an experiment, there is usually something you are doing, and something you are
measuring or observing.
independent variable: the conditions you are setting up. These are the
predetermined values (the ones you pick). Because you choose the values, they
are independent of what happens in the experiment. For example, if you are
trying to figure out how much sugar you can dissolve in water at different
temperatures, you are choosing the temperatures to test, so temperature is the
independent variable.
dependent variable: the things that happen in the experiment. These are the
numbers you measure as a result of the experiment, which means they are
dependent on what happens in the experiment. For example, if you are trying
to figure out how much sugar you can dissolve in water, you don’t know how
much sugar dissolves until you measure it. This means the amount of sugar that
dissolves is the dependent variable.
control variable: things that you need to keep constant in the experiment. If there
are a lot of factors that could affect your dependent variable, and you want to
test the effect of one of them, you need to keep the other ones the same.
Otherwise, you don’t know what caused the changes that you are seeing.
Control variables are usually parameters that could become independent
variables in other experiments. For example, if you are trying to figure out how
much sugar you can dissolve in water at different temperatures, you need to
use the same volume (amount) of water each time. This means the volume of
water that you use is a control variable.

If someone asks what your independent, dependent and control variables are, the
question simply means:
 “What did you vary on purpose (independent variables)?”
 “What did you measure (dependent variables)?”
 “What did you keep the same for each trial (control variables)?”

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 Designing & Performing Experiments Page: 29
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Qualitative Experiments
If the goal of your experiment is to find out whether or not something happens at
all, you need to set up a situation in which the phenomenon you want to observe
can either happen or not, and then observe whether or not it does. The only hard
part is making sure the conditions of your experiment don’t bias whether the
phenomenon happens or not.

If you want to find out under what conditions something happens, what you’re
really testing is whether or not it happens under different sets of conditions that
you can test. In this case, you need to test three situations:
1. A situation in which you are sure the thing will happen, to make sure you
can observe it. This is your positive control.
2. A situation in which you sure the thing cannot happen, to make sure your
experiment can produce a situation in which it doesn’t happen and you can
observe its absence. This is your negative control.
3. A condition or situation that you want to test to see whether or not the
thing happens. The condition is your independent variable, and whether or
not the thing happens is your dependent variable.

Quantitative Experiments
If the goal of your experiment is to quantify (find a numerical relationship for) the
extent to which something happens (the dependent variable), you need to figure
out a set of conditions under which you can measure the thing that happens. Once
you know that, you need to figure out how much you can change the parameter you
want to test (the independent variable) and still be able to measure the result. This
gives you the highest and lowest values of your independent variable. Then
perform the experiment using a range of values for the independent value that
cover the range from the lowest to the highest (or vice-versa).

For quantitative experiments, a good rule of thumb is the 8 & 10 rule: you should
have at least 8 data points, and the range from the highest to the lowest values
tested should span at least a factor of 10.

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 Designing & Performing Experiments Page: 30
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Letting the Chemistry Design the Experiment
Determining what to measure usually means determining what you need to know
and working backwards to figure out how to get there from quantities that you can
measure.

Especially in chemistry, most of the complexity of experiments comes from the fact
that there are few quantities that we can measure directly. When we have to
measure quantities indirectly, we need to be clever, and we need to think about all
of the possible ways we could end up with an invalid result, so we can design the
appropriate safeguards into the experiment.

For a quantitative experiment, it’s often best to start with a mathematical formula
that includes the quantity you want to determine. Then, you need to find the values
of the other quantities in the equation, either by measuring them directly or by
performing an experiment in which you can determine them by measuring other
things.
As an illustrative example, suppose you want to calculate the heat released per
mole of reactant in a specific chemical reaction. (Don’t worry if you don’t
understand what this means—we will get there later in the course.) You might go
through the following thought process:
1. We can’t measure heat directly, so we need an equation to calculate it.
We can use the equation:
Q  mC T
In order to use this equation to calculate heat (Q), we need to find m (mass),
C (specific heat capacity), and ΔT (temperature change), which means we
need to use the heat to change the temperature of a mass of something.
An experimental device that does this is a bomb calorimeter*, so we will use
one of those.
2. Determine our independent variables in the above equation.
a. We predetermine m (the mass of the water in the calorimeter) by
putting a known mass of water into the calorimeter. We can measure
the mass of the water using a balance.
b. C (the specific heat capacity of the water in the calorimeter) is a
constant that we can look up.

*
A “bomb calorimeter” is a device that uses the heat of a chemical reaction to heat up a
known amount of water so you can measure how much heat is produced. Despite the
cool-sounding name, a bomb calorimeter doesn’t actually involve blowing anything up.

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 Designing & Performing Experiments Page: 31
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
3. Determine our dependent variables in the equation.
 We need to calculate ΔT (the temperature change of the water). This
means we need to measure the temperature at the beginning and at
the end, and subtract. We can measure the temperatures with a
thermometer.
4. Determine our control variables.
a. We want the heat per mole of reactant. If we’re going to calculate the
heat, we need to control the number of moles of reactant (i.e., how
much of the chemical we use), which means we need to measure the
mass of the chemical and convert it to moles.
b. We need to make sure all of the chemical reacts, so we need use excess
amounts of everything else.
c. We need to make sure no heat is lost to the environment. This means
we need to set the experiment up so we can start the reaction after the
chemicals are already inside the calorimeter.
Notice that our entire experiment is ultimately determined by starting with what we
wanted to know at the end of it, and figuring out what makes it happen, and what
problems we need to avoid.

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 Designing & Performing Experiments Page: 32
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
The Experimental Design Process
1. Figure out what you want to know. Decide on an experiment that you could
use to find it. If what you want to know is a term in an equation, your
experiment will involve finding out values for the other variables in the
equation.

2. Determine your independent variables. Based on your experiment and the

equation that goes with it if there is one, determine your independent
variables. Figure out what they are, how you are going to
determine/measure them, and which values you are going to choose for
them. (You may want to wait to choose the values until you know what your
dependent and control variables are, and use the expected values to
backward calculate your choices for your independent variables.)

3. Determine your dependent variables. Figure out what they are, and how
and when you are going to measure them.

4. Determine your control variables. Think about the things that you already
know that you need to keep constant. Then start thinking about what could
go wrong, which will lead you to other things you need to keep constant.

5. Set up your experiment and do a test run. Use your test run to make sure
you can actually measure what you think you can measure and make sure
you are getting results that make sense. This means you need to perform the
calculations for your test run before doing the rest of the experiment, in case
you need to modify your procedure. You will be sad if you finish your
experiment and go home, only to find out at 2:00 am the night before the
write-up is due that it didn’t work.

More complex experiments use this same process, except that each step might have
several sub-steps, and/or that each step or sub-step might be its own completely
separate experiment.

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 Laboratory Equipment Page: 33
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory

Laboratory Equipment
Unit: Laboratory
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): SP3
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Recognize and identify common laboratory equipment used in chemistry.
Success Criteria:
 Be able to give the name and describe the use for each of the pieces of
equipment in this section.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: graduated, ring, stand
Language Objectives:
 Identify laboratory equipment by name and explain what it is used for.

Notes:
The following are some of the common pieces of laboratory apparatus.

Description Picture Description Picture

beaker graduated cylinder
Used as a Used for accurate
cup/container. measurement of
May be heated. liquid volume.
Volume markings
are approximate.
Erlenmeyer flask test tube
Used as a Used for mixing and
container. reacting small
Contents may be quantities of
swirled to mix. liquids.
May be heated.
Bunsen burner ring stand
Used to heat Used to support lab
chemicals in apparatus.
beakers, flasks or
test tubes.

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 Laboratory Equipment Page: 34
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Description Picture Description Picture
tongs test tube holder
Used for picking up Used for holding a
and holding hot test tube while
things. heating.
clamp pinch clamp
Used to attach a Used to clamp
piece of equipment rubber tubing so no
to a ring stand. liquid comes out.
wire gauze iron ring
Used to spread the Fastens to ring
heat of a flame stand. Used to hold
onto the bottom of lab apparatus.
a beaker or flask.
mortar & pestle evaporating dish
Used to grind Used to hold
chemicals to a fine solutions over a
powder. Bunsen burner to
evaporate the
liquid.
stirring rod pipette
Used to stir Used to transfer
mixtures and to small amounts of
help pour liquids liquid.
without spilling.
watch glass crucible & cover
Used to cover Used to heat small
liquids being amounts of solids
heated in a beaker to high
to avoid spatter. temperatures.
Should not be
heated.
funnel pipestem triangle
Used to help pour Used to hold a
liquids without crucible while
spilling and/or to heating.
hold filter paper.

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 Laboratory Equipment Page: 35
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Homework Problem
In the following setup, label the piece of lab equipment that each of the arrows is
pointing to.

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 Accuracy & Precision Page: 36
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory

Accuracy & Precision

Unit: Laboratory
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): SP3
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Correctly use the terms “accuracy” and “precision” in a scientific context.
Success Criteria:
 Be able to give definitions for “accuracy” and “precision.”
 Be able to recognize situations as accurate/inaccurate and/or
precise/imprecise.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: accurate, precise
Language Objectives:
 Be able to describe the difference between accuracy and precision.

Notes:
Science relies on making and interpreting measurements, and the accuracy and
precision of these measurements affect what you can conclude from them.

Random vs. Systematic Errors

Random errors are natural uncertainties in measurements because of the limits of
precision of the equipment used. Random errors are assumed to be distributed
around the actual value, without bias in either direction. Systematic errors occur
from specific problems in your equipment or your procedure. Systematic errors are
often biased in one direction more than another, and can be difficult to identify.

Accuracy vs. Precision

The words “accuracy” and “precision” have specific meanings in science.
accuracy: for a single measurement, how close the measurement is to the “correct”
or accepted value. For a group of measurements, how close the average is to
the accepted value.
precision: for a single measurement, how finely the measurement was made. (How
many decimal places it was measured to.) For a group of measurements, how
close the measurements are to each other.

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 Accuracy & Precision Page: 37
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Examples:
Suppose the following drawings represent arrows shot at a target.

The first set is both accurate (the average is close to the center) and precise (the
data points are all close to each other.)

The second set is precise (close to each other), but not accurate (the average is not
close to the correct value). This is an example of systematic error—some problem
with the experiment caused all of the measurements to be off in the same direction.

The third set is accurate (the average is close to the correct value), but not precise
(the data points are not close to each other). This is an example of random error—
the measurements are not biased in any particular direction, but there is a lot of
scatter.

The fourth set is neither accurate nor precise, which means that there are significant
errors present, both random and systematic.

For another example, suppose two classes estimate Mr. Bigler’s age. The first class’s
estimates are 73, 72, 77, and 74 years old. These measurements are fairly precise
(close together), but not accurate. (Mr. Bigler is actually 53 years old at the time of
publication.) The second class’s estimates are 10, 11, 97 and 98. This set of data is
accurate (because the average is 54, which is close to correct), but the set is not
precise because the individual values are not close to each other.

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 Uncertainty & Error Analysis Page: 38
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory

Uncertainty & Error Analysis

Unit: Laboratory
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): SP4
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Determine the uncertainty of a measured or calculated value.
Success Criteria:
 Take analog measurements to one extra digit of precision.
 Correctly estimate measurement uncertainty.
 Correctly read and interpret stated uncertainty values.
 Correctly propagate uncertainty through calculations involving
addition/subtraction and multiplication/division.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: uncertainty, error
Language Objectives:
 Understand and correctly use the terms “uncertainty” and “relative error.”
 Correctly explain the process of estimating and propagating uncertainty.

Notes:
In science, unlike mathematics, there is no such thing as an exact answer.
Ultimately, every quantity is limited by the precision and accuracy of the
measurements that it came from. If you can only measure a quantity to within
10 %, that means any calculation that is derived from that measurement can’t be
any better than ±10 %.

Error analysis is the practice of determining and communicating the causes and
extents of uncertainty in your results. Error analysis involves understanding and
following the uncertainty in your data, from the initial measurements to the final
calculated and reported results.

Note that the word “error” in science has a different meaning from the word
“error” in everyday language. In science, “error” means “uncertainty.” If you
report that you drive (2.4 ± 0.1) miles to school every day, you would say that this
distance has an error of ±0.1 mile. This does not mean your car’s odometer is
wrong; it means that the actual distance could be 0.1 mile more or 0.1 mile less—
i.e., somewhere between 2.3 and 2.5 miles. When you are analyzing your results,
never use the word “error” to mean mistakes that you might have made!

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 Uncertainty & Error Analysis Page: 39
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Uncertainty
The uncertainty or error of a measurement describes how close the actual value is
likely to be to the measured value. For example, if a length was measured to be
22.34 cm, and the uncertainty was 0.31 cm (meaning that the measurement is only
known to within ±0.31 cm), we could represent this measurement in either of two
ways:
(22.34 ± 0.31) cm 22.34(31) cm
The first of these states the variation (±) explicitly in cm (the actual unit). The
second is shows the variation in the last digits shown.

What it means is that the true length is approximately 22.34 cm, and is statistically
likely* to be somewhere between 22.03 cm and 22.65 cm.

Absolute Error
Absolute error (or absolute uncertainty) refers to the uncertainty in the actual
measurement. For the measurement (22.34 ± 0.31) cm, the absolute error is
± 0.31 cm.

Relative Error
Relative error shows the error or uncertainty as a fraction of the total.
uncertainty
The formula for relative error is R.E. 
measured value

For the measurement (22.34 ± 0.31) cm, the relative error would be 0.31 out of
22.34. Mathematically, we express this as:
0.31
R.E.   0.0139
22.34
Note that relative error is dimensionless (does not have any units). This is because
the numerator and denominator have the same units, so the units cancel.

Percent Error
Percent error is relative error expressed as a percentage. You can turn relative error
into percent error by multiplying by 100.

In the example above, the relative error of 0.0139 would be 1.39 % error.

*
Statistically, the uncertainty is one standard devaition. I.e., if multiple measurements are
taken, approximately two-thirds of those measurements will lie within the uncertainty
(plus or minus) of the stated value.

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 Uncertainty & Error Analysis Page: 40
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Uncertainty of Measurements
If you have the ability to measure a quantity that is not changing (such as the mass
or length of an object), you will get the same value every time you measure it. This
means you have only one data point.

When you have only one data point, the uncertainty is the limit of how well you can
measure it. This will be your best educated guess, based on how closely you think
you actually measured the quantity. This means you need to take measurements as
carefully and precisely as possible, because every careless measurement needlessly
increases the uncertainty of the result.

Digital Measurements
For digital equipment, if the reading is stable (not changing), look up the published
precision of the instrument in its user’s manual. (For example, many balances used
in high schools have a readability of 0.01 g but are only precise to within ± 0.02 g.) If
there is no published value (or the manual is not available), assume the uncertainty
is± 1 in the last digit.

Analog Measurements
When making analog measurements, always estimate one extra digit beyond the
finest markings on the equipment. For example, in the diagram below, the
graduated cylinder is marked in 1 mL increments. When measuring volume in this
graduated cylinder, you would estimate and write down the volume to the nearest
0.1 mL, as shown:

In the above experiment, you should record the volume as 32.0 ± 0.1 mL. It would
be inadequate to write the volume as 32 mL; you must write 32.0 mL, or better yet,
(32.0 ± 0.1) mL

The zero at the end of 32.0 mL is not extra. It is necessary to show that you
measured the volume to the nearest tenth, not to the nearest one.

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 Uncertainty & Error Analysis Page: 41
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
When estimating, the uncertainty depends on how well you can see the markings,
but you can usually assume that the estimated digit has an uncertainty of  1 10 of
the finest markings on the equipment. Here are some examples:

Assumed
Equipment Markings Estimate To
Uncertainty
ruler 1 mm 0.1 mm ± 0.1 mm
25 mL graduated cylinder 0.2 mL 0.02 mL ± 0.02 mL
thermometer 1 °C 0.1 °C ± 0.1 °C

Homework Problems
Write the readings that you would record (estimated to one extra decimal place)
and the assumed uncertainty for each of the following thermometers and graduated
cylinders.

_____ ± ___ °C _____ ± ___ °C _____ ± ___ °C

_____ ± ___ mL _____ ± ___ mL _____ ± ___ mL

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 Uncertainty & Error Analysis Page: 42
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Propagating Uncertainty in Calculations
When you perform calculations using numbers that have uncertainty, you need to
propagate the uncertainty through the calculation.

Addition & Subtraction

When quantities with uncertainties are added or subtracted, add the quantities to
get the answer, then add the uncertainties to get the total uncertainty.

Sample Problem:
Q: A substance is being heated. You record the initial temperature as (23 ± 0.2) °C,
and the final temperature as (84± 0.2) °C. You need to calculate the
temperature change (ΔT) with its uncertainty to use in a later calculation. What
is the temperature change?

A: To calculate ΔT, simply subtract:

T  Tfinal  Tinitial  84  23  61°C

To calculate the uncertainty, add the individual uncertainties (even though the
quantities were subtracted):
u = 0.2 + 0.2 = 0.4 °C
Report the value as: T  (61± 0.4)°C

Multiplication & Division

Because most calculations that we will perform in chemistry involve multiplication
and/or division, you can
For calculations involving multiplication and division, estimate the uncertainty of
your calculated answer by adding the relative errors and applying the total relative
error to your result.
1. Perform the calculation for the desired quantity.
2. Divide the uncertainty (the ±) for each quantity by its measured value to
determine its relative error.
uncertainty
R.E. 
measured value
3. Add up all of the relative errors to get the total relative error.
4. Multiply your calculated result by the total relative error to get its
uncertainty (the ± amount).

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 Uncertainty & Error Analysis Page: 43
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Note: Most of the calculations that you will perform in chemistry involve
multiplication and/or division, so almost all of your uncertainty calculations
throughout the course will use relative error.

Sample Problem #1:

Q: You want to determine the amount of heat released by a chemical reaction.
You use the heat from the reaction to heat up some water in an insulated
container called a “bomb calorimeter”. You will calculate the heat using the
equation: Q  mC T .
Suppose you recorded the following data (including uncertainties):
 The mass of the water in the calorimeter is (24.8 ± 0.1) g.
 The temperature change of the water was (12.4± 0.2) °C.
 The specific heat capacity of water is 4.181 g J°C . (This is a published value.
The uncertainty of this value is so small that we can leave it out of our
calculations.)

A: The heat released by the reaction is given by the equation:

Q  mC T
Q  (24.8)(4.181)(12.4)
Q  1 285.74 J
The relative errors for the two quantities that we measured are:
0.1
 mass:  0.004 03
24.8
0.2
 temperature change:  0.016 13
12.4
The total relative error is 0.004 03 + 0.016 13 = 0.020 16
The uncertainty is therefore (0.020 16)(1 285.74) = ±25.92 J
(Note that the absolute uncertainty has the same units as the measurement.)
We would report the measurement as (1 285.74 ± 25.92) J.

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 Uncertainty & Error Analysis Page: 44
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Rounding
In the example above, the uncertainty tells us that our actual result could be
different from our calculated value by as much as 25.92 J.

However, we only estimated one digit (which happened to be the tenths place)
when we took our measurements. This means we have only one digit of
uncertainty. Because we can’t report more precision than we actually have, we
need to round the calculated uncertainty off, so that we have only one unrounded
digit. This means we should report our uncertainty as ± 30 J.

It wouldn’t make sense to report our answer as (1 285.74 ± 30) J. Think about that—
if the tens digit could be different from our calculated value, there is no point in
reporting the ones or tenths digits. So we need to round our calculated answer to
the same place value as the uncertainty—the tens place.

This means our final, rounded answer should be (1 290 ± 30) J.

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 Uncertainty & Error Analysis Page: 45
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Sample Problem #2:
Q: You need to find the density of a piece of metal. We measure its mass on a
balance to be (24.75 ± 0.02) g. You measure its volume in a graduated cylinder
using water displacement, and you find the volume to be (7.2 ± 0.1) mL.
Calculate the density, including its uncertainty.

A: 1. Calculate the density.

m 24.75 g
   3.4375 mLg
V 7.2 mL
2. Calculate the relative errors of your two measurements:
uncertainty 0.02
R.E.mass    0.000808
measured value 24.75
0.1
R.E.volume   0.013889
7.2
3. Add the individual relative errors together to get the total R.E.:
0.000808 + 0.013889 = 0.014697
4. Multiply the total R.E. by the density to get the uncertainty:
3.4375 0.014697  0.050521
Because you only estimated one decimal place of uncertainty, you need to
round the uncertainty off to ± 0.05.
Because uncertainty is rounded to the hundredths place, you need to also round
your answer to the hundredths place:
  (3.44  0.05) mLg

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 Uncertainty & Error Analysis Page: 46
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory

Homework Problems
Because the answers are provided, you must show sufficient work in order to
receive credit.
1. You need to combine three liquids and calculate the total volume. You
measured the individual volumes as (12.36 ± 0.02) mL, (37.4 ± 0.2) mL, and
(61.0 ± 0.1) mL. What is the total volume, including the uncertainty?

Answer: (110.8 ± 0.3) mL

2. A sample of (0.517 ± 0.008) moles of a chemical is dissolved to make

(1.362 ± 0.005) liters of solution.
a. What is the concentration in moles per liter? (Divide the amount in
moles by the volume in liters.)

Answer: 0.3796 mol

L
(Don’t worry about rounding yet.)

b. What are the relative errors of the number of moles and the number of
liters? What is the total relative error?

Answers: moles: R.E. = 0.015

volume: R.E. = 0.0037
total R.E. = 0.019

c. Calculate the uncertainty of the concentration of the solution and

express your answer as the concentration (from part a above) plus or
minus the uncertainty that you just calculated, with correct rounding.

Answer: (0.380 ± 0.007) mol

L

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Significant Figures Page: 47
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory

Significant Figures
Unit: Laboratory
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Identify the significant figures in a number.
 Perform calculations and round the answer to the appropriate number of
significant figures
Success Criteria:
 Be able to identify which digits in a number are significant.
 Be able to count the number of significant figures in a number.
 Be able to determine which places values will be significant in the answer
when adding or subtracting.
 Be able to determine which digits will be significant in the answer when
multiplying or dividing.
 Be able to round a calculated answer to the appropriate number of significant
figures.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: significant, round
Language Objectives:
 Explain the concepts of significant figures and rounding.

Notes:
Because it would be tedious to calculate the uncertainty for error for every
calculation in chemistry, we often use significant figures (or significant digits) as a
simple way to estimate and represent the uncertainty.

Significant figures are based on the following approximations:

 All stated values are rounded off so that the uncertainty is only in the last
unrounded digit.
 Assume that the uncertainty in the last unrounded digit is ±1.
 The results of calculations are rounded so that the uncertainty of the result is
only in the last unrounded digit and is assumed to be ±1.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Significant Figures Page: 48
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Note that using significant figures gives less information than stating the
measurement with its uncertainty. This is why, when you take measurements and
perform calculations in the laboratory, you will estimate the actual uncertainty of
each measurement and calculate the uncertainty of your results. However, for
homework problems and written tests, you will use significant figures as a simple
way to keep track of the approximate effects of uncertainty on your answers.

In the example Error! Bookmark not defined., we rounded the number 1 285.74 off
to the tens place, resulting in the value of 1 290, because we couldn’t show more
precision than we actually had.

In the number 1 290, we would say that the first three digits are “significant”,
meaning that they are the part of the number that is not rounded off. The zero in
the ones place is “insignificant,” because the digit that was there was lost when we
rounded.

significant figures (significant digits): the digits in a measured value or calculated

result that are not rounded off. (Note that the terms “significant figures” and
“significant digits” are used interchangeably.)

insignificant figures: the digits in a measured value or calculated result that were
“lost” (became zeroes before a decimal point or were cut off after a decimal
point) due to rounding.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Significant Figures Page: 49
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Identifying the Significant Digits in a Number
The first significant digit is where the “measured” part of the number begins—the
first digit that is not zero.

The last significant digit is the last “measured” digit—the last digit whose true value
is known.
 If the number doesn’t have a decimal point, the last significant digit will be the
last digit that is not zero. (Anything after that has been rounded off.)
Example: If we round the number 234 567 to the thousands place, we would
get 235 000. (Note that because the digit after the “4” in the thousands place
was 5 or greater, so we had to “round up”.) In the rounded-off number, the
first three digits (the 2, 3, and 5) are the significant digits, and the last three
digits (the zeroes at the end) are the insignificant digits.
 If the number has a decimal point, the last significant digit will be the last digit
shown. (Anything rounded after the decimal point gets chopped off.)
Example: If we round the number 11.223 344 to the hundredths place, it
would become 11.22. When we rounded the number off, we “chopped off”
the extra digits.
 If the number is in scientific notation, it has a decimal point. Therefore, the
above rules tell us (correctly) that all of the digits before the “times” sign are
significant.
In the following numbers, the significant figures have been underlined:
 13 000  6 804.305 00
 0.0275  6.0 × 1023
 0.0150  3400. (note the decimal
point at the end)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Significant Figures Page: 50
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Mathematical Operations with Significant Figures
Addition & Subtraction
When adding or subtracting, calculate the total normally. Then identify the smallest
place value where nothing is rounded. Round your answer to that place.

For example, consider the following problem.

problem: “sig figs” equivalent:

123000 ± 1000 123 ???.??? ?
0.0075 ± 0.0001 0.007 5
+ 1650 ± 10 + 1 65?.??? ?
124650.0075 ± 1010.0001
124 ???.??? ?
(Check this digit for
rounding)
In the first number (123 000), the hundreds, tens, and ones digit are zeros,
presumably because the number was rounded to the nearest 1000. The second
number (0.0075) is presumably rounded to the ten-thousandths place, and the
number 1650 is presumably rounded to the tens place.
The first number has the largest uncertainty, so we need to round our answer to the
thousands place to match, giving 125 000 ± 1 000.
A silly (but correct) example of addition with significant digits is:
100 + 37 = 100

Multiplication and Division

When multiplying or dividing, calculate the result normally. Then count the total
number of significant digits in the values that you used in the calculation. Round
your answer so that it has the same number of significant digits as the value that
had the fewest.
Consider the problem:
34.52 × 1.4
The answer (without taking significant digits into account) is 34.52 1.4  48.328
The number 1.4 has only two significant digits, so we need to round our answer so
that it also has only two significant digits. This means we should round our answer
to 48.
A silly (but correct) example of addition with significant digits is:
234 × 1 = 200

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Significant Figures Page: 51
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Mixed Operations
For mixed operations, keep all of the digits until you’re finished (so round-off errors
don’t accumulate), but keep track of the last significant digit in each step by putting
a line over it (even if it’s not a zero). Once you have your final answer, round it to
the correct number of significant digits. Don’t forget to use the correct order of
operations (PEMDAS)!
For example:
137.4  52  120  1.77
(137.4  52)  (120  1.77)
7,144.8  212.4  7, 357.2  7,400

Note that in the above example, we kept all of the digits until the end. This is to
avoid introducing small rounding errors at each step, which can add up to enough to
change the final answer. Notice how, if we had rounded off the numbers at each
step, we would have gotten the wrong answer:

137.4  52  120  1.77

(137.4  52)  (120  1.77)
7,100  210  7, 310  7,300
←

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Significant Figures Page: 52
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
What to Do When Rounding Doesn’t Give
the Correct Number of Significant Figures
If you have a different number of significant digits from what the rounding shows,
you can place a line over the last significant digit, or you can place the whole
number in scientific notation. Both of the following have four significant digits, and
both are equivalent to writing 13,000 ± 10
 13 000
 1.300  104

When Not to Use Significant Figures

Significant figure rules only apply in situations where the numbers you are working
with have a limited precision. This is usually the case when the numbers represent
measurements. Exact numbers have infinite precision, and therefore have an
infinite number of significant figures. Some examples of exact numbers are:
 Pure numbers, such as the ones you encounter in math class.
 Anything you can count. (E.g., there are 24 people in the room. That means
exactly 24 people, not 24.0 ± 0.1 people.)
 Whole-number exponents in formulas. (E.g., the area of a circle is πr2. The
exponent “2” is a pure number.)

You should also avoid significant figures any time the uncertainty is likely to be
substantially different from what would be implied by the rules for significant
figures, or any time you need to quantify the uncertainty more exactly.

Summary
Significant figures are a source of ongoing stress among chemistry students. To
make matters simple, realize that few formulas in chemistry involve addition or
subtraction, so you can usually just apply the rules for multiplication and division:
look at each of the numbers you were given in the problem. Find the one that has
the fewest significant figures, and round your final answer to the same number of
significant figures.

If you have absolutely no clue what else to do, round to three significant figures.
You would have to measure quite carefully to have more than three significant
figures in your original data, and three is usually enough significant figures to avoid
unintended loss of precision, at least in a high school chemistry course. 

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Significant Figures Page: 53
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Homework Problems
1. For each of the following, Underline the significant figures in the number and
Write the assumed uncertainty as ± the appropriate quantity.

57 300 ± 100  Sample problem with correct answer.

a. 13 500 f. 6.0 × 10−7

b. 26.0012 g. 150.00

c. 01902 h. 10

d. 0.000 000 025 i. 0.005 310 0

e. 320.

2. Round off each of the following numbers as indicated and indicate the last
significant digit if necessary.

a. 13 500 to the nearest 1000

b. 26.0012 to the nearest 0.1

c. 1902 to the nearest 10

d. 0.000 025 to the nearest 0.000 01

e. 320. to the nearest 10

f. 6.0 × 10−7 to the nearest 10−6

g. 150.00 to the nearest 100

h. 10 to the nearest 100

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Significant Figures Page: 54
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
3. Solve the following math problems and round your answer to the appropriate
number of significant figures.
a. 3 521 × 220

b. 13 580.160 ÷ 113

c. 2.71828 + 22.4 − 8.31 − 62.4

d. 23.5 + 0.87 × 6.02 – 105 (Remember PEMDAS!)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Keeping a Laboratory Notebook Page: 55
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory

Keeping a Laboratory Notebook

Unit: Laboratory
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): SP3, SP8
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Determine which information to record in a laboratory notebook.
 Record information in a laboratory notebook according to practices used in
industry.
Success Criteria:
 Record data accurately and correctly, with units and including estimated
digits.
 Use the correct protocol for correcting mistakes.
Language Objectives:
 Understand and be able to describe the process for recording lab procedures
and data.

Notes:
A laboratory notebook serves two important purposes:
1. It is a diary of what you did in case you want to look up the details later.
2. It is a legal record of what you did and when you did it.

In a research laboratory, you would normally do a write-up in your lab notebook

whenever you do a significant experiment that you believe you might want to refer
back to sometime in the future.

Your Notebook as an Official Record

Laboratory notebooks are kept by scientists in research laboratories and high tech
companies. If a company or research institution needs to prove that you did a
particular experiment on a particular date and got a particular set of results
(perhaps to apply for a patent), your lab notebook is the primary evidence. This
means you need to maintain your lab notebook in a way that gives it the best
chance of being able to prove beyond a reasonable doubt exactly what you did and
exactly when you did it.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Keeping a Laboratory Notebook Page: 56
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
For companies that use laboratory notebooks in this way, there are a set of
guidelines that exist to prevent mistakes that could compromise the integrity of the
notebook. Details may vary somewhat from one company to another, but are
probably similar to these, and the spirit of the rules is the same.
 All entries in a lab notebook must be hand-written in ink.
 Your actual procedure and all data must be recorded directly into the
notebook, not recorded elsewhere and copied in.
 All pages must be numbered consecutively, to show that no pages have been
removed. If your notebook did not come with pre-numbered pages, you need
to write the page number on each page before using it.
 Start each experiment on a new page.
 Sign and date the bottom of the each page when you finish recording
information on it. (In industry, each page needs to be witnessed by someone
else, usually your supervisor. The date that an entry is considered to have
happened is the date it was witnessed, even if that is much later than the date
when it was originally recorded.)
 When crossing out an incorrect entry in a lab notebook, never obliterate it.
Always cross it out with a single line through it, so that it is still possible to
read the original mistake. (This is to prove that it was a mistake, and you
didn't change your data or observations.) Any time you cross something out,
write your initials and the date next to the change.
 Never remove pages from a lab notebook for any reason. If you need to cross
out an entire page, you may do so with a single large "X". If you do this, write
a brief explanation of why you crossed out the page, and sign and date the
cross-out.
 Never, ever change data after the experiment is completed. Really. Your
data, right or wrong, is what you actually observed. Changing your data
constitutes fraud, which is a form of cheating that is every bit as bad as
plagiarism.
 Never change anything on a page you have already signed and dated. If you
realize that an experiment was flawed, leave the bad data where it is and add
a note that says "See page ____." with your initials and date next to the
addendum. On the new page, refer back to the page number of the bad data
and describe briefly what was wrong with it. Then, give the correct
information and sign and date it as you would an experiment.
 Never, ever erase or cover with white-out anything in a lab notebook. Erased
or covered-up data is considered the same as faked or changed data in the
scientific community.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Keeping a Laboratory Notebook Page: 57
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Recording Data
Here are some general rules for working with data. (Most of these are courtesy of
Dr. John Denker, at http://www.av8n.com/physics/uncertainty.htm):
 Write something about what you did on the same page as the data, even if it
is a very rough outline. Your procedure notes should not get in the way of
actually performing the experiment, but there should be enough information
to corroborate the detailed summary of the procedure that you will write
afterwards. (Also, for evidence’s sake, the sooner after the experiment that
you write the detailed summary, the more weight it will carry in court.)
 Keep all of the raw data, whether you will use it or not.
 Don’t discard a measurement, even if you think it is wrong. Record it anyway
and put a “?” next to it. You can always choose not to use the data point in
your calculations (as long as you give an explanation).
 Never erase or delete a measurement. The only time you should ever cross
out recorded data is if you accidentally wrote down the wrong number.
 Record all digits. Never round off original data measurements. If the last
digit is a zero, you must record it anyway!
 For analog readings (e.g., ruler, graduated cylinder, thermometer), always
estimate and record one extra digit.
 Always write down the units with each measurement!
 Record every quantity that will be used in a calculation, whether it is changing
or not.
 Don’t convert in your head before writing down a measurement. Record the
original data in the units you actually measured it in, and convert in a separate
step.

Calculations
 Use enough digits to avoid unintended loss of significance. (Don’t introduce
round-off errors in the middle of a calculation.) This usually means use at
least two more digits than the number of “significant figures” you expect your
answer to have.
 Use few enough digits to be reasonably convenient.
 Record uncertainty separately from the measurement. (Don’t rely on “sig
figs” to express uncertainty.)
 Leave digits in the calculator between steps. (Don’t round until the end.)
 When in doubt, keep plenty of “guard digits” (digits after the place where you
think you will end up rounding).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Keeping a Laboratory Notebook Page: 58
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Integrity of Data
Your data are your data. In classroom settings, people often get the idea that the
goal is to report an uncertainty that reflects the difference between the measured
value and the “correct” value. That idea certainly doesn’t work in real life—if you
knew the “correct” value you wouldn’t need to make measurements!

In all cases—in the classroom and in real life—you need to determine the
uncertainty of your own measurement by scrutinizing your own measurement
procedures and your own analysis. Then you judge how well they agree.

For example, we would say that the quantities 10 ± 2 and 11 ± 2 agree reasonably
well, because there is considerable overlap between their probability distributions.
However, 10 ± 0.2 does not agree with 11 ± 0.2, because there is no overlap.

If you get an impossible result or if your results disagree with well-established

results, you should look for and comment on possible problems with your procedure
and/or measurements that could have caused the differences you observed. You
must never fudge your data to improve the agreement.

Your Laboratory Notebook is Not a Report

Many high school students are taught that a laboratory notebook should be a
journal-style book in which they must write perfect after-the-fact reports, but they
are not allowed to change anything if they make a mistake. This is not at all what
laboratory notebooks were ever meant to be. A laboratory notebook does not need
to be anything more than an official signed and dated record of your procedure
(what you did) and your data (what happened) at the exact instant that you took it
and wrote it down.

Of course, because it is your journal, your laboratory notebook may contain

anything else that you think is relevant. You may choose to include an explanation
of the motivations for one or more experiments, the reasons you chose the
procedure that you used, alternative procedures or experiments you may have
considered, ideas for future experiments, etc. Or you may choose to record these
things separately and cross-reference them to specific pages in your lab notebook.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Internal Laboratory Reports Page: 59
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory

Internal Laboratory Reports

Unit: Laboratory
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): SP3, SP8
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Write an internal laboratory report that appropriately communicates all of the
necessary information.
Success Criteria:
 The report has the correct sections in the correct order.
 Each section contains the appropriate information.
Language Objectives:
 Understand and be able to describe the sections of an internal laboratory
report, and which information goes in each section.
 Write an internal laboratory report with the correct information in each
section.

Notes:
An internal laboratory report is written for co-workers, your boss, and other people
in the company or research facility that you work for. It is usually a company
confidential document that is shared internally, but not shared outside the company
or facility. Every lab you work in, whether in high school, college, research, or
industry, will have its own preferred internal report format.

It is much more important to understand what kinds of information you need to

report and what you will use it for than it is to get attached to any one format. The
format we will use in this class is based on the outline of the actual experiment.

Title & Date

Each experiment should have the title and date the experiment was performed
written at the top. The title should be a descriptive sentence fragment (usually
without a verb) that gives some information about the purpose of the experiment.

Objective
This should be a one or two-sentence description of what you are trying to
determine or calculate by performing the experiment.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Internal Laboratory Reports Page: 60
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Experimental Design
Your background or experimental plan needs to convey your plan for carrying out
the experiment. This section should follow the design process as described in the
Experimental Design section on page 32, and should include:
 an overview of the experiment, including any relevant equations that will be
used to calculate the desired quantity
 a description of the independent variables
 a description of the dependent variables
 a description of the control variables
 a brief description of how you will calculate the desired quantity/quantities
once you have performed the experiment.

Procedure
This is a detailed description of exactly what you did to set/measure the values of
each of the variables. You need to include:
 A labeled sketch or photograph of your experimental set-up, even if the
experiment is simple. The sketch will serve to answer many questions about
how you set up the experiment and most of the key equipment you used.
 A list of any significant equipment that you used other than what you labeled
in your sketch. (You do not need to mention generic items like pencils and
paper. Basic lab safety equipment is assumed, but mention any unusual
precautions that you need to take.)
 A description of how you set up the experiment, including the values of your
independent variables and how you set them.

 A description of your control variables, including their values and how you are
ensuring that they remain constant.

 A description of your dependent variables and how you are measuring their
values. (Do not include the values of the dependent variables here—you will
present those in your Data & Observations section.)

 Any significant things you did as part of the experiment besides the ones
mentioned above.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Internal Laboratory Reports Page: 61
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Data & Observations
This is a section in which you present all of your data.

For a high school lab, it is usually sufficient to present a single data table that
includes the values of your independent, control, and dependent variables for each
trial. However, if you have other data or observations that you recorded during the
lab, they must be listed here.

You must also include estimates of the uncertainty for each measured quantity, and
your calculated uncertainty for the final quantity that your experiment is intended
to determine.

Analysis
The analysis section is where you interpret your data. (Note that calculated values
in the table in the Data & Observations section are actually part of your analysis,
even though they appear in the Data & Observations section.) Your analysis should
mirror your Experimental Design section (possibly in the same order, possibly in
reverse), with the goal of guiding the reader from your data to the quantity you
ultimately want to calculate or determine.

Your analysis needs to include:

 A narrative description (one or more paragraphs) of the outcome of the
experiment that guides the reader from your data through your calculations
to the quantity you set out to determine.
 One (and only one) sample calculation for each separate equation that you
used. For example, if you calculated acceleration for each of five data points,
you would write down the formula, and then choose one set of data to plug in
and show how you got the answer.
 Any calculated values that did not appear in the data table in your Data &
Observations section
 For some experiments, a carefully-plotted graph showing the data points you
took for your dependent vs. independent variables. Note that any graphs you
include in your write-up must be drawn accurately to scale, using graph
paper, and using a ruler/straightedge wherever a straight line is needed.
(When an accurate graph is required, you will lose points if you include a
freehand sketch instead.)

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Internal Laboratory Reports Page: 62
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
 Quantitative error analysis. In general, most quantities in a high school
physics class are calculated from equations that use multiplication and
division. Therefore, you need to use relative error:
1. Determine the uncertainty of each your measurements.
2. Calculate the relative error for each measurement.
3. Combine your relative errors to get the total relative error for your
calculated value(s).
4. Multiply the total relative error by your calculated values to get the
absolute uncertainties (±).
 Sources of uncertainty: this is a list of factors inherent in your procedure that
limit how precise your answer can be.
You need to list one source of human-derived uncertainty (e.g., “It was unclear
exactly when the reaction was finished. We declared it to have finished when
nothing appeared to be changing.”), and two sources of non-human
uncertainty (e.g., “The graduated cylinder was marked in 1 mL increments, so
the volume was estimated to ± 0.1 mL.”)
Never include mistakes, especially mistakes you aren’t sure whether or not
you made! A statement like “We might have written down the wrong
number.” or “We might have done the calculations incorrectly.” is really
saying, “We might be stupid and you shouldn’t believe anything else in this
report.” (Any “we might be stupid” statements will not count toward your
required number of sources of uncertainty.)
Note, however, that if a problem actually occurred, and if you used that data point
in your calculations anyway, you need to explain what happened and give an
estimate of the effects on your results.

Conclusion
Your conclusion should be worded similarly to your objective, but this time including
your final calculated result(s) and uncertainty. You do not need to restate sources
of uncertainty in your conclusions unless you believe they were significant enough
to create some doubt about your results.

Your conclusion should also include 1–2 sentences describing ways the experiment
could be improved. These should specifically address the sources of uncertainty
that you listed in the analysis section above.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Internal Laboratory Reports Page: 63
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Summary
You can think of the sections of the report in pairs. For each pair, the first part
describes the intent of the experiment, and the corresponding second part
describes the result.

Objective: describes the purpose of the experiment

Experimental Design: explains how the experiment was decided
Procedure: describes in detail how the data were acquired
Data & Observations: lists the data acquired via the
procedure
Analysis: describes in detail what was learned from the
experiment, including calculations and uncertainty.
Conclusions: addresses how well the objective was achieved

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Formal Laboratory Reports Page: 64
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory

Formal Laboratory Reports

Unit: Laboratory
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): SP3, SP8
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Write a formal (journal article-style) laboratory report that appropriately
communicates all of the necessary information.
Success Criteria:
 The report has the correct sections in the correct order.
 Each section contains the appropriate information.
 The report contains an abstract that conveys the appropriate amount of
information.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: abstract
Language Objectives:
 Understand and be able to describe the sections of a formal laboratory report,
and which information goes in each section.
 Write a formal laboratory report with the correct information in each section.

Notes:
A formal laboratory report serves one important purpose: to communicate the
results of your experiment to other scientists outside of your laboratory or
institution.
A formal report is a significant undertaking. In a research laboratory, you might
submit as many as one or two articles to a scientific journal in a year. Some college
professors require students to submit lab reports in journal article format.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Formal Laboratory Reports Page: 65
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
The format of a formal journal article-style report is as follows:

Abstract
This is the most important part of your report. It is a (maximum) 200-word
executive summary of everything about your experiment—the procedure, results,
analysis, and conclusions. In most scientific journals, the abstracts are searchable
via the internet, so it needs to contain enough information to enable someone to
find your abstract, and after reading it, to know enough about your experiment to
determine whether or not to purchase a copy of the full article (which can
sometimes cost $100 or more). It also needs to be short enough that the person
doing the search won’t just say “TL; DR” (“Too Long; Didn’t Read”) and move on to
the next abstract.

Because the abstract is a complete summary, it is always best to write it last, after
you have already written the rest of your report.

Introduction
Your introduction is actually an mini research paper on its own, including citations.
(For a high school lab report, it should be 1–3 pages; for scientific journals,
5–10 pages is not uncommon.) Your introduction needs to describe any general
background information that another scientist might not know, plus all of the
background information that specifically led up to your experiment. Assume that
your reader has a similar knowledge of physics as you, but does not know anything
about this experiment. The introduction is usually the most time-consuming part of
the report to write.

Materials and Methods

This section combines both the experimental design and procedure sections of an
informal lab write-up. Unlike an informal write-up, the Materials and Methods
section of a formal report is written in paragraph form, in the past tense, using the
passive voice, and avoiding pronouns. As with the informal write-up, a labeled
photograph or drawing of your apparatus is a necessary part of this section, but you
need to also describe the set-up in the text.

Also unlike the informal write-up, your Materials and Methods section needs to give
some explanation of your choices of the values used for your control and
independent variables.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Formal Laboratory Reports Page: 66
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Data and Observations
This section is similar to the same section in the lab notebook write-up, except that:
1. You should present only data you actually recorded/measured in this
section. (Calculated values are presented in the Discussion section.)
2. You need to introduce the data table. (This means you need to describe the
important things someone should notice in the table first, and then say
something like “Data are shown in Table 1.”)
Note that all figures and tables in the report need to be numbered separately and
consecutively.

Discussion
This section is similar to the Analysis section in the internal report, but with some
important differences.

As with the rest of the formal report, your discussion must be in paragraph form.
Your discussion is essentially a long essay discussing your results and what they
mean. You need to introduce and present a table with your calculated values and
your uncertainty. After presenting the table, you should discuss the results,
uncertainties, and sources of uncertainty in detail. If your results relate to other
experiments, you need to discuss the relationship and include citations for those
other experiments.

Your discussion needs to include each of the formulas that you used as part of your
discussion and give the results of the calculations, but you do not need to show the
intermediate step of substituting the numbers into the equation.

Conclusions
Your conclusions are written much like in the internal write-up. You need at least
two paragraphs. In the first, restate your findings and summarize the significant
sources of uncertainty. In the second paragraph, list and explain improvements
and/or follow-up experiments that you suggest.

Works Cited
As with a research paper, you need to include a complete list of bibliography entries
for the references you cited in your introduction and/or discussion sections.

Your ELA teachers probably require MLA-style citations; scientific papers typically
use APA style. However, in a high school chemistry class, while it is important that
you know which information needs to be cited and what information needs to go
into each citation, you may use any format you like as long as you use it
consistently.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Formal Laboratory Reports Page: 67
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory
Typesetting Superscripts and Subscripts
Because formal laboratory reports need to be typed, and because chemistry uses
superscripts and subscripts extensively, it is important to know how to typeset
superscripts and subscripts.

You can make use of the following shortcuts:

superscript: text that is raised above the line, such as the “3+” in Al3+.
In most Microsoft programs, select the text, then hold down “Ctrl” and “Shift”
and press the “+” key.
On a Macintosh, select the text, then hold down “Command” and “Control” and
press the “+” key.

subscript: text that is lowered below the line, such as the “2” in CaCl2.
In most Microsoft programs, select the text, then hold down “Ctrl” and press
the “–“ key.
On a Macintosh, select the text, then hold down “Command” and “Control” and
press the “–” key.

Note that you will lose credit in your laboratory reports if you don’t use superscripts
and subscripts correctly. For example, you will lose credit if you type NO3− instead
of NO3−.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Laboratory Page: 69
Big Ideas Details Unit: Laboratory

Summary: Laboratory
Unit: Laboratory
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Math & Measurement Page: 71
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement

Introduction: Math & Measurement

Unit: Math & Measurement
Topics covered in this chapter:
The International System of Units ................................................................. 73
Scientific Notation ......................................................................................... 80
Using Math in Calculations ............................................................................ 84
Conversions (Factor-Label Method) .............................................................. 91
Dimensional Analysis ..................................................................................... 96
Logarithms ................................................................................................... 102

Standards addressed in this chapter:

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
This chapter addresses the following MA science and engineering practices:
Practice 4: Analyzing and Interpreting Data
Practice 5: Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking
Practice 8: Obtaining, Evaluating, and Communicating Information

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Math & Measurement Page: 72
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):
No MA curriculum frameworks are specifically addressed in this chapter.
However, this chapter addresses the following skills described in the
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks for High School Chemistry either as
“specific skills from the Mathematics Framework that students in this course
should have the opportunity to apply” or as “skills [that] are not detailed in the
Mathematics Framework, but [which] are necessary for a solid understanding in
this course”:
 Measure with accuracy and precision (e.g., length, volume, mass,
temperature, time)
 Convert within a unit (e.g., centimeters to meters).
 Use common prefixes such as milli-, centi-, and kilo-.
 Use scientific notation, where appropriate.
 Determine the appropriate number of significant figures.
 Determine percent error from experimental and accepted values.
 Use appropriate metric/standard international (SI) units of
measurement for mass (g); length (cm); and time (s).

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 The International System of Units Page: 73
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement

The International System of Units

Unit: Math & Measurement
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): SP5
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Use and convert between metric prefixes attached to units.
Success Criteria:
 Conversions between prefixes move the decimal point the correct number of
places.
 Conversions between prefixes move the decimal point in the correct direction.
 The results of conversions have the correct answers with the correct units,
including the prefixes.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: prefix
Language Objectives:
 Set up and solve problems relating to the concepts described in this section.

Notes:
This section is intended to be a brief review. You learned to convert between metric
prefixes in elementary or middle school. You are expected to be able to fluently
perform calculations that involve converting between metric prefixes.

A unit is a specifically defined measurement. Units describe both the type of

measurement, and a base amount.

For example, 1 cm and 1 inch are both lengths. They are used to measure the same
dimension, but the specific amounts are different. (In fact, 1 inch is exactly
2.54 cm.)

Every measurement is a number multiplied by its units. In algebra, the term “3x”
means “3 times x”. Similarly, the distance “75 m” means “75 times the distance
1 meter”.

The number and the units are both necessary to describe any measurement. You
always need to write the units. Saying that “12 is the same as 12 g” would be as
ridiculous as saying “12 is the same as 12 × 3”.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The International System of Units Page: 74
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
The International System (often called the metric system) is a set of units of
measurement that is based on natural quantities (on Earth) and powers of 10.

The metric system has 7 fundamental “base” units:

Unit Quantity Currently Based On
meter (m) length the distance light travels in a specific time
kilogram (kg) mass the mass of the official prototype kilogram
second (s) time the time it takes for a particular type of
radiation from a cesium-133 atom
Kelvin (K) temperature the temperature of the triple point of
water
mole (mol) amount of the number of atoms in a specific mass of
substance carbon-12
ampere (A) electric the amount of current that produces a
current specific force under specific conditions
candela (cd) intensity of the amount of light per unit of area at a
light specific distance
All other S.I. units are combinations of one or more of these seven base units.

For example:
Velocity (speed) is a change in distance over a period of time, which would have
units of distance/time (m/s).

Force is a mass subjected to an acceleration. Acceleration has units of

distance/time2 (m/s2), and force has units of mass × acceleration. In the metric
system this combination of units (kg∙m/s2) is called a Newton, which means:
1 N  1 kg∙m/s2

As of 2018, Each of these base units is defined in some way that could be duplicated
in a laboratory anywhere on Earth (except for the kilogram, which is defined by a
physical object in a safe in France).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The International System of Units Page: 75
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
In May 2019, all of the above S.I. units will be defined based on specifying exact
values for certain fundamental constants:
 The Planck constant h is exactly 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 J⋅s
 The elementary charge e is exactly 1.602 176 634 × 10−19 C
 The Boltzmann constant k is exactly 1.380 649 × 10−23 J⋅K−1
 The Avogadro constant NA is exactly 6.022 140 76 × 1023 mol−1
 The speed of light c is exactly 299 792 458 m⋅s−1
 The ground state hyperfine splitting frequency of the caesium-133 atom
Δν(133Cs)hfs is exactly 9 192 631 770 Hz
 The luminous efficacy Kcd of monochromatic radiation of frequency
540 × 1012 Hz is exactly 683 lm⋅W−1
The S.I. base units are calculated from these seven definitions, after converting the
derived units (joule, coulomb, hertz, lumen and watt) into the seven base units
(second, meter, kilogram, ampere, kelvin, mole and candela).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The International System of Units Page: 76
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Rules for Writing S.I. Numbers and their Units
 The value of a quantity is written as a number followed by a space
(representing a multiplication sign) and a unit symbol; e.g., 2.21 kg,
7.3 × 102 m2, or 22 K. This rule explicitly includes the percent sign (10 %, not
10%) and the symbol for degrees of temperature (37 °C, not 37°C). (However,
note that angle measurements in degrees are written next to the number
without a space.)
 Units do not have a period at the end, except at the end of a sentence.
 A prefix is part of the unit and is attached to the beginning of a unit symbol
without a space. Compound prefixes are not allowed.
 Symbols for derived units formed by multiplication are joined with a center
dot (⋅) or a non-breaking space; e.g., N⋅m or N m.
 Symbols for derived units formed by division are joined with a solidus (fraction
line), or given as a negative exponent. E.g., “meter per second” can be
written m/s, m s−1, m⋅s−1, or m .
s
 The first letter of symbols for units derived from the name of a person is
written in upper case; otherwise, they are written in lower case. E.g., the unit
of pressure is named after Blaise Pascal, so its symbol is written “Pa” (note
that “Pa” is a two-letter symbol), but the symbol for mole is written “mol”.
However, the symbol for liter is “L” rather than “l”, because a lower case “l”
can be confused with the number “1”.
 A plural of a symbol must not be used; e.g., 25 kg, not 25 kgs.
 Units and prefixes are case-sensitive. E.g., the quantities 1 mW and 1 MW
represent two different quantities (milliwatt and megawatt, respectively).
 The symbol for the decimal marker is either a point or comma on the line. In
practice, the decimal point is used in most English-speaking countries and
most of Asia, and the comma in most of Latin America and in continental
European countries.
 Spaces should be used as a thousands separator (1 000 000) in contrast to
commas (1,000,000) or periods (1.000.000), to reduce confusion resulting
from the variation between these forms in different countries.
 Any line-break inside a number, inside a compound unit, or between number
and unit should be avoided.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The International System of Units Page: 77
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Prefixes
The metric system uses prefixes to indicate multiplying a unit by a power of ten.
There are prefixes for powers of ten from 10−24 to 1024 but in chemistry, only the
following four are commonly used:

 milli (m) = 10−3 = 1 = 0.001

 kilo (k) = 103 = 1000 1 000

 centi (c) = 10−2 = 1 = 0.01  micro (μ) = 10−6 = 1 = 0.000 001

100 1 000 000

Any metric prefix is allowed with any metric unit. For example, if a mole (mol) is
6.02 × 1023 objects, then a millimole (mmol) would be
(6.02 × 1023) × 1 = 6.02 × 1020 objects.
1 000
An easier way to convert is to use the powers of ten that correspond with the
prefixes to determine how many places to move the decimal point.

Metric Prefixes
Factor Prefix Symbol
24
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 10 yotta Y
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 1021 zeta Z
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 1018 exa E
1 000 000 000 000 000 1015 peta P
1 000 000 000 000 1012 tera T
1 000 000 000 109 giga G
1 000 000 106 mega M
1 000 103 kilo k
100 102 hecto h
10 101 deca da
1 100 — —
0.1 10−1 deci d
0.01 10−2 centi c
0.001 10−3 milli m
0.000 001 10−6 micro μ
0.000 000 001 10−9 nano n
0.000 000 000 001 10−12 pico p
0.000 000 000 000 001 10−15 femto f
0.000 000 000 000 000 001 10−18 atto a
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 001 10−21 zepto z
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 10−24 yocto y

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The International System of Units Page: 78
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Note that some of the prefixes skip by a factor of 10 and others skip by a factor of
103. This means you can’t just count the steps—you have to actually look at the
exponents.

Sample Problem:
15 Tm = _____ nm

 You need to move the decimal point 12 places to get to 100, and 9 more
places to get to 10−9, for a total of 21 places.
 Terameters are huge, and nanometers are much smaller. That means we’re
going to have a lot more nanometers than terameters, so we have to move
the decimal point in the direction that makes the number larger (to the right).

Therefore, we need to move the decimal point 21 places to the right, which means
we need to multiply by 1021.

You could simply write your answer as 15  1021 m , and it would be correct. (And
you can enter it into your calculator that way and the right thing will happen.)

However, to be proper scientific notation, you need to make the part before the
multiplication sign between 1 and 10, which means you need to make it 1.5. If the
number before the × sign gets smaller, then the number after the × sign needs to
get larger so the end result stays the same. Therefore, 15  1021 m is the same as
1.5  1022 m , which is our final answer.

There is a popular joke based on the ancient Greek heroine Helen of Troy. She was
said to have been the most beautiful woman in the world, and when she was
kidnapped, the Trojan War was fought to bring her back to Sparta. Her beauty was
described as “the face that launched a thousand ships.” Therefore a milliHelen must
be the amount of beauty needed to launch one ship.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The International System of Units Page: 79
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Homework Problems
Perform the following conversions.

1. 2.5 m = __________ cm

2. 18mL = __________ L

3. 68 kJ = __________ J

4. 6 500 mg = __________ kg

5. 101 kPa = __________ Pa

6. 325 ms = __________ s

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Scientific Notation Page: 80
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement

Scientific Notation
Unit: Math & Measurement
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): SP5
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Correctly use numbers in scientific notation in mathematical problems.
Success Criteria:
 Numbers are converted correctly to and from scientific notation.
 Numbers in scientific notation are correctly entered into a calculator.
 Math problems that include numbers in scientific notation are set up and
solved correctly.
Language Objectives:
 Explain how numbers are represented in scientific notation, and what each
part of the number represents.

Notes:
This section is intended to be a brief review. You learned to use scientific notation in
elementary or middle school. You are expected to be able to fluently perform
calculations that involve numbers in scientific notation, and to express the answer
correctly in scientific notation when appropriate.

Scientific notation is a way of writing a very large or very small number in compact
form. The value is always written as a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a
power of ten.

For example, the number 1 000 would be written as 1 × 103. The number 0.000 075
would be written as 7.5 × 10−5. The number 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 would
be written as 6.02 × 1023. The number
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 663 would be written as 6.63 × 10−34.

Scientific notation is really just math with exponents, as shown by the following
examples:
5.6  103  5.6  1000  5600
1 1 2.17
2.17  102  2.17  2
 2.17    0.0217
10 100 100

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Scientific Notation Page: 81
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Notice that if 10 is raised to a positive exponent means you’re multiplying by a
power of 10. This makes the number larger, and the decimal point moves to the
right. If 10 is raised to a negative exponent, you’re actually dividing by a power of
10. This makes the number smaller, and the decimal point moves to the left.

Significant figures are easy to use with scientific notation: all of the digits before the
“×” sign are significant. The power of ten after the “×” sign represents the
(insignificant) zeroes, which would be the rounded-off portion of the number. In
fact, the mathematical term for the part of the number before the “×” sign is the
significand.

Math with Scientific Notation

Because scientific notation is just a way of rewriting a number as a mathematical
expression, all of the rules about how exponents work apply to scientific notation.

Adding & Subtracting: adjust one or both numbers so that the power of ten is the
same, then add or subtract the significands.

3.50 10   2.7 10   3.50 10    0.27 10 

6 7 6 6

 (3.50  0.27)  106  3.77  106

Multiplying & dividing: multiply or divide the significands. If multiplying, add the
exponents. If dividing, subtract the exponents.

6.2  108 6.2

  10810  2.0  102
3.1  1010
3.1

Exponents: raise the significand to the exponent. Multiply the exponent of the
power of ten by the exponent to which the number is raised.

3.00 10   3.00  10   9.00  10

82
2 2 2
8 8
 9.00  1016

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Scientific Notation Page: 82
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Using Scientific Notation on Your Calculator
Scientific calculators are designed to work with numbers in scientific notation. It’s
possible to can enter the number as a math problem (always use parentheses if you
do this!) but math operations can introduce mistakes that are hard to catch.

Scientific calculators all have either an “EE” or “EXP” button. The entire purpose of
this button is to enter numbers in scientific notation and make sure the calculator
stores them properly. On Texas Instruments calculators, such as the TI-30 or TI-89,
you would do the following:

What you type What the calculator shows What it means

6.6 EE −34 6.6E−34 6.6 × 10−34

1.52 EE 12 1.52E12 1.52 × 1012

−4.81 EE −7 −4.81E−7 −4.81 × 10−7

On some calculators, the scientific notation button is labeled EXP instead of EE .

Important notes:
 Many high school students are afraid of the EE button because it is
unfamiliar. If you are afraid of your EE button, you need to get over it and
start using it anyway. However, if you insist on clinging to your phobia, you
need to at least use parentheses around all numbers in scientific notation, in
order to minimize the likelihood of PEMDAS errors in your calculations.
 Regardless of how you enter numbers in scientific notation into your
calculator, always place parentheses around the denominator of fractions.
2.75  103 2.75  103
becomes
5.00  102 (5.00  102 )
 You need to write answers using correct scientific notation. For example, if
your calculator displays the number 1.52E12, you need to write 1.52 × 1012
(plus the appropriate unit, of course) in order to receive credit.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Scientific Notation Page: 83
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Homework Problems
Convert each of the following between scientific and algebraic notation.

1. 2.65 × 109 =

2. 387 000 000 =

3. 1.06 × 10−7 =

4. 0.000 000 065 =

Solve each of the following on a calculator that can do scientific notation.

5. (2.8  106 )(1.4  102 ) 

Answer: 3.9  104

3.75  108
6. 
1.25  104

Answer: 3.00  104

1.2  103
7. 
5.0  101

Answer: 2.4  103

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Using Math in Calculations Page: 84
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement

Using Math in Calculations

Unit: Math & Measurement
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): SP5
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Substitute values for variables in equations and solve them.
Success Criteria:
 Values are substituted for the correct variables.
 Equations are correctly solved for the missing variable using basic algebra.
 Answers have the correct units and are rounded to the appropriate number of
significant figures.
Language Objectives:
 Set up and solve word problems relating to the concepts described in this
section.

Notes:
Unlike biology, chemistry is a physical science. Among other things, this means
chemistry involves calculations, which means you need to be comfortable with
algebraic expressions.

Variables and Units

Unlike expressions in math class, which make a clear distinction between constants
(the numbers you know the value of) and the variables,
 Equations in chemistry are written as all variables, because each equation
works the same way no matter which quantity (or quantities) you are looking
for.
 Each of the variables is a letter that relates to the quantity that it represents.
For example, volume is V, mass is m, temperature is T, and the number of
moles of substance is n. In chemistry, the same quantity always uses the
same variable.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Using Math in Calculations Page: 85
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
 Almost all quantities are measured and have units. . These units are your key
to what kind of quantity the numbers describe. For example, in the quantity
12.5 mL, the mL means “milliliters.” In the quantity 37.21 g, the g means
“grams.” In the quantity 21.5 °C, the °C means “degrees Celsius.”
o The unit is part of the quantity. For example, you can’t say your height is
1.62. (1.62 what?) You would need to say that your height is 1.62 m
(1.62 meters).
o The unit tells you which type of quantity, and the type of quantity tells
you the variable. For example, in the quantity 12.5 mL, the mL (milliliters)
is a volume, which uses the variable “V.” This means that if you have an
equation in which the letter V represents volume, you would replace the
letter V with the quantity 12.5 mL.
o Be careful! In many cases, the same letter can be a unit or a number. For
example, the letter “m” next to a number means the unit “meters” (a
distance), but the variable “m” in an equation means “mass”.

Some Quantities Used in Chemistry

Quantity Unit Variable Quantity Unit Variable
mass g m temperature °C, K T

length m, cm velocity m v
s
area m2 A heat J q*
volume mL V energy J E
number of bar, atm,
mol n pressure P
moles kPa
g
density ρ† time s t
mL
mol equilibrium
concentration c — K
L constant
distance m d, charge C q*

*
Notice that q is used for both heat and electrical charge. You need to figure out which
quantity is meant from context.
†
Some chemistry books use the Roman letter “D” for density, but the Greek letter “ρ”
(“rho”) is preferred. Be careful not to confuse it with the letter “P” (pressure).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Using Math in Calculations Page: 86
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Variable Substitution
Variable substitution simply means taking the numbers you have from the problem
and substituting those numbers for the corresponding variable in an equation. A
simple version of this is a density problem:

If you have the formula:

m
 and you’re given: m = 12.3 g and V = 2.8 cm3
V

simply substitute 12.3 g for m, and 2.8 cm3 for V, giving:

12.3 g
ρ  4.4 cmg 3
2.8 cm3

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Using Math in Calculations Page: 87
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Equations
Math is a language. Like other languages, it has nouns (numbers), pronouns
(variables), verbs (operations), and sentences (equations), all of which must follow
certain rules of syntax and grammar.
This means that turning a word problem into an equation is translation from English
to math.
Mathematical Operations
You have probably been taught translations for most of the common math
operations:
word meaning word meaning
and, more than
+ is =
(but not “is more than”)
less than
− is at least ≥
(but not “is less than”)
of × is more than >
per ÷ is at most ≤
percent ÷ 100 is less than <
change in x,
Δx*
difference in x

Suppose you were given the equation:

m

V
Using the table on page 85, we can see that m is mass and V is volume, which means
the equation says “density is mass divided by volume”. This means that if we knew
that the mass of an object was 10.5 g and its volume was 23.7 mL, we could
substitute those numbers into the equation to find the density:

m 10.5 g 10.5 g
    0.443 mLg
V 23.7 mL 23.7 mL

We can use the same approach no matter which variable we are looking for.

*
Note: The Greek letter Δ (delta) is attached to a variable to indicate the change in that
variable. For example, ΔT represents a change in temperature. ΔT is one variable in the
equation, even though it uses two symbols.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Using Math in Calculations Page: 88
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Sample Problems:
Q: An object has a volume of 17.7 mL and a density of 2.35 mLg . What is its mass?

A: Start with the equation and substitute:

m

V
m
2.35 mLg 
17.7 mL
Now we have to do algebra. We want to get m by itself, which means we need
to move 17.7 mL to the other side. Because it’s in the denominator (on the
bottom), we have to multiply both sides by it.
m
(17.7 mL)(2.35 mLg )  (17.7 mL)
17.7 mL
41.6 g  m
(Notice that the 17.7 mL cancels on the right because it’s in both the numerator
and the denominator. Notice also that the mL cancels on the left for the same
reason, leaving g, which happens to be the correct unit. This is called
“dimensional analysis,” and we will study it in more depth in a future section.)

Q: An object has a mass of 44.7 g and a density of 1.68 mLg . What is its volume?

A: Again, start with the equation and substitute:

m

V
44.7 g
1.68 mLg 
V
The variable we want is on the bottom. Again, following the rules of algebra, in
order to get it off the bottom, we first have to multiply both sides by it to clear
the fraction:
44.7 g
V  1.68 mLg  V
V
Then, we can solve for V in a subsequent step:
V  1.68 mLg 44.7 g

1.68 mLg 1.68 mLg
V  26.6 mL

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Using Math in Calculations Page: 89
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Note: Whenever you have to solve an equation for a quantity in the
denominator, always do it in two steps: clear the fraction first, then divide. If
you try to cleverly rearrange the quantities without doing this, you are almost
certain to get the wrong answer!

Q: Find the volume taken up by 3.10 mol of a gas at 298 K and 1.25 atm.

A: When you see a problem like this, the first thing you should do is use the units
to figure out what quantities you have in the problem, and label them with their
variables:
V n T P
Find the volume taken up by 3.10 mol of a gas at 298 K and 1.25 atm. (For this
atm
problem, use 0.0821 mol K
for the gas constant.)
R
To solve this problem, we need an equation that relates V, n, T, and P. This
turns out to be the ideal gas law:
P V = n RT
Now substitute the numbers in place of the variables in the equation:
P V = n R T
atm
(1.25 atm) V = (3.10 mol) (0.0821 mol K
) (298 K)

Then solve, using algebra. This means we need to divide both sides by 1.25 atm
to get the answer.
atm
(3.10 mol)(0.0821 mol K )(298 K)
V  60.7
1.25 atm

The Problem-Solving Process

1. Identify the quantities in the problem, using the units.
2. Assign variables to those quantities.
3. Make a list of all of your variables (including the one you’re looking for), and
what they’re equal to.
4. Write down an equation that relates all of those variables.
5. Substitute the values of the variables into the equation. You should have
only one variable left, which is the one you’re looking for.
6. Solve the equation, using algebra.
7. Don’t forget to round your answer correctly and include the units!

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Using Math in Calculations Page: 90
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Homework Problems
For these problems, use the table of units and variables on page 85 to determine
which quantities represent which variables. Then substitute the variables into the
equation given. You do not have to solve the equations.

1. 375 J of heat is added to a 75 g block of metal that has a specific heat

capacity of C  0.450 gJ°C . What is the temperature change of the metal?
q  mC T

Answer: (375 J)  (75 g)(0.450 gJ°C )T

2. A rock has a density of 6.4 cmg 3 and a mass of 1 500 g. What is its volume.
m
V

3. 2.5 mol of an ideal gas has a pressure of 1.5 bar and a temperature of 325 K.
Lbar
The gas constant is 0.081 mol K
. What is its volume?
PV = nRT

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Conversions (Factor-Label Method) Page: 91
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement

Conversions (Factor-Label Method)

Unit: Math & Measurement
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Use algebra and units to create a strategy for problem-solving.
Success Criteria:
 Conversion factors are arranged so that the numerator and denominator are
equal.
 Units in conversion factors are arranged so they cancel unwanted units and
provide desired units.
 Answers are correct with the correct units.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: unit, convert, conversion
Language Objectives:
 Understand and explain that a conversion factor is two quantities (including
their units) that are equal.

Notes:
A conversion is based on the idea that you can express the same quantity using
different numbers and units.

For example, Mr. Bigler is 5 feet 4 inches tall. We could express this as 64 inches,
5 13 feet, 1.7 yards, 0.001 mile, 163 cm, 1.63 m, or 5.3  1013 parsecs.*

The process of getting from one of these numbers to another is called a unit
conversion.

Conversions are based on two strategies:

1. Canceling units you don’t want and replacing them with units you do want.
2. Repeatedly multiplying by fractions that equal 1 (i.e., the numerator equals
the denominator), so the actual quantity doesn’t change.

A parsec is a distance of about 3.26 light years, or about 3  1013 km.

*

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Conversions (Factor-Label Method) Page: 92
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
To show how this works, consider the following math problem:

1 2 3 4 99
     ?
2 3 4 5 100
1
The answer is , because everything else cancels:
100
1 2 3 4 99 1
     
2 3 4 5 100 100

As you may know from algebra, this also works with numbers and variables:

 4w   3x   y   5z  4  3  5  z
      15z
 1   w   2x   2y  2 2

Units work just like variables, so the algebra that you can do with a variable also
works with a unit:
2 yd. 3 ft. 12 in. 2  3  12 in.
    72 in.
1 1 yd. 1 ft. 1

Notice also that each time we multiplied by a fraction, the numerator was equal to
the denominator. (3 ft. = 1 yd. and 12 in. = 1 ft.) This means we were multiplying by
1 each time. That’s why 72 in. must be the same distance as 2 yd. We converted by
multiplying:

2 yd. × “1” × “1” = 72 in.

(The “1”s are in quotes because the fractions derived from the conversion factors
are all equal to one, even if they don’t look like it.)

Some chemistry teachers prefer to use a table with lines to keep the conversion
factors neat. The following are two equivalent ways to represent the same
calculation. Note that conversion factors (fractions that equal 1) are in vertical
columns:

2 yd. 3 ft. 12 in. 2  3  12 in.

=  72 in.
1 1 yd. 1 ft. 11

2 yd. 3 ft. 12 in. 2  3  12 in.

    72 in.
1 1 yd. 1 ft. 1

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Conversions (Factor-Label Method) Page: 93
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
To convert a quantity from one unit to another:

1. Write down the number and units that you’re starting with
2. Find a conversion factor that contains the unit you want to get rid of.
3. Turn the conversion into a fraction and arrange it to cancel the unit you
want to get rid of. (If the unit you want to cancel is in the numerator, the
same unit needs to be in the denominator in the fraction.)
4. Repeat steps 2 & 3 until you end up with the unit you want.
5. After canceling units, multiply and divide the numbers in the numerator &
denominator and simplify the expression.

Working Example:
What is the mass (in grams) of 2.75 moles of sodium chloride (NaCl)?

Conversion factor for NaCl:

1 mol = 58.44 g

Solution:
1. We are starting with 2.75 moles (2.75 mol) of chlorine. This means we
2.75mol
need to write 2.75 mol in fraction form, as .
1

2.75mol
2. We want to multiply  1 (so we don’t change the actual
1
amount).

2.75mol
This will become  and the unknown fraction needs
1
to equal 1.

3. We know we need to cancel moles, so moles will end up on the bottom

of the next fraction. This gives us:

2.75mol

1 mol

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Conversions (Factor-Label Method) Page: 94
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
4. Our conversion factor was: 1 mole NaCl = 58.44 g NaCl which means
our conversion factor is:

1mol 58.44 g
 1
58.44 g 1mol

We need moles on the bottom, which means we need to use the second
fraction. Multiplying our original 2.75 mol by this fraction gives us:

2.75mol 58.44 g

1 1mol

5. Now, the only unit left is the one we want (grams), so we’re ready to
solve the problem:

2.75mol 58.44 g 2.75  58.44 g 160.71 g

    160.71 g
1 1mol 11 1

6. Because we had only 3 significant figures in the original number, we

need to round our answer to 3 “sig figs”. This gives us our final,
rounded-off answer of 161 g .

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Conversions (Factor-Label Method) Page: 95
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Homework Problems
Perform each of the following conversions.

1. 23.6 cm = _______ m 7. 64 inches = ________ cm

2. 15.9 L = ________ mL 8. 183 pounds = ________ kg

3. 0.89 km = ________ mm 9. 65 miles = ________ m

s
hour

g pounds
4. 7.31 × 1024 mmol = ________ mol 10. 13.2 3
= ________ 3
cm foot

11. 3.65 dollars cents

5. 15.0 gallons = ________ L gallon = ________ L

12. miles = ________ km

32 gallon
6. 3.65 miles = ________ km L

Conversion Factors
1 gallon = 3.785 L 1 mile = 1.61 km (1 inch)3  (2.54 cm)3 I hour ≡ 60 min.
1 pound = 454 g 1 inch ≡ 2.54 cm (1 foot)3  (12 inch)3 1 min. ≡ 60 s
1 foot ≡ 12 inches

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Dimensional Analysis Page: 96
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement

Dimensional Analysis
Unit: Math & Measurement
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): SP5
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Use compound units to infer conversion factors.
 Infer equations from compound units.
Success Criteria:
 Equations relate quantities in the same way that units do.
 Word problems involving conversions that use inferred quantities are correct,
including the correct units, and are rounded to the appropriate number of
significant figures.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: dimension, unit, conversion
Language Objectives:
 Explain the process of using a compound unit as a conversion factor using
appropriate vocabulary.

Notes:
dimensions: the units that something is measured in.

dimensional analysis: using the relationship between units (dimensions) and

equations in order to analyze (and solve) problems. This can involve either:
 Using units to predict the relationships between quantities (and sometimes
the equations that relate them)
 Using an equation to determine what the dimensions (units) should be.

Remember that units are like variables. They can be multiplied and divided by their
coëfficients, and by each other. If you divide meters (a unit of distance) by seconds
(a unit of time) you end up with the units ms (a unit of velocity*). Because this works
for one set of units, it must also work for other units that measure the same
dimensions. Because we divided the units of distance by the units of time and got
units of velocity, this means we can divide any distance (regardless of the units) by
any time (regardless of the units) to get velocity.

*
There is a subtle difference between velocity and speed, which you will study if you take physics.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Dimensional Analysis Page: 97
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
For example, density measures how heavy something is for its size. The density of
g
iron is 7.87 . Because grams measure mass and cm3 measure volume, it must
cm3
be true that:
mass units mass
density units  which means density 
volume units volume

This must mean that any mass unit divided by any volume unit gives a density unit
(which is, in fact, true).

Some of the units that density can be measured in (mass units divided by volume
units) include:
g g g kg kg tonne lb.
mL L cm3 L m3 m3 ft.3

You can use dimensional analysis in the same manner to help you figure out how to
solve many problems that include units of measure. In fact, dimensional analysis
has led to new scientific discoveries. Scientists can sometimes determine a
relationship between two quantities based on the units, and are then able to prove
that relationship in the laboratory!

However, there are pitfalls. For example, mechanical work and torque have the
same units (N  m) , but they describe different kinds of quantities and cannot be
used interchangeably. (In fact, in a physics problem involving tightening a bolt with
a wrench, 36 N m of torque ended up doing 19 N m of work on the bolt!)

Also, dimensional analysis cannot predict constants that might appear in an

kgm2
equation. For example, the unit for energy is a joule, which equals one .
s2
Because mass is measured in kg and velocity in m , this suggests that the equation
s
2
for kinetic energy should be mv . However, the equation is actually 12 mv 2 . The
factor of 12 is a necessary part of the equation, but cannot be discovered by
dimensional analysis.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Dimensional Analysis Page: 98
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Making Compound Units Into Conversion Factors
Any time you have a number with a compound unit, you can make a “temporary”
conversion factor out of it. For example, if a car is driving 60 mi.
hr.
, then:

mi. 7.87 mi. 60 mi.

60 mi.
hr.
 60    
hr. 1 hr. 1hr.

In other words, the quantity 60 mi.

hr.
gave us the conversion factor 60 mi. = 1 hr.
(Notice that the coëfficient of 60 ended up with miles, which is the unit that was on
top.) This means that for this problem—as long as the car keeps going the same
speed—60 miles takes 1 hour. That means you can use this conversion factor in
this problem to convert miles to hours, or hours to miles.

Examples:
 The density of iron (Fe) is 7.87 g
. What is the volume of 15.0 g of iron?
cm3
g
To solve this problem, we recognize that the compound unit 7.87 can be
cm3
written as follows:

g 7.87 g 7.87 g
7.87 g
 7.87    3
cm3 cm 3
1 cm 1 cm3

This means 7.87 g = 1 cm3. We can use this as the conversion factor between
grams of iron and cubic centimeters of iron. We will use in this problem to
convert grams of iron into cm3 of iron:

15.0 g 1 cm3 15.0 cm3

   1.91 cm3
1 7.87 g 7.87

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Dimensional Analysis Page: 99
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
 The concentration of sodium chloride (NaCl) in sea water is about 0.48 mol
L
.
How many moles of NaCl are in 55,000 L of sea water?
To solve this problem, we recognize that the compound unit 0.48 mol L
is going
to be the conversion factor 0.48 mol = 1 L. This is the temporary conversion
factor that we will use in this problem to convert liters of sea water into moles
of NaCl:

55 000 L 0.48 mol

  55 000  0.48 mol  26 400 mol  26 000 mol
1 1L

(Note that we had to round off the final answer to 2 significant figures.)

 The molar mass of NaOH is 40.00 mol

g
. What is the mass of 2.85 mol of NaOH?
g
To solve this problem, we recognize that the compound unit 40.00 mol is going
to be the conversion factor 40.00 g = 1 mol. This is the temporary conversion
factor that we will use in this problem to convert moles of NaOH into grams:

 40.00 g
2.85mol
  2.85  40.00 g  114 g
1 
1mol

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Dimensional Analysis Page: 100
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Homework Problems
g
1. An object has a density of 3.65 . If the volume of the object is 12.5 cm3 ,
cm3
what is its mass?

Answer: 45.6 g

2. A liquid solution has a salt concentration of 2.5 mol/l . How many moles of
salt are in 0.50 ℓ of the solution?

Answer: 1.3 mol

3. A car is travelling at a speed of 65 mi./hr. How many hours would it take for
this car to travel 250 mi.?

Answer: 3.8 hr

4. Suppose the average temperature of the Earth is rising at a rate of 2.0◦C/100

years . When Mr. Bigler gives this same homework assignment to one of your
children 25 years from now, how much warmer will the average temperature
of the Earth be?

Answer: 0.5 °C

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Dimensional Analysis Page: 101
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
5. If a gas at “standard temperature and pressure” has a molar volume of
L , how many moles of this gas would there be in a 5.5 L balloon?
22.7 mol

Answer: 0.24 mol

6. Suppose you have a job at which you earn $8.00 per hour (which you can
write as 8.00 $/hr ). How many hours would you have to work to have
enough money for a $1200 car?

Answer: 150 h

7. The continent of South America is drifting away from Africa at a rate of about
cm . If South America was once touching Africa, and the speed of the
2.5 year
plates was constant, how many years did it take for South America to get to
its present location, which is about 5000 km away from Africa?
(Hint: don’t forget that you will need to convert km to mm.)

Answer: ?

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Logarithms Page: 102
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement

Logarithms
Unit: Math & Measurement
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): SP5
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Use logarithms to solve for a variable in an exponent.
Success Criteria:
 Equations use logarithms to turn equations of the form a x  b into equations
of the form x log(a)  log(b) .
Tier 2 Vocabulary: logarithm
Language Objectives:
 Explain what the logarithm function is used for.

Notes:
The logarithm may well be the least well-understood function encountered in high
school mathematics. In high school chemistry, logarithms are used for the pH
function for measuring the strength of acids & bases (which we will cover at the end
of the year).

The simplest way to understand logarithms is to start with the base ten logarithm.
You can think of the (base ten) logarithm of a number as the number of zeroes after
a number.

x log10(x)
5
100 000 10 5
10 000 104 4
1 000 103 3
100 102 2
10 101 1
1 100 0
0.1 10−1 −1
0.01 10−2 −2
0.001 10−3 −3
0.000 1 10−4 −4
0.000 01 10−5 −5

As you can see from the above table, the logarithm of a number turns a set of
numbers that vary exponentially (powers of ten) into a set that vary linearly.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Logarithms Page: 103
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
You can get a visual sense of the logarithm function from the logarithmic number
line below:

Notice that the distance from 1 to 10 is the same as the distance from 10 to 100 and
from 100 to 1000. In fact, the relative distance to every number on this number
line is the logarithm of the number.

distance from beginning

x log10(x)
of number line
100 0 0
0.5
10 ≈ 3.16 0.5 ½ cycle
101 = 10 1 1 cycle
102 = 100 2 2 cycles
103 = 1000 3 3 cycles

By inspection, you can see that the same is true for numbers that are not exact
powers of ten. The logarithm function compresses correspondingly more as the
numbers get larger.

The most useful mathematical property of logarithms is that they move an exponent
into the linear part of the equation:

log10 (103 )  3log10 (10)  (3)(1)  3

In fact, the logarithm function works the same way for any base, not just 10:

log2 (27 )  7log2 (2)  (7)(1)  7

(In this case, the word “base” means the base of the exponent.) The general
equation is:

log x (ab )  b log x (a)

This is a powerful tool in solving for the exponent in an equation. This is, in fact,
precisely the purpose of using logarithms in most mathematical equations.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Logarithms Page: 104
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement
Sample problem:
Q: Solve 3x  15 for x.

A: Take the logarithm of both sides. (Note that writing “log” without supplying a
base implies that the base is 10.)
log(3x )  log(15)
x log(3)  log(15)
(x)(0.477)  1.176
1.176
x  2.465
0.477

This is the correct answer, because 32.465  15

A powerful tool that follows from this is using

logarithmic graph paper to solve equations. If
you plot an exponential function on semi-
logarithmic (“semi-log”) graph paper (meaning
graph paper that has a logarithmic scale on one
axis but not the other), you get a straight line.

The graph at the right is the function y  2x .

Notice where the following points appear on
the graph:
Domain Range
0 1
1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16
5 32

Notice also that you can use the graph to find

intermediate values. For example, at x = 2.6,
the graph shows that y = 6.06.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Math & Measurement Page: 105
Big Ideas Details Unit: Math & Measurement

Summary: Math & Measurement

Unit: Math & Measurement
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Matter Page: 107
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter

Introduction: Matter
Unit: Matter
Topics covered in this chapter:
States of Matter........................................................................................... 109
Properties of Matter .................................................................................... 111
Phase Diagrams ........................................................................................... 115
Phases & Phase Changes ............................................................................. 120
Conservation of Mass, Energy and Charge .................................................. 123

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Matter Page: 108
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter
Standards addressed in this chapter:
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS1-11(MA) : Design strategies to identify and separate the components of
a mixture based on relevant chemical and physical properties.
HS-PS2-8(MA) : Use kinetic molecular theory to compare the strengths of
electrostatic forces and the prevalence of interactions that occur between
molecules in solids, liquids, and gases. Use the combined gas law to
determine changes in pressure, volume, and temperature in gases.
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):
1.1 Identify and explain physical properties (e.g., density, melting point, boiling
point, conductivity, malleability) and chemical properties (e.g., the ability to
form new substances). Distinguish between chemical and physical changes.
1.2 Explain the difference between pure substances (elements and compounds)
and mixtures. Differentiate between heterogeneous and homogeneous
mixtures.
1.3 Describe the three normal states of matter (solid, liquid, gas) in terms of
energy, particle motion, and phase transitions.
6.3 Using the kinetic molecular theory, describe and contrast the properties of
gases, liquids, and solids. Explain, at the molecular level, the behavior of
matter as it undergoes phase transitions.
6.4 Describe the law of conservation of energy. Explain the difference between
an endothermic process and an exothermic process.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 States of Matter Page: 109
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter

States of Matter
Unit: Matter
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-11(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 1.3, 6.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Define & describe states of matter and transitions between states.
 Classify matter according to its physical state.
Success Criteria:
 States of matter and transitions are described using correct vocabulary.
 States of matter are correctly identified based on observable properties.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: state, matter
Language Objectives:
 Explain the three common states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) and the
properties of each.
 Explain the difference between a physical and chemical change.

Notes:
matter: anything that has mass and takes up space (has volume).

Examples of matter: anything you can touch or feel—solids, liquids, and gases.

Examples of things that are not matter: forms of energy such as light,
microwaves, radio waves, etc.

state of matter: the physical form the matter is in (solid, liquid, gas, or plasma)

solid: a state of matter in which the molecules are bonded (attached) to each other.
Molecules in a solid move back and forth, but cannot break free from the other
molecules. Solids have a definite shape and a definite volume.

liquid: a state of matter in which bonds between the molecules are continuously
breaking and forming. Molecules in a liquid are free to move, but are attracted
to nearby liquid molecules. Liquids have a definite volume, but not a definite
shape. (Liquids take on the shape of their containers.)

gas: a state of matter in which the molecules are not bonded to one another.
Molecules in a gas are free to move anywhere within the confines of their
container. Gases have neither a definite shape nor a definite volume. (Gases
expand to fill their containers.)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 States of Matter Page: 110
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter
plasma: a state in which the molecules have so much energy that they cannot hold
onto all of their electrons. Charge is continuously flowing through the plasma
and can often be seen as blue streaks (such as in a plasma globe).

Note that the distinctions between the phases can be subtle. For example, ketchup
has a definite shape unless you wait for a long time, but it eventually takes on the
shape of its container. As it turns out, ketchup is a liquid with a high viscosity
(meaning that it resists flowing). Glass flows very slowly (windows that are
centuries old are thicker at the bottom than at the top), but this is because of the
movement of solid particles. (This is analogous to small pebbles settling to the
bottom of a bucket of rocks.) Glass is therefore an amorphous (irregularly-shaped)
solid, not a viscous liquid.

melting: the transition from a solid to a liquid.

freezing: the transition from a liquid to a solid.
boiling: the transition from a liquid to a gas.
condensation (or condensing): the transition from a gas to a liquid.
sublimation (or subliming): the transition from a solid directly to a gas.
deposition (or depositing): the transition from a gas directly to a solid.
Some properties of solids, liquids and gases and the processes of converting
between them are summarized in the phase diagram below:

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Properties of Matter Page: 111
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter

Properties of Matter
Unit: Matter
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-11(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 1.1, 1.2
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Describe the properties of mixtures and pure substances.
 Classify substances as heterogeneous or homogeneous mixtures, compounds,
or elements according based on information about those substances.
 Identify methods of separating mixtures based on differences in properties.
Success Criteria:
 Substances are correctly identified as mixtures (heterogeneous or
homogeneous), compounds or elements.
 Suitable methods for separating mixtures are chosen based on differences in
chemical or physical properties.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: physical, chemical, property, mixture, compound, element
Language Objectives:
 Demonstrate understanding of the key terms “homogeneous mixture,”
“heterogeneous mixture,” “compound,” and “element.”

Notes:
physical properties: characteristics of the substance that can be measured or
observed without changing the identity of the substance. E.g., boiling point,
freezing point, density, size, shape, color, etc.

chemical properties: characteristics of the substance having to do with how the

atoms and molecules that make up substance can be combined with or changed
into other substances. These properties can only be measured through changes
to the identity of the substance. E.g., chemical reactivity, flammability.

physical change: any change that alters the physical properties of the substance,
such as freezing, boiling, tearing, crushing, etc.

chemical change: any change that alters the chemical properties (identity) of the
substance, such as burning, cooking, rusting, decaying, etc.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Properties of Matter Page: 112
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter
Note that the difference between a physical change and a chemical change can be
subtle. For example, if you have a solution of sugar dissolved in water and you let
the water evaporate, this would be a physical change because the sugar and water
molecules are each unchanged by the process.

However, if you have a solution of salt dissolved in water and you evaporate the
water, this would be a chemical change, because when salt dissolves in water, the
ionic bonds between the sodium and chloride ions break and the ions remain
separate while the salt is in solution. When you evaporate the water, ionic bonds
form between the sodium and chloride ions, which creates the ionic compound
sodium chloride.

There is no way to see this difference. This means you need to understand chemical
bonds and the processes of forming and breaking them in order to be able to decide
whether a change is physical or chemical!

Mixtures vs. Pure Substances

mixture: two or more different substances sharing the same space or volume.
Mixtures can be separated based on differences in physical properties.
Mixtures can be:
homogeneous: every sample of the mixture is the same, no matter what part of
the mixture it’s taken from. (homo = same) E.g., salt water. Gatorade

heterogeneous: samples taken from different parts of the mixture may be

different. (hetero = different) E.g., chocolate chip cookies, orange juice.

pure substance: a pure substance is a substance that cannot be separated or

broken down by any physical change. A pure substances can be a:
compound: a substance made out of different kinds of atoms that are
chemically bonded together. Compounds can be broken down through
chemical changes. Anything that can be described by a chemical formula is
a compound. E.g., H2O, C6H12O6, NaCl (table salt), C3H8O (rubbing alcohol).
element: a substance made out of only one kind of atom. Elements cannot be
broken down through chemical changes. The periodic table lists all of the
known elements according to their properties, which means any substance
on the periodic table is an element. E.g., iron, gold, oxygen, aluminum.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Properties of Matter Page: 113
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter
Separating Mixtures
Mixtures can be separated based on differences in the physical properties of the
different substances that make up the mixture. Some processes used for separating
mixtures include:

filtration: separating substances by size—larger ones are trapped on the filter and
smaller ones can pass through.

distillation: separating substances that have different boiling points by heating to a

temperature at which one boils and the other does not.

evaporation: evaporating or boiling off water (or another solvent) to leave behind a
solid.

crystallization: separating substances that have different freezing points by letting

one form a solid (freeze), but not the other.

centrifugation: separating substances according to their densities by spinning them

at high speeds.

chromatography: separating substances by how quickly or slowly they move

through another substance.

Homework Problems
For each of the following changes, state whether the change is chemical or physical
and explain how you know.
1. water boiling

2. iron rusting

3. cooking an egg

4. breaking glass

5. tearing up a piece of paper

6. burning a piece of paper

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Properties of Matter Page: 114
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter
7. making crushed ice in a blender

8. garbage turning into compost

9. leaves changing color

Classify the each of the following types of matter as a heterogeneous mixture,

homogeneous mixture, compound, or element.

10. pure water (H2O) 16. carbonated soda

11. helium 17. ice water (pure H2O, but both

liquid and solid)

12. chocolate-chip cookies

18. aluminum

13. salt water

19. chicken noodle soup

14. orange juice

20. chicken broth

15. 14-karat gold (note: pure

gold is 24K) 21. glucose (C6H12O6)

22. How would you separate a mixture of sugar, sand, and hollow plastic beads?

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phase Diagrams Page: 115
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter

Phase Diagrams
Unit: Matter
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-11(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 1.3, 6.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Identify the phase of a substance at any combination of temperature and
pressure.
 Determine the melting and boiling points of a substance any pressure.
Success Criteria:
 Phases are correctly identified as solid, liquid, gas, supercritical fluid, etc., in
accordance with the temperature and pressure indicated on the phase
diagram.
 Melting and boiling point temperatures are correctly identified for a
substance from its phase diagram for a given pressure.
 The effects of a pressure or temperature change (e.g., substance would melt,
sublime, etc.) are correctly explained based on the phase diagram.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: phase, curve, fusion, solid, liquid, gas, vapor
Language Objectives:
 Explain the regions of a phase diagram and the relationship between each
region and the temperature and pressure of the substance..

Notes:
The phase of a substance (solid, liquid, gas) depends on its temperature and
pressure.

phase diagram: a graph showing the phase(s) present at different temperatures and
pressures.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phase Diagrams Page: 116
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter

fusion curve: the set of temperatures and pressures at which a substance

melts/freezes.

vaporization curve: the set of temperatures & pressures at which a substance

vaporizes/condenses.

sublimation curve: the set of temperatures & pressures at which a substance

sublimes/deposits.

triple point: the temperature and pressure at which a substance can exist
simultaneously as a solid, liquid, and gas.

critical point: the highest temperature at which the substance can exist as a liquid.
The critical point is the endpoint of the vaporization curve.

supercritical fluid: a substance whose temperature and pressure are above the
critical point. The substance would be expected to be a liquid (due to the
pressure), but the molecules have so much energy that the substance behaves
more like a gas.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phase Diagrams Page: 117
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter
Phase Diagram for Water

Note that pressure is on a logarithmic scale, and that standard atmospheric pressure
is 1 bar ≈ 1 atm.

Note also that the temperature is in kelvin. To convert degrees Celsius to kelvin,
add 273. (e.g., 25 °C + 273 = 298 K.)

Notice that the slope of the fusion curve (melting/freezing line) is negative. This is
because ice I is less dense than liquid water. At temperatures near the melting
point and pressures less than about 2 000 bar, increasing the pressure will cause ice
to melt. Water is one of the only known substances that exhibits this behavior.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phase Diagrams Page: 118
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter
Phase Diagram for Carbon Dioxide

Notice that the pressure of the triple point for CO2 is about 5 bar, which means CO2
cannot be a liquid at atmospheric pressure. This is why dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes
directly from a solid to a gas.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phase Diagrams Page: 119
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter
Homework Problems
Answer these questions based on the phase diagrams for water and carbon dioxide.

1. Approximately what pressure would be necessary to boil water at a

temperature of 350 K?

2. What is the minimum pressure necessary for water to exist as a liquid at

350 K?

3. At approximately what temperature would water boil if the pressure is

10 bar?

4. What is the highest temperature at which carbon dioxide can exist as a

liquid?

5. At 1.0 bar of pressure, what is the temperature at which carbon dioxide

sublimes?

6. At room temperature (25 °C ≈ 300 K), what is the minimum pressure at which
liquid carbon dioxide can exist?

7. Describe the phase transitions and temperatures for water going from 200 K
to 400 K at a pressure of 0.1 bar.

8. Describe the phase transitions and temperatures for carbon dioxide going
200 K to 300 K at a pressure of 10 bar.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phases & Phase Changes Page: 120
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter

Phases & Phase Changes

Unit: Matter
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-3, HS-PS2-8(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 1.3, 6.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Compare observable states of matter and phase transitions with behavior at
the molecular level.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions include connectedness and motion of molecules.
 Descriptions include comparative descriptions of molecular speed.
 Descriptions relate molecular motion and speed to temperature.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: phase, solid, liquid, gas, vapor
Language Objectives:
 Explain phase changes in terms of changes in molecular behavior.

Notes:
macroscopic: objects or bulk properties of matter that we can observe directly.
microscopic: objects or properties of matter that are too small to observe directly.
In chemistry, the macroscopic properties of a substance are determined by
microscopic interactions between the individual molecules.*

*
In this text, the term “molecules” is frequently used to refer to the particles that make up a
substance. A molecule is more properly a group of atoms that are covalently bonded
together. A substance can be made of individual atoms, molecules, crystals, or other types
of particles. This text uses the term “molecules” because the term gives most students a
reasonably correct picture of entities that are firmly attached to each other and cannot be
pulled apart by physical means.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phases & Phase Changes Page: 121
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter
States of Matter
The following table shows interactions between the molecules and some observable
properties for solids, liquids and gases. Note that the table includes heating curves,
which will be discussed in more detail later in the course. For now, understand that
a heating curve shows how the temperature changes as heat is added. Notice in
particular that the temperature stays constant during melting and boiling.

state phase diagram heating curve molecules

rigidly bonded

solid

adding energy makes molecules move faster;

temperature increases
some bonds breaking

melting

adding energy breaks some of the bonds;

temperature remains constant
bonds breaking &
re-forming rapidly

↔
liquid

adding energy makes molecules move faster;

temperature increases

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phases & Phase Changes Page: 122
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter
state phase diagram heating curve molecules
all bonds breaking

boiling

adding energy breaks all remaining bonds;

temperature remains constant
molecules
moving freely

vapor
(gas)

adding energy makes molecules move faster;

temperature increases

Note that because liquids are continually forming and breaking bonds, if a liquid
molecule at the surface breaks its bonds with other liquids, it can “escape” from the
attractive forces of the other liquid molecules and become a vapor molecule. This is
how evaporation happens at temperatures well below the boiling point of the
liquid.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Conservation of Mass, Energy and Charge Page: 123
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter

Conservation of Mass, Energy and Charge

Unit: Matter
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-3, HS-PS2-8(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 6.4
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Explain conservation of mass, energy, and charge.
 Apply conservation of mass, energy, and charge to situations.
Success Criteria:
 Explanations account for mass, energy, and charge in a variety of changing
situations.
 Students can set up and solve equations of the form initial + change = final in
the context of problems involving conservation of mass, energy, and charge.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: conservation
Language Objectives:
 Explain what happens to mass, energy and charge in situations where these
quantities are transferred from one object or system to another.

Notes:
conservation law: a statement that says that a quantity is the same before and after
some change; a “before = after” statement.

Conservation of Mass/Matter: matter (mass) cannot be created or destroyed

(except in a nuclear reaction), only changed in form. The total mass before any
chemical or physical change equals the total mass after the change. Also the
mass of each element (each kind of atom) before any chemical or physical
change equals the mass of that same element afterwards.

Conservation of Energy: energy cannot be created or destroyed (except in nuclear

reactions), only changed in form. The energy that was present before any
change equals the energy that is present after the change.

Conservation of Electrical Charge: electrical charges cannot be created or

destroyed, only transferred from one atom/molecule/etc. to another.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Conservation of Mass, Energy and Charge Page: 124
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter
Sample problem:
Q: 12.5 g of sodium hydrogen carbonate is added to a beaker containing 100. g of
dilute hydrochloric acid. The reaction produces carbon dioxide gas, sodium
hydroxide, water, and sodium chloride, according to the following chemical
equation:

NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2

If the contents of the beaker have a mass of 108.2 g after the reaction is
complete, how much CO2 gas escaped?

A: The total mass of the chemicals before the reaction must equal the total mass
afterwards. The initial mass is 100 + 12.5 = 112.5 g. The mass afterwards must
also be 112.5 g. If 108.2 g is still in the beaker, then the remaining mass,
112.5 − 108.2 = 4.3 g, must be the CO2 that escaped.

Nuclear Reactions
In a nuclear reaction, mass can be converted to energy according to the formula:

E = mc2
Where:

E = energy m = mass c = the speed of light

Note that the speed of light is a very large number: 3.00  108 m
s
. Therefore, c2 is
even larger: 9.00  1016 m2
s2
. This means that a very small amount of mass creates an
extremely large amount of energy. This is where the energy in a nuclear explosion
comes from—mass that was turned into energy.

This law is called the law of Conservation of Mass and Energy. This law (and its
equation, E = mc2) describes the only we know of that mass can be destroyed, and
the only way we know of that energy can be created.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Conservation of Mass, Energy and Charge Page: 125
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter
Homework Problems
1. Suppose your breakfast contained 500 Calories of energy. Suppose you
missed your bus (or your ride) and you had to walk 2 miles to school, which
burned 200 Calories. How many Calories of energy from your breakfast are
left for you to get through your morning classes?

Answer: 300 Calories

2. In your car’s gas tank, the following chemical reaction occurs:

C8H18 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

The gasoline (C8H18) in a typical car’s fuel tank weighs about 80 pounds.
Burning that much gas uses about 300 pounds of oxygen from the Earth’s
atmosphere, and it produces 120 pounds of H2O. How many pounds of CO2
did that tank of gas produce?

Answer: 260 lbs.

3. A nuclear reactor converts 4 × 10−9 kg of uranium to energy. How much

energy is produced?

Answer: 3.6 × 108 J or 360 MJ

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Matter Page: 126
Big Ideas Details Unit: Matter

Summary: Matter
Unit: Matter
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Gases Page: 127
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases

Introduction: Gases
Unit: Gases
Topics covered in this chapter:
Gases & Kinetic-Molecular Theory .............................................................. 129
Gas Conversion Factors ............................................................................... 132
Gas Laws ...................................................................................................... 134
Ideal Gas Law ............................................................................................... 144
Partial Pressures .......................................................................................... 148
Molecular Speed & Effusion ........................................................................ 155

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Gases Page: 128
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Standards addressed in this chapter:
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS2-8(MA) Use kinetic molecular theory to compare the strengths of
electrostatic forces and the prevalence of interactions that occur between
molecules in solids, liquids, and gases. Use the combined gas law to
determine changes in pressure, volume, and temperature in gases.
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):
6.1 Using the kinetic molecular theory, explain the behavior of gases and the
relationship between pressure and volume (Boyle's law), volume and
temperature (Charles's law), pressure and temperature (Amonton's law),
and the number of particles in a gas sample (Avogadro's hypothesis). Use
the combined gas law to determine changes in pressure, volume, and
temperature.
6.2 Perform calculations using the ideal gas law. Understand the molar volume
at 273 K and 1 atmosphere (STP).
6.3 Using the kinetic molecular theory, describe and contrast the properties of
gases, liquids, and solids. Explain, at the molecular level, the behavior of
matter as it undergoes phase transitions.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gases & Kinetic-Molecular Theory Page: 129
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases

Gases & Kinetic-Molecular Theory

Unit: Gases
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-8(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 6.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Explain how each aspect of Kinetic-Molecular Theory applies to gases.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions account for behavior at the molecular level.
 Descriptions account for measurable properties, e.g., temperature, pressure,
volume, etc.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: kinetic, gas, ideal, real
Language Objectives:
 Explain how gas molecules behave and how their behavior relates to
properties we can measure.

Notes:
Recall the following definitions:
 solid: molecules rigidly bonded (definite shape & volume)
 liquid: molecules bonded (definite volume), but loosely. Bonds continually
breaking & re-forming (indefinite shape)
 gas: molecules not bonded (indefinite volume & shape)
 plasma: heat of surroundings > ionization energy, so electrons are loosely
bonded & continually dissociate from and re-associate with ions. Electrical
charge is fluid and in continual motion.

evaporation: conversion of liquid to gas.

boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid completely evaporates.

normal boiling point: the boiling point of a liquid when the pressure is 1 atm
(average atmospheric pressure at sea level).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gases & Kinetic-Molecular Theory Page: 130
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Kinetic-Molecular Theory
Kinetic-Molecular Theory (KMT) is a theory, developed by James C. Maxwell and
Ludwig Boltzmann, that predicts the behavior of gases by modeling them as moving
molecules. The theory states that:
 Gases are made of very large numbers of molecules
 Molecules are constantly moving (obeying Newton’s laws of motion), and
their speeds are constant
 Molecules are very far apart compared with their diameter
 Molecules collide with each other and walls of container in elastic collisions
 Molecules behaving according to KMT are not reacting* or exerting any other
forces (attractive or repulsive) on each other.

temperature: a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a

substance

ideal gas: a gas whose molecules behave according to KMT. Most gases are ideal
under some conditions (but not all).

real gas: a gas that is not behaving according to KMT. This can occur with all gases,
most commonly at temperatures and pressures that are close to the solid or
liquid sections of the phase diagram for the substance.

*
Of course, reactions can occur, but chemical reactions are part of collision theory, which is
separate from KMT.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gases & Kinetic-Molecular Theory Page: 131
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Measurable Properties of Gases
All gases have the following properties that can be measured:

Property Variable Units Description

moles amount of gas
amount n
(mol) (1 mol = 6.02 × 1023 molecules)
liters
volume V space that the gas takes up
(L)
ability to transfer heat (proportional
kelvin
temperature T to the average kinetic energy of the
(K)
molecules)
bar, atm, average force on the walls of the
pressure P kPa, mm Hg container due to collisions between
(torr), etc. the molecules and the walls

Notes about calculations:

 Temperature must be absolute, which means you must use Kelvin. A
temperature of 0 in a gas laws calculation can only mean absolute zero.
 Pressures must be absolute. (For example, you can’t use a tire gauge
because it measures “gauge pressure,” which is the difference between
atmospheric pressure and the pressure inside the tire.) A pressure of 0 in a
gas laws calculation can only mean that there are no molecules colliding
with the walls.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gas Conversion Factors Page: 132
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases

Gas Conversion Factors

Unit: Gases
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-8(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 6.1, 6.2
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Choose conversion factors based on the units needed for a calculation or
conversion.
Success Criteria:
 Conversion factor has the same units as other numbers in a chosen word
problem or situation.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: conversion, absolute, standard, vacuum
Language Objectives:
 Explain and defend the choice of a conversion factor or constant for use in a
problem involving gases.

Notes:
absolute zero: the temperature at which molecules are moving so slowly that they
can’t transfer energy to other molecules. Absolute zero is −273.15 °C = 0 K
vacuum: the absence of gas molecules. In a total vacuum, the Pressure = 0
“Standard Pressure” = 1 bar*
“Standard Temperature” = 0oC = 273.15 K
S.T.P. (“Standard Temperature and Pressure”) = 0 oC and 1 bar.
“Room Temperature” = 25 oC = 298 K
1 mole of an ideal gas has a volume of 22.7 L at S.T.P.

*
In 1982, the IUPAC defined standard pressure to be exactly 1 bar (= 100 kPa = 0.987 atm).
However, many chemists and many standardized assessments still use 1 atm.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gas Conversion Factors Page: 133
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases

Conversion Factors
Pressure:
1 atm  101.325 kPa  0.101 325 MPa  1.01325 bar
 101 325 N2  101 325 Pa
m
1 atm  760 mm Hg  760 torr = 29.92 in. Hg
1 atm = 14.696 lb. = 14.696 psi (“psi” = “pounds per square inch”)
in.2

Volume:
1 mL  1 cm3
1 L  1000 m3

Moles:
1 mol = 22.7 L at S.T.P.*

g
Use dimensional analysis to turn the molar mass of a compound (measured in mol
)
into a conversion factor between grams and moles.

Temperature:
K  oC + 273.15 o
F  (1.8 × oC) + 32 o
R  oF + 459.67

The Gas Constant:

The gas constant R is a natural constant that appears in several relationships in
chemistry, including the ideal gas law (which we will study in a subsequent class).

atm
R  0.0821 Lmol K

LkPa  8.31 J  8.31  10-3 kJ

R  8.31 mol K molK molK

torr
R  62.4 Lmol R  1.987 mol
cal  1.987 BTU
K K lb-mol R

*
Massachusetts assessments still use the outdated definition of S.T.P. The volume of one
mole of an ideal gas at 1 atm and 0 °C is 22.4 L.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gas Laws Page: 134
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases

Gas Laws
Unit: Gases
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-8(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 6.1
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Qualitatively describe the relationship between any two of the quantities:
number of particles, temperature, pressure, and volume in terms of Kinetic
Molecular Theory (KMT).
 Quantitatively determine the number of particles, temperature, pressure, or
volume in a before & after problem in which one or more of these quantities
is changing.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions relate behavior at the molecular level to behavior at the
macroscopic level.
 Solutions have the correct quantities substituted for the correct variables.
 Chosen value of the gas constant has the same units as the other quantities in
the problem.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: ideal, law
Language Objectives:
 Identify each quantity based on its units and assign the correct variable to it.
 Understand and correctly use the terms “pressure,” “volume,” and
“temperature,” and “ideal gas.”
 Explain the placement of each quantity in the ideal gas law.

Labs, Activities & Demonstrations:

 Vacuum pump (pressure & volume) with:
o balloon (air vs. water)
o shaving cream
 Absolute zero apparatus (pressure & temperature)
 Can crush (pressure, volume & temperature)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gas Laws Page: 135
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Notes:
ideal gas: a gas that behaves as if each molecule acts independently, according to
kinetic-molecular theory. Specifically, this means the molecules are far apart,
and move freely in straight lines at constant speeds. When the molecules
collide, the collisions are perfectly elastic, which means they bounce off each
other with no energy or momentum lost.

Most gases behave ideally except at temperatures and pressures near the
vaporization curve on a phase diagram. (I.e., gases stop behaving ideally when
conditions are close to those that would cause the gas to condense to a liquid or
solid.)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gas Laws Page: 136
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Note about Subscripts and Variables
When variables appear more than once in an equation with different values each
time, we use subscripts to group them. You have already seen this a few times in
math, e.g., in the formula for the slope of a line and the distance formula:

y  y1
slope: m  2 distance: d  (x2  x1 )2  (y2  y1 )2
x 2  x1

In the above examples, the subscripts “1” and “2” are used to group the x and y
values based on whether they refer to the first point (x1, y1), or the second one (x2,
y2).

In chemistry, we use subscripts the same way. For example, if a gas is heated, that
means the temperature is changing. We refer to the starting temperature
(temperature #1) as T1, and the ending temperature (temperature #2) as T2. The
same concept applies to other variables as well, such as moles (n), volume (V ), and
pressure (P ).

Proportionalities
directly proportional: if two quantities are directly proportional, as one increases,
the other increases proportionately.

x
If x and y are directly proportional, then x  y which means x = ky and k
y
where k is a constant. You should notice that x and y are either numerator and
denominator in a fraction, or are on opposite sides of the equals sign.

inversely proportional: if two quantities are inversely proportional, as one increases,

the other decreases proportionately.

1
If x and y are inversely proportional, then x  which means xy = k where k is
y
a constant. You should notice that x and y are on the same side of the equals
sign.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gas Laws Page: 137
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Avogadro’s Principle
In 1811, Italian physicist Amedeo Avogadro (whose full name was Lorenzo Romano
Amedeo Carlo Avogadro di Quaregna e di Cerreto) published the principle that equal
volumes of an ideal gas at the same temperature and pressure must contain equal
numbers of particles.

What are the

What did we do? What happened? Conclusion
molecules doing?

n and V are
put more (moles crowding each
the volume of the directly
of) air into a other → pushing
balloon got larger proportional.
balloon each other farther
V V
n away  constant
n

If the pressure and temperature are constant, then for an ideal gas:
*
V1 V2

N1 N2

Because it is almost always more convenient to work with moles of gas (n) rather
than particles (N), we can rewrite Avogadro’s principle as:

V1 V2

n1 n2

* n1 n2
Avogadro’s principle is usually stated  . I have inverted it in these notes so that the
V1 V2
quantities in the numerator and denominator are the same as the quantities in the
numerator and denominator of the combined gas law.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gas Laws Page: 138
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Boyle’s Law
In 1662, British physicist and chemist Robert Boyle published his findings that the
pressure and volume of a gas were inversely proportional.

What are the

What did we do? What happened? Conclusion
molecules doing?

decrease pressure
the volume of the colliding with less P and V are
by putting a
air inside the force → pushing inversely
balloon in a
balloon increased each other less far proportional.
vacuum chamber
V away P V = constant
P

Therefore, if the temperature and the number of particles of gas are constant, then
for an ideal gas:
P1V1  P2V2

(Note that by convention, gas laws use subscripts “1” and “2” instead of “i” and “f”.)

Charles’ Law
In the 1780s, French physicist Jacques Charles discovered that the volume and
temperature of a gas were directly proportional.

What are the

What did we do? What happened? Conclusion
molecules doing?

cool gas by V and T are

the volume of the moving more
putting a soda can directly
air got smaller and slowly → pushing
full of very hot air proportional.
crushed the can each other less far
into cool water
V
V away  constant
T T

If pressure and the number of particles are constant, then for an ideal gas:
V1 V2

T1 T2

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gas Laws Page: 139
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Gay-Lussac’s Law
In 1702, French physicist Guillaume Amontons discovered that there is a
relationship between the pressure and temperature of a gas. However, precise
thermometers were not invented until after Amontons’ discovery, so it wasn’t until
1808, over a century later, that French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac confirmed
this law mathematically. The pressure law is most often attributed to Gay-Lussac,
though some texts refer to it as Amontons’ Law.

What are the

What did we do? What happened? Conclusion
molecules doing?

increase P and T are

temperature by the pressure of moving faster → directly
heating a metal the air increased colliding with more proportional.
sphere full of air force
P P
 constant
T T

If volume and the number of particles are constant, then for an ideal gas:
P1 P2

T1 T2

The Combined Gas Law

We can combine each of the above principles. When we do this (keeping P and V in
the numerator and n and T in the denominator for consistency), we get following
relationship for an ideal gas:
P1V1 P2V2
  constant
n1T1 n2T2

Note, however, that in most problems, the number of moles of gas remains
constant. This means n1 = n2 and we can cancel it from the equation, which gives:
P1V1 P2V2

T1 T2

This equation is called the “combined gas law”, which is used to solve most
“before/after” problems involving ideal gases.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gas Laws Page: 140
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
When using the combined gas law, any quantity that is not changing may be
cancelled out of the equation. (If a quantity is not mentioned in the problem, you
can assume that it is constant and may be cancelled.)

This brings us to an important point about science problems: If something is not

mentioned in a problem, always assume that it doesn’t affect the problem. On a
standardized test like MCAS or an AP® test, it’s usually best to state those
assumptions explicitly, because if your assumption is valid and you do the rest of the
problem correctly, you will almost always receive some credit, even if your
assumption was different from what the person who wrote the problem intended.

For example, suppose a problem doesn’t mention anything about temperature.

That means T is constant and you can cancel it. When you cancel T from both sides
of the combined gas law, you get:

P1V1 P2V2
 which simplifies to P1V1  P2V2 (Boyle’s Law)
T1 T2

Solving Problems Using the Combined Gas Law

You can use this method to solve any “before/after” gas law problem:

1. Determine which variables you have

2. Determine which values are initia l (#1) vs. final (#2).
3. Start with the combined gas law and cancel any variables that are explicitly
not changing or omitted (assumed not to be changing).
4. Substitute your numbers into the resulting equation and solve. (Make sure
all initial and final quantities have the same units, and don’t forget that
temperatures must be in Kelvin!)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gas Laws Page: 141
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Sample problem:
Q: A gas has a temperature of 25 °C and a pressure of 1.5 bar. If the gas is heated
to 35 °C, what will the new pressure be?

A: 1. Find which variables we have.

We have two temperatures (25 °C and 35 °C), and two pressures (1.5 bar
and the new pressure that we’re looking for).
2. Find the action being done on the gas (“heated”). Anything that was true
about the gas before the action is time “1”, and anything that is true about
the gas after the action is time “2”.

Time 1 (“before”): Time 2 (“after”):

P 1 = 1.5 bar P2 = P2

T 1 = 25 °C + 273 = 298 K T 2 = 35 °C + 273 = 308 K

3. Set up the formula. We can cancel volume (V), because the problem
doesn’t mention it:
P1V1 P2V2 P P
 which gives us 1  2 (Gay-Lussac’s Law)
T1 T2 T1 T2

4. Plug in our values and solve:

1.5bar P
 2 → P2 = 1.55 bar
298 K 308 K

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gas Laws Page: 142
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Homework Problems
Solve these problems using one of the gas laws in this section. Remember to
convert temperatures to Kelvin!
1. A sample of oxygen gas occupies a volume of 250. mL at a pressure of
740. torr. What volume will it occupy at 800. torr?

Answer: 0.0272 m3

2. A sample of O2 is at a temperature of 40.0 °C and occupies a volume of

2.30 L. To what temperature should it be raised to occupy a volume of
6.50 L?

Answer: 612 °C
3. H2 gas was cooled from 150. °C to 50. °C. Its new pressure is 750 torr. What
was its original pressure?

Answer: 980 torr

4. A 2.00 L container of N2 had a pressure of 3.20 atm. What volume would be
necessary to decrease the pressure to 98.0 kPa?
(Hint: notice that the pressures are in different units. You will need to convert
one of them so that both pressures are in either atm or kPa.)

Answer: 6.62 L
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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Gas Laws Page: 143
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
5. A sample of air has a volume of 60.0 mL at S.T.P. What volume will the
sample have at 55.0 °C and 745 torr?

Answer: 73.5 mL
6. N2 gas is enclosed in a tightly stoppered 500. mL flask at 20.0 °C and 1 atm.
The flask, which is rated for a maximum pressure of 3.00 atm, is heated to
680. °C. Will the flask explode?

Answer: P2 = 3.25 atm. Yes, the flask will explode.

7. A scuba diver’s 10. L air tank is filled to a pressure of 210 bar at a dockside
temperature of 32.0 °C. When the diver is breathing the air underwater, the
water temperature is 8.0 °C, and the pressure is 2.1 bar.
a. What volume of air does the diver use?

Answer: 921 L

b. If the diver uses air at the rate of 8.0 L/min, how long will the diver’s air
last?

Answer: 115 min

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Ideal Gas Law Page: 144
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases

Ideal Gas Law

Unit: Gases
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-8(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 6.2
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Describe the relationship between any two variables in the ideal gas law.
 Apply the ideal gas law to problems involving a sample of gas.
Success Criteria:
 Solutions have the correct quantities substituted for the correct variables.
 Chosen value of the gas constant has the same units as the other quantities in
the problem.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: ideal, law
Language Objectives:
 Identify each quantity based on its units and assign the correct variable to it.
 Explain the placement of each quantity in the ideal gas law.

Notes:
ideal gas: a gas that behaves according to Kinetic-Molecular Theory (KMT).

When we developed the combined gas law, before we cancelled the number of
moles, we had the equation:
P1V1 P2V2
  constant
n1T1 n2T2

Because P, V, n and T are all of the quantities needed to specify the conditions of an
ideal gas, this expression must be true for any ideal gas under any conditions. If V is
in liters, P is in kPa, n is in moles and T is in Kelvin, then the value of this constant is
LkPa . This number is called “the gas constant”, and is denoted by the variable
8.31 mol K
R in equations.
Therefore, we can rewrite the above expression as:
P1V1 P2V2
 R and therefore P1V1  n1RT1 and P2V2  n2RT2
n1T1 n2T2

Because this expression is true under any conditions, 1, 2, or whatever, we can drop
the subscripts:
PV  nRT

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Ideal Gas Law Page: 145
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Choosing a value of R
The purpose of the gas constant R is to convert the quantity nT from units of mol∙K
to units of pressure × volume. As we saw earlier in this chapter, the gas constant
has different values, depending on the units it needs to cancel:

atm
R  0.0821 Lmol K

LkPa  8.31 J  8.31  10-3 kJ

R  8.31 mol K molK molK

torr
R  62.4 Lmol R  1.987 mol
cal  1.987 BTU
K K lb-mol R

In order for the units in a problem to work out properly, R needs to have exactly the
same units as the values in the problem. In the problems we will be solving, this
usually means you need to look at the pressure units and choose the value of R that
has the same pressure unit as the pressure given in the problem.

Amazing Fact:
In the metric system, the unit of pressure (the Pascal) is a combination of the S.I.
units kg , and volume has units of m3. This means that pressure times volume
m  s2
2
(PV) has S.I. units of kg m , which happens to equal Joules (the unit for energy).
s2
Dimensional analysis tells us that if the units work, the resulting formula must be
correct.

So, if PV is equivalent to energy, nRT must also be equivalent to energy. In fact, PV

is the energy that the gas expends in doing work on its surroundings (such as by
expanding a balloon or pushing on a piston), and nRT is the kinetic energy of the
individual gas molecules.

In other words, the ideal gas law PV = nRT is simply the law of conservation of
energy, applied to gases!

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Ideal Gas Law Page: 146
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Solving Problems Using the Ideal Gas Law
If a gas behaves according to the ideal gas law, simply substitute the values for
pressure, volume, number of moles (or particles), and temperature into the
equation. Be sure your units are correct (especially that temperature is in Kelvin),
and that you use the correct constant, depending on whether you know the number
of particles or the number of moles of the gas.

Sample Problem:
n P
A 3.50 mol sample of an ideal gas has a pressure of 1.20 atm and a temperature of
35 °C. What is its volume?
T→K V
Answer:
First, we need to declare our variables and choose a value for R based on the
units:
P = 1.20 atm n = 3.50 mol
V = V (because we don’t’ know it atm (Choose this one
R  0.0821 Lmol K
yet)
because P is in atm.)
T = 35 °C + 273 = 308 K

Then we substitute these numbers into the ideal gas law and solve:
P V  n RT
atm )(308 K)
(1.20 atm) V  (3.50 mol)(0.0821 Lmol K
1.20 V  88.5
88.5
V  73.75L
1.20

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Ideal Gas Law Page: 147
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Homework Problems
Use the ideal gas law to solve the following problems. Be sure to choose the
appropriate value for the gas constant and to convert temperatures to Kelvin.

1. A sample of 1.00 moles of oxygen at 50.0◦C and 98.6 kPa occupies what
volume?

Answer: 27.2 L

2. If a steel cylinder with a volume of 1.50 ℓ contains 10.0 moles of oxygen,

under what pressure is the oxygen if the temperature is 27.0◦C?

Answer: 164 atm = 125 000 torr = 16 600 kPa

3. In a gas thermometer, the pressure of 0.500 L of helium is 113.30 kPa at a

temperature of −137 °C. How many moles of gas are in the sample?

Answer: 0.050 mol

4. A sample of 4.25 mol of hydrogen at 20.0 °C occupies a volume of 25.0 L.

Under what pressure is this sample?

Answer: 4.09 atm = 3 108 torr = 414 kPa

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Partial Pressures Page: 148
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases

Partial Pressures
Unit: Gases
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-7
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Calculate partial pressures based on conservation of matter.
Success Criteria:
 Solutions have the correct quantities substituted for the correct variables.
 Mole fractions are paired correctly with their partial pressures.
 If the problem requires the ideal gas law, chosen value of the gas constant has
the same units as the other quantities in the problem.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: mole
Language Objectives:
 Describe the pairing of each gas with its mole fraction and pressure.

Notes:
Partial Pressure: the partial pressure of a gas is the amount of pressure that would
result from only the molecules of that gas. The partial pressure of a substance is
denoted by the variable P (for pressure) and the chemical formula of the
substance as a subscript. For example, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in
a sample would be denoted by P CO2.

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures: the sum of all of the partial pressures in a sealed
container equals the total pressure.

P = PT = P 1 + P 2 + P 3 + …

(To make things more clear, we will use PT to mean the total pressure.)
mole fraction (χ): the fraction of the total moles (or molecules) that are the
compound of interest. For example, if we have 20 moles of gas, and 9 moles are
N2, the mole fraction of N2 is:
9 molN2
N   0.45
2
20 mol total

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Partial Pressures Page: 149
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Suppose we had the following tank, with a total pressure of 1.00 atm:

O2
N2 O2 N2
N2
O2
N2 O2 O2
O2
N2
N2
N2 O2
O2 O2

If we ignore all of the molecules except for nitrogen, the tank would look like this:

N2 N2
N2

N2
N2
N2
N2

If 45 % of the molecules are nitrogen (χN2 = 0.45), then the pressure just from these
nitrogen molecules (the partial pressure of nitrogen) must be 0.45 times the total
pressure of 1 atm. This means:
P N2 = χN2P T

P N2 = (0.45)(1 atm) = 0.45 atm

Similarly, because 55 % of the molecules are oxygen, this means:

χO = 0.55
2

P O2 = χO2P T P O2 = (0.55)(1 atm) = 0.55 atm

Note that the two partial pressures add up to the total pressure:
P T = P N2 + P O2 = 0.45 atm + 0.55 atm = 1 atm

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Partial Pressures Page: 150
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Using Dalton’s Law with the Ideal Gas Law
Recall the two tanks from our example. Assuming N2 and O2 are behaving like ideal
gases, the ideal gas law must be true in both tanks.

O2
N2 O2 N2 N2 N2
N2 N2
O2
N2 O2 O2
O2 N2
N2 N2
N2 N2
N2 O2 N2
O2 O2

P = PT n = nT P = P N2 n = n N2

P TV = n TRT P N2V = n N2RT

In other words, the ideal gas law can be used either with the total moles and total
pressure, or with the moles of one specific gas and the partial pressure of that gas.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Partial Pressures Page: 151
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Vapor Pressure
vapor pressure (Pvap) the partial pressure of a substance due to evaporation.

Because liquids are continually forming and breaking bonds, when a liquid molecule
at the surface breaks its bonds with other liquids, it can escape the attractive forces
of the other liquid molecules and become a vapor molecule. The tendency for
molecules to do this, when expressed as a partial pressure, is called the vapor
pressure.

Vapor pressure is a function of the kinetic energy of the molecules, which means
vapor pressure increases with temperature. At the boiling point, all of the
molecules have enough energy to enter the gas phase. This means that at the
boiling point, the vapor pressure must be equal to the ambient (atmospheric)
pressure.

The following table shows the vapor pressure of water at different temperatures.

Vapor Pressure of Water

Temp Pvap Temp Pvap Temp Pvap
(°C) (kPa) (°C) (kPa) (°C) (kPa)
0.01 0.61173 30 4.2455 70 31.176
1 0.65716 35 5.6267 75 38.563
4 0.81359 40 7.3814 80 47.373
5 0.87260 45 9.5898 85 57.815
10 1.2281 50 12.344 90 70.117
15 1.7056 55 15.752 95 84.529
20 2.3388 60 19.932 100 101.32
25 3.1691 65 25.022 105 120.79

Relative humidity is the actual partial pressure of water in air as a percentage of its
vapor pressure.

For example, suppose air at 30 °C (86 °F) has a partial pressure of 2.8 kPa. The vapor
pressure of air at 30 °C is 5.6 kPa. 2.8 kPa is half of 5.6 kPa, so the relative humidity
would be 50 %.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Partial Pressures Page: 152
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Sample problem:
A 12.0 L tank of gas has a temperature of 30.0 °C and a total pressure of 1.75 atm. If
the partial pressure of oxygen in the tank is 0.350 atm, how many moles of oxygen
are in the tank? How many total moles of gas are in the tank?
Solution:
For oxygen:
P O2 = 0.350 atm n=n

V = 12.0 L atm
R = 0.0821 Lmol K

T = 30.0 °C + 273 = 303.0 K

P O2V = n O2RT

(0.350)(12.0) = n O2 (0.0821)(303.0)

n O2 = 0.169 mol
You could figure out the total moles two ways. One is to use the ideal gas law on
the total moles:
P = 1.75 atm n=n
V = 12.0 L atm
R = 0.0821 Lmol K

T = 30.0 °C + 273 = 303.0 K

PV = n RT
(1.75)(12.0) = n (0.0821)(303.0)
n = 0.844 mol

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Partial Pressures Page: 153
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
The other way to find the total moles is to use the mole fraction and the partial
pressure:
P O2 = χO2P T

We know that
P O2 = 0.350 atm
P T = 1.75 atm
0.350 atm = χO2(1.75 atm)

0.350 atm
O   0.200
2
1.75 atm
Now that we know the mole fraction of O2, we can figure out the total moles:
nO2
O 2
nT
0.169 mol O2
0.200 
nT
0.169
nT   0.845mol
0.200

Homework Problems
1. A 5 L container contains 0.125 mol of O2 and 1.000 mol of He at 65 °C. What
is the partial pressure of each gas? What is the total pressure?

Answer: 6.24 atm

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Partial Pressures Page: 154
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
2. A 50 L gas cylinder contains 186 mol of N2 and 140 mol of O2. If the
temperature is 24 °C, what is the total pressure in the cylinder?

Answer: 159 atm

3. A sample of O2 gas is collected by water displacement at 25 °C. If the

atmospheric pressure in the laboratory is 100.7 kPa and the vapor pressure
of water is 3.17 kPa at 25 °C, what is the partial pressure of the O2 gas in the
sample?

Answer: 97.5 kPa

4. Two flasks are connected with a stopcock. The first flask has a volume of 5
liters and contains nitrogen gas at a pressure of 0.75 atm. The second flask
has a volume of 8 ℓ and contains oxygen gas at a pressure of 1.25 atm. When
the stopcock between the flasks is opened and the gases are free to mix,
what will the (total) pressure be in the resulting mixture?

Answer: 1.058 atm

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Molecular Speed & Effusion Page: 155
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases

Molecular Speed & Effusion

Unit: Gases
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A (optional topic)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Determine the velocities of gas molecules from their molar masses.
Success Criteria:
 Solutions use the equation appropriate for the information given.
 Solutions have the correct quantities substituted for the correct variables.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: root, mean, square
Language Objectives:
 Describe the pairing of each gas with its mole fraction and pressure.

Notes:
effusion: the escape of a gas through a small opening.

Graham’s Law of Effusion: lighter molecules move faster and heavier molecules
move more slowly. If you have a small opening, such as a leak in a tank, the
lighter molecules will escape faster.

temperature: a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a

substance

root mean square speed: the average speed of the gas molecules. “Root mean
square” means this average is calculated by determining the average of the
squares of the speeds, then taking the square root of the result.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Molecular Speed & Effusion Page: 156
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Root Mean Square Speed of Gas Molecules
The root mean square velocity (vrms) of gas molecules is given by the formula*:

3000 RT
vrms 
M

g
where M is the molar mass of the gas in mol
, R is the gas constant (8.31 molJ K ) , and T
m
is the temperature in Kelvin. The quantity vrms comes out in units of s .

Sample Problem:
A tank is filled with a mixture of helium and oxygen at a temperature of 25 °C.
Calculate the root mean square speed (vrms) of the oxygen molecules. (Note:
g
oxygen has a molar mass of 32 mol .)

T  25 C  273  298 K and MO2  32 mol

g

3000 RT
vrms 
M
3000 (8.31 molJ K )(298 K)
vrms  g
32 mol
vrms  232,161  482 ms

3 RT
This formula is usually given as vrms  , but this requires that M be expressed in kg .
*
M mol
Because we are not deriving the formula in this class, it makes sense to change the factor
from 3 to 3000 in order to keep molar mass expressed in the more familiar units of g .
mol

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Molecular Speed & Effusion Page: 157
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Graham’s Law
From physics, the formula for kinetic energy is:

Ekinetic  12 mv2
where m is the mass and v is the velocity (speed).
If two molecules have the same temperature, then they have the same kinetic
energy. If molecule #1 has mass m 1 and velocity v 1 and molecule #2 has mass m 2
and velocity v 2, then the kinetic energies are:

Ekinetic  12 m1v12  12 m2v22

If we cancel the ½ from both sides, and rearrange so the masses are on one side and
the speeds are on the other, we get:
v22 m1

v12 m2
Taking the square root of both sides:
v2 m1

v1 m2

This formula is called Graham’s Law, named after Thomas Graham who first
proposed it.
For the purpose of these calculations, the mass of a molecule is its molar mass,
which is simply the same number of grams as the molecule’s atomic mass.
Because the rate of effusion (r) is the velocity divided by time, the units of time
r v
cancel, giving 2  2
r1 v1

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Molecular Speed & Effusion Page: 158
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Sample Problem:
If the speed of oxygen molecules in a tank is 482 ms , calculate the speed of helium
g
molecules in the same tank. (O2 has a molar mass of 32.0 mol and helium has a
g
molar mass of 4.01 mol .)

MO2  32.0 mol

g
and MHe  4.01 mol
g

vHe mO2

vO2 mHe
vHe 32.0

482 4.01
vHe
 8.00  2.82
482

vHe  (2.82)(482)  1360 ms

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Molecular Speed & Effusion Page: 159
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases
Homework Problems
1. The temperature of the air in a room is 25.0 °C. Determine the root mean
g
square speed of the nitrogen molecules (molar mass 28.0 mol ) in the air in
that room.

Answer: 515 ms

g
2. If the N2 molecules (which have a molar mass of 28.0 mol ) in a sample of air
have a root mean square speed of 450 ms , what is the speed of the O2
g
molecules (which have a molar mass of 32.0 mol )?

Answer: 421 ms

g
3. A balloon is filled with 1.0 mole each of helium (molar mass 4.0 mol ) and
g
oxygen (molar mass 32 mol ). If half of the gas in the balloon is allowed to
escape, how many moles each of helium and oxygen are left in the balloon?

(Hint: Find the ratio of the speeds of the two molecules. This will be the
same as the ratio of the number of moles of each gas that escapes. The
reciprocal will be the ratio of the number of moles of each gas left in the
balloon.)

Answer: 0.26 mol He, 0.74 mol O2

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Gases Page: 160
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gases

Summary: Gases
Unit: Gases
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Atomic Structure Page: 161
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure

Introduction: Atomic Structure

Unit: Atomic Structure
Topics covered in this chapter:
Atomic Structure ......................................................................................... 163
History of Atomic Theory............................................................................. 166
Conservation of Mass; Definite & Multiple Proportions ............................. 173
Fundamental Forces .................................................................................... 175
The Standard Model .................................................................................... 177
Average Atomic Mass .................................................................................. 182

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Atomic Structure Page: 162
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
Standards addressed in this chapter:
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS1-1: Use the periodic table as a model to predict the relative properties of
main group elements, including ionization energy and relative sizes of atoms
and ions, based on the patterns of electrons in the outermost energy level
of each element. Use the patterns of valence electron configurations, core
charge, and Coulomb’s law to explain and predict general trends in
ionization energies, relative sizes of atoms and ions, and reactivity of pure
elements.
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):
2.1 Recognize discoveries from Dalton (atomic theory), Thomson (the electron),
Rutherford (the nucleus), and Bohr (planetary model of atom), and
understand how each discovery leads to modern theory.
2.2 Describe Rutherford's "gold foil"• experiment that led to the discovery of
the nuclear atom. Identify the major components (protons, neutrons, and
electrons) of the nuclear atom and explain how they interact.
2.3 Interpret and apply the laws of conservation of mass, constant composition
(definite proportions), and multiple proportions.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Atomic Structure Page: 163
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure

Atomic Structure
Unit: Atomic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 2.2
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Identify subatomic particles and their locations within the atom.
Success Criteria:
 Protons and neutrons are correctly located in the nucleus.
 Electrons are correctly located outside the nucleus.
 Relative masses of protons, neutrons and electrons are correct.
 Chemical symbols are written correctly with correct value and placement of
atomic symbol, atomic number, atomic mass and charge.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: nucleus, charge
Language Objectives:
 Correctly describe the parts of the atom and their locations within the atom.

Notes:
atom: the smallest piece of an element that retains the properties of that element.

nucleus: a dense region in the center of an atom. The nucleus is made of protons
and neutrons, and contains almost all of an atom’s mass.

proton: a subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. It has a charge of +1,
and a mass of 1 atomic mass unit (amu).

neutron: a subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. It has no charge (is
neutral), and has a mass of 1 amu.

electron: a subatomic particle found outside the nucleus of an atom. It has charge
of −1 and a mass of 0 amu (really about 1/2000 amu). Atoms can gain, lose, or
share electrons in chemical reactions.

charge: electrical charges can be positive or negative. Opposite cancel each other
out, so the charge of an atom is the difference between how many positive
charges (protons) it has, and how many negative charges (electrons) it has. For
example, a chlorine atom with 17 protons (+17) and 18 electrons (−18) would
have a charge of −1. (The difference is 1, and it’s negative because it has more
negatives than positives.)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Atomic Structure Page: 164
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
neutral atom: an atom with a charge of zero (positives = negatives).

ion: an atom or molecule that has a charge (either positive or negative), because it
has either gained or lost electrons. This means it has either more negatives
(electrons) than positives (protons), or more positives (protons) than negatives
(electrons).

atomic number (Z): the identity of an atom is based on the amount of (positive)
charge in its nucleus. (This works because particles from the nucleus cannot be
given to or shared with another atom.) The atomic number is the number of
protons in the nucleus. Each element has a unique atomic number.

mass number (A): the total number of protons + neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom. (Protons and neutrons each have a mass of almost exactly 1 amu, and
the electrons are so small that their mass is negligible.) Generally equal to the
whole number that is closest to the atomic mass.

atomic mass: the actual mass of an atom; the sum of the masses of its protons,
neutrons, and electrons (minus a small amount of mass that is converted to
energy to hold the atom together). Always close in value to the mass number.

isotopes: atoms of the same element (same atomic number = same # of protons),
but that have different numbers of neutrons (and therefore different mass
numbers) from each other.

Isotopes are described by their mass numbers. For example, carbon-12 (12C) has
6 protons and 6 neutrons, which gives it a mass number of 12. Carbon-14 (14C)
has 6 protons and 8 neutrons, which gives it a mass number of 14.

element symbol: a one- or two-letter abbreviation for an element. (New elements

are given temporary three-letter symbols.) The first letter in an element symbol
is always capitalized. Other letters in an element symbol are always lower case.
This is important to remember. For example, Co is the element cobalt, but CO is
the compound carbon monoxide, which contains the elements carbon and
oxygen.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Atomic Structure Page: 165
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
chemical symbol: a shorthand notation that shows information about an element,
including its element symbol, atomic number, mass number, and charge. For
example, the symbol for a magnesium-25 ion with a +2 charge would be:

25 2
12 Mg

This notation shows the element symbol for magnesium (Mg) in the center, the
atomic number (12, because it has 12 protons) on the bottom left, the mass
number (25, because it has 12 protons + 13 neutrons = 25 amu) on the top left,
and the charge (2+, which means it has somehow lost two of its electrons) on
the top right. By convention, ions are labeled with the charge number before
the charge sign, so we write 2+ instead of +2.

Homework Problems
Each row in this table is like a Sudoku puzzle. For each row, use the numbers
given, the relationships between the columns, and the periodic table of the
elements to fill in the rest of the row. Use the first row as an example.

symbol atomic # mass # protons neutrons electrons charge

41 2
20 Ca 20 41 20 21 18 +2

B 6 5

56 24 0

Ca2 20

60 84 57

207 80 +2

0 0 +1

Kr 84 0

35 39 36

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 History of Atomic Theory Page: 166
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure

History of Atomic Theory

Unit: Atomic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 2.1
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Give a timeline for the development of atomic theory.
 Explain how each discovery changed our model of the atom.
Success Criteria:
 Discoveries are in the correct chronological order.
 Descriptions explain how each new discovery added to or changed the model
of the atom.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: model,
Language Objectives:
 Correctly describe the parts of the atom and their locations within the atom.

Notes:
atomic theory: a theory that explains behavior of chemical elements based on the
atoms that they are made of, and the composition of those atoms.

Modern Atomic Theory

The current model (theory) of the atom is the quantum mechanical model. It states
that:
 The atom contains a nucleus at the center. The nucleus contains most of
the mass of the atom. The nucleus consists of:
o protons (positively charged)
o neutrons (neutral)
 The atom contains electrons (negatively charged) outside the nucleus.
 Electrons can be added to or removed from atoms. An atom that has
gained or lost electrons is called an ion.
 Each electron in an atom is confined to one of several specific regions
around the nucleus (called orbitals), but each electron may move freely
within its orbital. These orbitals are regions, but they do not have solid
boundaries; each electron remains within its orbital because of a balance of
forces, which are determined by how much energy the electron has.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 History of Atomic Theory Page: 167
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
Historical Development of Atomic Theory
Democritus: ancient Greek philosopher. Credited with the first theory of atoms
(~400 B.C.E.). The theory of Democritus held that everything is composed of
"atoms", which are physically, but not geometrically, indivisible; that
between atoms, there lies empty space; that atoms are indestructible, and
have always been and always will be in motion; that there is an infinite
number of atoms and of kinds of atoms, which differ in shape, size and
mass.

John Dalton: English chemist, physicist and meteorologist. Credited with the first
theory that described what atoms are and how they behave:
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1807-08):
 everything is made of atoms
 atoms of the same element are identical; atoms of different elements are
different
 atoms are not created or destroyed in chemical reactions. Chemical
reactions are simple rearrangements of the atoms into different
compounds.
 every sample (molecule) of a compound contains the same atoms in the
same proportions (“Law of Constant Composition”)
 atoms in compounds occur in simple, whole-number ratios (“Law of
Multiple Proportions”)

J.J. Thomson: English physicist. Discovered the electron (1897). His experiment
was to apply an electric current to a gas. This created cathode rays—rays of
negatively-charged electric particles, which appeared to come from the cathode
(positive electric terminal). Thomson determined that these particles (which he
named “corpuscles”) came from the atoms that the cathode was made of. This
discovery was important because it was the first evidence that atoms were
divisible. Thomson received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1906 for this
discovery.

“plum pudding” model: (1904) J.J. Thomson compared the atom with a bowl of
plum pudding with raisins. (Plum pudding, which is a lot like oatmeal, is popular
in England.) The “pudding” was the positively charged substance that most of
the atom was made of, and the “raisins” were the negatively-charged electrons
(which he called “corpuscles”). Thomson published this theory in 1907 in a book
called The Corpuscular Theory of Matter.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 History of Atomic Theory Page: 168
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
planetary model: (early 1900s) The atom was compared with a miniature solar
system. In the 1906 physics textbook, A First Course in Physics, authors Robert
Millikan and Henry Gale credited Thomson with this model (which at the time
was called electron theory):
“But since the atoms are probably electrically neutral, it is necessary to
assume that they contain equal amounts of positive and negative electricity.
Since, however, no evidence has yet appeared to show that positively
charged electrons ever become detached from molecules, Thomson brings
forward the hypothesis that perhaps the positive charges constitute the
nucleus of the atom about the center of which the negative electrons are
rapidly rotating.
“According to this hypothesis, then, an atom is a sort of infinitesimal solar
system whose members, the electrons, are no bigger with respect to the
diameter of the atom than is the earth with respect to the diameter of the
earth’s orbit. Furthermore, according to this hypothesis, it is the vibrations
of these electrons which give rise to light and heat waves; it is the streaming
through conductors of electrons which have become detached from atoms
which constitutes an electric current in a metal; it is an excess of electrons
upon a body which constitutes a static negative charge, and a deficiency of
electrons which constitutes a positive charge.”

Robert Millikan: American physicist. Measured the electrical charge on an electron

based on the rate that oil drops fall through an electric field (1909). The
common factor in all of the measurements must be the basic particle of electric
charge—the electron. Millikan received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1923 for
this discovery.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 History of Atomic Theory Page: 169
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
Ernest Rutherford: New Zealand-born British physicist. Supervised an experiment
that corroborated electron theory and showed the existence of a dense,
positively-charged nucleus (1909). In Rutherford’s experiment, positively-
charged alpha particles were allowed to pass through a thin sheet of gold foil.

Most of the particles passed through, as Rutherford had expected. However, a

few were deflected sharply, as if they had interacted with a dense object with a
strong positive charge. Rutherford described the result as follows:
“It was quite the most incredible event that has ever happened to me in my
life. It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of
tissue paper and it came back and hit you. On consideration, I realized that
this scattering backward must be the result of a single collision, and when I
made calculations I saw that it was impossible to get anything of that order
of magnitude unless you took a system in which the greater part of the mass
of the atom was concentrated in a minute nucleus. It was then that I had the
idea of an atom with a minute massive centre, carrying a charge.”

Conclusions from Rutherford’s Experiment:

 Most of the atom is empty space.
 The atom has a dense, positively-charged nucleus in the center.
 Nearly all of the mass of the atom is in the nucleus.

Many people believe that the idea of a positively-charged nucleus originated

with Rutherford. Electron theory actually predated Rutherford’s gold foil
experiment by several years (as stated above), but the experiment was the
confirmation that enabled the theory to gain acceptance.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 History of Atomic Theory Page: 170
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
Bohr model: (1913) Danish physicist Niels
Bohr hypothesized that electrons moved
around the nucleus as in the planetary
model, and the distance of each electron
from the nucleus was determined by the
amount of energy it had. The energy
was quantized, so only specific orbits
were allowed. These quantum values of
energy could be described by a quantum
number (n ).

Bohr’s model gained wide acceptance, because it combined three prominent

theories of the time: electron theory, spectroscopy and quantum theory.
Even though the Bohr model of the atom has been superseded by the quantum
mechanical model, the Bohr model is frequently taught today in elementary and
middle school science classes because it is easier to visualize and because it
relates the atom to the solar system, which is already familiar.
The Bohr model is described in more detail in the section “The Bohr Model of
the Hydrogen Atom,” which begins on page 216.

quantum mechanics: in 1900, German physicist Max Planck postulated that

absorption and emission of energy that produces light occurs in discrete packets
called “quanta”.

photoelectric effect: In 1905, German physicist Albert Einstein discovered that

energy from light could cause electrons to be emitted from a metal, that the
energy from this light agreed with Planck’s equation, that there was a certain
minimum amount of energy specific to each metal that was required to drive off
the electrons, and that this energy was quantized—the energy needed to
release the electrons was all-or-nothing. Einstein received the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1921 for this discovery.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 History of Atomic Theory Page: 171
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
Louis de Broglie: In 1924, French physicist Louis de Broglie suggested that matter
can act as both a particle and a wave. He theorized that the reason that only
integer values for quantum numbers were possible was because as the electron
orbits the nucleus, its path must be an integer multiple of the wavelength:

Erwin Schrödinger: Austrian physicist. Expressed de Broglie’s hypothesis in

mathematical form (the Schrödinger wave equation) and used it to predict the
quantum energies of atoms (1926).
The solutions to Schrödinger’s equation defined additional integer quantum
numbers (ℓ and m) that specified the arrangements of electrons within the
atom. These solutions supported the idea that an electron is either able to be
detected (present), or unable to be detected (absent), as would be the case for
a wave that is detectable at an antinode, but not at a node. Schrödinger’s
equations resulted in maps of regions around the nucleus of an atom (later
named “orbitals,” based on the probabilities of finding an electron in the
different regions as a function of the energy of the electron.
Schrödinger received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1933 for his work.

Sir James Chadwick: British physicist. Discovered the neutron (in 1932), which
accounted for previously unexplained mass within an atom. His experiment was
to collide alpha particles into beryllium, which caused neutral particles with the
same mass as a proton to be ejected. Because these particles were neutrally
charged, Chadwick named them neutrons. Chadwick received the Nobel Prize
for Physics in 1935 for this discovery.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 History of Atomic Theory Page: 172
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
Homework
Make a timeline of how the theory of the atom developed, including the models of
Democritus, Dalton, the “plum pudding” model, the planetary model, Bohr,
de Broglie and Schrödinger. For each entry, your timeline should include:
 a sketch of what the atom might have looked like according to the model
 the year the model was proposed
 the name(s) of the scientist(s) credited with the model
 a 1–2 sentence description of the model

Here is an example of what the timeline entry for Democritus might look like:

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Conservation of Mass; Definite & Multiple Proportions Page: 173
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
Conservation of Mass; Definite & Multiple Proportions
Unit: Atomic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 2.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Explain the laws of conservation of mass, definite proportions, and multiple
proportions.
 Solve problems relating to the conservation of mass.
Success Criteria:
 Explanations account for observations about the way atoms combine.
 Solutions account for all mass before and after some change.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: conservation
Language Objectives:
 Explain the laws of conservation of mass, definite proportions, and multiple
proportions.

Notes:
conservation of mass: matter (mass) can neither be created nor destroyed, only
changed in form. All of the mass that was present before a chemical or physical
change took place is present after the change.
This law holds for the total mass, and also individually for the mass of each type
of atom (element).
For example, in the chemical equation:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
1. The combined mass of HCl and NaOH before the reaction is equal to the
combined mass of NaCl and H2O produced by the reaction.
2. The mass of each element before the reaction is equal to the mass of
that same element after. For example, the number of grams of chlorine
in the HCl that reacts is equal to the grams of chlorine in the NaCl
produced.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Conservation of Mass; Definite & Multiple Proportions Page: 174
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
Law of Constant Composition (Law of Definite Proportions): the same compound
always contains atoms of the same elements in the same proportions by mass.
E.g., water (H2O) always contains 11 % hydrogen and 89 % oxygen by mass.

The Law of Constant Composition was part of Dalton’s theory of atoms, first
published in 1803.

Note also that the reverse is not necessarily true—very different compounds
can have the same atoms in the same proportions, and even the exact same
chemical formulas. For example, the compounds ethyl acetate and butyric acid
both have the same chemical formula (C4H8O2). However, ethyl acetate smells
like nail polish, whereas butyric acid smells like a combination of rancid butter
and vomit.

Law of Multiple Proportions: elements always combine in simple, whole-number

ratios. (This works whether you’re comparing atoms or masses.) For example,
copper and chlorine can combine to form CuCl or CuCl2, but they won’t combine
to form ratios like Cu1.7Cl4.83.
There is a joke whose punch line depends on the law of multiple proportions:
A chemist and her friend walk into a bar. The chemist tells the bartender,
“I’d like a glass of H2O, please.” Her friend says, “I’d like H2O too.” Both
drink, and the friend dies.
The basis of the punch line is that “H2O too” sounds like “H2O2,” which is
hydrogen peroxide.

The Law of Multiple Proportions was also first proposed by John Dalton in 1803
as part of his theory of atoms.

While the chemistry that we will study this year depends on the laws of constant
composition and multiple proportions, there are a few unusual compounds whose
elemental composition can vary from sample to sample. One example is the iron
oxide wüstite, which can contain between 0.83 and 0.95 iron atoms for every
oxygen atom, and thus contains anywhere between 23 % and 25 % oxygen.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Fundamental Forces Page: 175
Big Ideas Details Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)

Fundamental Forces
Unit: Atomic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Name, describe, and give relative magnitudes of the four fundamental forces
of nature.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions & explanations are accurate and account for observed behavior.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: strong, weak
Language Objectives:
 Describe the fundamental forces, how strong they are and what they act on.

Notes:
All forces in nature ultimately come from one of the following four forces:

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Fundamental Forces Page: 176
Big Ideas Details Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
strong force (or “strong nuclear force” or “strong interaction”): an attractive force
between quarks. The strong force holds the nuclei of atoms together. The
energy comes from converting mass to energy.
Effective range: about the size of the nucleus of an average-size atom.

weak force (or “weak nuclear force” or “weak interaction”): the force that causes
protons and/or neutrons in the nucleus to become unstable and leads to beta
nuclear decay. This happens because the weak force causes an up or down
quark to change its flavor. (This process is described in more detail in the
section on Error! Reference source not found. of particle chemistry, starting
Error! Bookmark not defined..) Strength: 10−6 to 10−7 times the strength of the
strong force.
Effective range: about 1/3 the diameter of an average nucleus.

electromagnetic force: the force between electrical charges. If the charges are the
same (“like charges”)—both positive or both negative—the particles repel each
other. If the charges are different (“opposite charges”)—one positive and one
negative—the particles attract each other.
Strength: about 1/137 as strong as the strong force.
Effective range: ∞, but gets smaller as (distance)2.

gravitational force: the force that causes masses to attract each other. Usually only
observable if one of the masses is very large (like a planet).
Strength: only 10−39 times as strong as the strong force.
Effective range: ∞, but gets smaller as (distance)2.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Standard Model Page: 177
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure

The Standard Model

Unit: Atomic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Describe the fundamental particles that make up atoms and other matter and
non-matter.
Success Criteria:
 Explanations correctly describe aspects of the standard model.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: standard, color
Language Objectives:
 Describe particles of the standard model and their properties.

Notes:
The Standard Model is a theory of particle physics that:
 identifies the particles that matter is ultimately comprised of
 describes properties of these particles, including their mass, charge, and spin
 describes interactions between these particles

The Standard Model dates to the mid-1970s, when the existence of quarks was first
experimentally confirmed. Physicists are still discovering new particles and
relationships between particles, so the model and the ways it is represented are
evolving, much like atomic theory and the Periodic Table of the Elements was
evolving at the turn of the twentieth century. The table and the model described in
these notes represent our understanding, as of 2018. By the middle of this century,
the Standard Model may evolve to a form that is substantially different from the
way we represent it today.

The Standard Model in its present form does not incorporate dark matter, dark
energy, or gravitational attraction.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Standard Model Page: 178
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
The Standard Model is often presented in a table, with rows, columns, and color-
coded sections used to group subsets of particles according to their properties.

As of 2018, the standard model is represented by a table similar to this one:

Quarks
Quarks are particles that participate in strong interactions (sometimes called the
“strong force”) through the action of “color charge” (which will be described later).
Because protons and neutrons (which make up most of the mass of an atom) are
made of three quarks each, quarks are the subatomic particles that make up most of
the ordinary matter in the universe. (Dark matter, which accounts for 84.5% of the
total matter in the universe, is made from other types of subatomic particles.)
• quarks have color charge (i.e., they interact via the strong force)
• quarks have spin of  1 2
• “up-type” quarks have a charge of  1 2 ; “down-type” quarks have a charge
of  1 2 .
There are six flavors* of quarks: up and down, charm and strange, and top and
bottom. Originally, top and bottom quarks were called truth and beauty.

*
Yes, “flavors” really is the correct term. Blame the 1960s.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Standard Model Page: 179
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
Leptons
Leptons are the smaller particles that make up most matter. The most familiar
lepton is the electron. Leptons participate in “electroweak” interactions, meaning
combinations of the electromagnetic and weak forces.
• leptons do not have color charge (i.e., they do not interact via the strong
force)
• leptons have spins of  1 2
• electron-type leptons have a charge of −1; neutrinos do not have a charge.
• neutrinos oscillate, which makes their mass indefinite.

Gauge Bosons
Gauge bosons are the particles that carry force—their interactions are responsible
for the fundamental forces of nature: the strong force, the weak force, the
electromagnetic force and the gravitational force. The hypothetical particle
responsible for the gravitational force is the graviton, which has not yet been
detected (as of 2018).
• photons are responsible for the electromagnetic force.
• gluons are responsible for the strong interaction (strong force)
• W and Z bosons are responsible for the weak interaction (weak force)

Scalar Bosons
At present, the only scalar boson we know of is the Higgs boson, which is
responsible for mass.

Particle Interactions

The interactions of these

particles can be confusing. The
diagram to the right, which
shows which particles interact
with which, may be helpful.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Standard Model Page: 180
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
Classes of Particles

Fermions
Quarks and leptons are fermions. Fermions are described by Fermi-Dirac statistics
and obey the Pauli exclusion principle (which states that no two particles in an atom
may have the same exact set of quantum numbers—which are numbers that
describe the energy states of the particle).

Fermions are the building blocks of matter. They have a spin of ½, and each fermion
has its own antiparticle. (The antiparticle of a fermion is identical to its
corresponding particle, but has a charge of the opposite sign. Antiparticles have the
same name as the corresponding particle with the prefix “anti-“; for example, the
antiparticle of a tau neutrino is a tau antineutrino. Note, however, that for
historical reasons an antielectron is usually called a positron.)

Bosons
Bosons are described by Bose-Einstein statistics, have integer spins and do not obey
the Pauli Exclusion Principle. Interactions between boson are responsible for forces
and mass.

Each of the fundamental bosons is its own antiparticle, except for the W− boson
(whose antiparticle is the W+ boson).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Standard Model Page: 181
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
Hadrons
Hadrons are a special class of strongly-interacting composite particles (meaning that
they are comprised of multiple individual particles). Hadrons can be bosons or
fermions. Hadrons composed of strongly-interacting fermions are called baryons;
hadrons composed of strongly-interacting bosons are called mesons.

Baryons
The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons, which each comprised of
three quarks. Protons are made of two up quarks and one down quark (“uud”), and
carry a charge of +1. Neutrons are made of one up quark and two down quarks
(“udd”), and carry a charge of zero.
Some of the better-known baryons include:
 nucleons (protons & neutrons).
 hyperons, e.g., the Λ, Σ, Ξ, and Ω particles. These contain one or more strange
quarks, and are much heavier than nucleons.
 various charmed and bottom baryons.
 pentaquarks, which contain four quarks and an antiquark.

Mesons
Ordinary mesons are comprised of a quark plus an antiquark. Examples include the
pion, kaon, and the J/Ψ. Mesons mediate the residual strong force between
nucleons.
Some of the exotic mesons include:
 tetraquarks, which contain two quarks and two antiquarks.
 glueball, a bound set of gluons with no quarks.
 hybrid mesons, which contain one or more quark/antiquark pairs and one or
more gluons.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Standard Model Page: 182
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
Color Charge
Color charge is the property that is responsible for the strong nuclear interaction.
All electrons and fermions (particles that have half-integer spin quantum numbers)
must obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle, which states that no two particles within
the same larger particle (such as a hadron or atom) can have identical sets of
quantum numbers. For electrons, (as you learned in chemistry), if two electrons
share the same orbital, they need to have opposite spins. In the case of quarks, all
quarks have a spin of  1 2 , so in order to satisfy the Pauli Exclusion Principle, if a
proton or neutron contains three quarks, there has to be some other quantum
property that has different values for each of those quarks. This property is called
“color charge” (or sometimes just “color*”).

The “color” property has three values, which are called “red,” “green,” and “blue”
(named after the primary colors of light). When there are three quarks in a
subatomic particle, the colors have to be different, and have to add up to
“colorless”. (Recall that combining each of the primary colors of light produces
white light, which is colorless.)

Quarks can exchange color charge by emitting a gluon that contains one color and
one anticolor. Another quark absorbs the gluon, and both quarks undergo color
change. For example, suppose a blue quark emits a blue antigreen gluon:

You can imagine that the quark sent away its own blue color (the “blue” in the “blue
antigreen” gluon). Because it also sent out antigreen, it was left with green so it
became a green quark. Meanwhile, the antigreen part of the gluon finds the green
quark and cancels its color. The blue from the blue antigreen gluon causes the
receiving quark to become blue. After the interaction, the particle once again has
one red, one green, and one blue quark, which means color charge is conserved.

*
Just like “spin” is the name of a property of energy that has nothing to do with actual
spinning, “color” is a property that has nothing to do with actual color. In fact, quarks
couldn’t possibly have actual color—the wavelengths of visible light are thousands of times
larger than quarks!

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Average Atomic Mass Page: 183
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure

Average Atomic Mass

Unit: Atomic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Calculate the average atomic mass of an atom from percent abundance data.
Success Criteria:
 Solutions correctly turn masses into percentages.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: abundance
Language Objectives:
 Explain the laws of conservation of mass, definite proportions, and multiple
proportions.

Notes:
mass number: the mass of one individual atom (protons + neutrons). Always a
whole number.

abundance: the percentage of atoms of an element that are one specific isotope.

average atomic mass: the estimated weighted average of the mass numbers of all
of the atoms of a particular element on Earth.

Analogy: average atomic mass works the same way as class average on a test.
1. Multiply each score times the number of students who got it.
2. Add up the number for each score to get the total points.
3. Divide the total by the number of students to get class average.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Average Atomic Mass Page: 184
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
Problem:
The atomic mass and abundance of the two stable isotopes of carbon are:
Isotope Atomic Mass (amu) Relative Abundance
carbon-12 12.000 000 98.93 %
carbon-13 13.003 355 1.07 %
What is the average atomic mass of carbon?

How to solve:
1. Convert percent abundances to fractions (divide by 100).
2. Multiply the fractional abundance times the atomic mass for each isotope.
3. Add up the sub-total from each isotope to get the total atomic mass.
4. Check that your average atomic mass is in between the smallest and largest.
Answer:
1. Convert abundances to fractions
98.93 % ÷ 100 = 0.9893 1.07 % ÷ 100 = 0.0107

2. Multiply abundance x mass # for each isotope

0.9893 x 12.000 000 = 11.8716
0.0107 x 13.003 355 = 0.1391

3. Add up the number from each isotope to get the total

11.8716 + 0.1391 = 12.0107

4. Check that your answer is in between the mass number of the smallest
isotope and the mass number of the largest one.
Yes, 12.0107 is between 12 and 13.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Average Atomic Mass Page: 185
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
Homework Problems
Calculate the average atomic mass of each of the following elements, based on the
percent abundance of their isotopes. For each element, your answers should agree
with the atomic mass listed on the periodic table.

Because you can look up the answers, you must show how to set up the calculations
in order to receive credit.

1. bromine
atomic mass relative
isotope
(amu) abundance
79
35 Br 78.9184 50.69 %
81
35 Br 80.9163 49.31 %

2. boron
atomic mass relative
isotope
(amu) abundance
10
5B 10.0129 19.9 %
11
5B 11.0093 80.1 %

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Average Atomic Mass Page: 186
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure
3. chlorine
atomic mass relative
isotope
(amu) abundance
35
17 Cl 34.9689 75.78 %
37
17 Cl 36.9659 24.22 %

4. magnesium
atomic mass relative
isotope
(amu) abundance
24
12 Mg 23.9850 78.99 %
25
12 Mg 24.9858 10.00 %
26
12 Mg 25.9826 11.01 %

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Atomic Structure Page: 187
Big Ideas Details Unit: Atomic Structure

Summary: Atomic Structure

Unit: Atomic Structure
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Nuclear Chemistry Page: 189
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry

Introduction: Nuclear Chemistry

Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
Topics covered in this chapter:
Radioactive Decay ....................................................................................... 191
Nuclear Equations........................................................................................ 196
Mass Defect & Binding Energy .................................................................... 199
Half-Life........................................................................................................ 201
Nuclear Fission & Fusion.............................................................................. 204
Practical Uses for Nuclear Radiation ........................................................... 207

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Nuclear Chemistry Page: 190
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
Standards addressed in this chapter:
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
The Nuclear Chemistry unit is not included in the NGSS standards for high school
chemistry. Massachusetts moved the topic to the high school physics course,
which means this unit may be omitted from a chemistry course that is intended
to follow the 2016 Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks.

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):

2.5 Identify the three main types of radioactive decay (alpha, beta, and gamma)
and compare their properties (composition, mass, charge, and penetrating
power).
2.6 Describe the process of radioactive decay by using nuclear equations, and
explain the concept of half-life for an isotope (for example, C-14 is a
powerful tool in determining the age of objects).
2.7 Compare and contrast nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.

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 Radioactive Decay Page: 191
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry

Radioactive Decay
Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A (HS-PS1-8 in physics frameworks)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 2.5
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Determine the products of alpha, beta-minus, and beta-plus radioactive
decay and electron capture.
 Predict the most likely form of radioactive decay for an isotope based on its
position relative to the band of stability on a proton-neutron graph.
Success Criteria:
 Form of radioactive decay correctly identified.
 Products of decay correctly identified.
 Correct nuclear equation.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: decay
Language Objectives:
 Explain the processes of alpha, beta-plus and beta-minus radioactive decay
and electron capture.
 Understand and correctly use the terms “radioactive decay,” “nuclear
instability,” “alpha decay,” “beta decay,” “gamma rays,” and “penetrating
power.”

Notes:
nuclear instability: When something is unstable, it is likely to change. If the nucleus
of an atom is unstable, changes can occur that affect the number of protons and
neutrons in the atom.

Note that when this happens, the nucleus ends up with a different number of
protons. This causes the atom to literally turn into an atom of a different
element. When this happens, the physical and chemical properties
instantaneously change into the properties of the new element!

radioactive decay: the process by which the nucleus of an atom changes,

transforming the element into a different element or isotope.

nuclear equation: an equation describing (through chemical symbols) what happens

to an atom as it undergoes radioactive decay.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Radioactive Decay Page: 192
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
Causes of Nuclear Instability
Two of the causes of nuclear instability are:
Size
because the strong force acts over a limited distance, when nuclei get too large
(more than 82 protons), it is no longer possible for the strong force to keep the
nucleus together indefinitely. The form of decay that results from an atom
exceeding its stable size is called alpha (α) decay.
The Weak Nuclear Force
The weak force is caused by the exchange (absorption and/or emission) of W and Z
bosons. This causes a down quark to change to an up quark or vice-versa. The
change of quark flavor has the effect of changing a proton to a neutron, or a
neutron to a proton. (Note that the action of the weak force is the only known way
of changing the flavor of a quark.) The form of decay that results from the action of
the weak force is called beta (β) decay.

band of stability: isotopes with a ratio of protons to neutrons that results in a stable
nucleus (one that does not spontaneously undergo radioactive decay). This
observation suggests that the ratio of up to down quarks within the nucleus is
somehow involved in preventing the weak force from causing quarks to change
flavor.
too much mass;
α decay likely

excess
neutrons; β− excess protons;
decay likely β+ decay and
electron capture
likely

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Radioactive Decay Page: 193
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
alpha (α) decay: a type of radioactive decay in which the nucleus loses two protons
and two neutrons (an alpha particle). An alpha particle is a 42 He2 ion (the
nucleus of a helium-4 atom), with two protons, a mass of 4 amu, and a charge of
+2. For example:
92 U  90Th  2 He
238 234 4

Atoms are most likely to undergo alpha decay if they have an otherwise stable
proton/neutron ratio but a large atomic number.

Alpha decay has never been observed in atoms with an atomic number less than
52 (tellurium), and is rare in elements with an atomic number less than 73
(tantalum).

Net effects of α decay:

 Atom loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons (atomic number goes down by 2 and
mass number goes down by 4)
 An α particle (a 42 He2 ion) is ejected from the nucleus at high speed.

beta minus (β−) decay: a type of radioactive decay in which a neutron is converted
to a proton and the nucleus ejects a high speed electron ( 10 e ).

Note that a neutron consists of one up quark and two down quarks (udd), and a
proton consists of two up quarks and one down quark (uud). When β− decay
occurs, the weak force causes one of the quarks changes its flavor from down to
up, which causes the neutron (uud) to change into a proton (udd). Because a
proton was gained, the atomic number increases by one. However, because the
proton used to be a neutron, the mass number does not change. For example:
32
15 P  16
32
S  10 e
Atoms are likely to undergo β− decay if they have too many neutrons and not
enough protons to achieve a stable neutron/proton ratio. Almost all isotopes
that are heavier than isotopes of the same element within the band of stability
(because of the “extra” neutrons) undergo β− decay.

Net effects of β− decay:

 Atom loses 1 neutron and gains 1 proton (atomic number goes up by 1; mass
number does not change)
 A β− particle (an electron) is ejected from the nucleus at high speed.

Note that a β− particle is assigned an atomic number of −1. This does not mean
an electron is some sort of “anti-proton”. The −1 is just used to make the
equation for the number of protons work out in the nuclear equation.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Radioactive Decay Page: 194
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
beta plus (β+) decay: a type of radioactive decay in which a proton is converted to a
neutron and the nucleus ejects a high speed antielectron (positron, 10 e ).
With respect to the quarks, β+ decay is the opposite of β− decay When β+
decay occurs, one of the quarks changes its flavor from up to down, which
changes the proton (uud) into a neutron (udd). Because a proton was lost, the
atomic number decreases by one. However, because the neutron used to be a
proton, the mass number does not change. For example:
23
12 Mg  11
23
Na  10 e
Atoms are likely to undergo β+ decay if they have too many protons and not
enough neutrons to achieve a stable neutron/proton ratio. Almost all isotopes
that are lighter than the isotopes of the same element that fall within the band
of stability (“not enough neutrons”) undergo β+ decay.
Net effects of β+ decay:
 Atom loses 1 proton and gains 1 neutron (atomic number goes down by 1;
mass number does not change)
 A β+ particle (an antielectron or positron) is ejected from the nucleus at high
speed.
electron capture (sometimes called “K-capture”): when the nucleus of the atom
“captures” an electron from the innermost shell (the K-shell) and incorporates it
into the nucleus. This process is exactly the reverse of β− decay; during electron
capture, a quark changes flavor from up to down, which changes a proton (uud)
into a neutron (udd):
12 Mg  1 e  11 Na
23 0 23

Note that β+ decay and electron capture produce the same products. Electron
capture can sometimes (but not often) occur without β+ decay. However, β+
decay is always accompanied by electron capture.
Atoms are likely to undergo electron capture (and usually also β+ decay) if they
have too many protons and not enough neutrons to achieve a stable
neutron/proton ratio. Almost all isotopes that are lighter than the isotopes of
the same element that fall within the band of stability undergo electron
capture, and usually also β+ decay.
Net effects of electron capture:
 An electron is absorbed by the nucleus.
 Atom loses 1 proton and gains 1 neutron (atomic number goes down by 1;
mass number does not change)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Radioactive Decay Page: 195
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
gamma (γ) rays: most radioactive decay produces energy. Some of that energy is
emitted in the form of gamma rays, which are very high energy photons of
electromagnetic radiation. (Radio waves, visible light, and X-rays are other
types of electromagnetic radiation.) Because gamma rays are waves (which
have no mass), they can penetrate far into substances and can do a lot of
damage. Because gamma rays are not particles, emission of gamma rays does
not change the composition of the nucleus.

All of the types of radioactive decay mentioned in these notes also produce γ
rays. This means to be complete, we would add gamma radiation to each of the
radioactive decay equations described above:
238
92 U  23490Th  42 He  00 32
15 P  16
32
S  10 e  00
23
12 Mg  11
23
Na  10 e  00 23
12 11 Na  0 
Mg  10 e  23 0

penetrating power: the distance that radioactive particles can penetrate

into/through another substance is directly related to the velocity of the
emission (faster = more penetrating) and inversely related to the mass of the
emission (heaver = less penetrating):

gamma rays beta particles alpha particles

lightest heaviest
fastest slowest
most penetrating power least penetrating power

Note also that denser substances (such as lead) do a better job of blocking and
absorbing radioactive emissions. This is why lead is commonly used as shielding
for experiments involving radioactive substances.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Nuclear Equations Page: 196
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry

Nuclear Equations
Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A (HS-PS1-8 in physics frameworks)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 2.6
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Write & solve nuclear equations.
Success Criteria:
 Equations include the correct product of decay (α, β− or β+ particle)
 Equations include the correct starting material(s) and/or product(s).
Tier 2 Vocabulary: decay
Language Objectives:
 Explain the equations for radioactive decay and how to calculate the products.

Notes:
nuclear equation: a chemical equation describing the process of an isotope
undergoing radioactive decay. For example:

92 U  90Th  2 He
238 234 4

In a nuclear equation, the number of protons (atomic number) and the total mass
(mass number) are conserved on both sides of the arrow. If you look at the bottom
(atomic) numbers, and replace the arrow with an = sign, you would have the
following:

92 = 90 + 2

Similarly, if you look at the top (mass) numbers, and replace the arrow with an =
sign, you would have:

238 = 234 + 4

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Nuclear Equations Page: 197
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
Sample problems:
Q: What are the products of beta-minus (β−) decay of 131I?

A: A β− particle is an electron, which we write as 0

1 e in a nuclear equation. This
means 131I decays into some unknown particle plus 0
1 e . The equation is:

53 I  p X  -10 e
131 m

We can write the following equations for the atomic and mass numbers:
Atomic #s: 53 = p + −1 → p = 54; therefore X is Xe
Mass #s: 131 = m + 0 → m = 131
131
Therefore, particle X is 54 Xe So our final answer is:
131 0
The two products of decay in this reaction are 54 Xe and 1 e .

Q: Which particle was produced in the following radioactive decay reaction:

86 Rn  84 Po  p X
212 208 m

A: The two equations are:

Atomic #s: 86 = 84 + p → p = 2; therefore X is He
Mass #s: 212 = 208 + m → m = 4
Therefore, particle X is 42 He , which means it is an α particle.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Nuclear Equations Page: 198
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
Homework Problems
For these problems, you will need to use a periodic table and radioactive decay
information from “Table U. Selected Radioisotopes” on page 554 of your Chemistry
Reference Tables.
Give the nuclear equation(s) for radioactive decay of the following:
222
1. Rn

85
2. Kr

220
3. Fr

37
4. K

5. 3 H

Give the starting material for the following materials produced by radioactive decay:
267
6. Alpha (α) decay resulting in 108 Hs

185
7. Beta-minus (β−) decay resulting in 75 Re

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 Mass Defect & Binding Energy Page: 199
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry

Mass Defect & Binding Energy

Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A (HS-PS1-8 in physics frameworks)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Explain where the energy that powers the strong force comes from.
 Calculate the “missing” mass and convert it to energy.
Success Criteria:
 Theoretical mass accounts for mass of all protons, neutrons and electrons.
 Mass defect is calculated correctly.
 Einstein’s equation (E = mc2) is properly applied to the mass defect to
calculate energy.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: defect
Language Objectives:
 Explain the concept of “missing” mass and how it converts to energy.

Notes:
binding energy: the energy that holds the nucleus of an atom together through the
strong nuclear force
The binding energy comes from the small amount of mass (the mass defect)
that was turned into a large amount of energy, given by the equation:
E = mc2
where E is the binding energy, m is the mass defect, and c is the speed of light
( 3  108 ms , which means c 2 is a very large number).

mass defect: the difference between the actual mass of an atom, and the sum of
the masses of the protons, neutrons, and electrons that it contains.
 A proton has a mass of 1.6726  1027 kg = 1.0073 amu
 A neutron has a mass of 1.6749  1027 kg = 1.0087 amu
 An electron has a mass of 9.1094  1031 kg = 0.0005486 amu

To calculate the mass defect, total up the masses of each of the protons,
neutrons, and electrons in an atom. The actual (observed) atomic mass of the
atom is always less than this number. The “missing mass” is called the mass
defect.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Mass Defect & Binding Energy Page: 200
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
Sample problem:
Q: Find the mass defect of 1 mole of uranium-238.

238
A: 92 U has 92 protons, 146 neutrons, and 92 electrons. This means the total mass
238
of one atom of 92 U should theoretically be:
92 protons × 1.0073 amu = 92.6704 amu
146 neutrons × 1.0087 amu = 147.2661 amu
92 electrons × 0.000 5486 amu = 0.0505 amu
92.6704 + 147.2661 + 0.0505 = 239.9870 amu
238
The actual observed mass of one atom of 92 U is 238.0003 amu.
The mass defect is therefore 239.9870 – 238.0003 = 1.9867 amu.

One mole of 238

92 U would have a mass of 238.0003 g, and therefore a total mass
defect of 1.9867 g (which is 0.001 9867 kg).
Because E = mc2, that means the binding energy of one mole of 238
92 U is:

0.0019867kg  (3.00  108 )2  1.79 1014 J

In case you don’t realize just how large that number is, the binding energy of
just 238 g (1 mole) of 238
92 U would be enough energy to heat every house on
Earth for an entire winter!

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Half-Life Page: 201
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry

Half-Life
Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A (HS-PS1-8 in physics frameworks)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 2.6
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Determine the amount of radioactive material remaining after an integer
number of half-lives.
 Determine the amount of time that has elapsed based on the fraction of
radioactive material remaining (e.g., carbon dating).
Success Criteria:
 Solutions use the appropriate equation for the information given.
 Solutions have the correct quantities substituted for the correct variables.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: half-life, decay
Language Objectives:
 Explain how exponential decay works.

Notes:
The atoms of radioactive elements are unstable, and they spontaneously decay
(change) into atoms of other elements.

For any given atom, there is a certain probability, P, that it will undergo radioactive
decay in a given amount of time. The half-life, τ, is how much time it would take to
have a 50 % probability of the atom decaying. If you start with n atoms, after one
half-life, half of them (0.5n) will have decayed.

Amount of Material Remaining

If we start with 32 g of 53Fe, which has a half-life (τ) of 8.5 minutes, we would
observe the following:

# minutes 0 8.5 17 25.5 34

# half lives 0 1 2 3 4
amount left 32 g 16 g 8g 4g 2g

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Half-Life Page: 202
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
Finding the Time that has Passed (integer number of half-lives)
If the amount you started with divided by the amount left is an exact power of two,
you have an integer number of half-lives and you can make a table.

Sample problem:
Q: If you started with 64 g of 131I, how long would it take until there was only 4 g
remaining? The half-life (τ) of 131I is 8.07 days.

64
A:  16 which is a power of 2, so we can simply make a table:
4

# half lives 0 1 2 3 4
amount
64 g 32 g 16 g 8g 4g
remaining
From the table, after 4 half-lives, we have 4 g remaining.

The half-life (τ) of 131I is 8.07 days.

8.07 × 4 = 32.3 days

Finding the amount remaining and time that has passed for a non-integer number of
half-lives requires logarithms, and is beyond the scope of this course.

Homework Problems
For these problems, you will need to use half-life information from “Table U.
Selected Radioisotopes” on page 554 of your Chemistry Reference Tables.

1. If a lab had 128 g of 3H waste 49 years ago, how much of it would be left
today? (Note: you may round off to a whole number of half-lives.)

Answer: 8 g

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Half-Life Page: 203
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
42
2. Suppose a student stole a 20. g sample of K at 8:30am on Friday. When
the student was called down to the vice principal’s office on Monday at the
convenient time of 10:54am, how much of the 42K was left?

Answer: 0.31 g
3. If a school wants to dispose of small amounts of radioactive waste, they can
store the materials for ten half-lives, and then dispose of the materials as
regular trash.
a. If we had a sample of 32P, how long would we need to store it
before disposing of it?

Answer: 143 days

b. If we had started with 64 g of 32P, how much 32P would be left after
ten half-lives? Approximately what fraction of the original amount
would be left?

Answer: 0.063 g; approximately 1 of the original amount.

1000

4. If the carbon in a sample of human bone contained only one-fourth of the

expected amount of 14C, how old is the sample?
(Hint: pretend you started with 1 g of 14C and you have 0.25 g remaining.)

Answer: 11 460 years

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Nuclear Fission & Fusion Page: 204
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry

Nuclear Fission & Fusion

Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A (HS-PS1-8 in physics frameworks)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 2.7
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Identify nuclear processes as “fission” or “fusion”.
 Describe the basic construction and operation of fission-based and fusion-
based nuclear reactors.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions account for how the energy is produced and how the radiation is
contained.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: fusion, nuclear
Language Objectives:
 Explain how fission-based and fusion-based nuclear reactors work.

Notes:
Fission
fission: splitting of the nucleus of an atom, usually by bombarding it with a high-
speed neutron.

When atoms are split by bombardment with neutrons, they can divide in hundreds
of ways. For example, when 235U is hit by a neutron, it can split more than 200 ways.
Three examples that have been observed are:

0 n  92 U  37 Rb  55 Cs  2 0 n
1 235 90 144 1

0 n  92 U  35 Br  57 La  3 0 n
1 235 87 146 1

0 n  92 U  30 Br  62 Sm  4 0 n
1 235 72 160 1

Note that each of these bombardments produces more neutrons. A reaction that
produces more fuel (in this case, neutrons) than it consumes will accelerate. This
self-propagation is called a chain reaction.

Note also that the neutron/proton ratio of 235U is about 1.5. The stable
neutron/proton ratio of each of the products would be approximately 1.2. This
means that almost all of the products of fission reactions have too many neutrons to
be stable, which means they will themselves undergo β− decay.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Nuclear Fission & Fusion Page: 205
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear Fission Reactors
In a nuclear reactor, the heat from a fission reaction is used to heat water. The
radioactive hot water from the reactor (under pressure, so it can be heated well
above 100 °C without boiling) is used to boil clean (non-radioactive) water. The
clean steam is used to turn a turbine, which generates electricity.

The inside of the reactor looks like this:

The fuel is the radioactive

material (such as 235U) that
is undergoing fission. The
graphite in the core of the
reactor is used to absorb
some of the neutrons. The
moveable control rods are
adjusted so they can
absorb some or all of the
remaining neutrons as
desired. If the control rods
are all the way down, all of
the neutrons are absorbed
and no heating occurs.
When the reactor is in
operation, the control rods
are raised just enough to
make the reaction proceed
at the desired rate.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Nuclear Fission & Fusion Page: 206
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
Fusion
fusion: the joining together of the nuclei of two atoms, accomplished by colliding
them at high speeds.

Nuclear fusion reactions occur naturally on stars (such as the sun), and are the
source of the heat and energy that stars produce.

On the sun, fusion occurs between atoms of deuterium (2H) to produce helium:

1 H  1 H  2 He
2 2 4

The major challenge in building

nuclear fusion reactors is the
high temperatures produced—
on the order of 106–109 °C. In a
tokamak fusion reactor, the
starting materials are heated
until they become plasma—a
sea of highly charged ions and
electrons. The highly charged
plasma is kept away from the
sides by powerful
electromagnets.

At the left is a schematic of the ITER tokamak reactor currently under construction
in southern France.

MIT has a smaller tokamak reactor at its Plasma Science & Fusion Center. The MIT
reactor is able to conduct fusion reactions lasting for only a few seconds; if the
reaction continued beyond this point, the current in the electromagnets that is
necessary to generate the high magnetic fields required to confine the reaction
would become hot enough to melt the copper wire and fuse the coils of the
electromagnet together.

After each “burst” (short fusion reaction), the electromagnets in the MIT reactor
need to be cooled in a liquid nitrogen bath (−196 °C) for fifteen minutes before the
reactor is ready for the next burst.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Practical Uses for Nuclear Radiation Page: 207
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry

Practical Uses for Nuclear Radiation

Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A (HS-PS1-8 in physics frameworks)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 2.6
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Identify & describe practical (peaceful) uses for nuclear radiation.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions give examples and explain how radiation is essential to the
particular use.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: radiation
Language Objectives:
 Explain how radiation makes certain scientific procedures possible.

Notes:
While most people think of the dangers and destructive power of nuclear radiation,
there are a lot of other uses of radioactive materials:

Power Plants: nuclear reactors can generate electricity in a manner that does not
produce CO2 and other greenhouse gases.

Cancer Therapy: nuclear radiation can be focused in order to kill cancer cells in
patients with certain forms of cancer. Radioprotective drugs are now available
that can help shield non-cancerous cells from the high-energy gamma rays.

Radioactive Tracers: chemicals made with radioactive isotopes can be easily

detected in complex mixtures or even in humans. This enables doctors to give a
patient a chemical with a small amount of radioactive material and track the
progress of the material through the body and determine where it ends up. It
also enables biologists to grow bacteria with radioactive isotopes and follow
where those isotopes end up in subsequent experiments.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Practical Uses for Nuclear Radiation Page: 208
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
Irradiation of Food: food can be exposed to high-energy gamma rays in order to kill
germs. These gamma rays kill all of the bacteria in the food, but do not make
the food itself radioactive. (Gamma rays cannot build up inside a substance.)
This provides a way to create food that will not spoil for months on a shelf in a
store. There is a lot of irrational fear of irradiated food in the United States, but
irradiation is commonly used in Europe. For example, irradiated milk will keep
for months on a shelf at room temperature without spoiling.

Carbon Dating: Because 14C is a long-lived isotope (with a half-life of 5 700 years),
the amount of 14C in archeological samples can give an accurate estimate of
their age. One famous use of carbon dating was its use to prove that the Shroud
of Turin (the supposed burial shroud of Jesus Christ) was actually made between
1260 C.E. and 1390 C.E.

Smoke Detectors: In a smoke detector, 241Am emits positively-charged alpha

particles, which are directed towards a metal plate. This steady flow of positive
charges completes an electrical circuit. If there is a fire, smoke particles
neutralize positive charges. This makes the flow of charges through the
electrical circuit stop, which is used to trigger the alarm.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Nuclear Chemistry Page: 209
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nuclear Chemistry

Summary: Nuclear Chemistry

Unit: Nuclear Chemistry
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Electronic Structure Page: 211
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure

Introduction: Electronic Structure

Unit: Electronic Structure
Topics covered in this chapter:
The Electron ................................................................................................. 214
The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom ...................................................... 216
The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom ........................................... 220
Waves .......................................................................................................... 223
Electron Energy Transitions ......................................................................... 226
Orbitals ........................................................................................................ 228
Electron Configurations ............................................................................... 233
Exceptions to the Aufbau Principle ............................................................. 242
Valence Electrons ........................................................................................ 244

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Electronic Structure Page: 212
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Electronic Structure Page: 213
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Standards addressed in this chapter:
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS1-1 Use the periodic table as a model to predict the relative properties of
main group elements, including ionization energy and relative sizes of atoms
and ions, based on the patterns of electrons in the outermost energy level
of each element. Use the patterns of valence electron configurations, core
charge, and Coulomb’s law to explain and predict general trends in
ionization energies, relative sizes of atoms and ions, and reactivity of pure
elements.
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):
2.4 Write the electron configurations for the first twenty elements of the
periodic table.
3.3 Relate the position of an element on the periodic table to its electron
configuration and compare its reactivity to the reactivity of other elements
in the table.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Electron Page: 214
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure

The Electron
Unit: Electronic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 2.2
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Describe & explain the particle vs. wave nature of electrons.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions successfully communicate accurate information about electrons
and their behavior.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: charge
Language Objectives:
 Explain scientific information about electrons.

Notes:
electron: a small subatomic particle found outside the nucleus of an atom.

mass = 9.11 × 10−31 kg = 9.11 × 10−28 g

= 1/1836 of the mass of a proton

charge = −1.6022 × 10−19 coulomb

= −1 elementary charge

radius = 2.8179 × 10−15 m

electric current (electricity): electrons moving from one place to another.

Protons and neutrons remain in the nucleus of their atom (except for nuclear
decay), but electrons can be removed from one atom and added to another.

ion: an atom (or group of atoms that functions like a single atom) that has an
electric charge because it has either gained or lost electrons.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Electron Page: 215
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Because an electron has mass (though it’s very small—about 1/1836 of the mass of a
proton or neutron), this means electrons are particles, and all of the equations that
apply to motion of solid particles also apply to electrons.

However, an electromagnetic wave is a wave of electricity, and electricity is made of

electrons that are moving. This means that moving electrons are also waves—they
move through empty space, carrying energy with them. Therefore, all of the
equations that apply to waves also apply to electrons.

This means that an electron must be both a wave and a particle at the same
time.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom Page: 216
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure

The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

Unit: Electronic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 2.2
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Describe developments that led to the Bohr model of the atom.
 Describe & explain the Bohr model of the atom.
 Explain how the quantum mechanical model of the atom grew out of the Bohr
model.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions successfully communicate developments prior to the Bohr model
that were incorporated into the model.
 Descriptions successfully communicate accurate information about the Bohr
model and how it describes the behavior of atoms.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: model
Language Objectives:
 Explain scientific information about the Bohr mechanical model of the atom.

Notes:
Significant Developments Prior to 1913
Atomic Theory
Significant developments in atomic theory are described in the “History of Atomic
Theory” section, which begins on page 166. The most significant advances were the
discovery of the electron and the planetary model of the atom.

Early Quantum Theory

“Old” Quantum Theory (ca. 1900): sub-atomic particles obey the laws of classical
mechanics, but that only certain “allowed” states are possible.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom Page: 217
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Spectroscopy
Balmer Formula (1885): Swiss mathematician and physicist Johann Balmer devised
an empirical equation to relate the emission lines in the visible spectrum for the
hydrogen atom.

Rydberg Formula (1888): Swedish physicist Johannes Rydberg developed a

generalized formula that could describe the wave numbers of all of the spectral
lines in hydrogen (and similar elements).

There are several series of spectral lines for hydrogen, each of which converge
at different wavelengths. Rydberg described the Balmer series in terms of a pair
of integers (n1 and n2, where n1 < n2), and devised a single formula with a single
constant (now called the Rydberg constant) that relates them.
1  1 1 
 RH  2  2 
vac  n1 n2 
me e4
The value of Rydberg’s constant is  10 973 731.6 m1  1.1  107m1
8 o h c
2 3

where me is the rest mass of the electron, e is the elementary charge, εo is the
electrical permittivity of free space, h is Planck’s constant, and c is the speed of
light in a vacuum.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom Page: 218
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Rydberg’s equation was later found to be consistent with other series
discovered later, including the Lyman series (in the ultraviolet region; first
discovered in 1906) and the Paschen series (in the infrared region; first
discovered in 1908).

Those series and their converging wavelengths are:

Series Wavelength n1 n2
Lyman 91 nm 1 2→∞
Balmer 365 nm 2 3→∞
Pasch7en 820 nm 3 4→∞

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom Page: 219
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Bohr’s Model of the Atom (1913)
In 1913, Danish physicist Niels Bohr combined atomic, spectroscopy, and quantum
theories into a single theory. Bohr hypothesized that electrons moved around the
nucleus as in Rutherford’s model, but that these electrons had only certain allowed
quantum values of energy, which could be described by a quantum number (n ).
The value of that quantum number was the same n as in Rydberg’s equation, and
that using quantum numbers in Rydberg’s equation could predict the wavelengths
of light emitted when the electrons gained or lost energy by moved from one
quantum level to another.

Bohr’s model gained wide acceptance, because it related several prominent theories
of the time. The theory worked well for hydrogen, giving a theoretical basis for
Rydberg’s equation. Bohr defined the energy released when an electron descended
to an energy level using an integer quantum number (n ) and Rydberg’s constant:

RH
En  
n2

Bohr received the Nobel Prize in physics in 1922 for his contributions to quantum
and atomic theory.

Although the Bohr model worked well for hydrogen, the equations could not be
solved exactly for atoms with more than one electron, because of the additional
kq q
effects that electrons exert on each other (e.g., via the Coulomb force, Fe  12 2 ).
r

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom Page: 220
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure

The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom

Unit: Electronic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 2.2
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Describe & explain the quantum mechanical model of the atom.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions successfully communicate accurate information about the
quantum mechanical model of the atom and how it describes the behavior of
atoms.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: mechanical
Language Objectives:
 Explain scientific information about the quantum mechanical model of the
atom.

Notes:
quantum: a discrete increment (plural: quanta) If a quantity is quantized, it means
that only certain values for that quantity are possible.

Because an electron behaves like a wave, it can only absorb energy in quanta that
correspond to exact multiples of its wavelength.

Neils Bohr was the first to realize that

because atomic spectral emissions are
quantized, electron energy levels must
also be quantized. (See the “Historical
Development of Atomic Theory” section
on page 167 for more details.)

Recall that in the Bohr model of the

atom, an electron’s (quantum) energy
level determined its distance from the
nucleus.

What actually happens is not that simple. If an electron is in a particular energy

level, the Bohr model may predict its average distance from the nucleus, but the
electron is also a particle, so it has some freedom to move closer or farther.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom Page: 221
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
In 1925, Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger found that by treating each electron as
a unique wave function, the energies of the electrons could be predicted by the
mathematical solutions to a wave equation. The use of Schrödinger’s wave
equation to construct a probability map for where the electrons can be found in an
atom is the basis for the modern quantum-mechanical model of the atom.

To understand the probability

map, it is important to realize
that because the electron acts
as a wave, it is detectable when
the amplitude of the wave is
nonzero, but not detectable
when the amplitude is zero.
This makes it appear as if the
electron is teleporting from
place to place around the atom.
If you were somehow able to
take a time-lapse picture of an
electron as it moves around the
nucleus, the picture might look
something like the diagram to
the right, where each dot is the
location of the electron at an
instant in time.
Notice that there is a region close to the nucleus where the electron is unlikely to be
found, and a ring a little farther out where there is a much higher probability of
finding the electron. As you get farther and farther from the nucleus, Schrödinger’s
equation predicts different shapes for these probability distributions. These regions
of high probability are called “orbitals,” because of their relation to the orbits
originally suggested by the planetary model.

The quantum mechanical model of the atom is based on this combination of

quantized energy levels and probabilities.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom Page: 222
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
The claims of the quantum mechanical model of the atom are:
 The electrons orbiting an atom behave like waves as well as particles, and
their behavior can be described by Schrödinger’s wave equation, which has
integer solutions called quantum numbers.
 The energies and therefore locations of electrons within an atom cannot be
determined exactly, but there are regions with a high probability of finding an
electron (called “orbitals”), and other regions with a low probability of finding
an electron.
 The energy of each electron (and therefore its probable location) can be
described by a unique set of quantum numbers. No two electrons can have
the same energies, which are described by the electron’s unique set of
quantum numbers, which means no two electrons can have the exact same
set of quantum numbers. This is called the Pauli exclusion principle, named
after the Swiss-American physicist Wolfgang Pauli.
 Electrons move within their orbitals at speeds near the speed of light.
 An electron is constrained to stay within its orbital because of its energy. If
the electron absorbs energy, it can move to a higher-energy orbital. If an
unoccupied lower-energy orbital is available, the electron can release energy
(in the form of a photon, which can be observed as light) and move to the
lower-energy orbital.
 The shape of any given orbital (the region where there is high probability of
finding an electron) depends on all of the forces that affect that electron.
Some of these forces relate to the energy characteristics of the specific
orbital, but other forces can include electrostatic repulsion of other electrons
within the atom, electrostatic repulsion of the electrons in ionically-bonded
atoms, or the sharing of electrons in a covalently-bonded atom. In real atoms,
the shapes of orbitals are continuously changing as all of the electrons within
the atom repel one another as they move at near-light speed.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Waves Page: 223
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure

Waves
Unit: Electronic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Explain what waves are and how they propagate.
 Describe the relative energies of different waves based on their frequencies
and positions within the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Calculate the frequency and wavelength of electromagnetic waves.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions are accurate and backed up by evidence.
 Calculations are correct.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: wave, spectrum
Language Objectives:
 Explain scientific information about waves and the electromagnetic spectrum.

Notes:
wave: an energy disturbance that travels from one place to another.

medium: the substance that a wave travels through. Electromagnetic waves

(including light) can travel without a medium.
 The wave travels through the medium.
 All (or nearly all) of the energy passes through the medium—the medium
doesn’t absorb it.
Some examples of waves:

Type of Wave Medium

sound air (or water, solids)
ocean water
electromagnetic (e.g., light, radio) none

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Waves Page: 224
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
wavelength (λ): the length of the wave, measured from a specific point in the wave
to the same point in the next wave. unit = distance (m, cm, nm, etc.)

frequency: (f or ν) the number of waves that travel past a point in a given time.
Symbol = f ; unit = 1/time = Hz
speed = λ f
Electromagnetic waves (such as light, radio waves, etc.) travel at a constant speed—
the speed of light. The speed of light is a constant, and is denoted by the letter “c”
in equations.

c = 3.00 × 108 m/s = 186,000 miles per second

The energy (E) that a wave carries equals a constant times the frequency. (Think of
it as the number of bursts of energy that travel through the wave every second.)
For electromagnetic waves (including light), the constant is Planck’s constant
(named after the physicist Max Planck), which is denoted by a script h in equations.
So the equation is:
E = hf
where h = 6.63 ×10−34 J∙s = Planck’s constant

Louis de Broglie: French physicist. Showed that any object with momentum (i.e.,
has mass and is moving) creates a wave as it moves.
Large objects with a lot of momentum (such as people) create waves with
wavelengths that are far too small to detect.
Small objects (such as electrons) create waves with wavelengths in the visible
part of the spectrum. This is why we can see the light produced by electrons as
they move.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Waves Page: 225
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
spectrum: the set of all possible wavelengths. Visible light is one set of wavelengths
that are part of the full electromagnetic spectrum.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electron Energy Transitions Page: 226
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure

Electron Energy Transitions

Unit: Electronic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Explain the meaning of the lines in emission spectra.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions include colors, approximate wavelengths, and relationship
between number of lines and number of electrons.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: emission, spectrum, ground, excited
Language Objectives:
 Explain scientific information about energy transmissions and line spectra.

Notes:
quantum: a discrete quantity of energy that cannot be divided.

ground state: the lowest available energy level for an electron.

excited state: a higher energy level than the ground state.

emission spectrum: the wavelengths (colors) of light emitted by an element when

its electrons are “excited” (raised to a higher energy state) and then allowed to
return to the ground state.

spectroscope: a device that separates colors of light based on their wavelengths.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electron Energy Transitions Page: 227
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
If you were to look at a glass tube filled with hydrogen gas that was energized with
electricity, the gas in the tube would appear to be blue, because the electrons are
energized, and the energy of the light they emit as they return to the n = 2 quantum
energy level corresponds with a blue color.

If you were to split the light emitted by hydrogen into its component colors using a
spectroscope, you would see the following:

Atoms with more electrons have a larger number of possible transitions, each with
different energies. This results in more lines in their emission spectrum, as with
iron:

photon: a single “piece” (particle/wave) of light.

luminescence: light that is not generated by high temperatures alone. (In fact, it
usually occurs at low temperatures. Causes include electrical energy and
chemical reactions.)

fluorescence: a type of luminescence that occurs when electrons of an element are

excited and return immediately to the ground state, giving off a photon. The
wavelength of the photon given off is usually different from the wavelength of
the photon used to raise the electrons to the excited state.

phosphorescence: “glow-in-the-dark” luminescence—a type of luminescence that

occurs when electrons are excited, but cannot return directly to the ground
state. The indirect path is slower, which cause the material to “glow” for a
longer period of time (in some cases, hours).

triboluminescence: a form of luminescence in which light is generated by breaking

asymmetrical bonds in a crystal. In the case of wintergreen Life Savers, when
the sugar crystals are crushed, the positive and negative charges get separated.
The voltage between them causes a spark. Normally, these sparks are in the
ultraviolet part of the spectrum and cannot be seen; however, wintergreen oil
(methyl salicylate) is fluorescent. It absorbs the photons of ultraviolet light and
emits photons of blue light, which we can see.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Orbitals Page: 228
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure

Orbitals
Unit: Electronic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 2.4, 3.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Explain the energy hierarchy of quantum levels, sub-levels, and orbitals.
 Explain how the hierarchy of quantum levels, sub-levels and orbitals
corresponds with positions on the periodic table of the elements.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions relate principal quantum number to period and sub-level to
region of the periodic table.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: level, sub-level
Language Objectives:
 Explain the energy hierarchy of quantum levels, sub-levels and orbitals.

Notes:
orbital: a region in an atom (outside the nucleus) with a high probability of finding
an electron.

These regions are called orbitals because these regions are what replaced the
spherical orbits in the much simpler planetary model.

Note that orbitals are not physical objects with boundaries. They are simply the
space that an electron moves around in because its energy and the external
forces on it. When an electron approaches the “boundary” of its orbital, the
forces pulling it back are strong enough to overcome the energy that the
electron has, and it cannot get farther away.

The locations and geometric shapes of these orbitals are the solutions to the wave
equation, a complex mathematical formula that would require mathematics far too
advanced for a high school class. Instead, we will categorize orbitals using a
hierarchy that is divided according to energy levels.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Orbitals Page: 229
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Energy Level Hierarchy
Electrons have energy levels, which roughly correspond to the values of n in the
Rutherford-Bohr model. Each of those levels has one or more kinds of sublevels.
Each sublevel has one or more orbitals, and each of those orbitals can hold up to
two electrons. It’s easiest to think of the hierarchy as an outline:

1. energy level (1, 2, 3, ...)

a. sub-level (s, p, d, f, ...)
i. orbital
a. individual electron

Energy Level
The main or principal level is a measure of total distance from the nucleus. The
levels are numbered 1-7. The periodic table of the elements is arranged so that the
Period (row number) that an element is in equals the energy level of the electron
that has the most energy.

For example, helium is in period (row) #1. That means its highest energy level is 1,
which means both of its electrons have to be in level 1.

Sulfur is in period (row) #3, which means it has electrons in levels 1, 2, and 3.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Orbitals Page: 230
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Sub-Levels & Orbitals
There are four types of sub-levels. Each type has a specific number of orbitals with
specific shapes. Each of those orbitals can hold up to 2 electrons.

There are four kinds of sub-levels: s, p, d, and f*. The shapes of their orbitals are:

type of total # of total # of

shape(s) of orbital(s)
sub-level orbitals electrons

s 1 2

p 3 6

d 5 10

f 7 14

Notice that each sub-level has an odd number of orbitals.

*
The letters come from words that described the characteristics of the atomic spectra.
s stood for “sharp,” p for “principal,” d for “diffuse,” and f for “fundamental.”

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Orbitals Page: 231
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Arrangement of Levels and Sublevels
Each energy level in an atom has at least one of these kinds of sub-levels—each
level contains an s sub-level, each level starting with level 2 contains s and p sub-
levels, each level starting with level 3 contains s, p, and d sub-levels, etc.

Level 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
# of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
sub-levels
s, p, s, p, d,
types of s, p, s, p, d,
s s, p s, p, d d, f, (g), f, (g),
sub-levels d, f f, (g)
(h) (h), (i)
Note that g, h, and i are in parentheses because no atom is large enough that it
actually has any electrons in g, h, or i sublevels, but mathematically we know that
those sub-levels will exist if we “discover” (create) a large enough atom.

Note also that these sub-levels overlap. For example, the levels and sublevels in a
sodium (Na) atom might look like the following:

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Orbitals Page: 232
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Sub-levels and the Periodic Table
Note that the sub-level of the electron that has the highest energy corresponds with
the location of the element on the periodic table:

Notice, for example, that the “s section” of the periodic table is two columns wide.
This is because each s sub-level has one orbital that can hold two electrons.

type of # columns
# orbitals ×2= # electrons
sub-level on P.T.
s 1 2 2
p 3 6 6
d 5 10 10
f 7 14 14

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electron Configurations Page: 233
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure

Electron Configurations
Unit: Electronic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 2.4, 3.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Write the ground-state electron configuration for any element on the periodic
table.
Success Criteria:
 Levels and sublevels are in the correct order.
 Each sublevel has the correct number of electrons.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: level, spin
Language Objectives:
 Explain the parts of an electron configuration.

Notes:
The electron configuration for an element is a list of all of the energy sub-levels that
have electrons in them (in the ground state) in order from lowest to highest energy,
and the number of electrons they contain.

For example, consider a neutral nitrogen atom with its seven electrons.
 The first two electrons occupy the 1s sublevel—the one with the lowest
energy. We denote these two electrons as 1s2.
 The next two electrons occupy the 2s sublevel. We denote these two
electrons as 2s2.
 The last three electrons are in the 2p sublevel. We denote these three
electrons as 2p3.
 The complete electron configuration for nitrogen is therefore 1s2 2s2 2p3.

If this already makes sense, great! The next few pages explain where these
numbers come from in more detail.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electron Configurations Page: 234
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
The following chart shows each orbital from 1s through 4p. Orbitals with the lowest
energy are shown at the bottom, and those with the highest energy are at the top.

This can be a little confusing, because the levels overlap. For example, notice that
the 3d sub-level is higher in energy than the 4s sub-level.

This means that the electrons will fill sub-levels in the following order:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, ...

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electron Configurations Page: 235
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
You can use the periodic table as the “road map”:

To determine the electron configuration, imagine that you are placing one electron
in each element’s box until you “use up” all of the electrons. The last box is the
element that you are writing the electron configuration for.

The two columns on the left* correspond with the “s” sublevels. The six columns on
the right correspond with the “p” sublevels. The ten columns of the transition
metals correspond with the “d” sublevels. The fourteen columns below the rest of
the table correspond with the “f” sublevels.

As you move through the positions in order, you are moving through the sub-levels
from lowest to highest energy.

Remember that the “s” sub-levels start with 1s, the “p” sub-levels start with 2p, the
“d” sub-levels start with 3d, and the “f” sub-levels start with 4f. The “gotchas” are:
 The 3d sub-level is in row 4, right after 4s.
 The 4f sub-level is in row 6, right after 6s.

*
For the purpose of electron configurations, helium should be in the “s” block, next to
hydrogen.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electron Configurations Page: 236
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Writing Electron Configurations
An element has electrons that correspond with each of the available slots, from the
beginning of the periodic table (where hydrogen is located) up to where that
element is located.

If we were to represent an electron as an arrow, we could represent two electrons


in a 1s sub-level like this: . The 1s sub-level has one orbital, which is
1s
represented by the one blank. The two electrons are represented as arrows.
Because two electrons sharing an orbital have opposite spins, we represent them
with one arrow pointing up and the other arrow pointing down.

  
We could represent five electrons in a 2p orbital like this: . The 2p sub-
2p
level has 3 orbitals, represented by the 3 blanks. Two of those orbitals have two
electrons in them, and the third one has only one electron.

We could represent all 13 of the electrons in aluminum like this:

      
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
This diagram shows the electron configuration of aluminum.

electron configuration: a description of which levels and sub-levels the electrons in

an element are occupying.

Notice that we have to show all three of the orbitals (blanks) in the 3p sub-level,
even if some of those orbitals don’t have any electrons in them.

ground state: when all of the electrons in an atom are in the lowest-energy sublevel
that has an available “slot”.

Pauli Exclusion Principle: every electron in an atom has a different quantum state
from every other electron. In plain English, this means that something has to be
different about each electron, whether it’s the level, sub-level, which orbital it’s
in, or its spin.

aufbau principle: in the ground state, each electron in an atom will occupy the
lowest available energy state. This means that you start with the lowest sub-
level (1s) and work your way up until you’ve placed all the electrons.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electron Configurations Page: 237
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Hund’s Rule: electrons don’t pair up in orbital until they have to. (This is kind of like
siblings not wanting to share a room if there’s an empty room available.) For
example, the electron configuration for nitrogen would be:

Wrong:
   
1s 2s 2p X
Right:
    
1s 2s 2p 
If you don’t need to draw every electron, you can use a shorter form, in which you
just write the level and sub-level, and use a superscript for the number of electrons
in the sub-level.

   
For example, would become 1s2, and would become 2p6.
1s 2p

The electron configuration for aluminum would go from the orbital notation
version:
      
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

to the “standard” version:

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electron Configurations Page: 238
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
The shorter version can still get tediously long for elements with a lot of electrons.
For example, the electron configuration for gold (Au) is:

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d9

To shorten this even more, you’re allowed to use the element in the last column of
a row as an abbreviation for all of the electrons through the end of that row.

In our example, gold (Au) is in the 6th row of the periodic table:
Period

1 18
IA VIII A

2 13 14 15 16 17
1 1s
II A III A IV A VA VI A VII A

2 2s 2p

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 3s 3p
III B IV B VB VI B VII B VIII B VIII B VIII B IB II B

4 4s 3d 4p

5 5s 4d 5p
Xe
6 6s
6s2 5d
5d1 5d2 5d3 5d4 5d5 5d6 5d7 5d8 Au 6p

7 7s 6d 7p

4f14
lanthanides
(rare earth metals) 4f

actinides 5f

This means we’re allowed to start from xenon (Xe) at the end of the previous (5th)
row, and add on only the parts that come after Xe. This gives us:

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5 d9

Noble gas configuration: [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d9

This notation is called the noble gas configuration, because the elements in the last
column (the ones you start from) are called the noble gases.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electron Configurations Page: 239
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Homework Problems
Give the electron configuration (orbital notation—with the arrows) for each of the
following elements:

1. carbon

2. potassium

3. silicon

4. silver

For each of the following electron configurations, name the element.

    
5.
1s 2s 2p

              
6.
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d

Each of the following electron configurations has something wrong with it.
For each one:
• State what the mistake is.
• Re-write the electron configuration correctly, keeping the total number of
electrons the same.

   
7.
1s 2p

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electron Configurations Page: 240
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
   
8.
1s 2s 2p

       
9.
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

For each of the following elements, give the “standard” electron configuration
(e.g., 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1).

10. boron (B)

11. phosphorus (P)

12. vanadium (V)

13. strontium (Sr)

For each of the following electron configurations, give the element.

14. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

15. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d6

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electron Configurations Page: 241
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
For each of the following elements, give the “noble gas” electron configuration
(e.g., [Ar] 4s2 3d5).

16. zirconium (Zr)

17. platinum (Pt)

18. dysprosium (Dy)

19. gallium (Ga)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Exceptions to the Aufbau Principle Page: 242
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure

Exceptions to the Aufbau Principle

Unit: Electronic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 2.4, 3.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Predict which elements are likely to be exceptions to the aufbau principle.
 Explain why exceptions to the aufbau principle occur as you approach the
middle and end of the d and f sub-levels.
Success Criteria:
 Predictions match observed electron configurations.
Language Objectives:
 Explain exceptions to the aufbau principle.

Notes:
Remember from Hund’s Rule that electrons like to spread out.

Atoms are the most stable when their electrons are the most evenly distributed
within the atom’s energy levels and sub-levels. This means that elements with
completely filled principal (numbered) energy levels are the most stable.
 The “noble gases” (the last column of the periodic table) already have all of their
principal energy levels completely filled with electrons. This makes them very
stable, because they do not need to react with other atoms to get their
electrons into a more stable configuration. This is why noble gases almost never
react with anything.
 Other elements gain, lose, or share electrons (in chemical reactions) in order to
end up with electron configurations that are like the nearest noble gas on the
periodic table.

Atoms with p, d, and f sub-levels that are exactly half full are more stable than
atoms with slightly more or fewer electrons in their p, d, and f sub-levels. This
makes those atoms slightly more stable (and therefore less reactive) than other
atoms. For example:
• Nitrogen ([He] 2s2 2p3), which has an exactly half-filled 2p sub-level, is
chemically less reactive than oxygen ([He] 2s2 2p4).
• Manganese ([Ar] 4s2 3d5), which has an exactly half-full 3d sub-level, is
chemically less reactive than iron ([Ar] 4s2 3d6).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Exceptions to the Aufbau Principle Page: 243
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
In fact, elements with a d or f sub-level that is one electron away from being half full
will usually “borrow” one electron from the nearest s sub-level, because the half-
filled d or f sub-level is more stable than the full s sub-level.
• Chromium “borrows” one of its 4s electrons to make its 3d sub-level exactly
half full. This means that instead of having predicted electron configuration of
[Ar] 4s2 3d4, it is observed to have the electron configuration [Ar] 4s1 3d5. This
happens because a half-filled 4s sub-level plus a half-filled 3d sub-level is more
stable than a completely filled 4s sub-level plus a 3d sub-level with 4 electrons
in it.
• Copper “borrows” one of its 4s electrons to make its 3d sub-level completely
full. This means that instead of having predicted electron configuration of
[Ar] 4s2 3d9, it is observed to have the electron configuration [Ar] 4s1 3d10.
Again, this happens because a half-filled 4s sub-level plus a completely filled
3d sub-level is more stable than a completely filled 4s sub-level plus a 3d sub-
level with 9 electrons in it.

There are a significant number of other exceptions to the aufbau principle. Clearly,
atoms do not care about the periodic table!

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Valence Electrons Page: 244
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure

Valence Electrons
Unit: Electronic Structure
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 3.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Determine the number of valence electrons for representative elements.
 Draw Lewis dot diagrams for representative elements.
Success Criteria:
 Elements are drawn with the correct number of valence electrons.
 Dots representing electrons are spread around the element symbol in an
appropriate fashion.
Language Objectives:
 Explain what valence electrons are and how to determine how many an
element has.

Notes:
valence electrons: the outer electrons of an atom that are available to participate in
chemical reactions.

In most atoms, these are the electrons in the s and p sub-levels of the highest
(numbered) energy level.

For example, phosphorus (P) has the electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3, or
[Ne] 3s2 3p3. The highest energy level is level 3.

The 3s2 3p3 at the end of its electron configuration tells us that phosphorus has
2 electrons in the 3s sub-level plus 3 in the 3p sub-level, for a total of 5 electrons in
level 3. This means that phosphorus has 5 valence electrons.

Note that only electrons in s and p sub-levels can be valence electrons. For
example, arsenic (As) has the electron configuration [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p3. The highest
energy level is 4, so only the electrons in level 4 count. Arsenic has 2 electrons in
the 4s sub-level, and 3 electrons in the 4p sub-level, for a total of 5 valence
electrons. The 10 electrons in the 3d sub-level are not in the highest level, so they
don’t count.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Valence Electrons Page: 245
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Recall that full sub-levels give an atom extra stability. This means noble gases (the
elements in the last column of the periodic table) are the most stable elements
because all of their sub-levels are filled. This is why noble gases almost never react
with other elements.

Because noble gases have all sub-levels filled, this means they have “full” valence
shells. Helium has 2 valence electrons (because it has only a 1s sub-level), and all
other noble gases have 8 valence electrons (because their highest-numbered s sub-
level is full with 2 electrons, and their highest-numbered p sub-level is full with
6 electrons, for a total of 8.)

For other elements, the atoms can become much more stable if they can form ions
with filled valence shells, which would give the ion the same electron configuration
as a noble gas.

For example, phosphorus ([Ne] 3s2 3p3) has 5 valence electrons. It could have a full
valent shell by gaining 3 more electrons to fill its 3p sub-level (which would give it
the same electron configuration as argon), or by losing 5 electrons (which would
give it the same electron configuration as neon). Because it is easier to gain
3 electrons than to lose 5, phosphorus is most likely to gain 3 electrons, which
means it’s most likely to form an ion with a −3 charge.

Potassium ([Ar] 4s1) has only one valence electron. Potassium could either lose 1
electron (which would give it the same electron configuration as argon), or gain
7 electrons (which would give it the same electron configuration as krypton).
Because it is easier to lose 1 electron than to gain 7, potassium is most likely to lose
1 electron, which means it’s most likely to form an ion with a +1 charge.

Transition Metals
Because the energy of an s sub-level is so close to the energy of the d sub-level of
the next lower energy level, transition metals can easily shift electrons between
these s and d sub-levels. This means they can have different numbers of valence
electrons, depending on the situation. For example, copper can have the electron
configuration [Ar] 4s2 3d9, or [Ar] 4s1 3d10, meaning that copper can have either one
or two valence electrons. This explains why copper is observed to sometimes form
a +1 ion, and other times a +2 ion.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Valence Electrons Page: 246
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Group Numbers
You can read the number of valence electrons that an element has directly from the
periodic table, using the group numbers. For the “representative elements” (s and p
block elements), the number of valence electrons is the last digit of the group
number. Transition metals generally have two valence electrons, though there are
exceptions. (See the section on “Exceptions to the Aufbau Principle” starting on
page 242 for an explanation.)

Lewis Dot Diagrams

A Lewis dot diagram is a representation of an element surrounded by its valence
electrons. The diagram consists of the element symbol (from the periodic table),
with dots on the top, bottom, and sides representing the s and p sub-levels of its
valence shell.

For example, aluminum has 3 valence electrons. The orbital-notation electron

configuration for aluminum is:

      
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

Its Lewis dot diagram is Al:

Notice that it shows three dots representing the 3 valence electrons.

The dots are placed in singles or pairs on the top, bottom, left, and right of the
element symbol. The convention is to place the first two valence electrons (the
ones in the s sub-level) to the right of the element symbol, and the remaining
valence electrons (the ones in the p sub-levels) on the top, left, and bottom. Start
with one dot on the top, left, and bottom, and then pair them up one at a time.
(This corresponds with Hund’s Law, which says that electrons in the p sub-level do
not pair up until they have to.)

In our example, the Lewis dot diagram for aluminum has two dots on the right
representing the two electrons in the 3s sub-level, and one dot on the left for the
one electron in the 3p sub-level.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Valence Electrons Page: 247
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons. Its orbital-notation electron configuration is:

    
1s 2s 2p


Its Lewis dot diagram would be N:


Again, notice that there are 2 dots on the right for the 2s sub-level, and one dot
each on the top, bottom, and left sides for the one electron in each of the orbitals of
the 2p sub-level.

Neon has 8 valence electrons. Its orbital-notation electron configuration is:

    
1s 2s 2p


Its Lewis dot diagram is : Ne :


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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Valence Electrons Page: 248
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure
Homework Problems
Fill in the chart below. Use the first row as an example.

Electron Group Valence Lewis Nearest Charge

Element
Configuration # Electrons Dot Noble Gas of Ion

N [He] 2s2 2p3 15 5 N: Ne −3


Na

Ar

Al

Br

Ca

Cl

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Electronic Structure Page: 249
Big Ideas Details Unit: Electronic Structure

Summary: Electronic Structure

Unit: Electronic Structure
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Periodicity Page: 251
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity

Introduction: Periodicity
Unit: Periodicity
Topics covered in this chapter:
Development of the Periodic Table ............................................................. 253
Regions of the Periodic Table ...................................................................... 258
Ionization Energy ......................................................................................... 263
Electronegativity .......................................................................................... 267
Atomic & Ionic Radius.................................................................................. 270

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 Introduction: Periodicity Page: 252
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
Standards addressed in this chapter:
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS1-1 Use the periodic table as a model to predict the relative properties of
main group elements, including ionization energy and relative sizes of atoms
and ions, based on the patterns of electrons in the outermost energy level
of each element. Use the patterns of valence electron configurations, core
charge, and Coulomb’s law to explain and predict general trends in
ionization energies, relative sizes of atoms and ions, and reactivity of pure
elements.

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):

3.1 Explain the relationship of an element's position on the periodic table to its
atomic number. Identify families (groups) and periods on the periodic table.
3.2 Use the periodic table to identify the three classes of elements: metals,
nonmetals, and metalloids.
3.3 Relate the position of an element on the periodic table to its electron
configuration and compare its reactivity to the reactivity of other elements
in the table.
3.4 Identify trends on the periodic table (ionization energy, electronegativity,
and relative sizes of atoms and ions).

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 Development of the Periodic Table Page: 253
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity

Development of the Periodic Table

Unit: Periodicity
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 3.1
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Describe how our understanding of groups of elements with similar properties
developed into the modern periodic table.
 List scientists who contributed to our understanding of periodicity and their
contributions.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions include specific developments and prior developments that they
supplanted.
Language Objectives:
 Describe how the modern periodic table developed over time.

Notes:

The Fifth Element

In ancient times, the world was believed to be made of four elements: earth, air,
fire, and water. Every substance on Earth was thought to be made of one of these
four elements.

When sulfur was discovered, it could be detected in the presence of each of the
other four elements. For this reason, philosophers eventually decided that sulfur
must be a fifth element.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Development of the Periodic Table Page: 254
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
Chemical Symbols
By the early 1800s, more than twenty separate elements were known. Swedish
chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius developed a system of notation in which each element
was given a one- or two-letter symbol based on its Latin name. This is the system in
use today, though newer symbols are based on the elements’ names in English
rather than Latin. Some of Berzelius’s names and symbols included:

Symbol Latin Name English Name Symbol Latin Name English Name
Ag argentum silver Na natrium sodium
Au aurum gold Pb plumbum lead
Cu cuprum copper Sb stibium antimony
Fe ferum iron Sn stannum tin
Hg hydrargyrum mercury W wolfram tungsten
K kalium potassium

Berzelius also developed a system of notation for chemical compounds with the
number of atoms of an element denoted as a superscript (e.g., H2O). Later in the
19th century, the superscript was changed to a subscript, in order to avoid confusing
the number of atoms in a molecule with exponents, electrical charges, etc., so H2O
became H2O.

Early Classifications of the Elements

Johnann Wolfgang Döbereiner: German chemist; classified elements into triads
(groups of three) with similar properties (1817).

John Newlands: British chemist; arranged the elements in order of increasing

atomic mass. Proposed the law of octaves (1829).

law of octaves: when the elements are arranged by increasing atomic mass, every
8th element has similar properties. This worked for the first 20 elements.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Development of the Periodic Table Page: 255
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
Valence Numbers
valence number: the “combining power” of an element, meaning the number of
atoms that would need to combine with that element in order to “satisfy” it.
Initially, the valence number was the largest number of atoms of oxygen that
could form a compound with the element. Note that valence numbers were in
use in the early 1800s, almost a century before electrons were discovered.

Valence Valence Valence

Metals Metals Metals
Number Number Number
K, Na, Li, Ca, Cu, Pb, Sb, Bi, Hg, Ag, Au, Pt,
I. III. V.
Ba, Sr, Mg U, Ti, Ce, Te Pd, Rh, Os, Ir
Mn, Fe, Zn, As, Mo, Cr, V, Be, Zr, Y, Th,
II. IV. VI.
Sn, Cd, Co, Ni W, Ta Al, Si
We now define the valence number to be the number of electrons that an atom
has in its outer (valent) shell.

The Periodic Table

Julius Lothar Meyer: German chemist. Published the first periodic table (1864),
with 28 elements arranged in order of increasing atomic mass and grouped
according to valence numbers.

Dmitri Mendeleev: Russian chemist, considered the author of the modern periodic
table. Mendeleev’s table was published in 1869, with elements arranged by
increasing atomic mass, and grouped in columns by similar chemical & physical
properties (including valence number).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Development of the Periodic Table Page: 256
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
(Highlights within vertical columns indicate Döbereiner’s triads.)

Group
Period I II III IV V VI VII VIII
1 H=1
2 Li=7 Be=9.4 B=11 C=12 N=14 O=16 F=19
3 Na=23 Mg=24 Al=27.3 Si=28 P=31 S=32 Cl=35.5
Fe = 56;
4 K=39 Ca=40 ?=44 Ti=48 V=51 Cr=52 Mn=55 Co = 59;
Ni = 59
5 Cu=63 Zn=65 ?=68 ?=72 As=75 Se=78 Br=80
Ru = 104;
6 Rb=85 Sr=87 ?Yt=88 Zr=90 Nb=94 Mo=96 ?=100 Rh = 104;
Pd = 106
7 Ag=108 Cd=112 In=113 Sn=118 Sb=122 Te=125 J=127
8 Cs=133 Ba=137?Di=138 ?Ce=140
9
Os = 195;
10 ?Er=178?La=180 Ta=182 W=184 Ir = 197;
Pt = 198
11 Au=199 Hg=200 Tl=204 Pb=207 Bi=208
12 Th=231 U=240
Mendeleev correctly predicted the existence and chemical and physical
properties of undiscovered elements gallium (“eka-aluminum”, labeled “?=68”
above), and germanium (“eka-silicon”, labeled “?=72” above). Mendeleev’s
periodic table gained significant credibility when gallium and germanium were
discovered (during Mendeleev’s lifetime) and were found to have the properties
that he predicted.

Mendeleev’s group numbers were chosen first based on the elements’ chemical
and physical properties, and second by increasing atomic mass. Tellurium (Te)
was later found to have an average atomic mass of 128 (heavier than iodine,
which was labeled “J” on Mendeleev’s table), but Mendeleev kept the elements
where they were, because tellurium is more like the other elements in group 6,
and iodine is more like the other elements in group 7.

periodic law: when the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number, their properties repeat in regular intervals (periods). (This is the
modern version of the law of octaves.) The periodic table is arranged so that
each row represents one of these periods.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Development of the Periodic Table Page: 257
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
Henry Moseley: British chemist; rearranged the elements by increasing nuclear
charge (atomic number) instead of atomic mass (1913). This arrangement
resulted in elements with similar properties falling into groups without the
exceptions (such as the positions of iodine vs. tellurium) that occurred in
Mendeleev’s table. The modern periodic table is Moseley’s table, extended to
include elements that have been discovered since his death.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Regions of the Periodic Table Page: 258
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity

Regions of the Periodic Table

Unit: Periodicity
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 3.1, 3.2
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Identify regions of the periodic table by name.
 Describe the properties of different groups (families) of elements.
Success Criteria:
 Regions of the periodic table are identified correctly.
 Descriptions of properties are correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: period, group, family
Language Objectives:
 Name each of the regions of the periodic table.

Notes:
period: a row of the periodic table. Properties of the elements are periodic,
meaning that they repeat after a specific interval. Elements in the same period
have their highest energy electrons in the same principal energy level.

group (family): a column of the periodic table. Elements in the same group have
the same number of valence electrons, and therefore have similar chemical and
physical properties.

diatomic elements: elements whose natural state is a molecule that has two atoms
of the element. There are seven diatomic elements:
H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Regions of the Periodic Table Page: 259
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
Metals, Non-Metals & Metalloids
metals: elements to the left of and below the “stairstep line.”

non-metals: elements to the right of and above the “stairstep line.”

metalloids: elements that exhibit both metallic and non-metallic character. These
are most of the elements that touch the “stairstep line”. (All except for Al and
Po).

metalloids → non-
metals

metals

metals

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Regions of the Periodic Table Page: 260
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
properties of metals:
 shiny  high melting & boiling points
 high density  most have 3 or fewer valence
 good conductors of heat & electrons
electricity  tend to form positive ions
 malleable & ductile (can be
reshaped by hammering, bending
and stretching)
properties of non-metals:
 dull  low melting & boiling points
 low density  most have 4 or more valence
 poor conductors of heat & electrons
electricity  tend to form negative ions
 brittle

properties of metalloids:
Metalloids can have properties “in between,” or can have some properties like
metals and others like non-metals.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Regions of the Periodic Table Page: 261
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
Groups (“Families”) of Elements

Period
1 18
1A VIII A

2 13 14 15 16 17
1
II A III A IV A VA VI A VII A

alkaline earth metals

noble gases
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

halogens
3

alkali metals
III B IV B VB VI B VII B VIII B VIII B VIII B IB II B

5
transition
6 metals
7

lanthanides (rare earth metals)

actinides

alkali metals: elements in group 1 (IA) of the periodic table.

 1 valence electron  soft
(form +1 ions)  very high melting & boiling points
 very reactive  ions are soluble in water

alkaline earth metals: elements in group 2 (IIA) of the periodic table.

 2 valence electrons  very high melting & boiling points
(form +2 ions)  ions are not soluble in water
 reactive, though not as much as
group I metals

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Regions of the Periodic Table Page: 262
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
transition metals: elements in the center section (groups 3–12) of the periodic
table.
 have a partially-filled d sub-level  transition metals with several
 form colored ions when dissolved unpaired electrons in their d or
in water f sub-levels are paramagnetic
 “officially” have 2 valence (are attracted to a magnet).
electrons, but can shift electrons  most are shiny, hard metals with
into and out of s and d sub- high melting & boiling points
levels. Often form more than one
kind of ion.
inner transition metals: elements in the “f block” of the periodic table. (The “extra”
section below the rest of the table.)
 are part of the transition metals
 have a partially-filled f sub-level
 officially have 2 valence electrons, but can shift electrons between s, d, and f
sub-levels. Usually form ions with +3 charges.
 are rare
noble gases: elements in group 18 (VIIIA) of the periodic table.
 8 valence electrons (except for He which has 2)—full valence shells
 do not form ions
 do not react with other compounds
 gases
 extremely low melting & boiling points. (In fact, helium cannot be made into
a solid even at absolute zero, except at extremely high pressures.)
halogens: elements in group 17 (VIIA) of the periodic table.
 7 valence electrons (form −1 ions)
 reactive
 diatomic (atoms in pairs) in their natural state: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
 low melting & boiling points. (F & Cl are gases at room temp; Br is a liquid,
and I is a solid, but will melt in your hand.)
 form salts that are soluble in water (except for fluorine—fluoride salts are not
soluble in water.)

Homework
Color and label the regions of the periodic table on an actual periodic table (with
elements and data).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Ionization Energy Page: 263
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity

Ionization Energy
Unit: Periodicity
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 3.1, 3.2
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Rank elements according to ionization energy based on their location on the
periodic table.
Success Criteria:
 Rankings account for size and effective nuclear charge.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: ionization
Language Objectives:
 Explain why ionization energy increases as you go up and to the right on the
periodic table.

Notes:
ionization energy: the amount of energy that it takes to remove an electron from
an atom. (This makes it an ion. Ionization energy is literally the amount of
energy it takes to make an atom into an ion.) Ionization energy is a measure of
how tightly an element holds onto its electrons.

highest
ionization energy He

Fr
lowest ionization energy

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Ionization Energy Page: 264
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
The more an element “wants” to gain electrons (meaning the more energetically
favorable it is), the more tightly it will hold onto its own electrons, and the higher
the ionization energies.
 Atoms of elements farther to the right hold on to electrons more tightly,
because obtaining a full valent shell by gaining electrons is more stable than
obtaining a full valent shell by losing them. Similarly, elements farther to the
left are more stable if they attain a full valent shell by losing electrons than by
gaining them.
 Atoms of elements higher up within a group hold on to electrons more tightly
because they have fewer energy levels & sublevels to spread the electrons
over. Also, because the atom has fewer levels, the electrons are closer to the
nucleus, which means the force of attraction by the positive charge is
stronger.
 Noble gases and ions that have the same electron configuration as a noble gas
have the highest ionization energies, because they have the most stable
electron configurations.
 Helium has the highest ionization energy. Francium has the lowest.

Ionization energy is calculated by measuring how much heat it takes to get an

element to lose an electron and become a positive ion.

1st ionization energy: the amount of energy it takes to remove one electron from a
neutral atom, to make a +1 ion.
2nd ionization energy: the amount of energy it takes to remove a second electron to
make a +2 ion from a +1 ion.
3rd, 4th ionization energy, etc.: the amount of energy it takes to remove a third
electron to make a +3 ion from a +2 ion, to remove a fourth electron to make a
+4 ion, etc.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Ionization Energy Page: 265
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
Consider the following table of ionization energies.

1st Ionization Energy 2nd Ionization Energy 3rd Ionization Energy

Element (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
(neutral atom) (+1 ion) (+2 ion)
Ne 2081 3952 6122
Na 496 4562 6912
Mg 738 1451 7733

Notice that there is a large jump in the ionization energy once the atom or ion has a
full valent shell (the same electron configuration as a noble gas, or a “noble gas
core”).

In the above table, neon (Ne) has the largest 1st ionization energy, because it is a
noble gas and it already has a full valent shell.

Sodium (Na) has the smallest 1st ionization energy. This is because removing one
electron will give it a “noble gas core”. However, sodium has the largest 2nd
ionization energy, because the +1 ion has a full valent shell, and is therefore more
stable.

Magnesium (Mg) has the lowest 2nd ionization energy, because removing that
second electron will give it a noble gas core. However, because the +2 ion has a
noble gas core, Mg has the largest 3rd ionization energy.

First ionization energies for all elements are listed in your Chemistry Reference
Tables in “Error! Reference source not found.,” which begins on page Error!
Bookmark not defined..

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Ionization Energy Page: 266
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
Homework Problems
For each pair of elements:
 Answer the question about which element has the higher or lower ionization
energy.
 State the direction(s) on the periodic table (up vs. down and/or left vs. right)
that you based your choice on.
 Explain why moving that direction (up vs. down and/or left vs. right) caused
the difference in ionization energy.

1. Which element has a higher first ionization energy: Na or Al ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

2. Which element has a higher first ionization energy: Mg or Ca ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

3. Which element has a lower second ionization energy: K or Ca ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

4. Which element has a lower second ionization energy: Sr or Ba ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

5. Which element has a higher first ionization energy: K or B ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

6. Which element has a lower first ionization energy: Rb or P ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electronegativity Page: 267
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity

Electronegativity
Unit: Periodicity
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 3.4
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Rank elements according to electronegativity energy based on their location
on the periodic table.
Success Criteria:
 Rankings account for electron configuration and size.
Tier 2 Vocabulary:
Language Objectives:
 Explain why electronegativity increases as you go up and to the right on the
periodic table.

Notes:
electronegativity: the tendency of an atom to attract electrons.

most

electronegativities undefined
electronegative
F

Fr
least electronegative

Pauling electronegativity scale: a set of numbers that describe an element’s

tendency to attract electrons. (Named for American chemist, biochemist, peace
activist, author, and educator Linus Pauling.)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electronegativity Page: 268
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
Elements that “want” electrons (for which attracting electrons is energetically
favorable) pull harder, which makes them more electronegative.
 Atoms of elements farther to the right on the periodic table (except for noble
gases) pull harder, because it’s easiest for them to get a full valence shell by
gaining electrons. Elements to the left pull the least hard, because the
positive ion (formed by losing electrons) is more stable than the negative ion.
 Atoms of elements higher up within a group or family pull harder because
they have fewer energy levels & sublevels to spread the electrons over, which
makes it harder for them to be stable with only their existing electrons.
 Noble gases do not have electronegativities, because they neither “pull”
electrons, nor “push” them away.
 Fluorine is the most electronegative element (3.98 on the Pauling scale).
Francium is the least electronegative (or most electropositive) element (0.7 on
the Pauling scale).

Pauling originally assigned arbitrary electronegativity numbers that increased in

steps of 0.5 across period 2 on the periodic table:

Li Be B C N O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 —

Electronegativity is currently calculated by comparing the amount of energy it takes

to break bonds between atoms of different elements.

Now that we are able to make more precise measurements, the current values of
the electronegativities for these elements are close to, but not exactly equal to
Pauling’s original numbers.

Electronegativities for all elements are listed in your Chemistry Reference Tables in
“Error! Reference source not found.,” which begins on page Error! Bookmark not
defined..

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electronegativity Page: 269
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
Homework Problems
For each pair of elements:
 Answer the question about which element has the higher or lower
electronegativity.
 State the direction(s) on the periodic table (up vs. down and/or left vs. right)
that you based your choice on.
 Explain why moving that direction (up vs. down and/or left vs. right) caused
the difference in electronegativity.

1. Which element is more electronegative: Li or K ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

2. Which element is more electronegative: P or Cl ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

3. Which element is more electronegative: Al or N ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

4. Which element has a lower second ionization energy: Mg or Rb ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

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 Atomic & Ionic Radius Page: 270
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity

Atomic & Ionic Radius

Unit: Periodicity
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 3.4
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Rank elements according to atomic or ionic radius based on their charge,
electron configuration and location on the periodic table.
Success Criteria:
 Rankings account for charge, electron configuration and size.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: radius
Language Objectives:
 Explain why atomic and ionic radius decrease as you go up and to the right on
the periodic table.

Notes:
atomic radius: the average distance from the nucleus to the outermost electrons in
an atom. The atomic radius is a measure of the “size” of the atom.

smallest He

Fr
largest

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Atomic & Ionic Radius Page: 271
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
shielding: when electrons in the lower energy levels (closer to the nucleus) shield
(cancel) some of the nucleus’s positive charge. This causes the outer electrons
to be held less tightly by the nuclear charge, and the atom gets larger.

 Atoms of elements get larger as you move down a column, because each row
adds a new energy level, and each new level is farther out from the nucleus
than the previous level. Also, the inner electrons shield some of the charge in
the nucleus, which means that the nucleus holds onto the outer electrons less
tightly.

 Atoms of elements get smaller as you move to the right within the same row.
This is because the amount of unshielded positive charge from the nucleus is
greater, which pulls the electrons closer.

Covalent atomic radii for all elements are listed in your Chemistry Reference Tables
in “Error! Reference source not found.,” which begins on page Error! Bookmark not
defined..

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Atomic & Ionic Radius Page: 272
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
Ionic Radius
Because most of the space that an atom takes up is outside the nucleus (where the
electrons are), changing the number of electrons (making an ion) changes the size of
the atom.

 If you take away electrons, the ion gets smaller. This means ions with a
positive charge are smaller than the neutral atom and also smaller than an
atom of the neutral element with the same number of electrons. This is
because the positive ions have more unshielded positive charge, which pulls
the electrons closer.

 If you add electrons, the ion gets larger. This means ions with a negative
charge are larger than the neutral atom and also larger than an atom of the
neutral element with the same number of electrons.

Radius
Covalent radius (of Charge
Element of ion
neutral atom) (Å) of ion
(Å)
O 0.75 −2 1.4
F 0.73 −1 1.33
Ne 0.72 0 —
Na 1.54 +1 1.02
Mg 1.36 +2 0.72
Al 1.18 +3 0.54

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Atomic & Ionic Radius Page: 273
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity
Homework Problems
For each pair of elements:
 Answer the question about which element has the larger or smaller atomic or
ionic radius.
 State the direction(s) on the periodic table (up vs. down and/or left vs. right)
that you based your choice on.
 Explain why moving that direction (up vs. down and/or left vs. right) caused
the difference in atomic radius.

1. Which atom is the smallest: Be, C, or F ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

2. Which atom is the smallest: N, P, or Sb ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

3. Which atom is the largest: Ba, Ga, or N ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

4. Which ion is the largest: P3−, S2−, or Cl− ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

5. Which ion is the smallest: Na+, Mg2+, or Al3+ ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

6. Which of the following is the smallest: O2−, Ne, or Mg2+ ?

Direction(s):
Explanation:

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 Summary: Periodicity Page: 274
Big Ideas Details Unit: Periodicity

Summary: Periodicity
Unit: Periodicity
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Nomenclature & Formulas Page: 275
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas

Introduction: Nomenclature & Formulas

Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
Topics covered in this chapter:
Bonding ........................................................................................................ 277
Chemical Formulas ...................................................................................... 279
Balancing Charges........................................................................................ 280
Polyatomic Ions ........................................................................................... 284
Naming Ionic Compounds ........................................................................... 287
Naming Oxyanions ....................................................................................... 291
Naming Acids ............................................................................................... 295
Naming Molecular (Covalent) Compounds ................................................. 297

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Nomenclature & Formulas Page: 276
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
Standards addressed in this chapter:
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS2-6 Communicate scientific and technical information about the
molecular-level structures of polymers, ionic compounds, acids and bases,
and metals to justify why these are useful in the functioning of designed
materials.

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):

4.1 Explain how atoms combine to form compounds through both ionic and
covalent bonding. Predict chemical formulas based on the number of
valence electrons.
4.6 Name and write the chemical formulas for simple ionic and molecular
compounds, including those that contain the polyatomic ions: ammonium,
carbonate, hydroxide, nitrate, phosphate, and sulfate.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Bonding Page: 277
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas

Bonding
Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-6
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 4.1
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Explain how atoms bond together to form compounds.
 Identify different types of chemical bonds.
Success Criteria:
 Explanations account for sharing or transfer of electrons.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: bond
Language Objectives:
 Explain what happens with electrons in order to form chemical bonds.

Notes:
bonding: any joining together of atoms or molecules

chemical bond or intramolecular bond: a strong bond between atoms or individual

ions, resulting from the sharing or transfer of electrons

intermolecular bond: a weak bond between molecules or ions, which holds the
molecules of a liquid or solid together. (We will study these in more detail later
in the section on “Intermolecular Forces” on page 340.)

ion: an atom or group of atoms that has a charge, because it has either gained or
lost electrons.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Bonding Page: 278
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
Types of Chemical Bonds
ionic bond: when a positive ion and a negative ion are held together by the
electrical attraction of their charges.
 ionic bonds occur between ions, usually between a metal ion and a non-
metal ion.
 the positive ion (cation) is always either the ion of a metal or a positive
polyatomic ion.
 the negative ion (anion) is always either the ion of a nonmetal or a negative
polyatomic ion.
 the difference between the electronegativity of the nonmetal and the
electronegativity of the metal (Δχ) is usually ≥ 1.7. (This will be addressed
further in the section on “Intermolecular Forces” on page 340.)

covalent bond: when two atoms form a bond by sharing (“co-“) their valence (“-
valent”) electrons.
 covalent bonds occur only between non-metals
 the electronegativity difference (Δχ) between the two nonmetals is usually
< 1.7

metallic bond: when atoms in a metal form a network of positive ions and loosely
held electrons.
 metallic bonds, as the name suggests, occur only between metals
 metallic bonds are often described as a “sea of electrons” because the
valence electrons can move easily from one atom to another. This is how
metals conduct electricity—electricity is simply the flow of electrons.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Chemical Formulas Page: 279
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas

Chemical Formulas
Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-6
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 4.1
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Write chemical formulas for ionic compounds when the number of atoms of
each element is given.
Success Criteria:
 Elements are listed in the correct order.
 Subscripts give the correct number for each element.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: formula
Language Objectives:
 Explain what the subscripts mean in a chemical formula.

Notes:
chemical formula: a formula that describes a compound by listing how many of
each element it’s made of.

Some examples:
 Fe2O3 has 2 Fe (iron) atoms and 3 O (oxygen) atoms.
 CaCl2 has 1 Ca (calcium) atom and 2 Cl (chlorine) atoms.
 C21H30O2 has 21 C (carbon) atoms, 30 H (hydrogen) atoms, and 2 O (oxygen)
atoms.

Elements in a chemical formula are listed with metals first, then non-metals, and
almost always in order by increasing electronegativity: the least electronegative
element is listed first, and the most electronegative one is listed last. (Exceptions
are organic compounds and acids.)
(Note: the variable χ is usually used for electronegativity.)
For example: a compound made from Mg2+ ions (χMg = 1.31) and Cl− ions (χCl = 3.16)
would be MgCl2, not Cl2Mg.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Balancing Charges Page: 280
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas

Balancing Charges
Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-6
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 4.1
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Write chemical formulas for ionic compounds.
Success Criteria:
 Subscripts are chosen so that positive and negative charges are balanced
(equal).
Tier 2 Vocabulary: bond, charge
Language Objectives:
 Explain the process and necessity of balancing charges.

Notes:
If you have an ionic compound (a compound made of positive and negative ions),
the positive and negative charges will attract each other (because opposite charges
attract). This will continue to happen until the total amount of positive charge
equals the total amount of negative charge, and there is no more attraction. When
this happens in chemistry, we say that the charges are balanced.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Balancing Charges Page: 281
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
For example, suppose we made a compound from Al3+ ions and O2− ions.

1. If we start with an Al3+ ion, it is positive, so it will attract a negative

O2− ion. This gives:

Al3+ O2− the total charge is now +1

2. Because the net (overall) charge is positive (+1), it will attract

another negative O2− ion, giving:

O2− Al3+ O2− total charge is now −1

3. Now the group is negative, so it will attract a positive Al3+ ion, giving
us:

O2− Al3+ O2− Al3+ total: +2

4. Now the group is positive, so it will attract another negative O2− ion,
giving us:

O2− Al3+ O2− Al3+ O2− total: 0

5. Finally, all of the positive and negative charges have exactly

balanced, and the compound has no net charge. Now it doesn’t
attract any more positive or negative ions.

6. To balance the charges, we needed 2 Al3+ ions and 3 O2− ions, which
means the formula for this compound is (Al3+)2(O2−)3 or simply Al2O3.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Balancing Charges Page: 282
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
Shortcuts for Balancing Charges
Find the L.C.M.
In an ionic compound, the total positive and total negative charge will always be
equal, and will be the least common multiple (L.C.M.) of the charges of the positive
and negative ions.

In the compound made from aluminum and oxygen the charges of the ions are +3
(for Al), and −2 (for O). The LCM of 3 and 2 is 6, which means the total positive
charge in the formula will be +6, and the total negative charge in the formula will be
−6.

To get +6, we need 2 Al3+ ions, and to get −6 we need 3 O2− ions. Thus, the formula
is once again (Al3+)2(O2−)3 or simply Al2O3.

Cross the Charges and Reduce to Lowest Terms

Often, you can “cross the charges” to get the formula:

Al 23 O 2-
3

This always gives a correct ratio, although the ratio may not be in lowest terms. (For
example, crossing the charges for Fe2+ and O2- would give the compound Fe2O2, but
the correct formula should be reduced to FeO.)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Balancing Charges Page: 283
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
Homework Problems
In the chart below,
 Look up and add the appropriate charges to the cation and anion (if the
charges are not already labeled).
 Balance the charges and write the formula of the resulting compound.

Cation Anion Chemical Formula

NH4+ (PO4)3− (NH4)3 PO4

Sr S

Na Cl

Ca Br

K O

Cu+ Cl

Cu2+ Cl

Mg S

Ba P

Cr6+ O

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Polyatomic Ions Page: 284
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas

Polyatomic Ions
Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-6
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 4.6
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Write chemical formulas that include polyatomic ions.
Success Criteria:
 Subscripts are chosen so that positive and negative charges are balanced
(equal).
 Formulas for polyatomic ions are in parentheses if more than one is needed.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: bond, charge
Language Objectives:
 Explain the process and necessity of balancing charges.

Notes:
polyatomic ion: a group of atoms that are bonded to each other that behave
chemically like a single ion. A polyatomic ion always has a specific name,
chemical formula, and charge.

For example: the sulfate ion has the chemical formula SO42−. It is made of one
sulfur atom and 4 oxygen atoms. Chemically, it behaves like a single atom with
a −2 charge.

The formula of a polyatomic ion never changes!

I.e., the sulfate ion is always SO42−, and the 4 is an important part of the
formula. If you wrote SO22− instead, you would be talking about the hyposulfite
ion instead of the sulfate ion—a different polyatomic ion with different
chemical properties.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Polyatomic Ions Page: 285
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
Polyatomic Ions in Chemical Formulas
If a compound contains a polyatomic ion, you write the formula for the polyatomic
ion, including the subscript numbers, in the place where the ion goes. For example,
a compound with Na+ and SO42− would simply be Na2SO4.

Balancing Charges with Polyatomic Ions

If you need more than one of a polyatomic ion in a chemical formula, put the entire
polyatomic ion, including any subscript numbers, in parentheses, and put the
number that tells how many ions you need outside the parentheses.

For example, to balance the compound made from Al3+ and SO42−, you need 2 Al3+
ions and 3 SO42− ions. The formula is:
Al2 (SO4)3

Note: there are positive and negative polyatomic ions. A compound can have
either, neither, or both kinds. For example, if you had a compound made from the
positive ion ammonium (NH4+) and the negative ion sulfate (SO42−), the compound
would have the formula:
(NH4)2 SO4

Determining the Number of Atoms in a Formula

The subscripts tell you how many you have of whatever came immediately before
the subscript. If the thing before the subscript is an element, as in CaCl2, the 2 tells
us that we have 2 Cl atoms. There’s no subscript after Ca, so this means we have
only 1 Ca atom.

If the thing before the subscript is parentheses, as in Al3(SO4)2, the 3 tells us that we
have 3 Al atoms, the 2 outside the parentheses tells us that we have 2 entire SO4
ions. This means we really have 2 atoms of S and 2 × 4 = 8 atoms of O.

Sample Problem:
How many hydrogen atoms are in the compound (NH4)2 HPO4?

We have 2 × 4 = 8 from the two NH4 ions, plus 1 from the HPO4 ion, giving us a total
of 9 hydrogen atoms.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Polyatomic Ions Page: 286
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
Table of Polyatomic Ions
ion formula ion formula ion formula
americyl AmO22+ acetate CH3COO −
tetraborate B4O72−
carbonyl CO22+ amide NH2− carbide C22−
thiocarbonyl CS22+ hydroxylamide NHOH− carbonate CO32−
chromyl CrO22+ azide N3− chromate CrO42−
neptunyl NpO22− hydrazide N2H3− dichromate Cr2O72−
plutoryl PuO22+ bromate BrO3− imide NH2−
seleninyl SeO2+ chlorate ClO3− molybdate MoO42−
selenoyl SeO22+ cyanide CN− peroxide O22−
thionyl/sulfinyl SO2+ cyanate OCN− oxalate C2O42−
sulfonyl/sulfuryl SO22+ thiocyanate SCN− phthalate C8H4O42−
uranyl UO2+ selenocyanate SeCN− selenite SeO42−
vanadyl VO2+ tellurocyanate CH3S− silicate SiO32−
ammonium NH4+ hydroxide OH− sulfate SO42−
hydronium H3O+ iodate IO3− thiosulfate S2O32−
iodyl IO2+ methanolate CH3O− dithionate S2O42−
nitrosyl NO+ methanethiolate CH3S− silicate SiO32−
thionitrosyl NS+ ethanolate C2H5O− borate BO33−
phosphoryl PO+ permanganate MnO4− arsenate AsO43−
thiophosphoryl PS+ nitrate NO3− phosphate PO43−
phosphor PO2+ superoxide O2− orthosilicate SiO44−

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Naming Ionic Compounds Page: 287
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas

Naming Ionic Compounds

Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-6
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 4.6
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Write names for ionic compounds using the stock system, including Roman
numerals where appropriate.
 Write formulas for ionic compounds based on their names.
Success Criteria:
 Compound names contain the correct cation (including a Roman numeral if
necessary) and anion in the correct order (cation first, then anion).
 Chemical formulas have correctly balanced charges.
 Chemical formulas have polyatomic ions in parentheses when necessary.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: compound
Language Objectives:
 Explain when a cation does or does not need a Roman numeral.
 Explain the relationship between the charges of the ions and the subscripts in
the formula.

Notes:
ionic compound: a compound made out of the ions of a metal and a nonmetal

cation: an ion with a positive charge, such as Na+ or Ca2+

anion: an ion with a negative charge, such as Cl− or S2−

Naming the Anion

 If an anion is a single element, the name of the ion is the name of the element
with the ending changed to “ide”. For example, the Cl− ion is made from
chlorine, so it is called “chloride”. The O2− ion is made from oxygen, so it is
called oxide.
 If the anion is a polyatomic ion, its name is just the name of the polyatomic
ion. For example, the NO3− ion is named “nitrate”.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Naming Ionic Compounds Page: 288
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
Naming the Cation
 If the cation is a single element that has only one possible charge, the name of
the cation is the name of the element. For example, the K+ ion is simply
named “potassium”, and the Ca2+ ion is simply named “calcium”.
 If the element can have more than one possible charge, the name of the
cation is the name of the element followed by a Roman numeral, indicating
the charge, in parentheses. For example, chromium can make cations with
three different charges:

Formula Name
of Cation of Cation
Cr2+ chromium (II)
Cr3+ chromium (III)
Cr6+ chromium (VI)

 If the cation is a polyatomic ion, its name is the name of the polyatomic ion.
For example, the NH4+ ion is named “ammonium”.

Naming the Compound

stock system: a system of naming compounds by naming the ions that they’re made
of. The cation (positive ion) is always listed first and the anion (negative ion) is
always listed last.

Examples:

Formula Cation Anion Name of Compound

NaCl Na+ sodium Cl− chloride sodium chloride
CaBr2 Ca2+ calcium Br− bromide calcium bromide
Fe2O3 Fe3+ iron (III) O2− oxide iron (III) oxide
FeO Fe2+ iron (II) O2− oxide iron (II) oxide
K2SO4 K+ potassium SO42− sulfate potassium sulfate

Notice that the number of atoms in the chemical formula is not represented
anywhere in the name of an ionic compound.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Naming Ionic Compounds Page: 289
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
Writing Formulas from Names
The name of every ion must have enough information to describe its element(s) and
its charge. This means that if you know the name of an ion, you know the formula
and the charge.

To convert the name of a compound to its formula:

1. Write down the cation and anion, including their charges.
2. Add subscripts to balance the charges. (Don’t forget to put polyatomic ions
in parentheses when you need more than one!)

Sample Problems:
1. What is the chemical formula for calcium phosphate?

Calcium is Ca2+ and phosphate is PO43−. The L.C.M. of the charges is 6. This
means we need 3 Ca2+ ions to get to +6, and 2 PO43− ions to get to −6.
Therefore, the formula must be:
Ca3 (PO4)2

2. What is the formula for nickel (II) chloride?

Nickel (II) is Ni2+ (remember that the Roman numeral tells us the charge)
and chloride is Cl−. The L.C.M. of the charges is 2, which means we need
one Ni2+ ion to get to +2, and 2 Cl− ions to get to −2. Therefore, the formula
must be:

NiCl2

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Naming Ionic Compounds Page: 290
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
Homework Problems
In the chart below:
 Write the element symbol(s) for the cation (positive ion) and anion (negative
ion).
 Determine the charges of both ions.
 Balance the charges and write the formula of the resulting compound.

Cation Anion Formula of

Cation Name Anion Name
Formula Formula Compound

ammonium NH4+ phosphate PO43− (NH4)3PO4

SnCl2

FeO

calcium bromide

potassium oxide

copper (I) carbonate

copper (II) chloride

magnesium nitrate

ammonium hydroxide

barium phosphate

chromium (VI) sulfate

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Naming Oxyanions Page: 291
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas

Naming Oxyanions
Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-6
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 4.6
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Write names for ionic compounds that contain oxyanions.
 Write chemical formulas for ionic compounds that contain oxyanions.
Success Criteria:
 Compound names contain the correct cation (including a Roman numeral if
necessary) and the correct anion (with prefix and suffix that together
determine the number of oxygen atoms).
 Chemical formulas have correctly balanced charges.
 Chemical formulas have polyatomic ions in parentheses when necessary.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: compound, anion
Language Objectives:
 Explain what the prefix and suffix tell about the number of oxygens in an
anion.

Notes:
oxyanion (or oxoanion): polyatomic anion (negative polyatomic ion) that contains
oxygen.
Examples: NO3 (nitrate), PO4 (phosphate), SO3 (sulfite)

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Naming Oxyanions Page: 292
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
The names of oxyanions always end in either “ate” or “ite”, depending on the
relative number of oxygens.
Note that most of the “_____ate” ions have either three or four oxygens, but there
is no way to predict how many oxygens any particular “_____ate” ion will have.

 The “_____ate” ion has its own specific formula and charge.
 The “_____ite” ion has one fewer oxygen than the “_____ate” ion, and the
same charge.

Some examples:

“_____ate” ion formula “_____ite” ion formula

sulfate SO42− sulfite SO32−
chlorate ClO3− chlorite ClO2−
nitrate NO3− nitrite NO2−
phosphate PO43− phosphite PO33−

If you have one fewer oxygen than the “_____ite” ion, add the prefix “hypo”. Again,
the charge stays the same. For example:
 chlorite = ClO2−
 hypochlorite = ClO−

If you have one more oxygen than the “_____ate” ion, add the prefix “per”. Again,
the charge stays the same. For example:

 chlorate = ClO3−
 perchlorate = ClO4−

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Naming Oxyanions Page: 293
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
Homework Problems
Give the name for each of the following compounds. You may need to look up
formulas for polyatomic ions in “Table K. Polyatomic Ions” in your Chemistry
Reference Tables on page 552.

1. Rb2B4O7 5. Cr(CO2)3

2. Mo2(MoO3)3 6. Na2SeO2

3. CoSO2 7. NaNO3

4. Ca2SiO4 8. KNO2

Give the chemical formula for each of the following compounds.

9. sodium nitrate 13. potassium dichromate

10. ammonium periodate 14. magnesium thiosulfite

11. calcium hypochlorite 15. potassium hypobromite

12. barium carbonite 16. sodium phthalate

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Naming Acids Page: 295
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas

Naming Acids
Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-6
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 4.6
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Write names for inorganic acids.
 Write chemical formulas for inorganic acids.
Success Criteria:
 Compound names contain the name of the anion with the correct prefix
and/or suffix, and the word “acid”.
 Chemical formulas have correctly balanced charges.
 Chemical formulas have polyatomic ions in parentheses when necessary.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: acid, formula
Language Objectives:
 Explain what the prefix and suffix tell about the type of anion in an acid.

Notes:
acid: a chemical compound that creates hydrogen (H+) ions in water.

Acids behave somewhat like ionic compounds in which the cation (positive ion) is
H+. (We will study acids and bases in detail later in the year.)

Because the cation is always H+, the name of the acid is based on the name of the
anion (negative ion).

Anion
Example Acid Name Example
Ends With
_____ate nitrate (NO3−) _____ic acid nitric acid (HNO3)
_____ite arsenite (AsO33−) _____ous acid arsenous acid (H3AsO3)
−
_____ide chloride (Cl ) hydro_____ic acid hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Any prefixes, such as “per-“ and “hypo-“, are kept:

 periodate is IO4− so the acid HIO4 is periodic acid
 hypochlorite is ClO− so the acid HClO is hypochlorous acid.

A stupid mnemonic that some students seem to like for remembering the pair of
suffix changes is: “I ate something icky. It mite be a hippopotamous.”

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Naming Acids Page: 296
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
Homework Problems
Fill in the chart below. Use the first row as an example.

Chemical
Anion Anion Name Acid Name
Formula

HNO3 NO3− nitrate nitric acid

H2CO3

HBr

acetic acid

HNO2

phosphoric acid

sulfurous acid

hydroïodic acid

HCl

chloric acid

HClO2

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Naming Molecular (Covalent) Compounds Page: 297
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas

Naming Molecular (Covalent) Compounds

Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-6
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 4.6
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Write names for molecular (covalent) inorganic compounds.
 Write chemical formulas for molecular (covalent) inorganic compounds.
Success Criteria:
 Compound names contain the name of each element with the appropriate
prefix (except that a compound cannot start with “mono-“).
 Chemical formulas have elements listed in the correct order (increasing
electronegativity).
 Chemical formulas have the correct subscript for each element.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: molecule, compound
Language Objectives:
 Explain how prefixes are used with molecular compounds.

Notes:
molecular compound (also known as a covalent compound): a compound made of
atoms joined by covalent bonds (shared electrons).

molecule: a set of atoms joined by covalent bonds.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Naming Molecular (Covalent) Compounds Page: 298
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
Unlike ionic compounds, covalent compounds have names that give the chemical
formula of the molecule. The numbers in the formula are Greek numbers made into
prefixes.

No. Prefix No. Prefix No. Prefix No. Prefix

mono- or
1 10 deca- 100 hecta- 1000 kilia-
hen-
2 di- or do- 20 (i)cosa- 200 dicta- 2000 dilia-
3 tri- 30 triaconta- 300 tricta- 3000 trilia-
4 tetra- 40 tetraconta- 400 tetracta- 4000 tetralia-
5 penta- 50 pentaconta- 500 pentacta- 5000 pentalia-
6 hexa- 60 hexaconta- 600 hexacta- 6000 hexalia-
7 hepta- 70 heptaconta- 700 heptacta- 7000 heptalia-
8 octa- 80 octaconta- 800 octacta- 8000 octalia-
9 nona- 90 nonaconta- 900 nonacta- 9000 nonalia-

Rules:
1. The first atom in the formula has a number prefix only if the molecule
contains more than one of that atom.
2. The last atom in the formula always has a number prefix, whether or not
there are more than one of that atom.
3. For huge numbers of atoms, the number prefixes combine in reverse order
of place value. (Yes, it’s weird.)
For example, the compound C51S22 (if it existed) would be called
henpentacontacarbon docosasulfide.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Naming Molecular (Covalent) Compounds Page: 299
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
Examples:
 CO2 has 1 carbon atom (“carbon”) and 2 oxygen atoms (“di-oxide”), so its
name is carbon dioxide.
 P2O5 has 2 phosphorus atoms (“di-phosphorus”) and 5 oxygen atoms (“pent-
oxide”), so its name is diphosphorus pentoxide.
 N2O has 2 nitrogen atoms (“di-nitrogen”) and one oxygen atom (“mono-
oxide,” which we elide to “monoxide”), so its name is dinitrogen monoxide.
 H2O has 2 hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, but it is always “water,” not
“dihydrogen monoxide*”. The same goes for NH3, which is always called
“ammonia.”

*
Someone has created a humorous website, http://www.dhmo.org, which attempts to
make people aware of the “dangers” of dihydrogen monoxide, or “DHMO.”

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Naming Molecular (Covalent) Compounds Page: 300
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas

Homework Problems
Give the name for each of the following covalent compounds, using the prefix
system.
1. NF3 6. N2O4

2. NO 7. PCl3

3. NO2 8. PCl5

4. B2O3 9. SF6

5. N2O 10. CO2

Give the chemical formula for each of the following compounds.

11. phosphorus triïodide 16. boron trichloride

12. sulfur dichloride 17. phosphorus pentafluoride

13. xenon trioxide 18. diphosphorus trioxide

14. dinitrogen tetrafluoride 19. dichlorine heptoxide

15. sulfur tetrafluoride 20. carbon tetrachloride

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Nomenclature & Formulas Page: 301
Big Ideas Details Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas

Summary: Nomenclature & Formulas

Unit: Nomenclature & Formulas
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Bonding & Molecular Geometry Page: 303
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry

Introduction: Bonding & Molecular Geometry

Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
Topics covered in this chapter:
Covalent Bonding & Lewis Structures ......................................................... 305
Charged Atoms in Lewis Structures ............................................................. 311
VSEPR Theory............................................................................................... 315
Orbital Hybridization ................................................................................... 321

Standards addressed in this chapter:

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS1-2 Use the periodic table model to predict and design simple reactions
that result in two main classes of binary compounds, ionic and molecular.
Develop an explanation based on given observational data and the
electronegativity model about the relative strengths of ionic or covalent
bonds.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Bonding & Molecular Geometry Page: 304
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):
4.1 Explain how atoms combine to form compounds through both ionic and
covalent bonding. Predict chemical formulas based on the number of
valence electrons.
4.2 Draw Lewis dot structures for simple molecules and ionic compounds.
4.3 Use electronegativity to explain the difference between polar and nonpolar
covalent bonds.
4.4 Use valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR) to predict the
molecular geometry (linear, trigonal planar, and tetrahedral) of simple
molecules.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Covalent Bonding & Lewis Structures Page: 305
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry

Covalent Bonding & Lewis Structures

Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 4.1, 4.2
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Draw Lewis structures for diatomic molecules, showing bonds and lone pairs.
Success Criteria:
 Lewis structures show the correct number of bonds.
 Lewis structures show the correct number of unpaired electrons, drawn in
pairs.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: bond, lone pair
Language Objectives:
 Explain how a Lewis structure represents the electrons in a molecular
compound.

Notes:
covalent bond: a chemical bond consisting of one or more pair(s) of shared
electrons.

covalent compound (also known as a molecular compound): a compound made of

atoms joined by covalent bonds.
 covalent bonding occurs between non-metals
 electrons are shared in pairs—each pair usually contains one electron that
came from each atom.
For example, a chlorine atom has seven valence electrons. The Lewis dot structure
for chlorine is:
 
: Cl
 

Note that the chlorine atom has seven valence electrons.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Covalent Bonding & Lewis Structures Page: 306
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
In a Lewis dot structure, we draw the valence electrons in pairs, representing the
orbitals that contain them.

electron cloud: an orbital (a region within the atom) that contains either one or
more of an atom’s valence electrons or the shared electrons in a covalent bond.

Because the chlorine atom contains seven valence electrons, it needs one more to
fill its valent shell. If it is able to receive an electron from another atom (such as
sodium), it can from a Cl− (chloride) ion, which can then become part of an inorganic
compound, such as NaCl (sodium chloride).

However, if chlorine is only in the presence of other atoms that are also trying to
gain electrons, it can form a covalent bond, in which the electrons are shared.

You can think of this as if the chlorine atom were “borrowing” an electron to fill its
valent shell. In order to “borrow” an electron, the chlorine atom needs to share an
electron of its own. This shared pair of electrons becomes an electron cloud that is
shared between the two chlorine atoms, which we call a covalent bond:

Chlorine’s valence When a Cl atom

electrons include one   has both shared
electrons, it has a
of the two electrons
in the bond.
: Cl Cl: full valent shell .
 

When each of the Cl atoms has both of the shared electrons, it has a full valent shell.
This means each Cl atom gets a full valent shell some of the time.

This drawing is called a “Lewis structure,” named after its inventor, American
chemist G.N. Lewis. In a Lewis structure, unshared electrons are shown as dots (just
like the Lewis dot diagram), and bonds are shown as line segments:
 
: Cl Cl :
 

(Usually, the dots at the ends of the line segments are omitted. They are shown
here as a reminder that the line representing the bond contains two electrons.)

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Covalent Bonding & Lewis Structures Page: 307
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
For another example, oxygen has six unpaired electrons, which means an oxygen
atom needs two more electrons to fill its valent shell. This means that each oxygen
atom in O2 will share two electrons:

 
O O
 

Just like the example with Cl2, each oxygen atom has a full valent shell whenever it
has all four of the shared electrons.

One pair of shared electrons is called a single bond, such as the bond in Cl2. The O2
molecule has two pairs of shared electrons, which is called a double bond. Three
pairs of shared electrons would be a triple bond. Note that a double bond is a large
electron cloud with four electrons, and a triple bond is an even larger electron cloud
with six electrons.

An atom can make bonds to more than one other atom. For example, oxygen needs
two additional electrons. IT doesn’t matter where the oxygen atom gets these
electrons from—oxygen can just as easily share one electron with each of two
different atoms. An example is the H2O molecule:

O
H H
This reasoning can be extended to any non-metal. The rule of thumb is that atoms
have to “share one to get one”. This means that the number of bonds to any atom
will be equal to the number of electrons the atom needs in order to fill its valent
shell.

Because of space constraints and the shapes of the s and p orbitals involved in
forming bonds, it is not possible for atoms to make more than a triple bond to a
single atom. Also, in a first-year high school chemistry course, we will only consider
structures made by electrons in s and p orbitals. This means the structures we will
consider in this course will have no more than four total electron clouds. Structures
with expanded octets are studied in AP® Chemistry.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Covalent Bonding & Lewis Structures Page: 308
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
Common Atoms in Lewis Structures
Assuming that each atom (other than hydrogen) needs a full octet (8 electrons),
including unshared pairs of electrons (“lone pairs”) plus the electrons in bonds.
Here are the most common combinations.

The halogens (F, Cl, Br, and I) have 1 bond and 3 lone pairs; hydrogen (H) has 1 bond
and no lone pairs:

Atoms in the oxygen group (O, S, Se, and Te) always have 2 bonds and 2 lone pairs.
The two possible combinations are:

Atoms in the nitrogen group (N, P, and As) always have 3 bonds and one lone pair.
There are three possible combinations:

Atoms in the carbon group (C and Si) always have 4 bonds and no lone pairs, There
are four possible combinations:

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Covalent Bonding & Lewis Structures Page: 309
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
Rules for Drawing Lewis Structures
1. Neutral atoms will make the same number of bonds as the number of
additional electrons they need to fill their valent shell.
2. No pair of atoms can have more than a triple bond between them.
3. Atoms that make only one bond (i.e., that need only one more electron) will
almost always be on the outside (i.e., not in the center).
4. The least electronegative atom will almost always be in the center.
5. The total number of bonds in a Lewis structure will usually be:
# electrons wanted  actual # electrons
2
If you cannot draw a correct Lewis structure using neutral atoms, try the following.
(These are explained in the section titled “Charged Atoms in Lewis Structures” on
page 311.)
6. Try moving one electron (at a time) from the central atom to the most
electronegative atom that doesn’t yet have a negative charge.
7. If the structure is for a charged ion, add or remove the appropriate number
of electrons from your structure.
a. If you need to add electrons, add them to the most electronegative
atom first.
b. If you need to remove electrons, remove them from the least
electronegative atom first.
8. If you can draw more than one valid structure, the one with the lowest
maximum charge on an atom is preferred. If you can draw more than one
such structure, the structure with the fewest number of charged atoms is
preferred.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Covalent Bonding & Lewis Structures Page: 310
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
Homework Problems
Draw a correct Lewis structure for each of the following compounds.

1. PI3 11. CH2O

2. N2 12. CO2

3. H2O 13. C Br Cl FI

4. PBr3 14. NF3

5. SiCl4 15. N2H2

6. HCl 16. IBr

7. FCN 17. CH3OH

8. HNO 18. C2H4

9. PN 19. OF2

10. CH3NH2 20. COCl2

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Charged Atoms in Lewis Structures Page: 311
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry

Charged Atoms in Lewis Structures

Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 4.2
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Draw Lewis structures in which one or more atoms has a formal charge.
Success Criteria:
 Lewis structures show the correct number of bonds.
 Lewis structures show the correct number of unpaired electrons in the correct
locations.
 Individual charges are assigned correctly. (Positive charges on least
electronegative atom, negative charges on most electronegative atom, etc.)
 Total charge adds up to the correct value.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: bond, charge
Language Objectives:
 Explain how charges are assigned to Lewis structures.

Notes:
Lewis structures show the shape of a molecule and how the atoms share electrons
with each other. If a molecule exists, that means it must have a Lewis structure.

If you can’t find a way to draw the Lewis structure for a molecule using neutral
atoms, you may need to take electrons away from one atom and distribute them to
other atoms, creating atoms with charges.

For example, consider the sulfur dioxide (SO2) molecule. Sulfur and oxygen both
have 6 valence electrons and need two bonds. If you draw the following:

sulfur has enough bonds, but each oxygen needs one more electron.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Charged Atoms in Lewis Structures Page: 312
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
If you move one electron from sulfur to one of the oxygens, you have the following
situation:

(Notice that when an atom in a Lewis structure has a charge, the charge is written
next to the atom and circled.)

One way to think of charged atoms in Lewis structures is to temporarily substitute

the charged atom with a neutral atom that has the same number of valence
electrons, draw the Lewis structure, and then switch the atoms back.

When we take an electron away from S to make it S+, the S+ atom has the same
number of valence electrons as P, so we could temporarily substitute P for S.
Similarly, when we add an electron to O to make it O−, the O− atom has the same
number of electrons as F, so we could temporarily substitute F for O. If we made
both of these substitutions, the compound would be OPF. We would place a double
bond between P and O, to give the following Lewis structure:

Now, we switch the F back to O− and the P back to S+, which gives the correct Lewis
structure for SO2:

If you are drawing a Lewis structure for a charged polyatomic

ion, you need to show the overall charge as well as the charges
on the individual atoms. To do this, put the entire structure in
square brackets and write the overall charge outside the
brackets, as in the example to the right:

This means that when we write the formula CaCO3 for the
ionic compound calcium carbonate, the actual
arrangement of the atoms is:

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Charged Atoms in Lewis Structures Page: 313
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
Homework Problems
Draw a correct Lewis structure for each of the following compounds.

1. PF3 9. NH2SeF

2. O2 10. CH3OH

3. H2S 11. SiO2

4. AsCl3 12. CH3COOH

5. CBr4 13. POF

6. HI 14. SO42−

7. HSCN 15. NO3−

8. SCl2 16. PO43−

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 VSEPR Theory Page: 315
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry

VSEPR Theory
Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 4.4
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Identify the VSEPR shapes and bond angles for simple molecules (one central
atom).
Success Criteria:
 VSEPR shapes show the correct number of lone pairs in the correct locations.
 VSEPR shapes have the correct bond angles.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: bond, cloud
Language Objectives:
 Explain how repulsion between electron clouds results in VSEPR shapes.

Notes:
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR*) theory: a theory that the shape of a
molecule is determined by the repulsion between electrons in the bonds and
unshared pairs of the atoms.

The Lewis structure of a molecule represents the structure in 2 dimensions. The

VSEPR shape is the 3-dimensional equivalent.

The VSEPR shapes are determined by the following constraints:

Electrons are all negatively charged, so they repel each other. Valence electrons
exist in electron clouds, which can be either:
 unshared electrons (in pairs), attached to only one atom
 as part of a covalent bond (shared pair of electrons) between two atoms

The VSEPR shape of the molecule is the shape that occurs when all of these “clouds”
of electrons are as far apart as possible.

*
VSEPR is pronounced as if it were written “vesper”.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 VSEPR Theory Page: 316
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
For example, in CH4, the electron clouds around carbon are the H
four bonds to the hydrogen atoms. These electrons repel, which
means they get as far apart as possible. In the Lewis structure,
we draw the bonds at 90° angles, which is as far apart as possible
H C H
in a 2-dimensional drawing:
H

However, the molecule is really 3-dimensional. This

means the bonds are actually equally spaced around a
sphere. This would result in a 3-dimensional molecule,
with the hydrogens at 109.5° angles around the carbon
atom:

If we described this molecule as a geometric shape, it

would be a regular (all edges and angles equal)
tetrahedron, with the carbon atom in the center and
hydrogen atoms at the vertices:

This means that, according to VSEPR theory, CH4 is a “tetrahedral” molecule.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 VSEPR Theory Page: 317
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
..
Now, consider the NH3 molecule. The Lewis structure looks like
H N H
this:
H

The “lone pair” of electrons (above the N atom) and the

three bonds all repel each other.

This gives four electron clouds, just like CH4. However,

because the lone pair is closer to the nucleus, it repels
the other electrons more strongly than bond electrons.
This compresses the bond angles slightly, to about
107.5°.

This time, the shape of the molecule is a triangular pyramid,

but not a regular tetrahedron. This means the VSEPR shape of
NH3 is “trigonal pyramidal”. The shape at right shows the
pyramid (from the N atom downward), plus the “invisible” lone
pair of electrons above.

H2O has two bonds to hydrogen atoms, and two lone

pairs of electrons.

The VSEPR shape of the H2O molecule is therefore

“bent”. Because the lone pairs are closer to the nucleus,
they repel a little more strongly than bond electrons,
and the bond angle compresses to 104.5°.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 VSEPR Theory Page: 318
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry

Now, suppose we have a molecule with a double bond, such

H H
as CH2O. The Lewis structure is: C

: O:

The electrons around the carbon atom are in three

clouds, two smaller clouds for the C-H single bonds,
and one larger cloud for the C=O double bond.

If these bonds got as far apart as possible in 3-

dimensional space, they would be the points of a
triangle, all in the same plane. This means that CH2O
is a “trigonal planar” molecule:

.. ..
Finally, the CO2 molecule has the following Lewis structure: O C O
.. ..

It has two large electron clouds for the C=O double

bonds. The farthest these clouds can be from each
other is 180° apart. This means the molecule forms
a straight line, and its VSEPR shape is “linear”:

The VSEPR shapes in this document are summarized in the table on the following
page.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 VSEPR Theory Page: 319
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
Table of VSEPR Shapes

Electron Clouds

Hybridization
Bond Atoms

Bond Angle
Lone Pairs
Picture VSEPR Shape

4 4 0 sp 3 109.5° tetrahedral

trigonal
4 3 1 sp 3 107.5°
pyramidal

4 2 2 sp 3 104.5° bent

3 3 0 sp 2 120° trigonal planar

3 2 1 sp 2 118° bent

2 2 0 sp 180° linear

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 VSEPR Theory Page: 320
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
Homework Problems
For each of the following molecules, draw the Lewis structure. Then build a model
of the molecule, and use your model to determine the shape of the electron clouds,
and the shape of the molecule.

# of Electron
Formula Lewis Structure Clouds around VSEPR shape
Central Atom

CHF3 4 tetrahedral

NI3

H2S

CO2

AsH3

COCl2

PCl3

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Orbital Hybridization Page: 321
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry

Orbital Hybridization
Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Determine the hybridization of the central atom in simple molecules.
Success Criteria:
 VSEPR shapes show the correct number of lone pairs in the correct locations
and correct bond angles.
 Hybridization is correct (sp, sp2 or sp3).
Tier 2 Vocabulary: hybrid
Language Objectives:
 Explain how electron clouds change shape.

Notes:
orbital: the name for one of the spaces around an atom where electrons are.

hybrid orbital: an orbital whose shape is a hybrid of the shapes of different types of
orbitals (such as a cross between an s-orbital and a p-orbital).

It is tempting to think of electrons as well-behaved particles that stay within the

rigid boundaries defined by their energy levels. However, electrons are actually tiny
charged particles moving randomly at speeds close to the speed of light. Because of
their energies and the energies of the nuclei and the other electrons around them,
they bounce around within a specific area. If that area is the shared electrons in a
covalent bond, the region has a different shape than the electrons of an unbonded
atom.

When atoms form covalent bonds, the electrons occupy the space between the two
atoms. The space where the bonding electrons are is still called an orbital, even
though its shape is now different from the shapes of the orbitals in the s, p, d, or f
sub-levels of a single atom.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Orbital Hybridization Page: 322
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
Recall that molecules with four electron clouds (tetrahedral,
trigonal pyramidal, or bent with single bonds, like H2O), are
based on a tetrahedral VSEPR shape:

The shape of the orbitals surrounding the central atom is the

shape determined by the four electron clouds. It looks like
the following:

If we wanted to create four orbitals like this one by reshaping the s and p orbitals of
an atom’s valent shell, we would need to start with one s and three p orbitals. We
therefore call this bonding orbital an sp3 hybrid orbital, because it looks like a
hybrid made from the one s and three p orbitals.

Similarly, molecules with three electron clouds are

based on the trigonal planar VSEPR shape:

This hybrid orbital would come from one s and two

p orbitals, and would be called an sp2 hybrid orbital:

Finally, the hybrid orbital from one s and one p orbital is indeed called an sp hybrid
orbital.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Orbital Hybridization Page: 323
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
Summary of VSEPR Shapes for Hybrid Orbitals

Hybridization VSEPR Shape(s) Bond Angles

tetrahedral 109.5°

sp3 trigonal pyramidal, 107.5°

bent 104.5°

trigonal planar 120°

2
sp
bent 118°

sp linear 180°

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Orbital Hybridization Page: 324
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
Homework Problems
For each of the following molecules, draw the Lewis structure. Then build a model
of the molecule, and use your model to determine the shape of the electron clouds,
and the shape of the molecule.

# of Electron
Hybrid-
Formula Lewis Structure Clouds around VSEPR shape
ization
Central Atom

CHF3 sp3 4 tetrahedral

SCl2

SiO2

PH3

CH2O

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Orbital Hybridization Page: 325
Big Ideas Details Unit: Covalent Bonding & Molecular Geometry
# of Electron
Hybrid-
Formula Lewis Structure Clouds around VSEPR shape
ization
Central Atom

C2H2

HCN

NO3−

BF3

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Bonding & Molecular Geometry Page: 326
Big Ideas Details Unit: Bonding & Molecular Geometry

Summary: Bonding & Molecular Geometry

Unit: Bonding & Molecular Geometry
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Intermolecular Forces Page: 327
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces

Introduction: Intermolecular Forces

Unit: Intermolecular Forces
Topics covered in this chapter:
Polar Bonds .................................................................................................. 329
Polar Molecules ........................................................................................... 335
Intermolecular Forces.................................................................................. 340

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Intermolecular Forces Page: 328
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces
Standards addressed in this chapter:
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS1-2 Use the periodic table model to predict and design simple reactions
that result in two main classes of binary compounds, ionic and molecular.
Develop an explanation based on given observational data and the
electronegativity model about the relative strengths of ionic or covalent
bonds.
HS-PS1-3 Cite evidence to relate physical properties of substances at the bulk
scale to spatial arrangements, movement, and strength of electrostatic
forces among ions, small molecules, or regions of large molecules in the
substances. Make arguments to account for how compositional and
structural differences in molecules result in different types of intermolecular
or intramolecular interactions.
HS-PS2-7(MA) Construct a model to explain how ions dissolve in polar solvents
(particularly water). Analyze and compare solubility and conductivity data
to determine the extent to which different ionic species dissolve.

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):

4.3 Use electronegativity to explain the difference between polar and nonpolar
covalent bonds.
4.5 Identify how hydrogen bonding in water affects a variety of physical,
chemical, and biological phenomena (e.g., surface tension, capillary action,
density, boiling point).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Polar Bonds Page: 329
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces

Polar Bonds
Unit: Intermolecular Forces
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2, HS-PS1-3
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Calculate the electronegativity difference between atoms in a bond.
 Identify polar bonds based on electronegativity differences.
Success Criteria:
 Bonds are correctly identified as polar or non-polar based on electronegativity
difference.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: polar
Language Objectives:
 Explain how electrons are distributed unevenly in polar bonds.

Notes:
polar: anything with two sides that are opposite with respect to something. For
example, a battery is polar because it has a positive and negative end.

polar bond: a covalent bond that has opposite partial charges on each side (one
side partially positive and one side partially negative), because of unequal
sharing of electrons.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Polar Bonds Page: 330
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces
For example: The bond between H and Cl in the H-Cl molecule is a polar bond.

The bond is polar because hydrogen and chlorine share a pair of electrons, but the
sharing is not equal. Chlorine has an electronegativity of 3.16, but hydrogen has an
electronegativity of only 2.2. This means the electrons spend more time with
chlorine than with hydrogen.

One way to show a polar bond is by using a wedge-shaped bond, which is wider on
the side where the electrons spend the most time. The HCl molecule would look
like this:

H Cl
The wedge is narrower on the H side and wider on the Cl side because the chlorine
atom has the electrons more of the time.

It is also common to label atoms in the structure with partial charges. The lower-
case Greek letter “delta” (δ) is used to mean “partial”. A partially positive charge
would be shown as δ+ and a partially negative charge would be shown as δ−, as in
the following example:

+ 
H Cl
In the above example, hydrogen has a partial positive charge, and chlorine has a
partial negative charge.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Polar Bonds Page: 331
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces
Bond Type and Bond Character
bond type: whether we define a bond as ionic or covalent. This depends on several
factors, but for the purposes of this class, it just depends on which types of
elements the bond is joining.
 covalent bond: between two nonmetals
 ionic bond: between two ions (usually a metal & nonmetal)
 metallic bond: between two metals

bond character: what a bond acts like, based on how equally the electrons are
shared. This depends on the electronegativities (χ) of the two elements. In
simplest terms, the larger the difference between the two electronegativities
(Δχ) the greater the extent to which the electrons are associated with one
element more than the other.

American chemist Linus Pauling developed the following formula for calculating
bond character based on the electronegativity difference between the elements
sharing the bond:
 14 ( χ A  χ B )2
% ionic character  1  e
The following is a graph of Pauling’s formula:

Notice that an ionic character of 0.5 (50 %) would result from an

electronegativity difference of approximately 1.7. Therefore, we can define a
bond as being primarily ionic in character if the electronegativity difference
between the two atoms in the bond is 1.7 or more.
A bond that is less than 50 % ionic is said to be primarily covalent in character.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Polar Bonds Page: 332
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces
However, even covalent bonds can have measurably unequal sharing. it takes
a relatively small difference to create a measurable bond polarity. The lower
boundary is defined by the polarity of a C—H bond, which has no observable
polarity under most conditions. The difference between the Pauling
electronegativity of carbon (2.55) and hydrogen (2.20) is 0.35, so Δχ = 0.35 is
chosen to be the maximum electronegativity difference for a nonpolar bond.
This represents about 3 % ionic character.
These values are summarized in the following table:

Electronegativity % Ionic Bond

Difference (Δχ) Character Character
0.35 or less (C—H) < 3% nonpolar covalent
between 0.35 and 1.7 3 %–50 % polar covalent
1.7 or more > 50 % ionic

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Polar Bonds Page: 333
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces
Bond Triangle
As it turns out, looking only at the difference between the electronegativities of the
elements in a chemical bond is not always a good predictor of bond character. For
example, metallic bonds behave neither like ionic nor covalent bonds, and
electronegativity difference could not predict metallic bond character. The idea of a
triangular region, with covalent, ionic, and metallic bonds in each of the corners has
been around since the 1920s. The modern bond triangle was developed by two
chemists: the Dutch chemist Anton Eduard van Arkel published a bond triangle in
1941 that placed compounds with in specific positions around the triangle. In 1947,
the Dutch chemist J. A. A. Ketelaar published a significant paper expanding on
van Arkel’s ideas. Bond triangles are often called van Arkel-Ketelaar triangles after
these two chemists.

American chemist William Jensen quantified the van Arkel-Ketelaar triangle in a

1995 paper, in which he plotted the average of the two electronegativities on the x-
axis, and the difference between the two electronegativities on the y-axis.

The following bond triangle, which gives reasonably good predictions of the nature
of various chemical bonds based on each atom’s electronegativity, was published by
the chemistry department at Purdue University:.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Polar Bonds Page: 334
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces
Homework Problems
Complete the table. You will need to look up electronegativity values (χ) from
“Error! Reference source not found.” Error! Bookmark not defined. of your
Chemistry Reference Tables.

Elements Bond Type χ1 χ2 Δχ Bond Character

Pb–S ionic 2.33 2.58 0.25 nonpolar covalent

Ag–Cl

Cu–C

C–N

C–I

H–O

Al–Cl

K–F

N–H

N–O

C–S

Ba–Cl

S–O

Si–H

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Polar Molecules Page: 335
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces

Polar Molecules
Unit: Intermolecular Forces
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2, HS-PS1-3
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Draw polarity arrows indicating polarity of a molecule.
Success Criteria:
 Arrow is in the correct direction and points from the δ+ atom to the δ− atom.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: polar
Language Objectives:
 Explain how electrons are distributed unevenly in polar molecules.

Notes:
polar bond: a covalent bond that has opposite partial charges on each end (one end
partially positive and one end partially negative), because of unequal sharing of
electrons.

polar molecule: a molecule that can be oriented so that it has opposite charges on
opposite sides.

In order to be polar, a molecule must have both:

1. one or more polar bonds
2. an “axis of asymmetry,” meaning a way to orient the molecule so that there
is more partial positive charge on one side (relative to the central atom),
and more partial negative charge on the opposite side.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Polar Molecules Page: 336
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces
For example, the CH3Cl molecule is polar, because the C-Cl bond is polar (Δχ = 0.61),
and because you can view the central atom (carbon) so that the negative charge
(towards chlorine) is on one side:

Notice the polarity arrow running from C to Cl in the molecule. The

arrow shows the direction of polarization (pointing towards the more
electronegative atom), and the “+” at the tail of the arrow indicates the end that has
the partial positive (δ+) charge. Polarity arrows are often used with Lewis
structures:

H
H C Cl
H

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Polar Molecules Page: 337
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces
Because lone pairs of electrons change the symmetry of the molecule, trigonal
pyramidal and bent molecules that contain polar bonds will usually be polar
molecules. For example, NH3 is polarized towards the nitrogen atom:

..
H N H

H
and water is polarized towards the oxygen atom:

..
:O H

H
However, if a molecule has multiple polar bonds that are pulling equally in opposite
directions, then the forces cancel out and the molecule is not polar. An example of
a nonpolar molecule that does have polar bonds is CCl4.

Cl

Cl C Cl

Cl

Each of the C-Cl bonds is polar, but the forces all cancel out, so there is no net force
in any direction.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Polar Molecules Page: 338
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces
Dipole Moment
The polarity of a molecule can be expressed quantitatively as its dipole moment.

moment: in physics, the degree to which mass is spread out from the center of
(potential) rotation. For example, an object’s moment of inertia measures how
much the object resists forces that would cause it to rotate.

dipole moment: a measure of how strongly a dipole will react to an external field.
The dipole moment is expressed as the moment of inertia caused by a pair of
charges (+q and −q) separated by a distance d.

The dipole moment (μ) is expressed by the formula:

μ = qd

The unit for dipole moment is the debye (D).

Stronger charges (or partial charges) and/or greater distance between those charges
will result in a larger dipole moment (and therefore a more polar molecule).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Polar Molecules Page: 339
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces
Homework Problems
For each of the following Lewis structures:
 Draw polarity arrows next to each polar bond.
 If the molecule is polar, draw a large polarity arrow for the molecule.
 If the molecule is non-polar, write “non-polar” next to it.

1. 6.

2. 7.

3. 8.

4. 9.

5. 10.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Intermolecular Forces Page: 340
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular Forces
Unit: Intermolecular Forces
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2, HS-PS1-3, HS-PS2-7(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 4.3, 4.5
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Rank attractions from strongest to weakest based on the type of
intermolecular force.
Success Criteria:
 Attractions are correctly identified and correctly ranked.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: polar
Language Objectives:
 Explain the different types of intermolecular forces and their relative
strengths.

Notes:
intramolecular forces: forces within a molecule (chemical bonds)

intermolecular forces (“IMFs”): forces between molecules (solids & liquids).

Weaker than intramolecular forces.

Note that both intramolecular forces (chemical bonds) and IMFs form because the
process of these atoms or molecules coming together releases energy. If you
wanted to separate the atoms/molecules/particles, you would need to add enough
energy to make up for the amount of energy that was released.
Forming bonds always releases energy.
Breaking bonds always requires energy.

soluble: when the attraction between solvent molecules and solute molecules or
ions is strong enough to keep the solute distributed throughout the solvent.

miscible: when two or more liquids are soluble in each other.

Recall the 3 types of compounds:

ionic: compound made of ions (usually metal + nonmetal), which have charges with
integer values (±1 or more)

covalent: compound made by sharing of electrons (usually all nonmetals),

metallic: compound made of metal atoms with delocalized electrons

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Intermolecular Forces Page: 341
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces
Types of intermolecular forces (IMF), strongest to weakest:
The stronger the IMFs, the higher the melting and boiling point of the compound,
because you have to overcome the IMF in order to separate the molecules going
from solid  liquid or liquid  gas.

ion-ion: force of attraction between ions. The strength of the force is based on
Coulomb’s Law:
kq q
F  12 2
d
where k is a constant, q1 and q2 are the strengths of the two charges, and d is
the distance between them. Bigger charges (larger values of q) mean stronger
forces. (E.g., the attraction between a +2 ion and a −3 ion will produce a force
that’s six times as strong as the attraction between a +1 ion and a −1 ion.) If
charges are the same, smaller molecules (smaller value of d) have stronger
forces.

metallic bonds: metal atoms that delocalize their electrons and are held together by
the “sea” of electrons surrounding them.

dipole-dipole: the force of attraction between two polar molecules (dipoles). Recall
that the strength of attraction is based on the dipole moment (μ) of the
molecule, given by the formula:
μ = qd
The partial charge (q ) is produced by the electronegativity difference (Δχ)
between the two atoms of a polar bond.

hydrogen bonds: the strongest type of dipole-dipole forces. Occurs in molecules

that contain hydrogen (χ = 2.20) and an element with an electronegativity larger
than 3.0 (F, O, Cl, or N). The hydrogen bonds that hold water molecules
together are what give water its unusual properties:
 Water is more dense as a liquid than as a solid.
 Water has an unusually high heat capacity (specific heat).
 Water has a relatively high melting and boiling point. (Almost all
covalent compounds with a molecular weight as light as 18 amu are
gases.)
 Water exhibits high surface tension and capillary action.
 Water is known as the “universal solvent”.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Intermolecular Forces Page: 342
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces
London dispersion forces (induced dipoles): random movement of electrons causes
temporary dipoles to form within molecules, causing very weak attraction.
(Named after the chemist Fritz London.) All molecules have these dispersion
forces, but they can only be observed when there aren’t any stronger forces
present. Because dispersion forces are attractions between electrons,
molecules with more electrons (generally those with higher molecular mass)
have stronger dispersion forces.
There can also be IMFs between different types of molecules:

ion-dipole attraction: attraction between an ion (full positive/negative charge) and

a dipole (partial positive/negative charge). This attraction is stronger than
dipole-dipole forces but weaker than ion-ion forces.

induced dipole: attraction between a permanent dipole and a compound that

experiences only dispersion forces. The permanent dipole induces (creates) a
temporary dipole in the other compound.

Intermolecular Force Type of Compound Strength

ion-ion ionic (metal + nonmetal) strongest
metal-metal metallic (all metals)
hydrogen bonds
(strong dipole-dipole)
dipole-dipole forces
H with F, O, Cl, or N

polar covalent
↕
(other than hydrogen bonds) (all nonmetals)
nonpolar covalent
dispersion weakest
(all nonmetals)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Intermolecular Forces Page: 343
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces
Polar vs. Nonpolar Solvents
Because the molecules polar liquids (especially those with hydrogen bonds) attract
each other, polar liquids will:
 dissolve other polar liquids (The two liquids are said to be miscible.)
 dissolve ions (from ionic compounds that can separate). E.g., NaCl ions will
dissolve in H2O.
In general, polar liquids will not dissolve nonpolar liquids or other uncharged
molecules.
In general, polar liquids can dissolve ionic compounds that have relatively small
ion-ion forces (such as ions with +1 or −1 charges). In general, most polar
liquids cannot dissolve most ionic compounds in which the charges of all of the
ions are ±2 or higher. (However, note that this is a rule of thumb and there are
many exceptions!)

Because polar liquids form dipole-dipole bonds, they will squeeze out nonpolar
liquids. If you mix a nonpolar liquid and a polar liquid (such as oil and water), the
liquids will form two separate phases. The popular expression to describe this
phenomenon is “like dissolves like.”

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Intermolecular Forces Page: 344
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces
Homework Problems
For each pair of compounds:
• Write down the strongest intermolecular force that occurs in each of the two
compounds.
• Circle the compound of each pair that would have the higher melting and
boiling point (stronger intermolecular forces).
• Give the reason(s) for your choice.

1. NaCl HCl

2. CaS KCl

3. H2O N2O

4. CO CO2

5. HBr HF

6. CH4 C8H18

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Intermolecular Forces Page: 345
Big Ideas Details Unit: Intermolecular Forces

Summary: Intermolecular Forces

Unit: Intermolecular Forces
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: The Mole Page: 347
Big Ideas Details Unit: The Mole

Introduction: The Mole

Unit: The Mole
Topics covered in this chapter:
Moles ........................................................................................................... 349
Percent Composition & Empirical Formula ................................................. 357
Hydrates ...................................................................................................... 363

Standards addressed in this chapter:

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS1-7 Use mathematical representations and provide experimental
evidence to support the claim that atoms, and therefore mass, are
conserved during a chemical reaction. Use the mole concept and
proportional relationships to evaluate the quantities (masses or moles) of
specific reactants needed in order to obtain a specific amount of product.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: The Mole Page: 348
Big Ideas Details Unit: The Mole
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):
5.3 Use the mole concept to determine number of particles and molar mass for
elements and compounds.
5.4 Determine percent compositions, empirical formulas, and molecular
formulas.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Moles Page: 349
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles

Moles
Unit: Moles
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2, HS-PS1-3
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 5.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Determine the molar mass of a compound.
 Convert between moles, mass, volume, and molecules/atoms.
Success Criteria:
 Conversions are set up properly so undesired units are canceled and desired
units appear in the correct place.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: mole, molar
Language Objectives:
 Explain the concept of a quantitative collective noun (such as “dozen”) and
apply it to the mole concept.

Notes:
mole: (working definition) the amount a compound that is the same number of
grams* as the compound’s formula or molecular mass in amu.

mole: (formal definition) the amount of matter that contains the same number of
objects (atoms, molecules, etc.) as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C.
When the British Imperial system was more commonly used, this quantity was
often called a gram-mole.

Avogadro’s constant: 1 mole = 6.022 × 1023 atoms, molecules, etc.

(Memorize this number! )

molar volume: the space occupied by 1 mole of ANY gas. At S.T.P. (0 °C = 273 K)
and 1 bar of pressure), the molar volume is 22.7 L. (Memorize this number! )

molar mass (m.m.): the mass (in grams) of 1 mole of a substance. For atoms, this is
the same number as the atomic mass on the periodic table, but with the unit
“grams”. For compounds, add up the mass of each atom in the compound.

*
Technically, this is only true for moles in the S.I. system, which used to be called “gram-
moles”. In the British Imperial system, a “pound-mole” is the amount of a compound that
is the same number of pounds as its formula mass. Chemists use the term “ton-mole” the
same way other people might use “@#%$-ton”.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Moles Page: 350
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
How Moles are Used in Chemistry
Moles are used as a way to make sure you have the desired number of atoms or
molecules for a chemical reaction.

For example, consider the reaction:

2 Fe + 3 I2  2 FeI3
Suppose you wanted to perform this reaction in a lab with exact amounts of your
starting materials (for example, let’s say it’s because you didn’t want to have
anything left over). You would need a ratio of 2 atoms of Fe for every 3 molecules
of I2. The problem is that all you have to work with is a jar of iron, a jar of iodine,
and a balance.

To solve this problem, we define a mole as being the same number of grams as the
average atomic mass. This means that a mole is always the same number of atoms
or molecules (Avogadro’s constant), so if we start with exactly 2 moles of Fe and
exactly 3 moles of I2, we will end up making exactly 2 moles of FeI3.

You can think of a mole the same way you think of a dozen (or a 12-pack). If you
have 3 dozen eggs and 6 dozen slices of toast, you could serve 1 12 dozen eggs (one
egg) and 2 12 dozen slices of toast (2 slices) to each person. Similarly, if you have
2 moles of Fe (12.04 × 1023 atoms), and 3 moles of I2 (18.06 × 1023 molecules), you
can react them to make 2 moles of FeI3 (12.04 × 1023 molecules).

In the chapter on “Stoichiometry,” starting on page 443, we will use the coëfficients
in chemical equations to calculate the number of moles of reactants used and the
moles of products produced in a reaction.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Moles Page: 351
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
Molar Mass
The molar mass is the mass (in grams) of one mole of a chemical. Molar mass is
used to convert between grams and moles. (Recall the “Conversions (Factor-Label
Method)” section on page 91.)

The molar mass of an atom is its (average) atomic mass, but expressed in grams
instead of atomic mass units (amu):

1 atom of Fe has a mass of 55.8 amu (from the periodic table), so

1 mole of Fe has a mass of 55.8 g

The molar mass of a compound is the sum of the (average) atomic masses of the
elements in the compound, but again expressed in grams instead of amu:

1 molecule of I2 has 2 atoms of I. One atom of I has a mass of 126.9 amu, so

1 molecule of I2 has a mass of 2 × 126.9 = 253.8 amu. This means that
1 mole of I2 has a mass of 2 × 126.9 = 253.8 g

Similarly:

1 mole of FeI3 contains 1 mole of Fe atoms and 3 moles of I atoms, so we add up

all of the atoms in the molecule:
1 mole Fe = 1 × 55.8 = 55.8 g
+ 3 moles I = 3 × 126.9 = 380.7 g
1 mole FeI3 = 436.5 g

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Moles Page: 352
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
Homework Problems
Calculate the mass in grams of one mole of each of the following compounds.

1. HCl

g
Answer: 36.46 mol
2. Fe2O3

g
Answer: 36.46 mol
3. LiAlH4

g
Answer: 36.46 mol
4. C6H12O6

g
Answer: 36.46 mol
5. Ca3(PO4)2

g
Answer: 36.46 mol

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Moles Page: 353
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
6. UOCl2

g
Answer: 36.46 mol
7. NiCl2

g
Answer: 36.46 mol
8. (NH4)2SO4

g
Answer: 36.46 mol
9. AgNO3

g
Answer: 36.46 mol
10. CH3COOH

g
Answer: 36.46 mol

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Moles Page: 354
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
Mole Conversions
1 mol = __ grams (add up the mass of the formula)

1 mol = 6.02 x 1023 atoms, molecules, etc.

PV
n mol = (1 mol of gas @ S.T.P.* = 22.7 L)
RT
These conversions work just like the ones from earlier in the year.

Sample Problems:
1. 2.5 mol of NH3 gas occupies what volume at S.T.P.?
2.5molNH3 22.7L NH3
  57molNH3
1 1molNH3

2. What is the mass of 4.1 mol NH3 gas?

The molar mass of 1 mol NH3 is (1 × 14) + (3 × 1) = 17 g NH3.

4.1molNH3 17 g NH3
  70. g NH3
1 1molNH3

3. How many molecules are there in 0.75 mol of NH3 gas?

0.75molNH3 6.02  1023 molecules NH3
  4.5  1023 molecules NH3
1 1molNH3

4. What is the volume of 25.5 g of NH3 gas at S.T.P.?

The molar mass of 1 mol NH3 = (1 × 14) + (3 × 1) = 17 g NH3.

25.5 g NH3 1molNH3 22.7L NH3

   34.1L NH3
1 17 g NH3 1molNH3

Note: this chapter is a good time to start including the chemical formula as part of
the units. This will be extremely useful when we study stoichiometry.

*
S.T.P. = “Standard Temperature and Pressure”. Since 1980, the official IUPAC definition of
S.T.P. has been 0 °C and 100 kPa. Some texts (and the MA DESE) stubbornly insist on using
the old definition of 0 °C and 1 atm. This would make the molar volume of an ideal gas
22.4 L instead of 22.7 L.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Moles Page: 355
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
Homework Problems
1. How many moles are 65.0 grams of zinc?

Answer: 0.99 mol Zn

2. How many moles are 1 250.5 g of lead (II) nitrate (Pb(NO3)2)?

Answer: 3.775 mol lead (II) nitrate

3. How many moles are 2 500 g of tin (IV) chlorate (Sn(ClO3)4)?

Answer: 5.5 mol tin (IV) chlorate

4. How many moles are 125.0 g of silver nitrate (AgNO3)?

Answer: 0.7357 mol silver nitrate

5. How many nitrogen atoms are there in 62.5 g of dinitrogen pentoxide?

Answer: 0.579 mol dinitrogen pentoxide

6. How many oxygen atoms are there in 380 g of copper (II) phosphate?

Answer: 1.00 mol copper (II) phosphate

7. How many hydrogen atoms in 454 g of aluminum hydroxide?

Answer: 5.82 mol aluminum hydroxide

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Moles Page: 356
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
8. What is the mass (in grams) of 2.35 mol of S2N3?

Answer: 249 g S2N3

9. What is the mass (in grams) of 0.25 mol of silver acetate?

Answer: 42 g silver acetate

10. What is the mass (in grams) of a 2.00 kg bag of table sugar (C12H22O12)?

Answer: 2 000 g 
11. How many moles are in 123.5 L of oxygen gas at S.T.P.?

Answer: 5.44 mol oxygen

12. How many moles are in a 40. gallon drum of chlorine gas at S.T.P.?
(1 gal = 3.78 L)

Answer: 6.7 mol chlorine gas

13. What is the volume (in liters) of 3.5 mol of argon gas at 1.1 atm and 20 °C?
(Hint: this is not at S.T.P., so you need to use PV = nRT.)

Answer: 76.5 L argon gas

14. What is the volume (in liters) of 4.90 × 1025 molecules of N2 gas at S.T.P.?

Answer: 1 850 L N2 gas

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Percent Composition & Empirical Formula Page: 357
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles

Percent Composition & Empirical Formula

Unit: Moles
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2, HS-PS1-3
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 5.4
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Determine the percentage of each element in a compound given its chemical
formula.
 Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of a compound from percent
composition data.
Success Criteria:
 Percentages are calculated correctly.
 Empirical and molecular formulas are calculated correctly.
 Subscripts in empirical and molecular formulas are whole numbers.
 Ratio of subscripts in empirical formulas is in lowest terms.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: mole, composition
Language Objectives:
 Accurately describe the process for converting percentages to moles.

Notes:
percent composition: the percentage by mass of each element in a compound.

molecular formula (chemical formula): a formula that gives the numbers and types
of atoms in a molecule.

empirical formula: a chemical formula with the subscripts reduced to lowest terms.
E.g., the empirical formula for C2H4 would be CH2. The empirical formula for
C8H16 would also be CH2. (You may remember that we always use empirical
formulas for ionic compounds.)

formula mass: the mass in grams represented by a chemical formula. Sometimes

called molecular mass, formula weight or molecular weight. (This is the same
number as the molar mass, but with units of atomic mass units (amu) instead of
grams.)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Percent Composition & Empirical Formula Page: 358
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
Determining Percent Composition
To determine the percent by mass of each element in a compound:
1. Determine the atomic mass of the element of interest
2. Determine the formula mass of the entire compound.
atomic mass of element of interest
3. percent composition   100
formula mass of entire compound

Sample Problem:
Q: What is the percentage of carbon in the compound C6H12O6?

A: Mass of C6 = 6 × 12.01 = 72.06

Mass of C6H12O6:

C6 = 6 × 12.01 = 72.06
H12 = 12 × 1.008 = 12.096
+ O6 = 6 × 16.00 = 96.00
180.156
mass of C6 72.06
  0.400  100  40.0 %
mass of C6H12O6 180.156

Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas

The lowest-terms ratio of the atoms in a chemical formula is the empirical formula.
The ratio of atoms is the same as the ratio of moles, which means you can find the
empirical formula of a compound by determining the ratio of moles, and converting
that ratio to whole numbers:
1. Find the molar mass (in grams) of each element in the compound.
2. Convert the grams to moles for each element.
3. Convert the number of moles of each element to whole-number subscripts.
The easiest way to do this is by dividing them all by whichever number is the
smallest.
4. If a subscript is within ±5 % of a whole number after dividing, you can round
it off. If a subscript is not within ±5 % of a whole number, multiply all of the
subscripts by the smallest number that would cause all of the subscripts to
be whole numbers (within ±5 %).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Percent Composition & Empirical Formula Page: 359
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
Sample Problem:
A sample of a chemical compound contains 8.56 g of carbon and 1.44 g of hydrogen.
What is the empirical formula of this compound?

1. Masses are C: 8.56 g and H: 1.44 g. Write the formula as C8.56 g H1.44 g
2. Convert grams to moles:
8.56 g 1mol
C:   0.713mol
1 12.011 g
1.44 g 1mol
H:   1.429 mol
1 1.008 g
The formula for this compound is therefore a whole-number ratio that
equals C0.713H1.429
3. Convert the subscripts to simple whole numbers. The easiest way to do this
is to divide them all by the smallest one and see what happens.
C 0.713H1.429  C1H2.004
0.713 0.713

4. Round the empirical formula off. CH2.004 becomes CH2. (You can—and
should—round, as long as you are within ±5 %.)

Hints:
If the problem gives percentages instead of actual mass, just pretend the
percentages are out of 100 g total. E.g., if you had a compound containing 25.3 %
nitrogen, you would use 25.3 g of nitrogen in your calculations.

If you have something like NO2.5, you can’t round 2.5 off to 2 or 3. Instead, you need
to multiply both subscripts by 2, which gives you N2O5. (This means it’s important to
be able to recognize decimal equivalents for simple fractions, such as 0.50  12 ,
0.33  13 , 0.25  14 , 0.20  15 , etc.)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Percent Composition & Empirical Formula Page: 360
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
Empirical Formula vs. Molecular (actual) Formula
If you know the molar mass of the compound, you can use it to get from the
empirical formula to the molecular formula.

For example, suppose you were told that the actual molar mass of the hydrocarbon
g
from the example above is 42.08 mol .

The empirical formula mass (i.e., the molar mass of the empirical formula CH2) is
(1 x 12.011) + (2 x 1.008) = 14.027.

42.08
The actual molar mass of 42.08 is 3 times as much, i.e.,  3.00 .
14.027

This means the molecule contains exactly 3 of the empirical formula units, so we
need to multiply all of the subscripts by 3 to get the molecular formula:

CH2 × 3 = C3H6 .

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Percent Composition & Empirical Formula Page: 361
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
Homework Problems
1. A 5.00 g sample of a compound was found to contain 1.93 g carbon, 0.49 g
hydrogen and 2.58 g sulfur. What is the empirical formula of the compound?

Answer: C2H8S
2. What is the percentage composition of each element in the compound
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which has the formula C21H30O2?

Answers: C: 80.2 %; H: 9.6 %; O: 10.2 %

3. A sample of a compound was found to contain 42.56 g of palladium (Pd) and
g
0.80 g of hydrogen. If the molar mass of the compound is 2 216.8 mol , what is
the molecular formula of the compound?

Answer: Pd2H4
4. Find the empirical formula of a compound that contains 30.45% nitrogen and
69.55% oxygen.

Answer: NO2

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Percent Composition & Empirical Formula Page: 362
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
5. Find the percentage of boron in the compound boron triïodide (BI3).

Answer: 2.76 % boron

6. A compound containing only carbon and hydrogen has a molecular mass of
114.26 amu. If one mole of the compound contains 18.17 g of hydrogen,
what is its molecular formula?

Answer: C8H18
7. Find the molecular formula of a compound that contains 56.36 g of oxygen
and 43.64 g of phosphorus. The molecular mass of the compound is
283.9 amu.

Answer: P4O10
8. The compound caffeine has a molecular weight of 194.1926 amu. It contains
49.5% carbon, 5.2% hydrogen, 28.9% nitrogen, and 16.5% oxygen. What is
its empirical formula? What is its molecular formula?

Answers: empirical: C4H5N2O; molecular: C8H10N4O2

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Hydrates Page: 363
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles

Hydrates
Unit: Moles
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2, HS-PS1-3
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 5.4
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Determine the number of water molecules in a hydrate
Success Criteria:
 Empirical formula is calculated correctly (if necessary).
 Number of water molecules in each formula unit is calculated correctly.
 Formula of hydrate is written correctly, with the empirical first, then a dot,
then the number of H2O molecules.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: hydrate
Language Objectives:
 Explain the concept of a hygroscopic compound.
 Explain the process of determining the amount of water in a hydrate, both
numerically and experimentally.

Notes:
hydrate: an ionic solid that has H2O molecules loosely bound to its crystals.

water of hydration: the water molecules that are bound into a hydrate.

anhydrous: a compound that has had its water of hydration removed, usually by
heating.

hygroscopic: a compound that can absorb water from the air. In a humid
environment, an anhydrous compound will absorb water until it becomes the
hydrate.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Hydrates Page: 364
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
Naming of Hydrates
The name of a hydrate is the name of the compound followed by a number prefix
and the word “hydrate”.

The number prefix (the same ones we used for molecular compounds; found in
“Table J. Number Prefixes” on page 552 of your Chemistry Reference Tables)
indicates the number of H2O molecules in the hydrate. For example, the compound
nickel (II) chloride forms a hydrate that contains six water molecules. Its name is
therefore:
nickel (II) chloride hexahydrate

Chemical Formula of a Hydrate

The chemical formula of a hydrate is the chemical formula of the compound
followed by a dot and the number of H2O molecules bound to it. For example, the
chemical formula of nickel (II) chloride hexahydrate is:

NiCl2 · 6 H2O

Molar Mass of a Hydrate

The molar mass of a hydrate includes the mass of the water of hydration. This
means a hydrate will have a larger molar mass than the anhydrous compound. For
example, the molar mass of NiCl2 is 129.60 g. The molar mass of H2O is 18.015 g.
The molar mass of 6 H2O molecules is 6 × 18.015 = 108.09 g.

Therefore, the molar mass of NiCl2 · 6 H2O is 129.60 + 108.09 = 237.69 g

Experimentally Determining the Water of Hydration

You can figure out the formula of a hydrate by weighing it, heating it to remove the
water of hydration, and figuring out how many moles of water were removed for
every mole of the compound.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Hydrates Page: 365
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
Sample Problem:
Q: Sodium sulfate forms a hydrate. We want to find the chemical formula of the
hydrate. Suppose you weighed out 32.22 g of the hydrate. After heating it to
remove all of the water, the final mass was 14.20 g.

A: The formula of anhydrous sodium sulfate is Na2SO4, which has a molar mass of
142.05 g. We have:

14.20 g Na2SO4 1molNa2SO4

  0.10 molNa2SO4
1 142.05 g Na2SO4

The amount of water removed was 32.22 − 14.20 = 18.02 g.

This 18.02 g of H2O is:

18.02 g H2O 1molH2O
  1.000 molH2O
1 18.0152 g H2O

Our sample had 1 mole of H2O and 0.1 mole of Na2SO4. This is 10 times as much
H2O as Na2SO4:
1molH2O 10 H2O

0.1molNa2SO4 1Na2SO4

Therefore, the formula must be:

Na2SO4 · 10 H2O

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Hydrates Page: 366
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
Homework Problems
1. What is the chemical formula of iron (III) chloride hexahydrate?

2. Give the stock name and molar mass of the compound CoSO4 ·7 H2O?

3. If 10.0 g of Na2CrO4 · 4 H2O is heated to constant mass (i.e., until all of the
water of hydration is removed), what will the final mass be?
a. Find the molar mass of Na2CrO4 · 4 H2O.

b. Find the number of moles of Na2CrO4 · 4 H2O in 10.0 g.

c. Find the molar mass of anhydrous Na2CrO4.

d. Convert the number of moles (which you found in part b) to grams,

using the molar mass of the anhydrous compound (which you found in
part c).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Hydrates Page: 367
Big Ideas Details Unit: Moles
3. 14.70 g of a hydrate of CaCl2 is heated to dryness. The anhydrous sample has
a mass of 11.10 g after evaporating the H2O. Use the following steps to
determine the chemical formula of the hydrate.
a. Find the moles of anhydrous compound left at the end.

b. Find the moles of water evaporated. (You’ll need to find the grams of
water evaporated, and then convert to moles.)

c. Find the ratio of the moles of water evaporated to the moles of the
anhydrous compound. This will be the number of water molecules in
the hydrate.

d. Write the formula for the hydrate (using the number of water molecules
that you found in part c)?

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: The Mole Page: 368
Big Ideas Details Unit: The Mole

Summary: The Mole

Unit: The Mole
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Solutions Page: 369
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions

Introduction: Solutions
Unit: Solutions
Topics covered in this chapter:
Solutions & Dissolution................................................................................ 371
Solubility ...................................................................................................... 378
Concentration (Molarity) ............................................................................. 385
Colligative Properties................................................................................... 390

Standards addressed in this chapter:

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS1-11(MA) Design strategies to identify and separate the components of a
mixture based on relevant chemical and physical properties.
HS-PS2-7(MA) Construct a model to explain how ions dissolve in polar solvents
(particularly water). Analyze and compare solubility and conductivity data
to determine the extent to which different ionic species dissolve.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Solutions Page: 370
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):
7.1 Describe the process by which solutes dissolve in solvents.
7.2 Calculate concentration in terms of molarity. Use molarity to perform
solution dilution and solution stoichiometry.
7.3 Identify and explain the factors that affect the rate of dissolving (e.g.,
temperature, concentration, surface area, pressure, mixing).
7.4 Compare and contrast qualitatively the properties of solutions and pure
solvents (colligative properties such as boiling point and freezing point).

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 Solutions & Dissolution Page: 371
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions

Solutions & Dissolution

Unit: Solutions
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-7(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 7.1, 7.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Describe how a solution forms.
 Explain the effect of temperature changes on solubility.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions account for solvent-solute interactions.
 Descriptions account for intermolecular forces.
 Explanations of the effect of temperature are consistent with solubility curves.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: solution
Language Objectives:
 Explain how solutes dissolve in solvents.

Notes:
solute: a substance that is broken down and dissolved into another substance.
Solutes can be solids, liquids, or gases.

solvent: a substance that contains a solute. Solvents can be solids or liquids.

solution: a mixture that consists of a solute dissolved in a solvent.

dissolution or solvation: the process of a solute dissolving in a solvent.

solubility: the amount of a solute that can dissolve in a solvent. Often expressed in
mol g
L
or L
.

soluble: when a solute can dissolve in a solvent.

insoluble: when a solute cannot dissolve in a solvent. Common threshold values

g
are that solutes with solubilities of less than 1 L or less than 0.01 mol
L
in a given
solvent are considered insoluble.

miscible: when two liquids can dissolve in (mix freely with) each other

dissociation: when ions split apart in a solution. E.g., when NaCl dissolves, the Na+
and Cl− ions separate and dissolve separately.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Solutions & Dissolution Page: 372
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
electrolyte: a solution that conducts electricity. Electrolytes are generally made
when ionic compounds (salts) dissociate and dissolve, and the ions conduct
electrons (electricity) through the solution.

saturated solution: a solution that holds as much solute as the solvent is capable of
dissolving at a given temperature.

unsaturated solution: a solution that contains less solute than is capable of

dissolving in a solvent.

supersaturated solution: a solution that temporarily contains more solute than is

capable of remaining dissolved in a solvent. Supersaturated solutions are
unstable.

A solution forms when solute molecules are dissolved in solvent molecules. This
process involves the following steps:
1. Solvent molecules are attracted to the surface of the solute.
2. Intermolecular bonds (e.g., ion-dipole bonds, hydrogen bonds, etc.)
between solvent and solute particles pull the solute particles (ions,
molecules, etc.) apart and into the solvent.

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 Solutions & Dissolution Page: 373
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
Enthalpy (Heat) of Solution
If a solute dissolves in a solvent, it is always the case that more energy had to be
released when the solvent-solute intermolecular bonds are formed than it took to
pull the solute particles apart. This means that the combined intermolecular forces
between the solvent and solute particles are stronger than the intermolecular
forces that had held the particles together in the solute.

If a solute does not dissolve, this means it would have taken more energy to pull the
solute particles apart than the amount that would have been released by forming
the solvent-solute intermolecular bonds. This means that the combined
intermolecular forces between the solute particles are stronger than the combined
intermolecular forces between solvent and solute particles.

This energy can exist in two forms: enthalpy (heat) and entropy (how much the
energy is spread out among the particles). Enthalpy and entropy are discussed in
more detail in the chapter on “Thermochemistry (Heat),” starting on page 469.

If the solution gets hotter as the solute dissolves, this means energy was released in
the form of enthalpy (heat).

If the solution gets colder as the solute dissolves, this means heat energy was
absorbed. However, it still must be true that energy had to be released when the
solute dissolved. (Otherwise it would not have done so.) This means that entropy
must have increased, and that more energy was released in the form of entropy
than was absorbed in the form of enthalpy (heat).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Solutions & Dissolution Page: 374
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
For example, if you mix a strong acid with sodium hydroxide (a strong base), the
solution gets very hot. (In fact, it can get hot enough to boil!) However, if you mix a
strong acid with sodium carbonate (“soda ash”) or sodium hydrogen carbonate
(baking soda), the solution gets cold, because it releases CO2 gas. As the gas is
released, its heat energy spreads out into the surroundings (the room), which is a
large increase in entropy. This increase in entropy releases so much energy that it
takes thermal energy (heat) away from the solution, cooling it off. This is why
baking soda is a good choice for neutralizing strong acids, whereas sodium
hydroxide would be a poor choice.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Solutions & Dissolution Page: 375
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
Polar vs. Non-Polar Solvents
Whether a solute will dissolve in a solvent depends on the intermolecular forces
between both the solvent and solute molecules. In both cases, the governing factor
is the greater strength of ion-ion and dipole-dipole interactions as compared with
London dispersion forces.

Polar Solvent
polar or ionic solute: polar or ionic solute particles are attracted to the positive and
negative poles of the solvent molecules, which results in the solute dissolving.
non-polar solute: non-polar solute particles are not attracted to the solvent
molecules. However, the solvent molecules are attracted to each other, and
they exclude the solute.

Non-Polar Solvent
polar or ionic solute: polar or ionic solute particles are attracted to each other, but
are not attracted to the solvent molecules, so they exclude the solvent and do
not dissolve. (They form a precipitate, which means the solute falls
(precipitates) to the bottom of the container.)
non-polar solute: neither the solute particles nor solvent molecules are strongly
attracted to each other. (Both exhibit only London dispersion forces.) Because
neither excludes the other, they spread out and intermingle freely.

A simple one-sentence statement of the above is “Like dissolves like.”

This statement applies to liquids as well as solids. Polar liquids are miscible with
each other; non-polar liquids are miscible with each other; however, non-polar
liquids are not miscible with polar liquids. This is why “oil and water do not mix.”

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Solutions & Dissolution Page: 376
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
Factors that Affect the Rate of Dissolution
 temperature: solutes dissolve faster at higher temperatures because the
molecules have more kinetic energy, which helps to pull the solute molecules
apart.
 concentration: as the concentration increases, more and more solvent
molecules are occupied with solute particles. The higher the concentration of
the solute, the more slowly the solute will dissolve.
 surface area: because the solvent-solute interactions happen at the surface of
the solute particles, the greater the surface area, the faster the solvent
dissolves.
 pressure: for gases dissolving in liquids, increasing the pressure will force
more gas molecules into the liquid, increasing the rate at which the gas
dissolves.
 mixing: the faster a solution is mixed/stirred, the faster the solute will
dissolve. This is because the mixing pulls dissolved solute particles away from
each other, which is similar to lowering the concentration around the
individual molecules.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Solutions & Dissolution Page: 377
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions

Homework Problems
For each solute given, indicate whether water (H2O) or cyclohexane (a nonpolar
molecule) would be a better solvent.

1. KNO3

2. paraffin (long-chain hydrocarbons, such as C20H42 or C40H82)

3. ethyl alcohol (CH3–CH2–OH)

4. acetic acid (HC2H3O2)

5. mineral oil

6. ammonia (NH3)

7. gasoline (short-chain hydrocarbons such as octane, C8H18)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Solubility Page: 378
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions

Solubility
Unit: Solutions
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-7(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 7.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Use solubility tables/rules to predict whether a solute will dissolve in water.
 Determine the amount of a solute that can dissolve from a solubility curve.
Success Criteria:
 Predictions about dissolution in water are correct.
 Amounts of solute that can dissolve are determined correctly.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: solution, curve
Language Objectives:
 Explain how solutes dissolve in solvents.

Notes:
In class, you saw a demonstration of the reaction between sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3) and calcium chloride (CaCl2):
Na2CO3 (aq) + CaCl2 (aq) → NaCl (aq) + CaCO3 (ppt) (1)
When the solutions were mixed, the calcium carbonate that was formed
immediately precipitated (formed an insoluble solid). Note that once the calcium
carbonate is formed, it doesn’t redissolve. I.e., reaction (1) happens, but the
reverse reaction (2), doesn’t:
CaCO3 (s) + NaCl (aq) →
X CaCl2 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) (2)
This is because of the way ionic compounds behave when they are dissolved in
water.

If an ionic compound dissolves in water, it dissociates (splits) into its ions. In a

chemical equation, we write “(aq)” (meaning “aqueous”) after an ionic compound to
show that it is dissolved, and is floating around in the solution as separate positive
and negative ions.

For example, CaCl2 splits into one Ca2+ ion and two Cl− ions. The Ca2+ ions are
attracted to the negative part of the H2O molecule (the oxygen atoms), and Cl− ions
are attracted to the positive parts (the hydrogen atoms).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Solubility Page: 379
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
The combined attraction between the ions and the water molecules is stronger than
the attraction between the Ca2+ ion and the Cl− ion. The stronger attraction wins,
which means the CaCl2 dissolves:
- 
Cl
H

- O - 2+
Cl H Ca


CaCO3, on the other hand, does not dissociate. This must mean that the attraction
between the Ca2+ ion and the CO32− ion is stronger than the combined attraction
between the ions and the water molecules. The stronger attraction wins, which
means the CaCO3 precipitates.

Note that if you mix the reactants and all of the ions remain in solution, nothing
changes. This means a chemical reaction did not occur.

In other words, a chemical reaction in an aqueous solution happens only if one of

the products forms its own distinct phase—either a precipitate, a gas, or a separate
liquid phase.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Solubility Page: 380
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
Solubility Rules
Solubility rules are rules of thumb that describe which compounds are likely to be
soluble in water, and which are not.

Recall that the strength of ion-ion intermolecular forces is given by Coulomb’s Law:
kq q
F  12 2
d
I.e., the attraction is proportional to the absolute value of the product of the
charges (|q1q2| — multiply the charges, and then change the sign so that the result
is a positive number) and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the ions.

It is usually (but not always) true that for the solute:

 if |q1q2| ≥ 4, then the ions’ attraction to each other is usually stronger, and
the compound usually precipitates.
 if |q1q2| < 4, then the solvent’s attraction to the ions is usually stronger, and
the compound usually dissolves.

Note that there are several exceptions to both of these rules. Two examples are:
 hydroxides (OH−) and fluorides (F−) tend to form precipitates with +2 ions
because they are very small ions, so the force of intermolecular attraction
(F ) is stronger because d 2 is smaller.
 cations (positive ions) of atoms with electronegativities significantly greater
than 1 (such as Cu+1, Ag+1, and Pb+2) have a stronger attraction for negative
ions, and form precipitates with halogens (Cl−, Br−, and I−).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Solubility Page: 381
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
The following is a detailed set of solubility rules:

Ions That Form Ions That Form

SOLUBLE EXCEPT with INSOLUBLE EXCEPT with
Compounds Compounds
Group 1 ions (Li+,
carbonate (CO32–)
Na+, etc.)
ammonium (NH4+) chromate (CrO42–)
Group 1 ions, NH4+
nitrate (NO3–) phosphate (PO43–)
hydrogen
sulfite (SO32–)
carbonate (HCO3–)
chlorate (ClO3–) Group 1 ions, NH4+
sulfide (S2–)
perchlorate (ClO4–) Group 2 ions
acetate (C2H3O2–
Ag+ hydroxide (OH–)
or CH3COO–) Group I ions,
+ + 2+
Ag , Cu , Pb , NH4+, Ba2+, Sr2+, Tl+
halides (Cl–, Br–, I–) oxide (O2–)
Hg22+
Ca2+, Sr2+,
sulfates (SO42–)
Ba2+, Ag+, Pb2+

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Solubility Page: 382
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
Solubility Curves
solubility curve: a graph that shows the solubility of one or more compounds as a
function of the temperature. Solubilities are usually expressed either in moles
of solute per liter of solution (molarity) or grams of solute per 100 g of solvent.

Sample Problem:
Q: How much NaNO3 can dissolve in 50 g of water at 70 °C?

A: From the graph on the following page, the solubility of NaNO3 at 70 °C is

135 g NaNO3/100 g H2O. Using this number as a conversion factor:

135 g NaNO3
50 g H2O   67.5 g NaNO3
100 g H2O

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Solubility Page: 383
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
Homework Problems
For these problems, you will need to use the solubility curves in “Figure I.
Solubilities of Selected Compounds” on page 551 of your Chemistry Reference
Tables.

1. How much ammonium chloride could you dissolve in 100 g of water at

70 °C?

Answer: about 61 g NH4Cl

2. How much HCl could you dissolve in 25 g of water at 45 °C?

Answer: 15 g HCl

3. If you made a saturated solution of ammonia in 40. g of water at 50. °C, how
many grams of ammonia would it contain?

Answer: 12 g NH3

g
4. You want to dissolve 0.75 mol of KCl (F.W. = 74.55 mol ) in 150. mL of water.
What is the minimum temperature to which you would have to heat the
water to dissolve all of the KCl?

Answer: 34 °C

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Solubility Page: 384
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
5. You have a solution that contains 43 g of an unknown compound dissolved
in 100. g of H2O at a temperature of 55 °C. The unknown compound could
be either KCl, Na2SO4, KNO3, or NaNO3. Describe how you could perform a
series of heating or cooling experiments and use a solubility chart to identify
the solute in the unknown solution.

6. If you had 95 g of a saturated solution of sodium nitrate at room

temperature (25 °C) and you cooled it to 10. °C, how much precipitate would
form?
(Note: the 95 g of solution includes both the NaNO3 and the water.)

Answer: 6 g

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Concentration (Molarity) Page: 385
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions

Concentration (Molarity)
Unit: Solutions
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-7(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 7.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Calculate the concentration of a solution in mol
L
.
 Calculate the final concentration of a solution after dilution.
Success Criteria:
 Solutions have the correct quantities substituted for the correct variables.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: concentration, molar
Language Objectives:
 Explain how concentration is calculated.

Notes:
concentration: how much of something (solute) is dissolved in something else
(solvent).

moles of solute mol

molarity (M): a unit of concentration equal to or .
L of solution L

dilution: the process of decreasing the concentration of a substance by adding

more solvent.

dilute: a solution that has a low concentration of solute dissolved in it.

There are three common types of problems involving molarity:

1. Find the molarity of a solution containing ___ grams/moles of solute with a

volume of ___ L.

2. “How many moles/grams of a chemical would you need to make ___ L of a

___ M solution?” OR “What volume would you add to ___ moles/grams of a
chemical to make a ___ M solution?”

3. What volume of ___ M solution would you add to water to make ___ L of a
___ M solution.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Concentration (Molarity) Page: 386
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
1. Determining Concentration
To calculate the molarity of a solution:
1. find the moles of solute
2. find the liters of solution
3. divide the moles by the liters
For example: Determine the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 0.25 mol
of CuSO4 in enough water to make a total volume of 500 mL (0.5 L) of solution.
0.25mol CuSO4 mol CuSO4
 0.5 L
 0.5MCuSO4
0.5L solution

(pronounced “0.5 molar copper sulfate”).

2. Determining the mass of solute or the volume of water needed

To solve these problems, use the molarity as a conversion factor, rewriting M as
mol 1.75mol
(for example, 1.75 M would be , or 1.75 mol = 1 L).
L 1L

For example:
How many moles of AgNO3 would you need to dissolve in water to make
100. mL (0.100 L) of an 0.50 M solution?
0.100 L 0.50 mol
  0.050 mol
1 1L

Note that if the question had asked for grams of AgNO3, you would then need to
convert moles of AgNO3 to grams.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Concentration (Molarity) Page: 387
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
3. Dilution problems
The idea is that the moles of solute before dilution must equal the moles of
solute after dilution. Because molarity times volume equals moles
 mol 
  L  mol  , this means M1V1 = M2V2, where M1 and M2 are the molarities
 L 
before and after dilution, respectively, and V1 and V2 are the volumes before
and after dilution.

For example:
How much 0.50 M HCl would you need to add to water to make 2.0 L of an
0.10 M solution?
M1V1 = M2V2
M1 = 0.50 M
V1 = V1
M2 = 0.10 M
V2 = 2.0 L
(0.50)V1 = (0.10)(2.0)

(0.10)(2.0)
V1   0.40 L
0.50

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 Concentration (Molarity) Page: 388
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
Homework Problems
1. What is the molarity of a solution that contains 25.2 g of KNO3 (F.W. =
g
101.1 mol ) dissolved in enough water to make a total volume of 200. mL of
solution?

Answer: 1.25 M

2. What is the molarity of a solution that contains 22.5 g of NaI (F.W. =

g
149.98 mol ) dissolved in enough water to make a total volume of 500. mL of
solution?

Answer: 0.300 M

g
3. How many grams of NaOH (F.W. = 40.00 mol ) would you dissolve in water to
make 1.0 L of a 2.0 M solution?

Answer: 80. g NaOH

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 Concentration (Molarity) Page: 389
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
g
4. How many grams of KCl (F.W. = 74.55 mol ) would you dissolve in water to
make 250. mL of 0.100 M solution?

Answer: 1.86 g KCl

5. How many mL of 12.0 M HCl would you add to water to make 500. mL of a
1.00 M solution?

Answer: 42.0 mL HCl

6. If you put two teaspoons (8.0 g) of sucrose (C12H22O11) into 300. mL of coffee,
what is the concentration of sugar in the resulting solution?

Answer: 0.078 M

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Colligative Properties Page: 390
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions

Colligative Properties
Unit: Solutions
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-7(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 7.4
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Calculate boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, vapor pressure
lowering and osmotic pressure.
 Calculate the molar mass of a solute, based on the grams of a solute added
and its effect on the freezing or boiling point of water.
Success Criteria:
 Solutions use the equation appropriate for the information given.
 Solutions have the correct quantities substituted for the correct variables.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: depression, elevation
Language Objectives:
 Explain why solutes cause changes in freezing and boiling point.

Notes:
colligative properties: properties of a solution that depend on the physical number
of particles dissolved, but not on the chemical properties of those particles.

Solutes can affect the physical properties of a solution by “getting in the way” of the
solvent molecules.

molality (m): the concentration of a solution measured in grams of solute per

1 000 g of solvent.

Notice that the molality depends only on the masses of the solute and solvent, not
on the volume.

van’t Hoff factor (i ): the number of particles of solute that you get when the solute
dissolves. For example, when you dissolve sodium phosphate (Na3PO4) in water,
it breaks up into three Na+ ions and one PO43− ion, for a total of four particles.
This means the van’t Hoff factor for Na3PO4 is 4.

Note that the van’t Hoff factor (i ) is a measured quantity. If an ionic compound
dissociates completely, the value of i can be approximated from the chemical
formula. However, if a compound is a weak electrolyte (dissolves only partially),
the value of i must be measured empirically.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Colligative Properties Page: 391
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
Freezing Point Depression
When a solute is added to a solvent, the solvent particles must “push” the solute
particles out of the way in order to form a solid, which requires energy. This means
that in order to make the solution freeze, the temperature must be lower, in order
to increase the amount of energy given off when the solution forms a solid.

This is why we put salt on ice in winter—the salt particles get in the way of the
water freezing, which means the temperature has to be lower in order for the salt
water to freeze. As long as the temperature is above this new freezing point, the
solution stays liquid (i.e., the ice melts).
ΔTf = imKf
where:
i = van’t Hoff factor
 mol solute 
m = molality of the solute  
 kg solvent 

Kf = freezing point depression constant. For H2O, K f  1.86 mC (degrees Celsius

per molal)

Sample problem:
What is the freezing point of 25 g Na2SO4 dissolved in 500 g of H2O?
ΔTf = imKf

i = 3 (because Na2SO4 → 2 Na+ + SO42−, which is a total of 3 ions)

25 g Na2SO4 1molNa2SO4 1000 g H2O
m    0.352m
500 g H2O 142.05 g Na2SO4 1kg H2O

K f  1.86 mC
ΔTf = imKf

ΔTf = (3) (0.352 m) ( 1.86 mC )

ΔTf = 1.96 °C
The normal boiling point of H2O is 0 °C, and we just calculated that the freezing
point is lowered by 1.96 °C. Therefore, the freezing point of the solution is:
Tf = −1.96 °C

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Colligative Properties Page: 392
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
Boiling Point Elevation
Solute particles attract solvent molecules as they boil and attempt to escape as a
gas. The solution needs extra energy (higher temperature) in order to overcome
this extra attraction. This is why solutions—liquids with solutes dissolved in them—
boil at higher temperatures.

ΔTb = imKb
where:
i = van’t Hoff factor (# solute particles from each molecule, sometimes called
the “dissociation factor”)
 mol solute 
m = molality of the solute  
 kg solvent 

Kb = boiling point elevation constant. For H2O, Kb  0.52 mC (degrees Celsius

per molal)
Calculations involving boiling point elevation are done exactly the same way as
calculations involving freezing point depression.

Sample problem:
Q: It is often said that salt should be added to boiling water when cooking pasta
because the salt will elevate the boiling point of the water, causing the pasta to
cook faster. How much would one teaspoon (4 g) of salt raise the boiling point
of 4 quarts (about 4 kg) of water?

A: 4 g of NaCl is approximately 0.068 mol.

The molal concentration of salt in the water is therefore

0.068 molNaCl
 0.017m .
4.0 kg H2O

NaCl dissociates into to ions, so i = 2. Kb  0.52 mC . Therefore:

Tb  imKb
Tb  (2)(0.017)(0.52)  0.018C

The salt in the water would increase the boiling point from 100 °C to 100.018 °C.
We can therefore discount the possibility that boiling point elevation makes any
significant contribution to how quickly the pasta cooks.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Colligative Properties Page: 393
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
Raoult’s Law (Vapor Pressure Lowering)
Solute particles attract solvent molecules. This attraction is strong enough to
prevent some of those solvent molecules from escaping into the vapor phase.

Vapor pressure is the number of molecules of liquid that can escape into the gas
phase at a given temperature, expressed as a pressure. Therefore, the presence of
solute particles lowers the vapor pressure of the solvent.

Specifically, Raoult’s Law states that the partial pressure of vapor “i ” (Pi ) equals the
vapor pressure of (pure) “i ” (Pv,i ) times the mole fraction of liquid “i ” ( i ) in the
mixture:
Pi  Pv ,i i

Sample problem:
A sealed chamber contains a solution of glucose dissolved in water at 22 °C. The
vapor pressure of pure water at 22 °C is 2.6 kPa. If the mole fraction of glucose is
0.10, what is the partial pressure of water in the air space above the solution?

Answer:

If the mole fraction of glucose in the solution is 0.10, the mole fraction of water in
the solution must be 1 − 0.10 = 0.90. Therefore, the partial pressure of water is:

PH O  Pv ,H O H O
2 2 2

PH O  (2.6 kPa)(0.90)  2.3kPa

2

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Colligative Properties Page: 394
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
Osmotic Pressure
Diffusion is the natural flow of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration.
Recall from biology that osmosis is a form of diffusion in which solvent molecules
are able to travel across a semi-permeable membrane (such as a cell membrane),
but solute molecules cannot pass through. Therefore, the higher the concentration
of solute molecules on one side of the membrane, the more strongly those solute
molecules attract solvent molecules from the other side. The force of this attraction
can be measured as a pressure.

This is why your skin wrinkles when it gets wet—the solutes inside your skin cells
attract the pure water from outside your skin. As the water flows in through the cell
membrane, it enlarges your skin cells. As your skin gets larger, the surface area gets
larger, which we see as wrinkles. As your skin dries, the water escapes, the cells
shrink, and the wrinkles disappear.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Colligative Properties Page: 395
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
osmotic pressure (π): the observed pressure difference across a semi-permeable
membrane because of differences in solute concentration. (Yes, it is awkward
to think of the Greek letter π as a variable. Chemists are weird.)

Because osmotic pressure is a pressure, and because we are assuming the

solute molecules otherwise obey kinetic-molecular theory (i.e., they move
freely, more or less like gas molecules), we can apply the ideal gas law. Note
that we need to include the van’t Hoff factor because each of the ions in
solution created by dissolving a compound contributes separately to the
osmotic pressure. This gives us the following formula:
πV = inRT
where:
π = osmotic pressure (additional pressure due to osmosis)
V = volume of solution
i = van’t Hoff factor
n = moles of solute
R = gas constant
T = temperature (Kelvin)

Because molarity equals the moles of solute (n) divided by the volume of
solution (V), the above equation can be simplified to:
π = iMRT
where M = molarity of the solute, and everything else is as above.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Colligative Properties Page: 396
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions

Homework Problems
1. If 45 grams of sodium chloride were added to 500. grams of water, what
would the melting and boiling points be of the resulting solution?
Kb (H2O)  0.52 °C
m
and K f (H2O)  1.86 °C
m
.

Answer: M.P. = −5.73 °C B.P. = 101.6 °C

2. What is the vapor pressure of the solution in problem #1 at 250 °C? The
vapor pressure of pure water at 250 °C is 3.17 kPa.

Answer: 3.08 kPa

g
3. If the solution in problem #1 (which has a density of 1.056 mL ) were placed
on one side of a semipermeable membrane, and a 1.00 M solution of NaCl
were placed on the other side of the membrane, what would the osmotic
pressure be at 27 °C?

Answer: 12.1 atm

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Colligative Properties Page: 397
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions
4. Which solution will have a higher boiling point: a solution containing 105 g of
sucrose (C12H22O11) in 500. g of water, or a solution containing 35 g of NaCl in
500. g of water?

Answer: for the sucrose, Tb = 100.32 °C for the NaCl, Tb = 101.40 °C

5. 0.546 g of a compound with a van’t Hoff factor of 1 was dissolved in 15.0 g of

benzene. The freezing point of the solution was found to be 0.240 °C lower
than the freezing point of pure benzene. If Kf for benzene is K f  5.12 mC ,
what is the molar mass of the compound?

g
Answer: 776 mol

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Solutions Page: 398
Big Ideas Details Unit: Solutions

Summary: Solutions
Unit: Solutions
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Chemical Reactions Page: 399
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions

Introduction: Chemical Reactions

Unit: Chemical Reactions
Topics covered in this chapter:
Chemical Equations ..................................................................................... 401
Types of Chemical Reactions ....................................................................... 405
Predicting the Products of Chemical Reactions........................................... 409
Activity (Reactivity) Series ........................................................................... 414
Balancing Chemical Equations ..................................................................... 417
Net Ionic Equations...................................................................................... 425

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Chemical Reactions Page: 400
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
Standards addressed in this chapter:
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS1-2 Use the periodic table model to predict and design simple reactions
that result in two main classes of binary compounds, ionic and molecular.
Develop an explanation based on given observational data and the
electronegativity model about the relative strengths of ionic or covalent
bonds.
HS-PS1-7 Use mathematical representations and provide experimental
evidence to support the claim that atoms, and therefore mass, are
conserved during a chemical reaction. Use the mole concept and
proportional relationships to evaluate the quantities (masses or moles) of
specific reactants needed in order to obtain a specific amount of product.

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):

5.1 Balance chemical equations by applying the laws of conservation of mass
and constant composition (definite proportions).
5.2 Classify chemical reactions as synthesis (combination), decomposition, single
displacement (replacement), double displacement, and combustion.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Chemical Equations Page: 401
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions

Chemical Equations
Unit: Chemical Reactions
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-7
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 5.1
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Read, write, and interpret chemical equations.
Success Criteria:
 Equations have reactants and products on the correct sides of the arrow.
 Physical states, heat, solvents, catalysts, etc. are present when appropriate.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: equation
Language Objectives:
 Define the symbols used in chemical equations.

Notes:
chemical equation: a set of symbols that describe a chemical reaction. For example:
2 H2 (g)  O2 (g) 
2 H2O ()  heat
Δ

reactants: the starting materials; chemicals (and things like energy) that react. In a
chemical equation, the reactants are before the arrow (on the left). In the
above equation, the reactants are H2 (g) and O2 (g).

products: chemicals (and other things like energy) that are produced. In a chemical
equation, the products are after the arrow (on the right). In the above
equation, the products are H2O (ℓ) and heat.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Chemical Equations Page: 402
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
state of matter: the symbols in parentheses after a compound indicates the
physical state of that compound. Some of the common ones are listed in the
following table:

States of Matter Used in Chemical Equations

Symbol Meaning
(s) solid
liquid (A script “L” is often used to avoid confusion
( )
between the letter “l” and the number “1”.)
(g) gas or vapor
(cd) condensed phase (i.e., either solid or liquid)
(fl) fluid phase (i.e., either liquid or gas)
(cr) crystalline (solid is in the form of crystals)
(lc) liquid crystal
(vit) vitreous (glass-like)
(ads) adsorbed onto a substrate
(sln) solution
(aq) aqueous solution (dissolved in water)
(am) amorphous solid
(ppt) precipitate (solid) formed by the reaction

reaction conditions: anything that doesn’t take part in the reaction, but is needed to
make the reaction happen. Reaction condition information is placed above
and/or below the arrow. Two common ones are:
 Δ under the arrow means that heat is required in order for the reaction to
take place.
 A chemical formula under the arrow usually indicates the solvent that the
reaction takes place in.

For example, the equation:

2H2 (g)  O2 (g) 
Δ
 2H2O ( )  heat

is equivalent to the following statement:

“Two molecules of hydrogen gas and 1 molecule of oxygen gas were
heated to produce 2 molecules of liquid water and heat.”

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Chemical Equations Page: 403
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
Homework Problems
Write each of the following chemical equations in words.

1. 2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) 

 2 H2O ( ) + 572 kJ

2. CaC2 (cr) + 2 H2O ( ) 

 C2H2 (g) + Ca(OH)2 (ppt)

3. 2 C2H2 (g) + 5 O2 (g) 


 4 CO2 (g) + 2 H2O ( ) + 2 600 kJ

4. 3 CaCl2 (aq) + 2 K3PO4 (aq) 

 Ca3(PO4)2 (ppt) + 6 KCl (aq)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Chemical Equations Page: 404
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
Write each of the following word problems as a chemical equation.

5. One molecule of silicon dioxide gas reacts with four molecules of aqueous
hydrofluoric acid to produce a molecule of silicon tetrafluoride gas and two
molecules of liquid water.

6. Two moles of aqueous potassium chlorate decompose to produce two moles

of aqueous potassium chloride and three moles of oxygen gas.

7. Four moles of solid antimony are heated in the presence of three moles of
oxygen gas to form one mole of solid antimony (III) oxide.

8. When 2 moles of liquid octane (C8H18) are burned in the presence of

25 moles of oxygen gas, 16 moles of carbon dioxide gas and 18 moles of
liquid water are formed, and 10 150 kJ of heat is produced.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Types of Chemical Reactions Page: 405
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions

Types of Chemical Reactions

Unit: Chemical Reactions
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-7
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 5.1
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Recognize & identify the five major classes of chemical reactions.
Success Criteria:
 Reactions are correctly identified.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: reaction
Language Objectives:
 Explain what happens in each of the types of reaction.

Notes:
There are many types of chemical reactions. Five of the most common are:

synthesis: two or more reactants combine to form a single product. For example:
Na + Cl2 → NaCl

decomposition: one reactant disintegrates (decomposes) to form two or more

products:
H2CO3 → H2O + CO2

single replacement (sometimes called single displacement): atoms of one element

replace atoms of another in a compound:
Al + CuCl2 → AlCl3 + Cu
Most of the single replacement reactions you will encounter involve metals
reacting with ionic compounds. In this type of single replacement reaction, a
positive ion (usually a metal) replaces the other positive ion, or a negative ion
(often a non-metal) replaces the other negative ion.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Types of Chemical Reactions Page: 406
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
double replacement (sometimes called a double displacement or metathesis
reaction): when two positive ions (or two negative ions) switch with each other
to form two new compounds. For example:

CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + NaCl

Ca starts out paired with Cl, and Na is paired with CO3. In the reaction, Ca and
Na trade places so that Ca is now with CO3 and Na is now with Cl. (Or you could
think of it as Cl and CO3 trading places—the result is the same.)

combustion: a special kind of reaction in which a hydrocarbon (a compound

containing only carbon and hydrogen) reacts with O2 (burns, or “combusts”) to
form CO2 and H2O. For example:
C3H8 ( ) + 5 O2 (g) → 3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g) + heat

All flames are chemical reactions. (The flame itself is the light—photons of
energy—produced by the reaction.) Most flames are produced by combustion
reactions involving hydrocarbons and oxygen.

The internal combustion engine in your car is a special chemical reactor, in

which octane (C8H18) and other hydrocarbons combust in a chamber (cylinder),
producing heat. The heat makes the gases inside the cylinder expand. The
expanding gases push the piston, which makes the car go.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Types of Chemical Reactions Page: 407
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
Homework Problems
For each of the following chemical reactions, indicate whether the type of reaction
is:
• synthesis • single replacement • combustion
• decomposition • double replacement • none of the above

1. H2 + O2 → H2O 13. C2H2 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

2. S8 + O2 → SO2 14. H2O2 → H2O + O2

3. HgO → Hg + O2 15. C7H16 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

4. Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 16. SiO2 + HF → SiF4 + H2O

5. Na + H2O → NaOH + H2 17. KClO2 → KCl + O2

6. C10H16 + Cl2 → C + HCl 18. KClO2 → KClO4 + KCl

7. Si2H2 + O2 → SiO2 + H2O 19. P4O10 + H2O → H2PO4

8. Fe + O2 → Fe2O2 20. Sb + O2 → Sb4O6

9. C7H6O2 + O2 → CO2 + H2O 21. C2H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

10. FeS2 + O2 → Fe2O2 + SO2 22. Fe2O2 + CO → Fe + CO2

11. Fe2O2 + H2 → Fe + H2O 23. PCl5 + H2O → HCl + H2PO4

12. K + Br2 → KBr 24. H2S + Cl2 → S8 + HCl

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 Types of Chemical Reactions Page: 408
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
25. Fe + H2O → Fe2O4 + H2 38. K2O + H2O → KOH

26. N2 + H2 → NH2 39. Al + O2 → Al2O3

27. N2 + O2 → N2O 40. Na2O + H2O → NaOH + O2

28. CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2 41. C + H2O → CO + H2

29. SiCl4 + H2O → H4SiO4 + HCl 42. H3AsO4 → As2O5 + H2O

30. H2PO4 → H4P2O7 + H2O 43. Al2(SO4)2 + Ca(OH)2 →

Al(OH)2 + CaSO4

31. CO2 + NH2 → OC(NH2)2 + H2O 44. FeCl2 + NH4OH → Fe(OH)2 + NH4Cl

32. Al(OH)2 + H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)2 + H2O 45. Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 → P4O10 + CaSiO2

33. Fe2(SO4)2 + KOH → K2SO4 + Fe(OH)2 46. N2O5 + H2O → HNO2

34. H2SO4 + HI → H2S + I2 + H2O 47. Al + HCl → AlCl3 + H2

35. Al + FeO → Al2O2 + Fe 48. H3BO2 → H4B6O11 + H2O

36. Na2CO2 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2 49. Mg + N2 → Mg2N2

37. P4 + O2 → P2O5 50. NaOH + Cl2 → NaCl + NaClO + H2O

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 Predicting the Products of Chemical Reactions Page: 409
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions

Predicting the Products of Chemical Reactions

Unit: Chemical Reactions
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Accurately predict the products of single replacement, double replacement,
and combustion reactions.
Success Criteria:
 Cation & anion are correct for single and double replacement reactions.
 Products that are ionic compounds have correctly balanced charges.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: product, replacement
Language Objectives:
 Explain how you can tell from the reactants what the reaction is likely to be.

Notes:
Recognizing Reaction Types from the Reactants
If you are familiar with the different types of chemical reactions, you can often tell
the reaction type by looking only at the reactants. Once you know the reaction
type, it is relatively straightforward to predict what the products should be.

Combustion Reactions
In a combustion reaction, the reactants are always a hydrocarbon (with some
unknown number of atoms C, H, and O) and oxygen (O2). The products are always
CO2 and H2O.
If you were asked to write a combustion reaction for C5H12, you would write:
C5H12 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Predicting the Products of Chemical Reactions Page: 410
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
Single Replacement Reactions
Single and double replacement reactions usually involve ionic compounds (and
sometimes water, which we treat as the ionic compound H+OH−).
In a single replacement reaction, atoms of an element react with a compound,
replacing the atom of the same type. Metals replace metals; non-metals replace
non-metals. For example:
Na + MgI2 → NaI + Mg KBr + Cl2 → KCl + Br2
(Na replaces Mg.) (Cl replaces Br.)

If an element reacts with a compound, you can predict the products, because the
element simply replaces the other element of the same type.
For example, if you were given the problem:
Ca + NaCl → ?
Calcium is a metal, so it will replace sodium. This means calcium will end up with
chloride (CaCl2), and sodium will end up by itself (Na). The reaction is therefore:
Ca + NaCl → CaCl2 + Na
Remember that we have to balance the charges every time we put two new ions
together. This is the most common mistake beginning students make—forgetting to
balance the charges in the new compounds. You can think of breaking apart the
reactants as “unbalancing” the charges, which means you need to “re-balance”
them when you put them back together in a new arrangement.

In the example above, the Na ion (which has a +1 charge) needed only one Cl− ion
for the charges to balance, but the Ca ion (which has a +2 charge) needs two.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Predicting the Products of Chemical Reactions Page: 411
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
Double Replacement Reactions
In a double replacement reaction, the two ions of the same type switch places, as in:
KCl + MgO → MgCl2 + K2O
(K and Mg are trading places;
in the products, K is now with O and Mg is now with Cl.)
Notice again that we had to balance the charges. We needed only one K+ ion with
Cl−, but we need 2 K+ ions with O2−. Similarly, Mg2+ needed only one O2− ion, but it
needs two Cl− ions.

If we had the problem:

NH4OH + Ca3(PO4)2 → ?
we would swap NH4+ with Ca2+. When we balance the charges, NH4+ would go with
PO43− to form (NH4)3PO4, and Ca2+ would go with OH− to form Ca(OH)2. This gives the
equation:
NH4 OH + Ca3(PO4)2 → (NH4)3 PO4 + Ca(OH)2

Acid-base reactions are a type of double replacement reaction in which H+ and OH−
ions combine to form “HOH”, which is really H2O. For example:
HCl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + H2O

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 Predicting the Products of Chemical Reactions Page: 412
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
Homework Problems
Predict the products for each of the following single replacement, double
replacement and combustion reactions. (Don’t forget to balance the charges!)

1. Ca + AlCl3 →

2. BaCl2 + O2 →

3. KCl +Mg(OH)2 →

4. Na3PO4 +MgSO4 →

5. Na + HCl →

6. Al + CoCl2 →

7. Pb(NO3)2 + NaI →

8. SiO2 + Ca →

9. Al + FeO →

10. Zn + HCl →

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 Predicting the Products of Chemical Reactions Page: 413
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
11. Mg + NaNO3 →

12. NaOH + HNO3 →

13. Mg + CrCl3 →

14. Fe(OH)3 + H2SO4 →

15. H2S + AuCl3 →

16. Cr2(SO4)3 + KOH →

17. PbCl2 + Na2SO4 →

18. AgNO3 + CuCl2 →

19. BaCl2 + Al2(SO4)3 →

20. TiO2 + HCl →

21. Zn + AgNO3 →

22. Al + Fe3O4 →

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Activity (Reactivity) Series Page: 414
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions

Activity (Reactivity) Series

Unit: Chemical Reactions
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Use the activity series to predict whether or not a single replacement reaction
will occur.
Success Criteria:
 Prediction is correct about whether or not a reaction occurs.
 Cation & anion are correct if reaction does occur.
 Products have correctly balanced charges.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: product, replacement, activity
Language Objectives:
 Explain how you can tell using the activity series whether or not a reaction will
occur.

Notes:
In the reaction between aluminum metal and copper (II) chloride:
Al (s) + CuCl2 (aq) → AlCl3 (aq) + Cu (s) + heat (1)
the beaker got hot. This means the reaction gave off heat, which was lost to the
surroundings (the water that the chemicals were dissolved in, the beaker, the air,
your hand). Once the energy was given off, the chemicals didn’t have enough
energy to go the other direction. In other words, the reverse reaction does not
happen:
Cu (s) + AlCl3 (aq) → no reaction (2)

Is it possible to predict which direction the reaction will go?

For single replacement reactions, there is a list, called the activity series, (or
reactivity series), which lists metals in order from most reactive to least, based on
how much energy they give off when they lose electrons to form a positive ion. A
metal that’s higher on the list can replace anything lower on the list (because more
energy is given off), but a metal that’s lower on the list doesn’t have enough energy
to replace one that’s higher up.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Activity (Reactivity) Series Page: 415
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
Activity (Reactivity) Series
Metal Ion Reacts With Method of Extraction
Cs Cs+
Rb Rb+
K K+ cold H2O
Na Na+ dilute acids
Li Li+ O2
Sr Sr2+ electrolysis
Ca Ca2+
Mg Mg2+
Be Be2+
Al Al3+
steam
Mn Mn2+ increasing dilute acids
Zn Zn2+ reactivity O2
Cr Cr3+
Fe Fe2+
Cd Cd2+
metal oxide reduction
Co Co2+
with carbon or CO2
Ni Ni2+ dilute acids
Sn Sn2+ O2
smelting with coke
Pb Pb2+
H2 H+
Cu Cu2+
Cu Cu+ O2
Hg Hg2+
Ag Ag+ heat or physical
Au Au3+ some strongly extraction
Pt Pt2+ oxidizing acids

To answer the original question, notice that aluminum is higher than copper on the
activity series. This means aluminum can replace copper:
Al (s) + CuCl2 (aq) → AlCl3 (aq) + Cu (s) + heat
but copper can’t replace aluminum:
Cu (s) + AlCl3 (aq) → no reaction

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Activity (Reactivity) Series Page: 416
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
Homework Problems
For each of the following single replacement reactions:
a) Check the activity series to see whether the reaction happens.
b) If the reaction happens, predict the products. If the reaction does not
happen, write “N.R.” (“No Reaction”).

1. K (s) + H2O →

2. Pb (s) + Zn(CH3COO)2 (aq) →

3. Al (s) + Fe2O3 (s) 




4. AgNO3 (aq) + Ni (s) →

5. Ag (s) + H2SO4 (aq) →

6. NaBr (aq) + I2 (s) →

7. Ca (s) + MgSO4 (aq) →

8. Ca (s) + HCl (aq) →

9. Mg (s) + HNO3 (aq) →

10. CuCl2 (aq) + Hg ( ) →

11. Na (s) + H2O ( ) →

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Balancing Chemical Equations Page: 417
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions

Balancing Chemical Equations

Unit: Chemical Reactions
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-7
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 5.1
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Apply the law of definite proportions to balance chemical equations.
Success Criteria:
 Equation is balanced such that there are the same number of atoms (moles)
of each element on each side of the equation.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: balance
Language Objectives:
 Explain the law of definite proportions and conservation of mass and relate
them to chemical equations.

Notes:
A chemical equation needs to describe the chemical formulas and relative number
of molecules involved of each molecule that reacts, and each molecule that is
produced.

Remember from Dalton’s theory of the atom:

“Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in any chemical reaction.”

Therefore, not only must we have the same kinds of atoms (same elements) on both
sides of a chemical reaction, we need to have the same number of each kind of
atom before and after the reaction..

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Balancing Chemical Equations Page: 418
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
For example, consider the chemical equation:
S + O2 → SO3

There are 2 oxygen atoms on the left, but 3 on the right. We can’t change the
formulas of the molecules that take part in the reaction, so we need to specify
different numbers of each molecule to “balance” the equation.

The easiest solution would be to split an O2 molecule in half:

S + 1½ O2 → SO3

But we can’t have ½ of a molecule of O2. Therefore, the smallest set of integers that
give us the same number of each atom on both sides would be:
2 S + 3 O2 → 2 SO3

This works because there are 2 atoms of S and 6 atoms of O on each side of the
equation (“before” and “after”).

We balanced this equation by inspection, but for more complicated equations, it

helps to have a system.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Balancing Chemical Equations Page: 419
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
To balance an equation, start with one element. Put coëfficients in front of the
molecules that contain the element so that you have the same number on each
side. Then do the same for every other element. For example, to balance the
equation:

_N2 + _H2 → _NH3

we need to figure out the coëfficients that go in the blanks. We can start by
balancing any element we want, so let’s start with nitrogen (N). The smallest
numbers that we can use to balance atoms of N are a “1” in front of N2 and a 2 in
front of NH3. This gives us:
1 N2 + _H2 → 2 NH3
Now we have 2 atoms of N on each side, so N is balanced. Next, we move on to H.
We already have a “2” in front of NH3, which means we have 6 atoms of H on the
right side. To get 6 atoms of H on the left side, we need a “3” in front of H2. This
gives us the equation:
1 N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
We have coefficients in front of all of the products and reactants, so the equation is
balanced. For the final form of the equation, we leave out any coëfficient that is
“1”. (This is just like algebra—we would write “x” instead of “1x”.) This gives us:
N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3

This equation was equally easy to balance regardless of whether we started with N
or H, but for more complicated equations, making good decisions about what order
to balance the elements in can make a huge difference.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Balancing Chemical Equations Page: 420
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
Strategy for Balancing Equations
1. Figure out which elements to balance First, Middle, and Last. We will refer
to this method as the “FML” method.* Always start by deciding which
elements to save for last:
 Last: any element that appears by itself (anywhere in the equation)
 First: elements that appear in only one molecule on each side (if you
haven’t already saved them for last).
 Middle: every element that’s not already last or first.

2. Start with any element on the “First” list. Add coëfficients to make it
balance.

3. Pick another element. (Work your way through the “First,” then “Middle,”
then “Last” lists.) Start with elements that already have at least one
coëfficient, but still need at least one.

4. Repeat step #3 until everything is balanced.

Notes:
 Polyatomic ions usually stay together.
 If you end up with a fraction, write it in temporarily, then multiply all of
your coëfficients by the denominator of the fraction to get back to whole
numbers.

*
Now you can say to yourself, “I have to balance this equation? FML.”

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Balancing Chemical Equations Page: 421
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
Example:
H2SO4 + HI → H2S + I2 + H2O
1. Make lists:
1. Last: I I appears by itself as I2 (on the right)
2. First: S, O S only appears in H2SO4 on the left and H2S on the
right; O only appears in H2SO4 on the left and H2O
on the right.
3. Middle: H appears in two places each on the left and right.

2. Balance “First” elements (S & O; the order doesn’t matter):

a. Let’s start with S. Neither H2SO4 nor H2S has a coëfficient, so we choose
the smallest pair that works for both: 1 of each:
1 H2SO4 + _HI → 1 H2S + _I2 + _H2O

b. Next balance O. We already have a “1” in front of H2SO4, which means

we have 4 atoms of O on the left. This means we need a “4” in front of
H2O to have 4 atoms of O on the right.
1 H2SO4 + _HI → 1 H2S + _I2 + 4 H2O

3. Balance “Middle” elements (H). We have a total of 10 H atoms on the right

(2 in the 1 H2S and 8 more in the 4 H2O), and our coëfficients only show 2 H
atoms so far on the left. This means we need an “8” in front of HI for the
remaining 8 atoms of H.
1 H2SO4 + 8 HI → 1 H2S + _I2 + 4 H2O

4. Balance “Last” elements (I). We have 8 atoms of I on the left, which is 4

molecules of I2.:
1 H2SO4 + 8 HI → 1 H2S + 4 I2 + 4 H2O

5. For the final answer, leave out any coëfficient of 1:

H2SO4 + 8 HI → H2S + 4 I2 + 4 H2O

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Balancing Chemical Equations Page: 422
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
Homework Problems
Set #1 (Easier)
Balance the following chemical equations.

1. H2 + O2 → H2O

2. S8 + O2 → SO3

3. HgO → Hg + O2

4. Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

5. Na + H2O → NaOH + H2

6. C10H16 + Cl2 → C+ HCl

7. Si2H3 + O2 → SiO2 + H2O

8. Fe + O2 → Fe2O3

9. C7H6O2 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Balancing Chemical Equations Page: 423
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
10. FeS2 + O2 → Fe2O3 + SO2

11. Fe2O3 + H2 → Fe + H2O

12. K+ Br2 → KBr

13. C2H2 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

14. H2O2 → H2O + O2

15. C7H16 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

16. SiO2 + HF → SiF4 + H2O

17. KClO3 → KCl + O2

18. KClO3 → KClO4 + KCl

19. P4O10 + H2O → H3PO4

20. Sb + O2 → Sb4O6

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Balancing Chemical Equations Page: 424
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
Homework Problems
Set #2 (More Challenging)
Balance the following chemical equations.

1. Pb(NO3)2 → PbO + NO2 + O2

2. Ca3P2 + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + PH3

3. Ca + AlCl3 → CaCl2 + Al

4. H3PO3 → H3PO4 + PH3

5. C6H6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

6. Al4C3 + H2O → CH4 + Al(OH)3

7. Ag2S + KCN → KAg(CN)2 + K2S

8. MgNH4PO4 → Mg2P2O7 + NH3 + H2O

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Net Ionic Equations Page: 425
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions

Net Ionic Equations

Unit: Chemical Reactions
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Write chemical equations as net ionic equations.
Success Criteria:
 Soluble ionic compounds are dissociated.
 Insoluble ionic compounds remain together as solids.
 Spectator ions are identified and omitted from the final net ionic equation.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: net, spectator
Language Objectives:
 Review dissociation. Explain how to dissociate a compound and write its ions
separately in an equation.

Notes:
net ionic equation: a chemical equation that shows only ions or pure substances
that are changed by the reaction.

spectator ion: an ion that remains in solution and does not participate in a chemical
reaction.

If you mixed aqueous solutions of calcium chloride (CaCl2 (aq)) and sodium nitrate
(NaNO3 (aq)), you might be tempted to predict that the following (unbalanced)
chemical reaction would occur:
CaCl2 (aq) + NaNO3 (aq)  Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + NaCl (aq)
However, recall that aqueous ions dissociate when they dissolve in water:

Symbol What Actually Happens in H2O

CaCl2 (aq) Ca2+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)
NaNO3 (aq) Na+ (aq) + NO3− (aq)
Ca(NO3)2 (aq) Ca2+ (aq) + NO3− (aq)
NaCl (aq) Na+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)
This means that what we really have in the beaker is:
Ca2+ (aq) + Cl− (aq) + Na+ (aq) + NO3− (aq)  Ca2+ (aq) + NO3− (aq) + Na+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)
The above is called a detailed ionic equation.
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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Net Ionic Equations Page: 426
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
In the detailed ionic equation:

Ca2+ (aq) + Cl− (aq) + Na+ (aq) + NO3− (aq)  Ca2+ (aq) + NO3− (aq) + Na+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)
Notice that the right side and the left side contain exactly the same ions. In other
words, nothing has changed. If no substances are changed—no chemical bonds are
formed or broken—then no chemical reaction has occurred!

Now consider the reaction of aqueous silver nitrate with aqueous sodium
carbonate:
AgNO3 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq)  Ag2CO3 (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

Notice that one of the products, silver carbonate, forms a solid (precipitate).

The detailed ionic equation would look like this:

Ag+ (aq) + NO3− (aq) + Na+ (aq) + CO32− (aq)  Ag2CO3 (s) + Na+ (aq) + NO3− (aq)

The spectator ions (ions that remain unchanged by the reaction) are Na+ and NO3−.
If we cross those out:
Ag+ (aq) + NO3− (aq) + Na+ (aq) + CO32− (aq)  Ag2CO3 (s) + Na+ (aq) + NO3− (aq)

we are left with the unbalanced net ionic equation for this reaction:
Ag+ (aq) + CO32− (aq)  Ag2CO3 (s)

Of course, we still need to balance the equation! The balanced net ionic equation
would therefore be:
2 Ag+ (aq) + CO32− (aq)  Ag2CO3 (s)

Notice that the net ionic reaction is much simpler than the full chemical equation,
because the net ionic equation leaves out everything that does not matter in the
equation, allowing you to focus only on the details that are important.

If you take AP® Chemistry, you will be expected to write all chemical equations in
net ionic form.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Net Ionic Equations Page: 427
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
Homework Problems
For each of the following potential double replacement reactions:
a. Predict the products. (Remember to balance the charges!)
b. Use your solubility rules to write the phase after each product.
If the product is soluble, write (aq) after it. If an ionic compound is not
soluble, then it precipitates; write (ppt) after it. If a product is a gas (such as
CO2), then write (g) after it. If a product is a pure liquid (such as H2O), then
write ( ) after it.
c. Rewrite the equation with the aqueous compounds dissociated (split up).
d. Cancel (cross out) any ions that are the same (unchanged) on both sides.
e. Write and balance the net ionic equation as your final answer. If it turns out
that you have crossed out everything, write “N.R.” (“No Reaction”) instead.

1. Na2CO3 (aq) + CaCl2 (aq) →

2. (NH4)3PO4 (aq) + NaOH (aq) →

3. Ba(C2H3O2)2 (aq) + K3PO4 (aq) →

4. Ca(MnO4)2 (aq) + KOH (aq) →

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Net Ionic Equations Page: 428
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions
5. AlCl3 (aq) + H3PO4 (aq) →

6. CaSO4 (aq) + KMnO4 (aq) →

7. NaN3 (aq) + Ca(NO3)2 (aq) →

8. Sr(NO3)2 (aq) + K2Cr2O7 (aq) →

9. NaClO3 (aq) + MgSO4 (aq) →

10. Na3BO3 (aq) + ZnSO4 (aq) →

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Chemical Reactions Page: 429
Big Ideas Details Unit: Chemical Reactions

Summary: Chemical Reactions

Unit: Chemical Reactions
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Oxidation & Reduction Page: 431
Big Ideas Details Unit: Oxidation & Reduction

Introduction: Oxidation & Reduction

Unit: Oxidation & Reduction
Topics covered in this chapter:
Oxidation-Reduction (REDOX) Reactions .................................................... 432
Electrochemical Cells ................................................................................... 439

Standards addressed in this chapter:

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS1-10(MA) Use an oxidation-reduction reaction model to predict products
of reactions given the reactants, and to communicate the reaction models
using a representation that shows electron transfer (redox). Use oxidation
numbers to account for how electrons are redistributed in redox processes
used in devices that generate electricity or systems that prevent corrosion.

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):

8.4 Describe oxidation and reduction reactions and give some everyday
examples, such as fuel burning and corrosion. Assign oxidation numbers in
a reaction.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Oxidation-Reduction (REDOX) Reactions Page: 432
Big Ideas Details Unit: Oxidation & Reduction

Oxidation-Reduction (REDOX) Reactions

Unit: Oxidation & Reduction
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-10(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 8.4
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Assign oxidation numbers.
 Write and balance equations for simple REDOX reactions.
Success Criteria:
 Oxidation numbers agree with published/accepted values.
 Oxidation numbers add up to zero for compounds and to the charge for ions.
 Balanced REDOX reactions have the same number of each type of atom and
the same number of electrons transferred on each side.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: reduce
Language Objectives:
 Explain electron transfer. Explain the charge that an ion gets when electrons
are added or removed.

Notes:
oxidation-reduction reaction (REDOX reaction): a reaction in which one or more
electrons are transferred from one atom to another.

In the 1700s, oxidation meant that an atom was combined with oxygen, and was
therefore “oxidized”. For example:
2 Cu + O2 → 2 CuO

In this reaction, oxygen is more electronegative than copper, so oxygen took

electrons away from copper. This means that the copper (which was “oxidized” by
oxygen) lost two electrons and ended up with a +2 charge. Oxygen gained two
electrons and ended up with a −2 charge. As a result, the term “oxidation” has
come to mean “losing electrons”.

Also, in the 1700s, scientists found that if they heated the CuO (in which copper has
a +2 charge), they ended up with copper metal (with a charge of zero), and the
weight was reduced. Thus copper was said to be “reduced”. As a result, the term
“reduction” has come to mean “gaining electrons”.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Oxidation-Reduction (REDOX) Reactions Page: 433
Big Ideas Details Unit: Oxidation & Reduction
oxidation: the loss of one or more electrons by an atom in a chemical reaction

reduction: the gain of one or more electrons by an atom in a chemical reaction.

Stupid Mnemonics: There are two popular mnemonics for remembering oxidation
and reduction, one “Democratic” and one “Republican”.
LEO the lion says ‘GER’ (“Democratic” mnemonic involving endangered species):
LEO stands for “Loss of Electrons is Oxidation” and GER stands for “Gain of
Electrons is Reduction”
OIL RIG (“Republican” mnemonic involving oil companies): OIL stands for “Oxidation
Involves Loss (of electrons)”, and RIG stands for “Reduction Involves Gain (of
electrons).”

In a redox reaction, at least one element is oxidized, and at least one other element
is reduced. An element cannot be oxidized in a chemical reaction unless some other
element is reduced, and vice-versa. (After all, the electrons have to come from
somewhere, and they have to go somewhere.)

All chemical reactions in which an element becomes part of a compound, or vice-

versa, are redox reactions. This includes all single replacement reactions,
combustion reactions, and many synthesis and decomposition reactions. However,
chemists generally classify a reaction as a redox reaction only when most or all of
the energy of the reaction comes from electron transfer.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Oxidation-Reduction (REDOX) Reactions Page: 434
Big Ideas Details Unit: Oxidation & Reduction
Oxidation Numbers
An oxidation number is a measure of how “oxidized” an atom is. An element is
neither oxidized nor reduced, so it has an oxidation number of zero.
• An element that has lost electrons (oxidized) gets a positive oxidation
number, equal to the number of electrons it has lost.
• An element that has gained electrons (reduced) gets a negative oxidation
number, equal to the number of electrons it has gained.

Therefore:

• when an element is oxidized, the oxidation number increases.

• When an element is reduced, the oxidation number is also reduced

(decreases).

oxidation number (or “oxidation state”): the charge that an atom would have in a
compound if all bonds were completely ionic and every atom in the compound
or ion had a charge.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Oxidation-Reduction (REDOX) Reactions Page: 435
Big Ideas Details Unit: Oxidation & Reduction
Assigning Oxidation Numbers
 The oxidation number of a pure element is 0. (Even if it’s diatomic.)
 The oxidation numbers in a compound add up to 0
 The oxidation number of an ion is its charge. (Oxidation numbers in a
polyatomic ion add up to the charge of the polyatomic ion.)
 In a compound or polyatomic ion:
o The most electronegative element (the last one in the formula) has a
negative oxidation number equal to the number of electrons it would need
to fill its valent shell.
o All other atoms have positive oxidation numbers.
o Fluorine is always −1.
o Oxygen is always −2 except in the peroxide ion (O22−) and in OF2.
o Hydrogen is always +1 except in metal hydrides (such as NaH).
o Alkali (group 1) metals are always +1.
o Alkaline Earth (group 2) metals are always +2.
o Al is always +3, Zn is always +2, and Ag is always +1.
o Calculate other elements from the above.

Sample Problem:
What are the oxidation numbers of each element in the compound Na2HPO4:
 Na2HPO4 is an ionic compound made of the ions Na+ and HPO42−.
 The Na+ ion has a charge of +1, so the oxidation number of Na is +1.
 The HPO42− ion has a charge of −2. This means the oxidation numbers of H, P,
and O must add up to −2.
o O = −2. There are 4 O atoms. (4)( −2) = −8
o H is +1.
o If the oxidation numbers for the O atoms add up to −8 and H is +1, then the
oxidation number for P must be +5 so the total can add up to −2.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Oxidation-Reduction (REDOX) Reactions Page: 436
Big Ideas Details Unit: Oxidation & Reduction
Balancing REDOX Reactions
To fully balance a redox reaction, you must balance:
 Atoms (as you would in a regular equation)
 Electrons lost/gained
 Total charge

Often, redox reactions are shown and balanced as net ionic equations. In this case,
balancing them is often a simple matter of making sure that the same number of
electrons are produced by the oxidation half-reaction and consumed by the
reduction half-reaction.

For example, consider the unbalanced net ionic equation:

Al0 (s) + Zn2+ (aq) → Al3+ (aq) + Zn0 (s)
In this reaction, Al is oxidized from Al0 to Al+3, and Zn is reduced from Zn+2 to Zn0.
The atoms appear balanced, but Zn2+ needs only 2 electrons to form Zn0, but Al0
produces 3 electrons when oxidized to Al3+.

The two half-reactions are:

Oxidation: Al0 → Al3+ + 3 e−
Reduction: Zn2+ + 2 e− → Zn0
To balance the electrons, we need to multiply the first half-reaction by 2, and the
second one by 3, giving:
2 Al0 → 2 Al3+ + 6 e−
3 Zn2+ + 6 e− → 3 Zn0
If we combine these and cancel the electrons (because we have the same number
on both sides), we get the balanced net ionic equation:
2 Al0 (s) + 3 Zn2+ (aq) → 2 Al3+ (aq) + 3 Zn0 (s)

REDOX reactions can get a lot more complicated, especially when acid-base
reactions are also taking place and the water that the ions are dissolved in
participates in the reaction. Balancing complex REDOX reactions is beyond the
scope of this course, but is covered in AP® Chemistry.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Oxidation-Reduction (REDOX) Reactions Page: 437
Big Ideas Details Unit: Oxidation & Reduction
Homework Problems
For each of the following compounds or ions, write the oxidation number of each
element.

1. FeO

2. N2

3. KMnO4

4. NH4OH

5. (NH4)3PO4

6. Cr2O72−

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Oxidation-Reduction (REDOX) Reactions Page: 438
Big Ideas Details Unit: Oxidation & Reduction
Balance the following (redox) equations. A superscript “0” indicates a pure element.

7. Zn0 + Tl+ → Tl0 + Zn2+

8. Li0 + Cr3+ → Cr0 + Li+

9. K0 +Mg2+ → K+ +Mg0

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electrochemical Cells Page: 439
Big Ideas Details Unit: Oxidation & Reduction

Electrochemical Cells
Unit: Oxidation & Reduction
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-10(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Explain how an electrochemical cell (such as a battery) works.
Success Criteria:
 Explanations account for each of the parts of the electrochemical cell.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: battery, bridge
Language Objectives:
 Explain how a battery works.

Notes:
electrochemistry: using chemical (redox) reactions to produce electricity or vice-
versa. In an electrochemical reaction, oxidation and reduction reactions occur
in separate containers, and the electrons that travel from one reaction to the
other pass through an electric circuit.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electrochemical Cells Page: 440
Big Ideas Details Unit: Oxidation & Reduction
galvanic cell: (also called a voltaic cell) a chemical apparatus that uses an
electrochemical reaction to produce electricity. (A battery is a type of galvanic
cell.)

half cell: either of the two halves of a galvanic cell.

electrolytic cell: a cell similar to a galvanic cell, except that the reaction is not
spontaneous, and electricity is used to add the energy needed to make the
reaction occur. (Electrolysis of water is an example.)
electrode: a solid metal strip where either oxidation or reduction occurs. The metal
strips also conduct the electrons into or out of the electric circuit.

anode: the negatively (−) charged electrode. At the anode:

 Oxidation happens. (Atoms from the anode are oxidized to positive ions.)
 These metal ions become part of the solution. (I.e., the anode loses mass.)
 The electrons produced by oxidation move up the wire into the electric circuit.
cathode: the positively (+) charged electrode. At the cathode:
 Reduction happens. (Ions from the solution are reduced to neutral metal
atoms.)
 These metal ions become part of the cathode. (I.e., the cathode gains mass.)
 The electrons needed for reduction move from the electric circuit through the
wire and into the cathode.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Electrochemical Cells Page: 441
Big Ideas Details Unit: Oxidation & Reduction
Note that in physics, electric “current” is defined to be the direction that a positive
particle would move. This means that the “current” flows in the opposite direction
from the electrons.

salt bridge: a salt solution that is connected to both half cells. The salt bridge
provides ions for the two half-cells to keep the charges balanced. (If the charges
are not allowed to balance, opposite charges would build up in both cells and
the reaction would stop.) The salt solution must be made of ions that do not
take part in the reactions at the cathode or anode. (KNO3 is commonly used.)

electroplating: using an electrolytic cell to add a layer of metal to something. The

cathode is attached to the object to be electroplated. An electric current
reduces metal ions from the solution, which are deposited onto the object.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Oxidation & Reduction Reactions Page: 442
Big Ideas Details Unit: Oxidation & Reduction Reactions

Summary: Oxidation & Reduction Reactions

Unit: Oxidation & Reduction Reactions
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Stoichiometry Page: 443
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry

Introduction: Stoichiometry
Unit: Stoichiometry
Topics covered in this chapter:
Stoichiometry .............................................................................................. 445
Stoichiometry: Mass-Mass Problems .......................................................... 450
Limiting Reactant ......................................................................................... 454
Percent Yield ................................................................................................ 462
Marathon Problems..................................................................................... 465

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Stoichiometry Page: 444
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
Standards addressed in this chapter:
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS1-7 Use mathematical representations and provide experimental
evidence to support the claim that atoms, and therefore mass, are
conserved during a chemical reaction. Use the mole concept and
proportional relationships to evaluate the quantities (masses or moles) of
specific reactants needed in order to obtain a specific amount of product.

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):

5.5 Calculate the mass-to-mass stoichiometry for a chemical reaction.
5.6 Calculate percent yield in a chemical reaction.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Stoichiometry Page: 445
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry
Unit: Stoichiometry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-7
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 5.5
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Solve mole-mole stoichiometry problems.
Success Criteria:
 For each compound in the chemical equation, the ratio of the coëfficients is
the same as the ratio of the moles.
 Solutions have the correct quantities substituted for the correct variables.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: mole, coëfficient
Language Objectives:
 Explain how the coefficients in a chemical equation are like the numbers in a
pre-algebra “input-output machine.”

Notes:
stoichiometry: measurement of how much of each reactant is used and how much
of each product is produced in a chemical reaction.

stoichiometry problem: a chemistry problem in which you are given a balanced

chemical equation and the quantity of one compound, and you are asked to find
the quantity of another compound produced or consumed in the same
equation.

For example, in the chemical reaction:

3 CaCl2 + 2 Na3PO4 → 6 NaCl + Ca3(PO4)2

3 molecules of CaCl2 would produce 1 molecule of Ca3(PO4)2. Because a mole is

always the same number of molecules, this means 3 moles of CaCl2 produces 1 mole
of Ca3(PO4)2.

Stoichiometry is simply the process of using the coëfficients in a balanced chemical

equation to convert from moles of one compound to moles of another.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Stoichiometry Page: 446
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
Sample problem:
Q: Suppose 1.75 mol of CaCl2 reacts according to the following equation:

3 CaCl2 + 2 Na3PO4 → 6 NaCl + Ca3(PO4)2

How many moles of Ca3(PO4)2 would be produced?

A: What makes this a stoichiometry problem is that you are “coming into the
equation” with information about the amount of one compound (4.5 mol of
CaCl2), and you are being asked to find the amount of a different compound
(how many moles of Ca3(PO4)2).
1.75 mol ? mol

3 CaCl2 + 2 Na3PO4 → 6 NaCl + (1) Ca3(PO4)2

stoichiometry

The coefficients (3 CaCl2 and 1 Ca3(PO4)2) are in a 3:1 ratio. This means the
moles of CaCl2 reacted : Ca3(PO4)2 produced must always be in a 3:1 ratio.

In the equation above, we can use any pair of coëfficients to make a conversion
factor. There are eight possible conversion factors you could get from the
equation 3 CaCl2 + 2 Na3PO4 → 6 NaCl + Ca3(PO4)2.

2 mol ↔ 1 mol

3 mol ↔ 6 mol

3 CaCl2 + 2 Na3PO4 → 6 NaCl + (1) Ca3(PO4)2

2 mol ↔ 6 mol

3 mol ↔ 1 mol

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Stoichiometry Page: 447
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
In elementary school, you may have been taught pre-algebra problems using
“input/output machines”. For example, a “times 2 machine” would multiply
anything that goes through it by 2:
3.4 mol → ×2 → 6.8 mol

Getting from one coefficient to another is just like using one of those multiplication
or division “machines”:

×2

3 CaCl2 + 2 Na3PO4 → 6 NaCl + 1 Ca3(PO4)2

×3

÷3

For example, suppose we had 1.75 mol of CaCl2 and we wanted to know how much
Ca3(PO4)2 would be made.

3 CaCl2 + 2 Na3PO4 → 6 NaCl + 1 Ca3(PO4)2

÷3
1.75 mol 0.583 mol

1.75 mol CaCl2 ÷ 3 = 0.583 mol Ca3(PO4)2

Sometimes it’s easier to think of the stoichiometry “machine” as a sequence of

division and multiplication “machines”.

In the following example, we can get from moles of O2 to moles of CO2 either in one
step (the top pathway) by multiplying by 4/7, or in two steps (the bottom pathway)
by dividing by 7 (to get rid of the old coëfficient) and then multiplying by 4 (to get
the new one).
× 4/7

2 C2H6 + 7 O2  4 CO2 + 6 H2O

÷7 ×4
For example, if we started with 15.4 mol O2, the “machines” tell us that:

15.4 mol O2 → × 4/7 → 8.8 mol CO2 or 15.4 mol O2 → ÷7 → ×4 → 8.8 mol CO2

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Stoichiometry Page: 448
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
Homework Problems
1. Determine how much of each product would be made when 4.0 mol of
Pb(NO3)2 decomposes in the reaction: 2 Pb(NO3)2 → 2 PbO + 4 NO2 + O2

Answer: 4.0 mol PbO; 8.0 mol NO2; 2.0 mol O2

2. Determine how much of each product would be made when 1.33 mol of
Ca3P2 reacts with excess water in the reaction:
Ca3P2 + 6 H2O → 3 Ca(OH)2 + 2 PH3

Answer: 3.99 mol Ca(OH)2; 2.66 mol PH3

3. Determine how much AlCl3 would you need to completely react with
1.5 mol Ca in the reaction: 3 Ca + 2 AlCl3 → 3 CaCl2 + 2 Al

Answer: 1.0 mol AlCl3

4. Determine how much of each product would be made when 1.50 mol
H3PO3 decomposes in the reaction: 4 H3PO3 → 3 H3PO4 + PH3

Answer: 1.13 mol H3PO4; 0.375 mol PH3

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Stoichiometry Page: 449
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
5. Determine how many moles of KCl would be produced from 0.175 mol of
K and excess Cl2 in the reaction: 2 K + Cl2 → 2 KCl

Answer: 0.175 mol KCl

6. Determine how many moles of Na2O would be required to produce

0.275 mol of NaOH in the reaction: Na2O + H2O → 2 NaOH

Answer: 0.138 mol Na2O

7. Determine how many moles of O2 will be produced by 8.75 mol of

NaClO3 in the reaction: 2 NaClO3 → 2 NaCl + 3 O2

Answer: 26.3 mol O2

8. Determine how many moles of NaCl are produced in the following

reaction when 45.4 L of O2 are produced at S.T.P. in the reaction:
2 NaClO3 → 2 NaCl + 3 O2
(Hint: you will need to convert 45.4 L of gas at S.T.P. into moles first.)

Answer: 1.33 mol NaCl

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Stoichiometry: Mass-Mass Problems Page: 450
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry: Mass-Mass Problems

Unit: Stoichiometry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-7
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 5.5
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Solve stoichiometry problems that require mole conversions.
Success Criteria:
 Conversions between moles and other quantities are set up and executed
correctly.
 For each compound in the chemical equation, the ratio of the coëfficients is
the same as the ratio of the moles.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: mole, coëfficient
Language Objectives:
 Explain the order of operations: convert to moles, do stoichiometry, convert
from moles to desired units.

Notes:
stoichiometry: measurement of how much of each reactant is used and how much
of each product is produced in a chemical reaction.

Remember that stoichiometry has to be done in moles.

 If you are given amounts in any other unit, you need to convert to moles
before doing stoichiometry.
 If your answer needs to be in another unit, you need to convert after doing
stoichiometry.

mass-mass problem: a stoichiometry problem that requires mole conversions from

mass of a reactant to moles, and then moles of a product back to mass.

Note that there are many other similar problems that would work the same way—
e.g., from volume of a gas (using the ideal gas law) to moles, from volume of a liquid
mol
that has a certain concentration (in ) to moles, etc.
L

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Stoichiometry: Mass-Mass Problems Page: 451
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
Sample Problem:
How many grams of copper metal would be produced from 13.5 g of aluminum and
excess copper chloride solution in the chemical reaction:
2 Al (s) + 3 CuCl2 (aq) → 2 AlCl3 (aq) + 3 Cu (s)

Strategy:
1. Convert grams of Al to moles.
2. Use stoichiometry to convert moles of Al to moles of Cu.
3. Convert moles of Cu to grams.

Setup:
13.5 g Al 1mol Al 3mol Cu 63.5 g Cu
  
1 27.0 g Al 2mol Al 1mol Cu

Answer:
(13.5)(3)(63.5) 2572
  47.6 g Cu
(27.0)(2) 54.0

theoretical yield: the amount of a product you could make based on stoichiometry
calculations, assuming that at least one of the reactants is completely used up.

excess: having more of a reactant than is needed. This means simply that there is
“enough that you don’t have to worry about using it all up.” We will see
problems in which this is not the case in the next section (“Limiting Reactant,”
starting on page 454.)

By this point in this course, you have undoubtedly figured out that most of the
challenging problems you will encounter are created by stringing together a
sequence of easy problems until it becomes hard to keep track of what you’re
doing. Stoichiometry is easy (once you get the hang of it). Mole conversions are
easy (assuming you’ve got the hang of them). Combining the two looks hard, but
it’s just a sequence of easy problems.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Stoichiometry: Mass-Mass Problems Page: 452
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
Homework Problems
1. In the chemical reaction:
2 K + Cl2 → 2 KCl
g
a. How many moles of KCl (F.W. 74.55 mol ) would be produced from
2.50 g of K and excess Cl2?

Answer: 0.0639 mol KCl

b. How many grams of KCl would be produced?

Answer: 4.76 g KCl

2. In the chemical reaction:

Na2O + H2O → 2 NaOH
g
a. If 124 g of Na2O (F.W. 61.98 mol ) is reacted with excess H2O, how
g
many grams of NaOH (F.W. 40.00 mol ) will be made?

Answer: 160. g NaOH

b. If, instead, you wanted to make 100. g of NaOH, how many grams of
Na2O would you need?

Answer: 77.5 g NaOH

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Stoichiometry: Mass-Mass Problems Page: 453
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
3. In the decomposition reaction:
2 NaClO3 → 2 NaCl + 3 O2
g
If you reacted 26.6 g of NaClO3 (F.W. 106.44 mol ), what volume of O2 would
you make at a pressure of 1.03 atm and a temperature of 30 °C?
(Hint: Use PV = nRT.)

Answer: 9.06 L O2 (g)

4. Given the precipitation reaction:
3 CaCl2 (aq) + 2 Na3PO4 (s) → Ca3(PO4)2 (ppt) + 6 NaCl (aq)

If you added an excess of powdered Na3PO4 to 100. mL of an 0.200 mol

L
solution of CaCl2, how many grams of precipitate would form?
(Assume that all of the Ca3(PO4)2 precipitates, and that all of the Na3PO4
dissolves.)

Answer: 2.07 g Ca3(PO4)2 (ppt)

5. How many grams of precipitate would form if 94.6 g of FeCl3 · 6 H2O crystals
were added to an aqueous solution containing an excess of Na2SiO3?
(Hint: you will need to predict the products and balance the equation in
order to do the stoichiometry.)

Answer: 50.5 g Fe2(SiO3)3 (ppt)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Limiting Reactant Page: 454
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry

Limiting Reactant
Unit: Stoichiometry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-7
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 5.5
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Identify the limiting reactant in a stoichiometry problem.
 Perform stoichiometry calculations in a problem that involves a limiting
reactant.
 Determine the amount(s) of the non-limiting reactant(s) left over.
Success Criteria:
 Limiting reactant correctly identified
 Stoichiometry calculations performed correctly (correct amount of desired
compound in the desired units).
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: limiting
Language Objectives:
 Explain why a chemical reaction runs out of something.

Notes:
Q: What happens when a chemical reaction runs out of something?

A: The reaction stops.

A reaction in which you run out of something is called a limiting reactant problem.

The reactant that you run out of is called the limiting reactant (or limiting reagent)
because running out of it is what limits how much product you can make.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Limiting Reactant Page: 455
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
Consider the following reaction:

Suppose you have 51 cans and four six-pack rings. There are two possibilities:

1. We use up all of the cans. (Situation A)

2. We use up all of the six-pack rings. (Situation B)

Situation Cans Six-Pack Rings Six-Packs

need could
A Have 51
at least 8.5 make 8.5 X
B
need
at least 24
Have 4
could
make 4 
As you can see, we have only enough of both reactants to make 4 six-packs. Once
we have made 4 six-packs, we have used up all of the six-pack rings, and we cannot
make any more.
This means six-pack rings are the limiting reactant, and we use all of them.
We used up 24 cans (the non-limiting reactant), and we had 27 cans left over.

On the other hand, suppose we have only 15 cans and 4 six-pack rings. Again, there
are two possibilities:
1. We use up all of the cans. (Situation C)
2. We use up all of the six-pack rings. (Situation D)

Situation Cans Six-Pack Rings Six-Packs

C have 15
need
at least 2.5
could
make 2.5 
need could
D
at least 24
have 4
make 6 X
This time, we can make 2.5 six-packs and then we run out of cans, so now the
limiting reactant is cans. If we make 2.5 six-packs, we would use 2.5 six-pack rings,
which means we would have 1.5 six-pack rings left over.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Limiting Reactant Page: 456
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
The secret to solving limiting reactant problems is to do a stoichiometry problem on
each reactant (using the factor-label method) to see how much of one of the
products you make if you used it all up. The limiting reactant is the one that can
make the least amount of product (gets used up first).

Steps for Solving Limiting Reactant Problems

1. Does the problem give you amounts for more than one reactant? (If not,
it’s not a limiting reactant problem.)
2. Convert the amount of each reactant to moles.
3. For each of the reactants, use stoichiometry to figure out how much of one
of the products you could make if you used the reactant up.
4. The reactant that can make the least amount of product is the one that gets
used up first—it is the limiting reactant.
5. Perform all of your stoichiometry calculations using the number of moles of
the limiting reactant that you identified in step Error! Reference source not
found..
6. If the problem asks how much of one of the non-limiting reactants is left
over, use the moles of the limiting reactant to find out how many moles of
the other reactant got used up. Subtract this number from the moles you
started with to find out how much is left over.
7. If the problem is asking for a quantity other than moles (such as grams),
convert from moles to the desired unit.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Limiting Reactant Page: 457
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry

Sample Problem:
Q: Given the following reaction:
16 Cu + S8 → 8 Cu2S
If we had 27.5 moles of copper and 1.4 moles of S8, how much Cu2S would we
make?

A: Determine how many moles of Cu2S we could make from each reactant:

27.5mol Cu 8 mol Cu2S

1

16 mol Cu
 13.75mol Cu2S  more

1.4 mol S8
1

8 mol Cu2S
1mol S8
 11.2mol Cu2S  less

We can make 11.2 mol of Cu2S and then we run out of S8. This means S8 is the
limiting reactant.

Q: How much of the non-limiting reactant would be left over?

A: S8 was limiting, and we had 1.4 moles of it. We need to find out how much Cu
got used up.

1.4 mol S8 16 mol Cu

  22.4 mol Cu2S
1 1mol S8

Now we subtract to find how much was left:

27.5 mol − 22.4 mol = 5.1 mol Cu left over

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Limiting Reactant Page: 458
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
Homework Problems
Set #1: Scaffolded
1. Consider the reaction: 2 Si2H2 + 5 O2 → 4 SiO2 + 2 H2O
a. If you had 8 mol Si2H2, how many moles of O2 would you need for the
above reaction?

Answer: 20 moles O2

b. If you had 15 mol O2, how many moles of Si2H2 would you need for
the above reaction?

Answer: 6 mol Si2H2

c. If you had 8 mol Si2H2 and 15 mol O2, which reactant would be
limiting?

Answer: O2

d. How many moles of the non-limiting reactant would be left over?

Answer: 2 mol Si2H2 left over

e. What is the theoretical yield of SiO2, in moles? (I.e., how many moles
of SiO2 would you make?)

Answer: 12 mol SiO2

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Limiting Reactant Page: 459
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
2. Consider the reaction: 3 Ca (s) + 2 AlCl3 (aq) → 3 CaCl2 (aq) + 2 Al (s)
a. If you had 6 mol Ca, how many moles of AlCl3 would you need for the
above reaction?

Answer: 4 mol AlCl3

b. If you had 8 mol AlCl3, how many moles of Ca would you need for the
above reaction?

Answer: 12 mol Ca

c. If you had 6 mol Ca and 8 mol AlCl3, which reactant would be

limiting?

Answer: Ca

d. How many moles of the non-limiting reactant would be left over?

Answer: 4 mol AlCl3 left over

e. What is the theoretical yield of CaCl2, in moles? (I.e., how many moles
of CaCl2 would you make?)

Answer: 6 mol CaCl2

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Limiting Reactant Page: 460
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
Homework Problems
Set #2: Unscaffolded
1. How many moles of H2O would be produced if 3.5 mol H2 react with
1.5 mol O2 in the reaction:
2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
(Note: because amounts were given for both reactants, this is a limiting
reactant problem.)

Answer: 3.0 mol H2O

2. If 12.0 mol S8 reacted with 100. mol O2 in the unbalanced equation:
S8 + O2 → SO3
Which reactant is limiting, and how much of the other reactant would be
left over?

Answer: O2is limiting; there will be3.7 mol S8 left over.

3. 325 g of H2O is poured onto a 450. g block of sodium metal. The equation
for this reaction is:
2 Na + 2 H2O → 2 NaOH + H2
a. What is the limiting reactant?

Answer: H2O
b. If the reaction temperature is 227 °C (500. K) at a pressure of 1 atm,
how many liters of H2 gas are produced?
(Hint: find the moles of H2 produced and use the ideal gas law to
calculate the volume.)

Answer: 369 L H2

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Limiting Reactant Page: 461
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
4. 5.00 g Zn are reacted with 100. mL of 1.00 M HCl in the reaction:
Zn (s) + 2 HCl (aq)→ ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
a. Determine which reactant is limiting.

Answer: HCl
b. Determine the number of grams of ZnCl2 that will be produced.

Answer: 6.82 g ZnCl2

c. If the reaction conditions are 177 °C (remember to convert to
Kelvin!) and 1 atm pressure, determine the number of liters of H2
gas that will be produced.

Answer: 1.85 L H2
d. Determine the mass in grams of the non-limiting reactant that will
be left over.

Answer: 1.73 g Zn

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Percent Yield Page: 462
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry

Percent Yield
Unit: Stoichiometry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-7
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 5.6
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Calculate the percent yield of a reaction.
Success Criteria:
 Theoretical yield calculated correctly using stoichiometry calculations.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: yield
Language Objectives:
 Explain how to turn fractions into percentages.

Notes:
theoretical yield: the amount of a product predicted, based only on stoichiometry
calculations.

actual yield: the actual amount of product recovered in the laboratory.

percent yield: the amount of product recovered, expressed as a percentage of the

theoretical yield.

When you do a stoichiometry calculation, the answer to the question “how much
product should be produced” is the theoretical yield.

Actual yield depends on several factors. Many reactions do not go to completion,

but instead reach an equilibrium condition where the amount of reactants and
products is constant. Sometimes it is not possible to recover all of the product
because of challenges associated with separating it from the other reactants and
products. Etc.

Because of these factors, the actual yield is determined by performing the reaction
in a laboratory and measuring the amount of product you got.

Once you have the actual and theoretical yield numbers, the percent yield is:

actual yield
 100  percent yield
theoretical yield

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Percent Yield Page: 463
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
Sample Problem:
Q: Suppose you perform the reaction:
3 Al (s) + 3 CuCl2 (aq) → 2 AlCl3 (aq) + 3 Cu (s)

If you start with 9.0 g of Al and you recover 28 g of Cu, what was your percent
yield?

A: First, calculate the theoretical (predicted) yield of Cu using stoichiometry:

9.0 g Al 1mol Al 3mol Cu 63.6 g Cu

    31.8 g Cu
1 27.0 g Al 2mol Al 1mol Cu

actual yield
Then calculate:  100  percent yield :
theoretical yield

28 g Curecovered
 0.88  100  88 %
31.8 g Cupredicted

Note that the percent yield cannot exceed 100 %. Conservation of mass tells us that
if we had enough aluminum and copper chloride in the above reaction to make
31.8 g of copper metal, there’s no way we could actually make more than that. If
you calculate a percent yield greater than 100 %, you should:

 Double-check your calculations to make sure you didn’t make a mistake.

 Look for other compounds that might have gotten into the product that you
measured. For example:
o If you collect a precipitate on a piece of filter paper, it will be with with
everything else that was in the beaker. Even if you evaporate the water,
it will leave behind other compounds that had been dissolved. Also, if
you let the product dry in the air on a humid day, the compound could be
hygroscopic and/or form a hydrate.
o If you collect a gas, the most common way is to use a eudiometer (gas
collection tube) that starts filled with water, and to have the gas displace
the water. However, there will also be water vapor in the tube, so you
need to account for the water based on the vapor pressure of water at
the temperature the gas was collected.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Percent Yield Page: 464
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
Homework Problems
In order to isolate percent yield problems, these questions refer to the mass-mass
stoichiometry homework problems starting on page 452.

1. In problem #1, part b on page 452, suppose that 3.85 g KCl was recovered in
the lab. What was the percent yield?

Answer:

2. In problem #2, part a on page 452, suppose that 125 g of NaOH was
recovered. What was the percent yield?

Answer:

3. In problem #3 on page 453 suppose that 10 L of O2 was recovered.

a. What was the percent yield?

Answer:

b. What might have happened in the lab that could account for the
fact that you got a percent yield higher than 100 %?

4. In problem #4 on page 453 suppose you started with 3.00 g of precipitate,

which was still wet from the solution in the reaction. You let it dry in the lab
until the mass stopped changing, and you recorded it to be 2.50 g. Is this a
good answer? If not, what else could you do?

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Marathon Problems Page: 465
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry

Marathon Problems
Unit: Stoichiometry
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2, HS-PS1-7, HS-PS2-8(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 4.1, 4.6, 5.1, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 6.2, 7.2
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Solve challenging problems that combine several aspects of chemistry.
Success Criteria:
 Problems correctly utilize strategies from various topics throughout the year.
 Solutions use the equation appropriate for the information given.
 Solutions have the correct quantities substituted for the correct variables.
 Algebra and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is correct.
Language Objectives:
 Explain what each part of each problem is asking and which topic it relates to.

Notes:
These are intentionally challenging problems that relate topics we studied
throughout the year, including gas laws, solutions & concentration, solubility,
naming compounds and writing formulas, predicting products, activity series,
balancing equations, stoichiometry, limiting reactant, and percent yield.

A couple of the answers are provided so you can check your work at key points in
the process, but you’re on your own for the rest!

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Marathon Problems Page: 466
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
Homework Problems
1. 0.75 L of 2.5 M sodium phosphate is mixed with 1.25 L of 2.0 M calcium
chloride.
a. Predict the products, write and balance the chemical equation.

b. Use your solubility rules to determine whether a chemical reaction

happens based on whether a precipitate forms.
(If no reaction happens, you may skip the rest of this question. Hint:
a reaction does happen. )

c. Calculate the number of moles of each reactant and determine

which one is limiting.

d. How many grams of the precipitate are produced?

Answer: 260 g
e. If 150. g of precipitate was recovered on the filter paper, what is the
percent yield?

f. If one of the products remains in solution (Hint: it does.), what is its

concentration in mol
L
?
(Hint: you will need to add the volumes of the two solutions that you
started with to find the total volume.)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Marathon Problems Page: 467
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry
2. In a laboratory experiment 115 g of sulfur (S8) was reacted with 89.6 L of
oxygen gas (O2) at S.T.P., in a synthesis reaction, producing only compound
X. This compound contains 50 % sulfur by mass, and its empirical formula is
the same as its molecular formula.
a. Use percent composition data to determine the chemical formula of
compound X.

b. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.

c. Which of the reactants was limiting?

d. What is the theoretical yield of compound X, in grams?

Answer: 229 g

e. If 189 g of compound X was actually recovered, what was the

percent yield of X?

Answer: 82.4 %

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Stoichiometry Page: 468
Big Ideas Details Unit: Stoichiometry

Summary: Stoichiometry
Unit: Stoichiometry
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Thermochemistry (Heat) Page: 469
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)

Introduction: Thermochemistry (Heat)

Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Topics covered in this chapter:
Heat & Temperature.................................................................................... 471
Specific Heat Capacity & Calorimetry .......................................................... 474
Phase Changes & Heating Curves ................................................................ 481
Thermodynamics ......................................................................................... 489
Enthalpy of Formation ................................................................................. 496
Heat of Reaction .......................................................................................... 500
Bond Energies .............................................................................................. 505

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Thermochemistry (Heat) Page: 470
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Standards addressed in this chapter:
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS1-3 Cite evidence to relate physical properties of substances at the bulk
scale to spatial arrangements, movement, and strength of electrostatic
forces among ions, small molecules, or regions of large molecules in the
substances. Make arguments to account for how compositional and
structural differences in molecules result in different types of intermolecular
or intramolecular interactions.
HS-PS1-4 Develop a model to illustrate the energy transferred during an
exothermic or endothermic chemical reaction based on the bond energy
difference between bonds broken (absorption of energy) and bonds formed
(release of energy).
HS-PS3-4b Provide evidence from informational text or available data to
illustrate that the transfer of energy during a chemical reaction in a closed
system involves changes in energy dispersal (enthalpy entropy* change) and
heat content (entropy enthalpy change) while assuming the overall energy
in the system is conserved.
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):
6.4 Describe the law of conservation of energy. Explain the difference between
an endothermic process and an exothermic process.
6.5 Recognize that there is a natural tendency for systems to move in a direction
of disorder or randomness (entropy).

*
The MA 2016 Curriculum Frameworks reversed the parenthetical references to entropy and
enthalpy. I have corrected them in these notes.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Heat & Temperature Page: 471
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)

Heat & Temperature

Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-4
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 6.4
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Explain the difference between heat and temperature.
 Describe what is happening at the molecular level when a system is in thermal
equilibrium.
Success Criteria:
 Explanation accounts for total energy as well as direction of energy flow
(“driving force”).
 Description accounts for and relates macroscopic observations to microscopic
phenomena.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: heat, temperature
Language Objectives:
 Explain the difference between heat and temperature.

Notes:
heat: energy that can be transferred when moving atoms or molecules collide with
each other.

temperature: a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles (atoms or

molecules) of a system.

thermometer: a device that measures temperature, most often via thermal

expansion/contraction of a liquid or solid.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Heat & Temperature Page: 472
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Note that heat is the energy itself, whereas temperature is a measure of the “quality
of the heat”—the average of the kinetic energies of the individual molecules:

When objects are placed in contact, heat is transferred when the molecules collide.
Molecules that have a lot of energy tend to transfer more energy than they receive.
Molecules that have little energy tend to receive more energy than they transfer.
This means two things:
1. On a macroscopic scale, heat always transfers from objects with a higher
temperature (more kinetic energy) to objects with a lower temperature
(less kinetic energy).
2. If you wait long enough, all of the molecules will have the same
temperature (i.e., the same average kinetic energy).

In other words, the temperature of one object relative to another determines which
direction the heat will flow.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Heat & Temperature Page: 473
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
As an analogy, heat transfer is a lot like flowing water.
 Water flows from a higher elevation to a lower one, just like heat flows from
a higher temperature to a lower one.
 The total energy of the water going over the waterfall depends on both the
height of the waterfall (the average gravitational potential energy of the
water molecules) and the total mass of water going over it. Similarly, the
total heat (energy) contained in an object depends on both the mass of the
object and its temperature.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Specific Heat Capacity & Calorimetry Page: 474
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)

Specific Heat Capacity & Calorimetry

Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-6, HS-PS3-1
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Calculate the heat transferred when an object with a known specific heat
capacity is heated.
 Perform calculations related to calorimetry.
 Describe what is happening at the molecular level when a system is in thermal
equilibrium.
Success Criteria:
 Variables are correctly identified and substituted correctly into the correct
equations.
 Algebra is correct and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is
reasonable.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: heat, specific heat capacity, coffee cup calorimeter
Language Objectives:
 Explain what the specific heat capacity of a substance measures.
 Explain how heat is transferred between one substance and another.

Labs, Activities & Demonstrations:

 Calorimetry lab.

Notes:
Different objects have different abilities to hold heat. For example, if you enjoy
pizza, you may have noticed that the sauce holds much more heat (and burns your
mouth much more readily) than the cheese or the crust.

The amount of heat that a given mass of a substance can hold is based on its specific
heat capacity.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Specific Heat Capacity & Calorimetry Page: 475
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
specific heat capacity (C): a measure of the amount of heat required per gram of a
substance to produce a specific temperature change in the substance.

Cp: specific heat capacity, measured at constant pressure. For gases, this means
the measurement was taken allowing the gas to expand as it was heated.

Cv: specific heat capacity, measured at constant volume. For gases, this means
the measurement was made in a sealed container, allowing the pressure to
rise as the gas was heated.

For solids and liquids, Cp ≈ Cv because the pressure and volume change very little
as they are heated. For gases, Cp > Cv (always). For ideal gases, Cp − Cv = R,
where R is a constant known as “the gas constant.”

When there is a choice, Cp is more commonly used than Cv because it is easier

to measure. When dealing with solids and liquids, most physicists just use C for
specific heat capacity and don’t worry about the distinction.

Calculating Heat from a Temperature Change

The amount of heat gained or lost when an object changes temperature is given by
the equation:
Q  mC T

where:
Q = heat (J or kJ)
m = mass (g or kg)
C = specific heat capacity ( gJ C )
ΔT = temperature change (K or °C)

Note that 1 gJ°C  1 kgkJ°C  1 gJ°C .

You need to be careful with the units. If the mass is given in kilograms (kg), your
specific heat capacity will have units of kgkJC and the heat energy will come out in
J
kilojoules (kJ). If mass is given in grams, you will use units of g C
and the heat
energy will come out in joules (J).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Specific Heat Capacity & Calorimetry Page: 476
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Specific Heat Capacities of Some Substances
Specific Heat Specific Heat
Substance Capacity Substance Capacity
( gJ C ) ( gJ C )

water at 20 °C 4.181 aluminum 0.897

ethylene glycol glass 0.84
2.460
(anti-freeze) iron 0.450
ice at −10 °C 2.080 copper 0.385
steam at 100 °C 2.11 brass 0.380
steam at 130 °C 1.99 silver 0.233
vegetable oil 2.00 lead 0.160
air 1.012 gold 0.129

Calorimetry
calorimetry: the measurement of heat flow

In a calorimetry experiment, heat flow is calculated by measuring the mass and

temperature change of an object and applying the specific heat capacity
equation.

calorimeter: an insulated container for performing calorimetry experiments.

coffee cup calorimeter: a calorimeter that is only an insulated container—it does

not include a thermal mass (such as a mass of water). It is usually made of
styrofoam, and is often nothing more than a styrofoam coffee cup.

bomb calorimeter: a calorimeter for measuring the heat produced by a chemical

reaction. A bomb calorimeter is a double-wall metal container with water
between the layers of metal. The heat from the chemical reaction makes the
temperature of the water increase. Because the mass and specific heat of the
calorimeter (water and metal) are known, the heat produced by the reaction
can be calculated from the increase in temperature of the water.

It has a great name, but a bomb calorimeter doesn’t involve actually blowing
anything up. 

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Specific Heat Capacity & Calorimetry Page: 477
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Solving Coffee Cup Calorimetry Problems
Most coffee cup calorimetry problems involve placing a hot object in contact with a
colder one. Many of them involve placing a hot piece of metal into cold water.

To solve the problems, assume that both objects end up at the same temperature.

If we decide that heat gained (going into a substance) by each object that is getting
hotter is positive, and heat lost (coming out of a substance) by every substance that
is getting colder is negative, then the basic equation is:

Heat Lost  Heat Gained  Change in Thermal Energy

Qlost  Qgained  Q
If the calorimeter is insulated, then no heat is gained or lost by the entire system
(which means Q  0 ).

If we have two substances (#1 and #2), one of which is getting hotter and the other
of which is getting colder, then our equation becomes:

Heat Lost  Heat Gained  Change in Thermal Energy

 Qlost   Qgained  Q  0
m1C1 T1  m2C2 T2  0

In this example, T1 would be negative and T2 would be positive.

To solve a calorimetry problem, there are six quantities that you need: the two
masses, the two specific heat capacities, and the two temperature changes. (You
might be given initial and final temperatures for either or both, in which case you’ll
need to subtract. Remember that if the temperature increases, ΔT is positive, and if
the temperature decreases, ΔT is negative.) The problem will usually give you all
but one of these and you will need to find the missing one.

If you need to find the final temperature, use T  Tf  Ti on each side. You will
have both Ti numbers, so the only variable left will be Tf. (The algebra is
straightforward, but ugly.)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Specific Heat Capacity & Calorimetry Page: 478
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Sample Problems:
Q: An 0.050 kg block of aluminum is heated and placed in a calorimeter containing
0.100 kg of water at 20. °C. If the final temperature of the water was 30. °C, to
what temperature was the aluminum heated?

A: To solve the problem, we need to look up the specific heat capacities for
aluminum and water in the table on page 476. The specific heat capacity of
aluminum is 0.898 gJ°C , and the specific heat capacity for water is 4.181 gJ°C .

We also need to realize that we are looking for the initial temperature of the
aluminum. ΔT is always final – initial, which means TAl  30  Ti ,Al . (Because
the aluminum starts out at a higher temperature, this will give us a negative
number, which is what we want.)
mAlC Al TAl  mwC w Tw 0
(0.050)(0.897)(30  Ti )  (0.100)(4.181)(30  20)  0
0.0449(30  Ti )  4.181 0
1.3455  0.0449 Ti  4.181  0
5.5265  0.0449 Ti
5.5265
Ti   123.2 °C
0.0449

Q: An 0.025 kg block of copper at 95°C is dropped into a calorimeter containing

0.075 kg of water at 25°C. What is the final temperature?

A: We solve this problem the same way. The specific heat capacity for copper is
0.385 gJ°C , and TCu  Tf  95 and Tw  Tf  25 . This means Tf will appear in
two places. The algebra will be even uglier, but it’s still a straightforward
Algebra 1 problem:
mCuCCu TCu  mwC w Tw 0
(0.025)(0.385)(Tf  95i )  (0.075)(4.181)(Tf  25)  0
0.009625(Tf  95)  0.3138(Tf  25) 0
0.009625 Tf  (0.009625)(95)  0.3136 Tf  (0.3138)(25)  0
0.009625 Tf  0.9144  0.3138 Tf  7.845  0
0.3234 Tf  8.759
8.759
Tf   27 °C
0.3234

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Specific Heat Capacity & Calorimetry Page: 479
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Homework Problems
You will need to look up specific heat capacities in Table Z. Selected Properties of
the Elements, starting on page 556.

1. 375 kJ of heat is added to a 25.0 kg granite rock. If the temperature

increases by 19.0 °C, what is the specific heat capacity of granite?

Answer: 0.790 gJ°C

2. A 0.040 kg block of copper at 95 °C is placed in 0.105 kg of water at an

unknown temperature. After equilibrium is reached, the final temperature
is 24 °C. What was the initial temperature of the water?

Answer: 21.5 °C
3. A sample of metal with a specific heat capacity of 0.50 gJ°C is heated to 98 °C
and then placed in an 0.055 kg sample of water at 22 °C. When equilibrium
is reached, the final temperature is 35 °C. What was the mass of the metal?

Answer: 0.0948 kg

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Specific Heat Capacity & Calorimetry Page: 480
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
4. A 0.280 kg sample of a metal with a specific heat capacity of 0.430 gJ°C is
heated to 97.5 °C then placed in an 0.0452 kg sample of water at 31.2 °C.
What is the final temperature of the metal and the water?

Answer: 57 °C

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phase Changes & Heating Curves Page: 481
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)

Phase Changes & Heating Curves

Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-2, HS-PS1-3, HS-PS3-4b
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 6.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Determine the amount of heat required for all of the phase changes that
occur over a given temperature range.
Success Criteria:
 Variables are correctly identified and substituted correctly into the correct
equations.
 Algebra is correct and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is
reasonable.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: specific heat capacity, heating curve
Language Objectives:
 Explain what the heat is used for in each step of a heating curve.

Labs, Activities & Demonstrations:

 Evaporation from washcloth.
 Fire & ice (latent heat of paraffin).

Notes:
phase: a term that relates to how rigidly the atoms or molecules in a substance are
connected.

solid: molecules are rigidly connected. A solid has a definite shape and volume.

liquid: molecules are loosely connected—bonds are continuously forming and

breaking. A liquid has a definite volume, but not a definite shape.

gas: molecules are not connected. A gas has neither a definite shape nor a definite
volume. Gases will expand to fill whatever space they occupy.

plasma: the system has enough heat to remove electrons from atoms, which means
the system is comprised of particles with rapidly changing charges.

phase change: when an object or substance changes from one phase to another
through gaining or losing heat.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phase Changes & Heating Curves Page: 482
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Breaking bonds requires energy. Forming bonds releases energy. This is true for the
bonds that hold a solid or liquid together as well as for chemical bonds (regardless
of what previous teachers may have told you!)

I.e., you need to add energy to turn a solid to a liquid (melt it), or to turn a liquid to
a gas (boil it). Energy is released when a gas condenses or a liquid freezes. (E.g., ice
in your ice tray needs to give off heat in order to freeze. Your freezer needs to
remove that heat in order to make this happen.)

The reason evaporation causes cooling is because the system (the water) needs to
absorb heat from its surroundings (e.g., your body) in order to make the change
from a liquid to a gas (vapor). When the water absorbs heat from you and
evaporates, you have less heat, which means you have cooled off.

Calculating the Heat of Phase Changes

heat of fusion (ΔHfus) (sometimes called “latent heat” or “latent heat of fusion”): the
amount of heat required to melt one kilogram of a substance. This is also the
heat released when one kilogram of a liquid substance freezes. For example,
the heat of fusion of water is 334 gJ . The heat required to melt a sample of
water is therefore:
Q  mH fus  m (334 gJ )

heat of vaporization (ΔHvap): the amount of heat required to vaporize (boil) one
kilogram of a substance. This is also the heat released when one kilogram of a
gas condenses. For example, the heat of vaporization of water is 2260 gJ . The
heat required to boil a sample of water is therefore:

Q  mHvap  m (2260 gJ )

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phase Changes & Heating Curves Page: 483
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
heating curve: a graph of temperature vs. heat added. The following is a heating
curve for water:

In the “solid” portion of the curve, the sample is solid water (ice). As heat is added,
the temperature increases. The specific heat capacity of ice is 2.11 gJ°C , so the heat
required is:
Qsolid  mC T  m (2.11 g°C
J
)T

In the “melting” portion of the curve, the sample is a mixture of ice and water. As
heat is added, the ice melts, but the temperature remains at 0°C until all of the ice is
melted. The heat of fusion of ice is 334 gJ , so the heat required is:

Qmelt  mH fus  m (334 gJ )

In the “liquid” portion of the curve, the sample is liquid water. As heat is added, the
temperature increases. The specific heat capacity of liquid water is 4.181 gJ°C , so
the heat required is:

Qliquid  mC T  m (4.181 g°C

J
)T

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phase Changes & Heating Curves Page: 484
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
In the “boiling” portion of the curve, the sample is a mixture of water and water
vapor (steam). As heat is added, the water boils, but the temperature remains at
100°C until all of the water has boiled. The heat of vaporization of water is 2260 gJ ,
so the heat required is:
Qmelt  mHvap  m (2260 gJ )

In the “gas” portion of the curve, the sample is water vapor (steam). As heat is
added, the temperature increases. The specific heat capacity of steam is
approximately 2.08 gJ°C . (This is at 100 °C; the specific heat capacity of steam
decreases as the temperature increases.) The heat required is:
Qgas  mC T  m (2.08 g°C
J
)T

Steps for Solving Heating Curve Problems

A heating curve problem is a problem in which a substance is heated across a
temperature range that passes through the melting and/or boiling point of the
substance, which means the problem includes heating or cooling steps and
melting/freezing or boiling/condensing steps.

1. Sketch the heating curve for the substance over the temperature range in
question. Be sure to include the melting and boiling steps as well as the
heating steps.

2. From your sketch, determine whether the temperature range in the

problem passes through the melting and/or boiling point of the substance.

3. Split the problem into:

a. Heating (or cooling) steps within each temperature range.
b. Melting or boiling (or freezing or condensing) steps.

4. Find the heat required for each step.

a. For the heating/cooling steps, use the equation Q  mC T .
b. For melting/freezing steps, use the equation Q  mH fus .
c. For boiling/condensing steps, use the equation Q  mHvap .

5. Add the values of Q from each step to find the total.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phase Changes & Heating Curves Page: 485
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Sample Problem
Q: How much heat would it take to raise the temperature of 15.0 g of H2O from
−25.0 °C to +130.0 °C?

A: The H2O starts out as ice. We need to:

1. Heat the ice from −25.0 °C to its melting point (0 °C).
2. Melt the ice.
3. Heat the water up to its boiling point (from 0 °C to 100 °C).
4. Boil the water.
5. Heat the steam from 100 °C to 130 °C.
6. Add up the heat for each step to find the total.

heat solid: Q1  mCT  (15)(2.11)(25)  791.25 J

melt the ice: Q2  mH fus  (15)(334)  5 010 J

heat liquid: Q3  mCT  (15)(4.181)(100)  6 270 J

boil: Q4  mHvap  (15)(2260)  33900 J

heat gas: Q5  mCT  (15)(2.08)(30)  936 J

Q  Q1  Q2  Q3  Q4  Q5
Q  791  5 010  6 270  33 900  936  46 910 J

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phase Changes & Heating Curves Page: 486
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Homework Problems
For the following problems, use data from the following table:

C (sol.) M.P. ΔHfus C (liq) B.P. ΔHvap Cp (gas)

( kgkJC ) (°C)
kJ )
( kg ( kgkJC ) (°C)
kJ )
( kg ( kgkJC )

water 2.11 0 334 4.18 100 2260 2.08*

potassium 0.560 62 61.4 1.070 760 2025 0.671
mercury 0.142 −39 11.3 0.140 357 293 0.104
silver 0.217 962 111 0.318 2212 2360 —
*Note that because of the volume change from heating, the specific heat capacity of
gases, Cp, increases with increasing temperature.

1. A 0.0250 kg sample of water is heated from −40.0°C to 150. °C.

a. Sketch the heating curve for the above process. Label the starting
temperature, melting point, boiling point, and final temperature on
the y-axis.

b. Calculate the heat required for each step of the heating curve, and
the total heat required.

Answer: 80.01 kJ

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phase Changes & Heating Curves Page: 487
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
2. A 0.085 kg sample of mercury is heated from 25°C to 500. °C.
a. Sketch the heating curve for the above process. Label the starting
temperature, melting point, boiling point, and final temperature on
the y-axis.

b. Calculate the heat required for each step of the heating curve, and
the total heat required.

Answer: 30.12 kJ

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Phase Changes & Heating Curves Page: 488
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
3. A 0.045 kg block of silver at a temperature of 22°C is heated with 20.0 kJ of
energy.
a. Calculate the total heat required by calculating the heat for each
step until the entire 20.0 kJ is accounted for.

b. What is the final temperature and what is the physical state (solid,
liquid, gas) of the silver at that temperature?

Answer: liquid, 1 369°C

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Thermodynamics Page: 489
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)

Thermodynamics
Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS3-4b
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Explain the laws of thermodynamics.
 Apply the laws of thermodynamics conceptually to hypothetical situations.
Success Criteria:
 Explanations account for enthalpy and entropy differences.
 Explanations account for the conservation of energy.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: system, free
Language Objectives:
 Explain the laws of thermodynamics.

Notes:
In the universe, energy is what “makes things happen”. In chemistry, we use the
following terms to distinguish between the molecules we are talking about vs. the
ones we aren’t:
system: the collection of molecules under consideration for a given situation.
surroundings: everything that is not part of the system

E.g., for a bunch of chemicals in a beaker, the chemicals would be the system, and
the beaker, the air in the room, and everything else would be the surroundings.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Thermodynamics Page: 490
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Heat Flow
We generally use the variable Q to represent heat.

Heat flow is always represented in relation to the system.

Heat Flow Sign of Q System Surroundings

from surroundings gains heat lose heat
+ (positive)
to system (gets warmer) (get colder)
from system loses heat gain heat
− (negative)
to surroundings (gets colder) (get hotter)

A positive value of Q means heat is flowing into the system. Because the heat is
transferred from the molecules outside the system to the molecules in the system,
the temperature of the system increases, and the temperature of the surroundings
decreases.

A negative value of Q means heat is flowing out of the system. Because the heat is
transferred from the molecules in the system to the molecules outside the system,
the temperature of the system decreases, and the temperature of the surroundings
increases.

endothermic reaction: a chemical reaction in which heat energy in the system is

used to make the reaction proceed. This causes the system to get colder, which
then causes heat to flow into the system from the surroundings. (Positive value
of Q.)
exothermic reaction: a chemical reaction in which heat energy is released as the
reaction proceeds. This causes the system to get hotter, which then causes heat
to flow out of the system into the surroundings. (Negative value of Q.)

This is confusing for most people.

If you add sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda) to a strong acid, the solution
will get colder, and the beaker will feel cold to the touch. The reaction took heat
away from the solution. What makes this an endothermic reaction is that the
system (the solution) is now colder than the surroundings, which means heat flows
from the surroundings into the system to warm it back up.

If you add sodium hydroxide (lye) to a strong acid, the solution will get hotter, and
the beaker will feel hot to the touch. The reaction released heat into the solution.
What makes this an exothermic reaction is that the system (the solution) is now
hotter than the surroundings, which means heat flows from the system into the
surroundings to heat up the surroundings (and therefore cool off the system).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Thermodynamics Page: 491
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
A quick and simple way to think of this is by thinking of a glass of ice water. The ice
water is the system and your hand is part of the surroundings. When you pick up
the glass, your hand gets colder because heat is flowing from your hand (the
surroundings) into the system (the ice water). This means the system is gaining
heat, and the surroundings are losing heat. The value of Q would be positive in this
example.

thermal equilibrium: when all of the particles in a system have the same average
kinetic energy (temperature).

When a system is at thermal equilibrium, no net heat is transferred. (I.e.,

collisions between particles still transfer energy back and forth, but the average
temperature of the particles in the system—the macroscopic quantity that we
can measure with a thermometer—is not changing.)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Thermodynamics Page: 492
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Usable vs. Non-Usable Energy
In any system, some of the energy

enthalpy: the total usable thermal (heat) energy of a system.

entropy: thermal energy that exists in a system, but cannot be transferred to other
molecules or objects.

Energy can only be transferred in a reasonable amount of time if there is enough of

an energy difference between the particles that are supplying the energy and the
particles receiving it. For example, if your body temperature is 37 °C (98.6 °F) and
you jump into water that is 10 °C (50 °F), you will lose heat very quickly. However, if
you climb into a 36.9 °C spa (“hot tub”), you can stay in for an hour and your body
temperature will be unaffected.

Entropy is therefore the energy that has been dispersed (“lost”) into the
surroundings, because there is so little difference between its heat content and the
heat content of the surroundings that the energy cannot be transferred to other
particles.

However, in many cases it is possible to reduce the entropy of a system by adding

energy.

For example, if you open a bottle of ethyl acetate (the solvent in nail polish), the
molecules will gradually diffuse into the room, and the entire room will smell like
nail polish. The entropy of the gases in the room has increased, because the
molecules of ethyl acetate (and the energy they contain) are more spread than they
were before.

You could build a machine to pump all of the air in the room through a −40 °C
condenser. This would condense 99 % of the ethyl acetate to a liquid, which you
could then pour back into the bottle. This would indeed reduce entropy, but you
would have to use much more energy to condense the ethyl acetate than the
amount of energy you would recover in the form of reduced entropy.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Thermodynamics Page: 493
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Thermodynamics
In chemistry, we categorize energy in the following ways:

kinetic energy (K): the energy contained in the particles due to motion of the
particles or sub-particles (atoms, molecules, atomic nuclei, electrons, etc.) The
equation for kinetic energy is K  12 mv 2 , so kinetic energy depends on the
masses and velocities (speeds) of the particles.

temperature (T): the average kinetic energy of the particles in a system. You can
think of it as “heat per molecule”. Increasing the temperature makes the
molecules move faster; decreasing the temperature makes the molecules move
more slowly.

internal energy (U): the total kinetic energy* of the molecules in a system.
Internal energy depends on the average kinetic energy of the molecules
(temperature, T) and the number of molecules (or number of moles of
molecules, n). For the units to work out so the energy comes out in units of
joules, we multiply by the gas constant, giving the equation:

U  3 nRT
2

work (W): the energy that a gas can transfer by its pressure causing a change in
volume. Work can be done on the surroundings (the gas decreases its energy),
or work can be done by the surroundings on the gas (the gas increases its
energy).
W = PΔV

enthalpy (H): the total usable energy of a system, which includes its internal energy
plus energy in the form of work that could be transferred between the system
and surroundings.
H = U + PV

*
Actually, internal energy also includes microscopic potential energy, which the energy of
chemical and nuclear particle bonds, and the other physical force fields within the system
(internal induced electric or magnetic dipole moment, stress-strain energy due to
deformation of solids, etc.). Microscopic potential energy is beyond the scope of this
course.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Thermodynamics Page: 494
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
entropy (S): energy that exists in a system, but cannot be transferred to other
molecules or objects.
free energy: the energy of a system that is “free” (available) to do work.
(Sometimes called the usable energy of the system.)
Helmholtz free energy (A): the usable energy of a system with a constant volume.
Named after the German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz.
(Useful in physics; rarely used in chemistry.)
A = U − TS
Gibbs free energy (G): the usable energy of a system with constant pressure.
Named after the American physicist J. Willard Gibbs.
(Useful in chemistry; rarely used in physics.)
G = H − TS
In chemistry, Gibbs free energy is the most useful in predicting whether (and to
what extent) a chemical reaction will happen.

A chemical reaction is spontaneous if the change in Gibbs free energy is negative

(ΔG < 0), i.e., if the reaction releases energy and the total energy of the products is
less than the total energy of the reactants.
A chemical reaction is non-spontaneous if the change in Gibbs free energy is positive
(ΔG > 0), i.e., if the reaction consumes energy and the total energy of the products is
more than the total energy of the reactants.

A rule of thumb is that if a chemical reaction releases more than approximately

20 kJ of free energy (meaning ΔG < −20 kJ), then the reaction “goes to completion,”
which means there will essentially be no detectable amount of the reactants left
after the reaction takes place.
Similarly, if a chemical reaction would require more than 20 kJ of free energy
(meaning ΔG ≥ +20 kJ), then “no reaction occurs,” meaning there will essentially be
no detectable amount of products made.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Thermodynamics Page: 495
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Laws of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics allows us to predict much of what happens in the universe based
on energy changes. These predictions can be summed up in the four* laws of
thermodynamics:
0. If you allow objects/systems in contact with each other to exchange heat for
an infinite amount of time, they will have the same temperature.
(“You have to play the game.”)
1. Chemical reactions proceed in a way that releases energy, i.e., usable heat
energy (enthalpy) moves from particles with higher temperature to particles
with lower temperature. Heat energy cannot flow from a lower temperature
to a higher temperature.
(“You can’t win.”)
2. Some heat energy is always lost to the surroundings (entropy) and cannot be
recovered. Therefore, the entropy of the universe is always increasing.
(“You can’t break even.”)
3. In a completely closed system, the total energy (enthalpy plus entropy) is
constant. A change that would cause an increase in enthalpy (positive ΔH)
would normally not happen spontaneously, but it can occur spontaneously if
there is a sufficient increase in entropy (positive ΔS).
(“You can’t get out of the game.”)

What You Need to Know

This is a lot of information, and yet only the tip of the iceberg; there are entire
college courses on thermodynamics. Most of the information in this section is
included to explain the bigger picture; in this course, you do not need to use any of
these equations. The important points you need to understand in a first-year
chemistry class are:
 Some energy, called enthalpy (H), exists in the form of usable heat that can be
taken up or given off in chemical reactions, and/or used to do work.
 Some energy, called entropy (S), exists in the form of heat that is dispersed
(“lost”) to the surroundings and cannot be recovered.
 The combination of enthalpy and entropy, called Gibbs free energy (G),
determines whether and to what extent a chemical reaction occurs.

*
Originally there were three laws numbered 1–3. The “zero” law was added later, and was
numbered zero in order to preserve the numbering of the first, second, and third laws.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Enthalpy of Formation Page: 496
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)

Enthalpy of Formation
Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-4
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Determine the enthalpy of formation for selected compounds by looking up
data in a table.
 Identify the formation of compounds as spontaneous or non-spontaneous
based on the sign of the enthalpy of formation.
Success Criteria:
 Enthalpy of formation has the correct sign and the correct units.
 Compounds are correctly identified as forming spontaneously and not forming
spontaneously based on the sign of their enthalpies of formation.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: formation, spontaneous
Language Objectives:
 Explain how to find the enthalpy of formation of a compound.
 Explain how to determine whether formation of a compound is spontaneous
or non-spontaneous.

Notes:
Although free energy is the best predictor of whether a reaction happens, focusing
on just the changes in enthalpy can be more practical for several reasons.
1. Entropy cannot be measured, but must be calculated based on other
measurements and calculations, such as enthalpy and equilibrium. For this
reason, entropy numbers are difficult to obtain and are often not available
for reactions of interest.
2. Free energy depends on the temperature. (Recall that G = H – TS) If a
reaction is producing or consuming heat, the temperature will be changing
during the reaction, which means free energy calculations will require careful
measurements and complex, calculus-based equations. Enthalpy does not
depend on temperature, which means enthalpy numbers can be used
directly regardless of the temperature at which they were measured.
3. Enthalpy measurements can be used directly to calculate the thermal energy
(heat) produced or consumed by a reaction.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Enthalpy of Formation Page: 497
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
The concept of enthalpy of formation is that if we define the enthalpy content of a
pure element to be zero*, then:
 The enthalpy content of a compound can be measured by the reactions that
produce the compound.
 The enthalpy content of a compound equals the heat energy released by
forming its chemical bonds, and therefore also equals the heat energy needed
to break those bonds.

standard enthalpy of formation: (H of ) the amount of enthalpy (recoverable/usable

heat) that is released when a compound is formed.

In the “Intermolecular Forces” section starting on page 340, we saw that it takes
energy to break intramolecular bonds (bonds between one molecule and another),
and forming those bonds releases energy. The same is true for intermolecular
bonds (bonds within a molecule).

If a chemical compound forms spontaneously, it forms because the compound has

less energy than the elements that it is formed from. When the compound is
formed, the excess energy is given off as heat. Once that energy is released, there is
no longer enough energy for the compound to spontaneously disintegrate, unless
heat is added. These compounds have a negative enthalpy of formation.

In some cases, energy is required to form a chemical compound. In these cases, the
compound is unstable, and when a small amount of energy is added to break the
bonds, a larger amount of energy is released. These compounds have a positive
enthalpy of formation.

*
Recall that enthalpy includes internal energy, which includes the energy of chemical and
nuclear bonds, internal induced electric or magnetic dipole moment, stress-strain energy
due to deformation of solids, etc., as well as energy due to motion of the molecules,
atoms, nuclei, electrons, etc. Saying that the enthalpy is zero does not mean we are
ignoring these factors—remember that enthalpy can be negative. We are simply choosing
the “zero point” to be the total of those energies in a pure element.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Enthalpy of Formation Page: 498
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Determining Enthalpy of Formation
The enthalpy of formation is defined as the energy that would need to be added in
order to form a compound or ion directly from its elements.

This means that pure elements in their natural state by definition have an enthalpy
of formation of zero, because it takes no energy to form an element from its
elements. This is true even for elements that are polyatomic in their natural state,
such as N2, O2, Cl2, F2, Br2, I2, P4 and S8; even though these elements contain one or
more chemical bonds, their enthalpy of formation is still defined to be zero.

If a compound or ion forms spontaneously, the process must release energy. This
means that compounds or ions that form spontaneously have negative enthalpies of
formation. (Adding negative energy is mathematically the same as releasing
energy.)

Enthalpies of formation (H of ) (and also entropies of formation) of selected

compounds and elements are listed in “Table BB. Thermodynamic Data” in your
Chemistry Reference Tables, on page 559.

Examples
The standard enthalpy of formation of CaCl2 is 795.8 mol
kJ . This means we would

need to add 798.2kJ to make one mole of CaCl2 from elemental Ca and Cl2.
kJ of
Adding a negative amount of heat means the reaction actually releases 795.8 mol
heat. (Note that 795 kJ, or 795 800 J, is a lot of energy.)

The standard enthalpy of formation of C2H2 (acetylene) is 226.7 mol

kJ . This means

that acetylene does not form spontaneously, and we need to add 226.7 kJ of heat
energy to produce one mole of acetylene gas. That energy will be released as heat
when acetylene combusts to form CO2 and H2O.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Enthalpy of Formation Page: 499
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Homework Problem
Based on enthalpy of formation (H of ) data in “Table BB. Thermodynamic Data” on
page 559 of your Chemistry Reference Tables, rank the following ten compounds in
order, from least stable to most stable.

AgCl, Al2O3, C2H2, H2O, CO2, N2O, CuSO4, H2, MgSO4, Si

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Heat of Reaction Page: 500
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)

Heat of Reaction
Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-4
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Identify chemical reactions as exothermic or endothermic.
 Calculate the heat produced or consumed by a reaction based on heats of
formation.
 Use the heat of reaction correctly in stoichiometry calculations.
Success Criteria:
 Heat of reaction accounts for heats of formation of all reactants and products.
 Calculation uses the correct signs for heats of formation of reactants and
products, based on whether the compounds are being consumed or formed.
 Heat of formation is treated like a coëfficient (with its correct sign and units)
in stoichiometry calculations.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: reaction, product
Language Objectives:
 Explain how heat of reaction is calculated.
 Explain how heat of reaction is used in stoichiometry calculations.

Notes:
Because a chemical reaction is the conversion of reactants into products, we can
think of a chemical reaction as “taking apart” the reactants and then using the
atoms to “build” the products.

“Taking apart” the reactants would involve breaking the bonds in compounds to
form the elements they were made from. Because heats of formation give the
energies to form the compounds, the energy needed to take apart the compounds
would have the opposite sign. For example, if the heat of formation of H2O is
285.8 mol
kJ , this indicates that 285.8 kJ of energy is released when one mole of H O
2

is formed, which means we have to supply 285.8 kJ of energy to turn one mole of
H2O into hydrogen and oxygen.

Yes, this is confusing. Heat of formation is the amount of energy we have to put in
to form the compound. A negative number means that the energy comes out when
we form the compound instead of putting it in. But then, if we want to break apart
the compound and turn it back into its elements, we have to put in that same
amount of energy.
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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Heat of Reaction Page: 501
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Sample Problem:
Q: Calculate the energy produced by the reaction:

Ca + FeO → CaO + Fe

A: First we look up our heats of formation. We need to remember to change the

sign of any compounds that we are breaking apart (reactants), and keep the sign
the same for compounds that we are creating (products):

Ca + FeO → CaO + Fe
kJ
0 mol 272 mol
kJ 634.92 mol
kJ kJ
0 mol
sign changed
because we’re
“taking apart”
FeO

To find the heat of reaction, we simply add up all of the heat of formation
numbers for each compound in the reaction:

(272 mol
kJ )  (634.92 kJ )  361 kJ
mol mol

Because the coëfficients are all one, that means we can cancel moles to give:

(272kJ)  (634.92kJ)  361kJ

The last step is to change the sign of the answer. Our calculation tells us that
the enthalpy change for the reaction is −361 kJ. That means the products have
361 kJ less enthalpy than the reactants did. That energy was released as heat,
which means the heat was produced by the reaction.

We always represent heat as a positive quantity in chemical reactions. If heat is

produced, it is a product so it goes on the right. This gives us:

Ca + FeO → CaO + Fe + 361 kJ

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Heat of Reaction Page: 502
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
If we had gotten a positive number for the heat of reaction, that would mean
that the products have more enthalpy content than the reactants, which means
we would have had to add heat in order to make the reaction happen. In this
case, heat would be a reactant and would go on the left.

For example, in the reaction:

N2 + O2 → 2 NO

We see that N2 and O2 are elements with an enthalpy of formation of zero, and
kJ . Because the coëfficient for NO
NO has an enthalpy of formation of +90.2 mol
is 2, this means the enthalpy of reaction is +180.4 kJ. (Using heat of reaction
with stoichiometry will be explained on the following pages.) The products have
more enthalpy than the reactants, which means we have to add energy to make
the reaction happen. This means heat is a reactant, so it goes on the left:

N2 + O2 + 180.4 kJ → 2 NO

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Heat of Reaction Page: 503
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)

Heat of Reaction and Stoichiometry

Heat of reaction works just like the coëfficients in a stoichiometry problem.
Because heats of reaction are expressed in molkJ , we need to multiply each

substance’s heat of formation by its coëfficient in order to calculate its contribution

to the heat of reaction.

Sample Problem:
Q: Calculate the heat produced by the reaction:
3 Ca + 2 AlCl3 → 3 CaCl2 + 2 Al

A: Again we look up our heats of formation. However, now, we need to both

remember to use positive vs. negative numbers correctly and multiply each heat
of formation by its coëfficient in the chemical equation:

3 Ca + 2 AlCl3 → 3 CaCl2 + 2 Al
kJ )
3(0 mol 2(704 mol
kJ ) 3(795.8 mol
kJ ) kJ )
2(0 mol
0 kJ 1 408kJ 2 387.4 kJ 0 kJ
As before, to find the heat of reaction, we add the heats of formation:
(1 408kJ)  (2 387.4 kJ)  979kJ
The result tells us that the reaction produces 979 kJ of heat when the number of
moles of each reactant and product are the same as the coëfficients. (This is
sometimes described as “979 kJ per mole of reaction”.) We can write the
equation as follows:
3 Ca + 2 AlCl3 → 3 CaCl2 + 2 Al + 979 kJ

Again, notice that we changed the sign of the heat when we wrote it in the
reaction because heat is produced, which means (positive) heat is a product of
the reaction.

In this reaction, suppose we had used 4.5 mol of Ca (and excess AlCl3). To find
the heat produced, we would calculate it as if the 979 kJ were the coëfficient for
heat in the chemical equation.

Using our stoichiometry “input/output machine”, 3 mol of Ca produces 979 kJ of

heat. This means that to get from 3 to 979, we have to divide by 3 and multiply
by 979. This gives:

4.5mol Ca 979 kJ
  1 469 kJ of heat produced
1 3mol Ca

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Heat of Reaction Page: 504
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Homework Problems
Using enthalpy of formation (H of ) data in “Table BB. Thermodynamic Data” in your
Chemistry Reference Tables, on page 559, calculate the heat of reaction for each of
the following chemical reactions and write out the reaction with the heat in the
correct place.

1. Pb + FeSO4 → PbSO4 + Fe

Answer: H o  9 kJ Pb + FeSO4 + 9 kJ → PbSO4 + Fe

2. 2 C2H2 + 5 O2 → 4 CO2 + 2 H2O

Answer: H o  2 511kJ 2 C2H2 + 5 O2 → 4 CO2 + 2 H2O + 2 511 kJ

3. C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

Answer: H o  2 537kJ C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 2 537 kJ

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Bond Energies Page: 505
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)

Bond Energies
Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-4
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Identify the bonds in molecular compounds and look up their bond energies.
 Calculate the heat produced or consumed by a reaction based on bond energy
calculations.
Success Criteria:
 Bond energies have the correct sign and the correct units based on where
they appear in the chemical equation.
 Heat of reaction calculated from bond energies agrees with heat of reaction
calculated from heat of formation data.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: bond
Language Objectives:
 Explain how heat of reaction is calculated using bond energies.

Notes:
Ionic compounds form crystals that have straightforward ratios of cations to anions,
which means it is practical to publish a table of the heats of formation of common
ionic compounds and to calculate the heat of reaction from heat of formation data.
Molecular compounds, however, can form long chains, and there are thousands
upon thousands of common molecular compounds.

For most molecular compounds, instead of attempting to publish an exhaustive list

of heat of formation data, it is much simpler to publish a table of the energy it takes
to dissociate the individual bonds in molecular compounds. This way, it is possible
to estimate the heat of reaction by simply adding up the energies for breaking or
forming the individual bonds in a compound.

These bond energies are shown in “Table AA. Bond Dissociation Energies & Bond
Lengths” in your Chemistry Reference Tables on page 558. Note that the table is
“bond dissociation energies.” This means that the numbers represent the amount
of energy needed to dissociate (break) the bonds listed. If it takes energy (a positive
number) to break a bond, that means energy is released (a negative number) when
the bond is formed. This means we can use bond energies to calculate the enthalpy
of formation of a compound, but we need to remember that the bond energies are
negative when bonds are formed.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Bond Energies Page: 506
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Here are bond dissociation energies for some bonds commonly found in organic
compounds. A more extensive list can be found in “Table AA. Bond Dissociation
Energies & Bond Lengths” on page 558 of your Chemistry Reference Tables.

Bond C−C C=C C≡C C−H C−O C=O O=O O−H

Bond Dissociation
346 602 835 411 358 799 494 459
Energy* ( mol
kJ )

Sample problem:
Use bond dissociation energy data to predict the energy of reaction for the
combustion of methane:

CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

This actually means:

H
O
H C H + 2 O O → O C O + 2 H H

H
break break form
form 2 O−H
4 C−H + 2 1 O=O → 2 C=O + 2
bonds
bonds bond bonds
4(411 kJ) + 2(494 kJ) → 2(−799 kJ) + 4(−459 kJ)
1 644 kJ + 988 kJ + −1 598 kJ + −1 836 kJ

Note that numbers on the left are positive, because we are dissociating (breaking)
those bonds, and numbers on the right are negative because we are forming those
bonds.

As with heat of reaction calculations, we add the energies for each of the individual
molecules:

1 644 kJ + 988 kJ + (−1 598 kJ) + (−1 836 kJ) = −802 kJ

*
These are bond dissociation energies are for homolytic dissociation (i.e., the electrons are
equally split between the two atoms). Heterolytic bond dissociation energies (where the
electrons split unequally) are always higher.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Bond Energies Page: 507
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
We can now write the reaction as:
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O + 802 kJ

This agrees with the heat of reaction that we would calculate from enthalpy of
formation data:

Compound H f  molkJ 
CH4 (g) −74.8
O2 (g) 0
CO2 (g) −393.5
H2O (g) −241.8

CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

74.8 mol
kJ kJ )
2(0 mol 393.5 mol
kJ 2(241.8 mol
kJ )

+74.8 kJ 0 kJ 393.5kJ 483.6 kJ

74.8 kJ + 0 + (−393.5 kJ) + (−483.6 kJ) = −802.3 kJ

Note that adding the bond dissociation energies for a compound does not give the
compound’s enthalpy of formation. As an example, recall that the heat of formation
kJ of heat energy to break an O=O double bond.
of O2 is zero, but it takes 494 mol

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Bond Energies Page: 508
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Limitations of Using Bond Energy to Calculate Heat of Reaction
The above example with methane is one of the few instances where bond energies
and heats of formation give the same values. This is often not the case. For
example, if you calculate the heat of reaction for the combustion of acetylene:
2 H C C H + 5 O2 → 4 CO2 + 2 H2O + heat
you would get −2 511 kJ using heat of formation data, but −4 914 kJ using bond
energies.

Enthalpies of formation are well-defined and precise, meaning that different people
could measure them and expect to get the same answer. Average bond enthalpies,
however, can vary widely depending on which molecules were used to gather the
data. (In fact, the numbers may vary significantly from one published table to
another.)

For example, there are many different molecules with C–H bonds. The bond energy
of a C–H bond in CH4 is very different from the bond energy of a C–H bond in
acetylene.

The bond energies found in the bond energy tables for the bonds involved in the
combustion of methane are based on:

Bond C−H C=O O=O O−H

Energy  mol
kJ
 411 799 494 459
Based on CH4 CO2 O2 H2O

Needless to say, the basis for each of these bond energies is exactly the same as the
bonds broken or formed in the combustion of methane. It is therefore not
surprising that using bond energies gives the same result. However, it takes much
more energy to break the C−H bond in acetylene, which is part of the reason that
using bond energies does not give the correct answer for acetylene.

Because average bond enthalpies are much less accurate than enthalpies of
formation, calculating heat of reaction from bond energies should only be used for a
quick estimation, or as a last resort when heat of formation data are not available.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Bond Energies Page: 509
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
Homework Problem
1. Propane (C3H8) has the following structure:
H H H

H C C C H

H H H
Using the bond energy data from this chapter or on page 558 of your
Chemistry reference tables, compute the heat of reaction for the complete
combustion of propane:
C3H8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO2 + 4 H2O + heat

Answer: −2 016 kJ (Note: calculating from H of values gives 2 044 kJ)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Thermochemistry (Heat) Page: 510
Big Ideas Details Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)

Summary: Thermochemistry (Heat)

Unit: Thermochemistry (Heat)
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Kinetics & Equilibrium Page: 511
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium

Introduction: Kinetics & Equilibrium

Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
Topics covered in this chapter:
Collision Theory ........................................................................................... 513
Rate of Reaction (Kinetics) .......................................................................... 516
Equilibrium .................................................................................................. 520
Le Châtelier’s Principle ................................................................................ 527

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Kinetics & Equilibrium Page: 512
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
Standards addressed in this chapter:
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS1-4 Develop a model to illustrate the energy transferred during an
exothermic or endothermic chemical reaction based on the bond energy
difference between bonds broken (absorption of energy) and bonds formed
(release of energy).
HS-PS1-5 Construct an explanation based on kinetic molecular theory for why
varying conditions influence the rate of a chemical reaction or a dissolving
process. Design and test ways to slow down or accelerate rates of processes
(chemical reactions or dissolving) by altering various conditions.
HS-PS1-6 Design ways to control the extent of a reaction at equilibrium (relative
amount of products to reactants) by altering various conditions using Le
Châtelier’s principle. Make arguments based on kinetic molecular theory to
account for how altering conditions would affect the forward and reverse
rates of the reaction until a new equilibrium is established.

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):

7.5 Identify the factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction (temperature,
mixing, concentration, particle size, surface area, catalyst).
7.6 Predict the shift in equilibrium when a system is subjected to a stress (Le
Châtelier’s principle) and identify the factors that can cause a shift in
equilibrium (concentration, pressure, volume, temperature).

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Collision Theory Page: 513
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium

Collision Theory
Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-4, HS-PS1-5
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 7.5
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Use collision theory to explain activation energy and when a reaction does or
does not occur.
Success Criteria:
 Explanations refer to Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT).
 Explanations account for the role of activation energy.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: collision
Language Objectives:
 Explain the process of reactants colliding with enough energy to react and
form products.

Notes:
Recall that Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) states:
 Gases are made of very large numbers of molecules.
 Molecules are constantly moving (obeying Newton’s laws of motion), and
their speeds are constant.
 Molecules are very far apart compared with their diameter.
 Molecules collide with each other and walls of container in elastic collisions.
 Molecules behaving according to KMT are not reacting or exerting any other
forces (attractive or repulsive) on each other.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Collision Theory Page: 514
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
When we studied KMT earlier this year, we mentioned that the last bullet point did
not mean that reactions did not occur, but that they were covered by collision
theory, not KMT.

Collision theory states that:

 Molecules can be modeled as rigid spheres.
 Molecules move according to KMT.
 When molecules collide, kinetic energy (proportional to temperature) is
transferred.
 If the molecules collide with enough energy to break existing chemical bonds,
and if they are oriented in a way that allows the new bonds to form, a
reaction occurs.
 If a reaction does not occur, the reactants “bounce” off each other as
described by KMT.

For example, consider the reaction: NO3 + CO → NO2 + CO2

effective collision: a collision with enough energy that it leads to formation of

products

ineffective collision: a collision that does not have enough energy to lead to
formation of products.

mechanism: the details of which molecules collide and in what order and
orientation in order for the reaction to take place.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Collision Theory Page: 515
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
The progress of the reaction vs. energy can be graphed in a “reaction coördinate”
diagram:

reaction coördinate diagram: a graph that shows energy vs. progress of a chemical
reaction.

enthalpy of reaction (ΔHrxn): the difference between the enthalpy of the products
and the enthalpy of the reactants. The enthalpy change is the overall heat
produced or consumed by the chemical reaction.

activation energy (ΔEa): minimum kinetic energy needed for a collision to produce
the transition state (and therefore proceed to form products).

transition state (or activated complex): the configuration of all molecules at the
instant an effective collision happens. In the transition state, all of the energy
needed by the reaction has been converted to enthalpy.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Rate of Reaction (Kinetics) Page: 516
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium

Rate of Reaction (Kinetics)

Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-5
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 7.5
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 List and explain factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction.
Success Criteria:
 Descriptions convey how each factor affects the rate of reaction.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: intermediate
Language Objectives:
 Explain what it means for a reaction to happen faster vs. slower, and how
each factor affects the reaction rate.

Labs, Activities & Demonstrations:

 Drop of food coloring in hot vs. cold water.

Notes:
reactants: the compounds consumed in the chemical reaction; compounds that
react.

products: the compounds created by the chemical reaction; compounds that are
produced.

intermediates: compounds that are produced in one step of a multi-step reaction

and consumed by a later step.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Rate of Reaction (Kinetics) Page: 517
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
reaction rate (k): the rate at which products are formed in a chemical reaction,
mol M mol
usually expressed in units of: Ls or s (where M = molarity = L )

The reaction rate is related to the activation energy. A reaction with higher
activation energy will happen more slowly, because fewer of the collisions will
have enough energy to enable the molecules to react. Conversely, a reaction
with lower activation energy will happen more quickly.
RT
RT Ea
The equation for rate of reaction is: ln(k)   or ke
Ea
Quantitative rate calculations are studied in AP® Chemistry. In this course, you
need to understand how the equation shows that a higher temperature will
speed up the reaction (larger value of k), and a higher activation energy will
slow down the reaction (smaller value of k).

rate-limiting step (or rate-determining step): the step that determines the overall
rate of the reaction. In a multi-step reaction, the rate-limiting step is the
slowest step.

For example, in the multi-step reaction:

A B C D
 A → B will happen faster than B can get used up, so B will accumulate and the
first reaction will not affect the overall rate.
 C → D will happen fast, which means as soon as C is produced, it will react to
produce D.
Therefore, the rate of B → C, which happens slowly, is what determines the
overall rate of the reaction A → D.

catalyst: a substance that speeds up a reaction by lowering the activation energy of

(and therefore speeding up) the rate-limiting (slowest) step.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Rate of Reaction (Kinetics) Page: 518
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
Factors that Affect Reaction Rates
 concentration of reactants: higher concentration means more frequent
collisions = faster rate. (Only applies to molecules involved in the rate-
determining step.) For gases, higher pressure = higher concentration.
 surface area of reactants: more surface area means higher probability of a
collision = faster rate.
 temperature: higher temperature = faster because faster-moving molecules
collide more often, and because faster-moving molecules have more kinetic
energy to overcome the activation energy.
 nature of the reactants: weak bonds are easier to break than strong bonds.
Reactions involving dissolved ions are very fast, because bonds are already
broken.
 catalysts: catalysts speed up reactions in any of several ways:
o bring molecules into the correct orientation for an effective collision
(equivalent to increasing the concentration and/or surface area)
o assist in breaking of bonds in the reactant(s) and/or formation of bonds in
the products (equivalent to changing the nature of the reactants and/or
lowering the activation energy)
Catalysts are not reactants; they are not consumed by the reaction.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Rate of Reaction (Kinetics) Page: 519
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium

Homework Problems
Consider the following decomposition reaction:
2 N2O5 → 2 N2 + 5 O2
This reaction happens in three steps:
1. 2 N2O5 + 2 H2O → 4 HNO3 fast
2. 2 HNO3 → N2 + 3 O2 + H2 slow
3. 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O very fast

Answer the following questions:

1. Which compounds are intermediates in this reaction?

2. If you wanted to speed up the overall reaction, which of the three steps
would you try to speed up? Explain why, and give an example of how you
might do this.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Equilibrium Page: 520
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium

Equilibrium
Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-6
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 7.6
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 List and explain factors that affect the equilibrium of a chemical reaction.
 Write equilibrium expressions from chemical equations and chemical
equations from equilibrium expressions.
Success Criteria:
 Equilibrium expressions have products on top and reactants on the bottom.
 Equilibrium expressions have coëfficients shown as exponents.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: forward, backward, expression
Language Objectives:
 Explain how different factors affect the equilibrium of a chemical reaction.

Notes:
reversible reaction: a reaction that proceeds in both forward and backward
directions. Usually written with double half-arrows:
N2 (g)  3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

dynamic chemical equilibrium: reaction is happening in both directions, but the

changes balance each other, so the concentrations of reactants & products
remain constant. At equilibrium:
rateforward reaction = ratereverse reaction or k f  kr

concentration: the amount of a compound dissolved in a given amount of solution,

usually expressed in mol
L
(moles of the compound per liter of solution).

A shorthand way to write the concentration of a compound is to place the

chemical formula in square brackets. For example, [NH3] means “the
concentration of NH3 in mol
L
”.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Equilibrium Page: 521
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
Arrows Used in Chemical Equations
Arrow Meaning
A + B react to produce C + D
Either there is little or no reverse
A B C D
reaction, or no information is given
about equilibrium.
A + B are in equilibrium with C + D
A B C D No information is given about whether
products or reactants are favored.
A + B are in equilibrium with C + D
Products are favored. (I.e., the
A B C D
concentrations of products are higher
than the concentrations of reactants.)
A + B are in equilibrium with C + D
Reactants are favored. (I.e., the
A B C D
concentrations of reactants are higher
than the concentrations of products.)
A and B are different resonance
A B structures of the same compound.
This is different from a chemical
reaction that is at equilibrium.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Equilibrium Page: 522
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
equilibrium expression: a mathematical expression relating the concentrations of
the products and reactants at equilibrium. For the reaction:
N2  3H2 2NH3
the equilibrium expression is:
[NH3 ]2
K eq 
[N2 ][H2 ]3

where [NH3] means the molarity of NH3 (the concentration in mol ).

L

The equilibrium expression comes from collision theory. In order for N2 and H2
to react, one N2 and 3 H2 molecules need to find each other. The probability of
this 4-way collision is related to the product of the concentrations of each of the
molecules involved, i.e., [N2] [H2] [H2] [H2] or [N2] [H2]3. Notice that the
coëfficients in the equation became exponents in the equilibrium expression.

The reverse reaction requires 2 NH3 molecules to collide; the probability of this
collision is the product of the concentrations, [NH3] [NH3] or [NH3]2. Again, the
coëfficient “2” became the exponent.

For the equilibrium expression, we write the concentrations of products on the

top and reactants on the bottom. (The reason for this comes from the rate laws
for the forward and reverse reactions. Rate laws are beyond the scope of this
course, but are studied in AP Chemistry.) However, for our purposes, it also
means that an equilibrium constant greater than 1 means we have more
products, and an equilibrium constant less than 1 means we have more
reactants.

equilibrium constant (Keq): when we plug the concentrations (in mol ) for each of the
L
products and reactions into the equilibrium expression, we get a value for Keq.

If Keq > 1 then there are more products than reactants, and we say that the
“equilibrium lies to the right”.

If Keq < 1 then there are more reactants than products, and we say that
“equilibrium lies to the left”.

If Keq = 1 then there are equal amounts of reactants and products, and we say
that the reactants and products are equally favored.

Keq depends on temperature, but is constant for a given reaction at a given

temperature.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Equilibrium Page: 523
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
Equilibrium Constant vs. Free Energy
In the section on Thermodynamics, starting on page 489, we saw that the extent of
the reaction (how much reaction occurs) depends on the change in Gibbs free
energy of the reaction.

The equilibrium constant is related to the Gibbs free energy by the equation:
G
G  RT ln(Keq ) or Keq  e RT

While the calculations are beyond the scope of this course, you should understand
that a higher value of ΔG corresponds with a higher value of the equilibrium
constant Keq:

Sample Problems:
Q: Write the equilibrium expression for the chemical reaction 2H2  Cl2 2HCl
A: Products go on the top and reactants go on the bottom.
Coëfficients become exponents.
[HCl]2
K eq 
[H2 ]2 [Cl2 ]

[CO2 ]4 [H2O]2
Q: Write the chemical equation for the equilibrium expression: K eq 
[C2H2 ]2 [O2 ]5
A: The denominator becomes the reactants (on the left), and the numerator
becomes the products (on the right). Exponents become coëfficients:
2 C2H2  5O2 4 CO2  2H2O

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Equilibrium Page: 524
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
Q: Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant for the reaction
2 NOBr 2 NO  Br2 if the concentration of NOBr is 3.00 M, the concentration
of NO is 0.750 M, and the concentration of Br2 is 0.200 M

A: The equilibrium expression is:

[NO]2 [Br2 ]
K eq 
[NOBr]2

Plugging in the concentrations, we get:

(0.750)2 (0.200)
Keq   0.0125
3.002

Note that the units for equilibrium constants are tricky, because each
concentration is in mol
L
. This means that if a concentration is squared, the units
2
become (mol
L
)2  mol2 . This means that every equilibrium constant has its own
L
units, depending on the number of molecules that take part in the forward and
reverse reactions.

From the equilibrium expression, the units of the equilibrium constant for this
expression happens to be:

( mol )2 ( mo l
)
L L
 mol
L
( mol
L
)2

Working with the units for the equilibrium constant is beyond the scope of this
course.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Equilibrium Page: 525
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
Homework Problems
Write the expression for the equilibrium constants for each of the following
reactions.
1. Xe  3F2 2 XeF6

2. CH4  2H2S CS2  4 H2

3. 3 CO2  4 H2O C3H8  5 O2

4. Write the chemical equation for the equilibrium system given by the
expression:

[H2O]2 [O2 ]
K eq 
[H2O2 ]2

5. Write the chemical equation for the equilibrium system given by the
expression:

[NH3 ]2
K eq 
[N2 ][H2 ]3

6. Write the chemical equation for the equilibrium system given by the
expression:

[HCl]4 [O2 ]
K eq 
[H2O]2 [Cl2 ]2

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Equilibrium Page: 526
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
7. A reaction vessel contains 0.150 M CH4, 0.233 M H2O, 0.259 M H2, and
0.513 M CO. If the equilibrium reaction is CH4  H2O CO  3H2 , write the
equilibrium expression and calculate the value of Keq.

Answer: Keq = 0.255

8. A 10 L flask contains 0.128 mol of CO, 0.155 mol of H2 and 0.0244 mol of
CH3OH. If the equilibrium reaction is CH3OH CO  2H2 , write the
equilibrium expression and calculate the value of Keq.
(Note: you will need to divide each number of moles by 10 L to get the
concentrations in mol
L
.)

Answer: Keq = 0.001 26

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Le Châtelier’s Principle Page: 527
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium

Le Châtelier’s Principle
Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-6
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 7.6
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Use Le Châtelier’s Principle to predict a shift in equilibrium in response to a
change.
Success Criteria:
 Prediction correctly describes the shift in equilibrium when the concentration
of one chemical species is changed.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: stress
Language Objectives:
 Explain how a change provokes a response.

Notes:
If a reaction is at equilibrium, the reaction will resist any change with a
corresponding change that shifts the reaction back to its equilibrium. Because Keq is
a constant, after the equilibrium shifts, the value of Keq will be the same as it was
before the change.

In plain English, if you change something, the equilibrium will shift to partly undo
the change. This principle is called Le Châtelier’s Principle, named after the French
chemist Henry Louis Le Châtelier who first proposed the idea.

For example, consider the reaction:

N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇋ 2 NH3 (g) + 92.1 kJ
[NH3 ]2
For this reaction, Keq   835 at 25 °C.
[N2 ][H2 ]3

Suppose we started with [N2] = 0.05 M, [H2] = 0.3 M, and [NH3] = 1.06 M.

If we add more [H2], the reaction would use more H2, and make more NH3. If we
kept adding H2 until [H2] = 0.4 M, we would have [N2] = 0.026 M, and [NH3] = 1.18 M.
As you can see, adding more H2 caused the reaction to use up more N2 and make
more NH3.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Le Châtelier’s Principle Page: 528
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
Le Châtelier’s Principle tells us that we don’t have to perform the equilibrium
calculation to qualitatively predict what will happen. We can just look at the
equation:
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇋ 2 NH3 (g) + 92.1 kJ
if we add more H2, the equilibrium will shift to use more of it up. This means the
equilibrium will shift to the right, also using up more N2 and making more NH3.

On the other hand, if we added NH3, the equilibrium would instead shift to the left
to use up some of the NH3, and make more N2 and H2.

Action Equilibrium shift

Add N2 or H2 to the right
Remove N2 or H2 to the left
Add NH3 to the left
Remove NH3 to the right
Increase the temperature
to the left
(add heat)

Note that the value of Keq is different at different temperatures. Adding reactants or
products doesn’t change the value of Keq, but changing the temperature does. Le
Châtelier tells us that adding heat must shift the equilibrium to the left. The
equilibrium shift occurs because increasing the temperature results in a lower value
of Keq for this equation.

Quantitative equilibrium calculations and the relationship between the equilibrium

constant and thermodynamics are studied in more depth in AP® Chemistry.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Le Châtelier’s Principle Page: 529
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
Homework Problems
Consider the chemical equation:
6H2 (g)  P4 (g) 4 PH3 (g)  53.5kJ
1. Indicate which direction the equilibrium would shift as a result of each of the
following:
a. Adding P4 c. Removing H2

b. Removing PH3 d. Decreasing the temperature

2. Write the equilibrium expression for the above reaction.

3. The value of Keq for this reaction is 4.44 at 25 °C. If the reaction is at
equilibrium at 25 °C, the concentration of H2 is 1.00 M and the concentration
of P4 is 0.025 M, what is the concentration of PH3?

Answer: [PH3] = 0.58 M

4. If the reaction is cooled to 4 °C, the value of the equilibrium constant

increases to 4.77. Is this consistent with the prediction made by Le
Châtelier’s Principle in question #1d above? Explain.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Summary: Kinetics & Equilibrium Page: 530
Big Ideas Details Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium

Summary: Kinetics & Equilibrium

Unit: Kinetics & Equilibrium
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Introduction: Acids & Bases Page: 531
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases

Introduction: Acids & Bases

Unit: Acids & Bases
Topics covered in this chapter:
Acids & Bases ............................................................................................... 532
pH & Indicators ............................................................................................ 537
pKa & Buffers ............................................................................................... 544

Standards addressed in this chapter:

Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks & Science Practices (2016):
HS-PS1-9(MA) Relate the strength of an aqueous acidic or basic solution to the
extent of an acid or base reacting with water as measured by the hydronium
ion concentration (pH) of the solution. Make arguments about the relative
strengths of two acids or bases with similar structure and composition.
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (2006):
8.1 Define the Arrhenius theory of acids and bases in terms of the presence of
hydronium and hydroxide ions in water and the Brønsted-Lowry theory of
acids and bases in terms of proton donors and acceptors.
8.2 Relate hydrogen ion concentrations to the pH scale and to acidic, basic, and
neutral solutions. Compare and contrast the strengths of various common
acids and bases (e.g., vinegar, baking soda, soap, citrus juice).
8.3 Explain how a buffer works.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Acids & Bases Page: 532
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases

Acids & Bases

Unit: Acids & Bases
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-9(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 8.1
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Define acids and bases based on both the Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry
theories and give examples.
 Classify acids and bases as strong or weak.
 Identify conjugate acid and base pairs.
Success Criteria:
 Prediction correctly describes the shift in equilibrium when the concentration
of one chemical species is changed.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: stress
Language Objectives:
 Explain how a change provokes a response.

Notes:
Acids are one of the first substances that come to mind when we think of chemistry.
Acids are the dangerous chemicals that mad scientists in movies throw at people,
and the chemicals that impressively dissolve metals and other substances right
before your eyes.

Acids have held this sort of fascination for centuries. The American chemist Ira
Remsen wrote the following wonderful anecdote of his first encounter with them:
While reading a text book of chemistry, I came upon the statement, “nitric acid
acts upon copper.” I was getting tired of reading such absurd stuff and I
determined to see what this meant. Copper was more or less familiar to me,
for copper cents were then in use. I had seen a bottle marked “nitric acid” on a
table in the doctor’s office where I was then “doing time!” I did not know its
peculiarities, but I was getting on and likely to learn. The spirit of adventure
was upon me. Having nitric acid and copper, I had only to learn what the words
“act upon” meant. Then the statement “nitric acid acts upon copper,” would
be something more than mere words.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Acids & Bases Page: 533
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases
All was still. In the interest of knowledge I was even willing to sacrifice one of
the few copper cents then in my possession. I put one of them on the table;
opened the bottle marked “nitric acid;” poured some of the liquid on the
copper; and prepared to make an observation. But what was this wonderful
thing which I beheld? The cent was already changed, and it was no small
change either. A greenish blue liquid foamed and fumed over the cent and
over the table. The air in the neighborhood of the performance became
colored dark red. A great cloud arose: This was disagreeable and suffocating—
how should I stop this?

I tried to get rid of the objectionable mess by picking it up and throwing it out
the window, which I had meanwhile opened. I learned another fact—nitric acid
not only acts upon copper but it acts upon fingers. The pain led to another
unpremeditated experiment. I drew my fingers across my trousers and another
fact was discovered. Nitric acid acts upon trousers.

Taking everything into consideration, that was the most impressive

experiment, and, relatively, probably the most costly experiment I have ever
performed. I tell of it even now with interest. It was a revelation to me. It
resulted in a desire on my part to learn more about that remarkable kind of
action. Plainly the only way to learn about it was to see its results, to
experiment, to work in a laboratory.

However, not all acids are this dangerous, especially when they are more dilute. We
eat and drink vinegar (dilute acetic acid), orange juice (which contains citric acid),
and Coca-Cola (which contains phosphoric acid).

acid: a substance that can produce H3O+ ions in water, release H+ ions* in solution,
and/or accept electrons from another substance.

base: the “opposite” of an acid; a substance that can produce OH− ions in water,
accept H+ ions in solution and/or donate electrons to another substance.

* + +
Note that an H ion is a proton. Chemists often use the term “proton” in place of “H ion”
for convenience. Thus an acid is a compound that releases protons in water. These
+
protons are just the H ions—there’s no nuclear weirdness going on!

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Acids & Bases Page: 534
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases
Some Properties of Acids & Bases
Acids
 taste sour  produce H3O+ ions in water
 react with some metals (i.e., the (Arrhenius definition)
ones above hydrogen on the  release H+ ions
activity series) (Brønsted-Lowry definition)
 dissolve plants  accept electrons
(Lewis definition)

Bases
 taste bitter  produce OH− ions in water
 feel “slippery” (like soap) (Arrhenius definition)
 dissolve people (skin)  accept H+ ions
(Brønsted-Lowry definition)
 give electrons
(Lewis definition)

dissociation: to dissolve by splitting into positive and negative ions

Acids & bases dissociate in water.
Strong acids & bases dissociate completely; weak acids & bases only dissociate
partially.
For example:
HCl → H+ + Cl−
NaOH → Na+ + OH−

neutralization: a reaction in which an acid and a base react to produce a salt (a type
of ionic compound) plus water. For example:
HNO3 + KOH → KNO3 + H2O
(acid) + (base) → (salt) + (water)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Acids & Bases Page: 535
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases
strong acid: an acid that dissociates completely in water and produces H+ ions,
which then convert H2O molecules to H3O+ ions. Strong acids include HCl, HBr,
HI, H2SO4, HNO3, and HClO4.

weak acid: an acid that only partially dissociates in water. HF is an example of a

weak acid:
HF H+ + F−

strong base: a base that dissociates completely in water and produces OH− ions.
Strong bases include all of the group 1 hydroxides (LiOH, NaOH, KOH, etc.), plus
the group 2 hydroxides Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, and Ba(OH)2.

weak base: a base that only partially dissociates in water. NH3 is an example of a
weak base:
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH−

conjugates: the acid & base forms of a compound. The acid form has an extra H+
that can dissociate. The base form is the same compound without the H+.

conjugate base: the base formed by removing H+ from an acid. For example, the
conjugate base of HCl is Cl−.

conjugate acid: the acid formed by adding H+ to a base. For example, the conjugate
acid of NH3 is NH4+.

polyprotic: an acid that can lose more than one H+. For example, H2SO4 can lose
one H+ to dissociate into H+ and HSO4−. HSO4− can then lose a second H+ to
dissociate into H+ and SO42−.

Remember that an H+ ion is just a proton. A polyprotic acid is just an acid with
more than one proton that it can lose by dissociation.

amphoteric: a substance that “can go either way”—i.e., it has both a conjugate acid
and a conjugate base. For example, the HSO4− ion is amphoteric:

H2SO4 HSO4− SO42−

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 Acids & Bases Page: 536
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases
Homework Problems
Give the conjugate base for each of the following acids:
1. HCl 5. HSO4−

2. H2S 6. H2SO3

3. HCO3− 7. NH3

4. H2PO4− 8. HS−

Give the conjugate acid for each of the following bases:

9. HSO4− 14. PO43−

10. SO32− 15. CH3NH2

11. ClO4− 16. F−

12. H2PO4−

13. SO42−

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 pH & Indicators Page: 537
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases

pH & Indicators
Unit: Acids & Bases
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS1-9(MA)
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 8.2
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Calculate pH from [H+] and pOH from [OH−].
 Identify acids and bases from their pKa values.
 Select an appropriate indicator for a desired pH range.
Success Criteria:
 pH and pOH are calculated correctly.
 Acids and bases are correctly identified from their pKa values.
 Indicator changes color in a pH range that includes the pH of the given acid or
base.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: acid, base, indicator
Language Objectives:
 Explain why higher [H+] results in a lower pH.

Notes:
In water, a very small amount of H2O dissociates into H+ and OH− ions:

H2O H+ + OH−

The amount of dissociation of any compound in a solvent is a constant that is

determined by the attractions of the ions for each other vs. the attraction between
the ions and the solvent.

In water at 25 °C, the product of the concentrations of H+ and OH− ions (in mol )
L
is
−14
1.0 × 10 . This number is called the “water dissociation constant” Kw*. In other
words, in water at 25 °C:

Kw = [H+] [OH−] = 1.0 × 10−14

* [H ][OH ]
Kw is actually the equilibrium constant for the dissociation reaction. K eq  .
[H2O]
However, because H2O is a pure liquid, the concentration of H2O in pure H2O is constant—
it’s just the density divided by the molar mass, which works out to 55.6 M. Therefore, we
leave [H2O] out of the equilibrium expression.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 pH & Indicators Page: 538
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases
Recall that acids create H (or H3O ) in water, and bases create OH− in water. In the
+ +

dissociation equation:
H2O H+ + OH−

Le Châtelier’s principle predicts that if we add acid, [H+] increases. This shifts the
equilibrium to the left, which means [OH−] decreases, and it is still true that
[H+] [OH−] = 1.0 × 10−14 = Kw.

Similarly, if we add base, [OH−] increases and [H+] decreases and

[H+] [OH−] = 1.0 × 10−14 = Kw.

If we have exactly the same amount of acid and base, then [H+] = [OH−] and both are
equal to the square root of 1 × 10−14, which is 1 × 10−7 M. A solution with the same
amount of acid and base is said to be neutral.

Working with concentrations in scientific notation that vary over 14 powers of ten is
unwieldy, so we define a function “p” which means “take the logarithm of the
quantity and multiply the result by −1.” (See the “Logarithms” topic starting on
page 102 for a brief description of the logarithm mathematical function.)

Therefore, the quantity “pH” would be −log [H+].

pH: a measure of the strength of an acidic or basic solution. Equal to −log [H+].
Examples:
if [H+] = 0.001 M, then pH = −log (0.001) = 3
if [H+] = 0.000 000 01 M (= 1 × 10−8 M) then pH = −log (1 × 10−8) = 8

pOH: another measure of the strength of an acidic or basic solution. Equal to

−log [OH−]. Much less commonly used that pH.
Examples:
if [OH−] = 0.001 M, then pOH = −log (0.001) = 3
if [OH−] = 0.000 000 01 M (= 1 × 10−8 M) then pOH = −log (1 × 10−8) = 8

pH & pOH Equations

pH = −log[H+] pOH = −log[OH−]
[H+] = 10−pH [OH−] = 10−pOH

Because the (multiplication) product of [H+][OH−] = 1 × 10−14, this means that:

pH + pOH = 14

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 pH & Indicators Page: 539
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases
Note that the higher the concentration of H ions (higher value of [H+]), the lower
+

the pH.
Low pH = acidic = more H+ = less OH−
High pH = basic = less H+ = more OH−

[H+] [OH−] pH pOH Acidic/Basic?

1 M (= 1 × 100 M) 1 × 10−14 M 0 14 very acidic
0.1 M (= 1 × 10−1 M) 1 × 10−13 M 1 13
0.01 M (= 1 × 10−2 M) 1 × 10−12 M 2 12
1 × 10−3 M 1 × 10−11 M 3 11
1 × 10−4 M 1 × 10−10 M 4 10
1 × 10−5 M 1 × 10−9 M 5 9 slightly acidic
−6
1 × 10 M 1 × 10−8 M 6 8
1 × 10−7 M 1 × 10−7 M 7 7 neutral
1 × 10−8 M 1 × 10−6 M 8 6
1 × 10−9 M 1 × 10−5 M 9 5 slightly basic
1 × 10−10 M 1 × 10−4 M 10 4
1 × 10−11 M 1 × 10−3 M 11 3
1 × 10−12 M 0.01 M (= 1 × 10−2 M) 12 2
−13
1 × 10 M 0.1 M (= 1 × 10−1 M) 13 1
1 × 10−14 M 1 M (= 1 × 100 M) 14 0 very basic

Sample Problems:
Q: What is the pH of a solution with [H+] = 2.5 x 10−4 M?

A: −log(2.5 x 10−4) = 3.60

Q: What is the concentration of H+ ions in a solution with a pH of 11.4?

A: 10−11.4 = 3.98 x 10−12 M

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 pH & Indicators Page: 540
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases
An aqueous solution is neutral when the concentration of H and OH− are equal.
+

This occurs in water at pH 7.00 at a temperature of 25 °C. However, remember that

temperature affects equilibrium; as the temperature increases, more H+ and OH−
dissociate. This means [H+] and [OH−] both increase with higher temperatures,
which means Kw increases. When that happens, [H+] and [OH−] are still equal in a
neutral solution, but both are larger, and because [H+] and [OH−] are larger, the pH
and pOH are both lower.

pH of a
Temp. (°C) Kw neutral
solution
0 0.114 × 10−14 7.47
10 0.293 × 10−14 7.27
20 0.681 × 10−14 7.08
25 1.008 × 10−14 7.00
−14
30 1.471 × 10 6.92
40 2.916 × 10−14 6.77
50 5.476 × 10−14 6.63
100 51.3 × 10−14 6.14

In other words, despite what your previous teachers may have taught you, a pH of 7
is only neutral at 25 °C. In fact, in warm-blooded animals with body temperatures
around 37 °C, a neutral pH would be approximately 6.8.

This also means that pH + pOH = 14 is only correct at 25 °C.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 pH & Indicators Page: 541
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases
Indicators
indicator: a substance that changes color in a specific range of pH values. Indicators
are used as a visual way to measure pH.

The following table lists some common indicators.

pH range where
Name of color color
color change
Indicator in acid in base
occurs
bromophenol blue yellow purple 3.0–4.6
methyl red red yellow 4.4–6.2
litmus red blue 5.5–8.2
bromothymol blue yellow blue 6.0–7.6
phenol red yellow red 6.8–8.4
phenolphthalein clear pink 8.2–10.0

There are many others, and multiple indicators can be used in order to have
different color changes over a broader pH range.

In fact, some clever chemists have developed a “universal indicator,” which is

typically composed of water, propanol, phenolphthalein, sodium hydroxide, methyl
red, bromothymol blue, and thymol blue. This mixture indicates pH over a range
from 3 to 11, in ROYGBIV (rainbow) order:

pH range Description Color

<3 Strong acid red
3–6 Weak acid orange or yellow
7 Neutral green
8–11 Weak base blue
indigo (dark blue)
> 11 Strong base
or violet (purple)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 pH & Indicators Page: 542
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases
Homework Problems
For each of the following solutions, calculate the information indicated. Choose pH
indicators from the “Common Acid-Base Indicators” table in your reference packets.

1. [H+] = 2.5 × 10−4 M

a. pH =

b. Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?

c. Which pH indicator would be best for this solution?

2. [H+] = 4.59 × 10−7 M

a. pH =

b. Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?

c. Which pH indicator would be best for this solution?

3. pH = 9.1
a. [H+] =

b. Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?

c. Which pH indicator would be best for this solution?

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 pH & Indicators Page: 543
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases
4. pH = 5.5
a. [H+] =

b. Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?

c. Which pH indicator would be best for this solution?

5. [OH−] = 7.9 × 10−7 M

a. [H+] =

b. pH =

c. Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?

d. Which pH indicator would be best for this solution?

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 pKa & Buffers Page: 544
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases

pKa & Buffers

Unit: Acids & Bases
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A
MA Curriculum Frameworks (2006): 8.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
 Calculate pH from [H+] and pOH from [OH−].
 Identify acids and bases from their pKa values.
 Select an appropriate indicator for a desired pH range.
Success Criteria:
 pH and pOH are calculated correctly.
 Acids and bases are correctly identified from their pKa values.
 Indicator changes color in a pH range that includes the pH of the given acid or
base.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: acid, base, indicator
Language Objectives:
 Explain why higher [H+] results in a lower pH.

Notes:
Acid-base chemistry is largely equilibrium chemistry in which the solvent, usually
H2O, plays a significant role.

As stated earlier, water dissociates into H+ and OH− ions. Acids and bases change
the concentrations of H+ and OH− ions in solution, which can have significant effects
on the behavior of the solution.

acid dissociation constant (Ka): is the equilibrium constant for the dissociation of an
acid. For the “generic” acid HA:
[H ][A  ]
Ka 
[HA]
The greater the Ka value, the stronger the acid. (Remember your negative
exponents! E.g., 10−5 is greater than 10−7.)

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 pKa & Buffers Page: 545
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases
pK a = −log K a (analogous to pH). The lower (or more negative) the pK a, the
stronger the acid.

When exactly 50 % of the acid HA is neutralized, [HA] = [A−], and the above
formula reduces to K a = [H+]. This means that pH = pK a when the acid is half-
neutralized.

base dissociation constant (Kb): is the equilibrium constant for the dissociation of a
base. For the “generic” base B:
[HB ][OH ]
Kb 
[B]

We can use the concept of pKa to add to our definitions of strong acids and bases:

strong acid: an acid with a pKa lower than that of H3O+ (1.0). Strong acids include
HCl, HBr, HI, H2SO4 and HNO3.

Strong acids dissociate completely into H+ and the corresponding anion. The
dissociated H+ converts H2O molecules to H3O+ ions.

weak acid: an acid with a pKa higher than that of H3O+ (1.0), but less than 7.0 (the
pH of a neutral solution at 25 °C).

strong base: a base whose conjugate acid is weaker than H2O (i.e., whose conjugate
acid has a pKa higher than 14). Hydroxides are strong bases because they
release OH−. However, note that aqueous Mg(OH)2 acts more like a weak base
because the limited solubility of Mg(OH)2 results in a concentration of OH− that
is similar to that produced by a weak base.

Strong bases either release OH− ions directly into solution, or form OH− ions by
pulling H+ off of H2O molecules.

weak base: a base whose conjugate acid has a pKa higher than 7.0 but less than 14.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 pKa & Buffers Page: 546
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases
Buffers
buffer: a weak acid or base that prevents the pH of a solution from changing
drastically until it neutralizes the buffer.

For example, if you have a fish tank, you want to keep the pH from getting too low,
you could add NaHCO3. The reaction:

H+ + HCO3− H2CO3

occurs around pH 6.4. As acid accumulates in your fish tank, it will react with the
HCO3− ions, and the pH will remain above 6.4 until all of the HCO3− ions have been
converted to H2CO3.

Buffers can work in either direction—to absorb acid or base. If you use a
combination of two buffers (one above and one below your desired pH), you can
keep the pH within a narrow range.

In fact, water acts as a buffer, but over a very wide pH range. The pH of an aqueous
solution is limited, because stronger acids just convert more H2O to H3O+, and
stronger bases just convert more H2O to OH−. The presence of water effectively
keeps the pH between 1 and 14. In fact, the reason your biology teacher taught you
that the pH range goes from 1−14 is because acid-base reactions in biology all
happen in aqueous environments.

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Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

 pKa & Buffers Page: 547
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases
Homework Problems
1. Rank the following acids from strongest to weakest, based on their pKa
values. Refer to of your Chemistry Reference Tables.

Based on pKa values in “Table P. pKa Values for Common Acids” on page 553 of
your Chemistry Reference Tables, rank the following ten compounds in order, from
the strongest acid to the strongest base.

HF, HCN, HCl, HPO42−, HNO3, H2O, CH3COOH, NH4+, H2SO4, H2CO3

1. 5. 8.

2. 6. 9.

3. 7. 10.

4.

11. The wastes from fish in a fish tank produce acids, which cause the pH of the
water in the tank to decrease over time. Which acid-base pair from the
table of pKa Values for Common Acids would be most effective at keeping
the pH from dropping below 7.0. Explain.

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 Summary: Acids & Bases Page: 548
Big Ideas Details Unit: Acids & Bases

Summary: Acids & Bases

Unit: Acids & Bases
List the main ideas of this chapter in phrase form:

Write an introductory sentence that categorizes these main ideas.

Turn the main ideas into sentences, using your own words. You may combine
multiple main ideas into one sentence.

Add transition words to make your writing clearer and rewrite your summary below.

Use this space for summary and/or additional notes:

Chemistry 1 Mr. Bigler

Chemistry 1 Chemistry Reference Tables Page: 549

Appendix: Chemistry Reference Tables

Table A. Standard Temperature and Pressure ..........................................................................................................549
Table B. Selected Units .............................................................................................................................................549
Table C. Selected Prefixes .........................................................................................................................................549
Table D. Physical Constants for Water ......................................................................................................................550
Table E. Vapor Pressure and Density of Water .........................................................................................................550
Figure F. Phase Diagram for Water ...........................................................................................................................550
Table G. Solubility Guidelines ...................................................................................................................................551
Table H. Ksp Values for Some Insoluble Salts at 25 °C ...............................................................................................551
Figure I. Solubilities of Selected Compounds ............................................................................................................551
Table J. Number Prefixes ..........................................................................................................................................552
Table K. Polyatomic Ions ...........................................................................................................................................552
Table L. Flame Test Colors ........................................................................................................................................552
Table M. Aqueous Ion Colors ....................................................................................................................................552
Table N. Colors of Assorted Compounds ..................................................................................................................552
Table O. Common Acids ............................................................................................................................................553
Table P. pKa Values for Common Acids .....................................................................................................................553
Table Q. Common Bases ...........................................................................................................................................553
Table R. Common Acid-Base Indicators ....................................................................................................................553
Figure Z. Bonding Triangle ........................................................................................................................................553
Table S. Symbols Used in Nuclear Chemistry ............................................................................................................554
Table U. Selected Radioisotopes...............................................................................................................................554
Table U. Constants Used in Nuclear Chemistry ........................................................................................................554
Figure V. Neutron/Proton Stability Band ..................................................................................................................554
Table W. Activity Series ............................................................................................................................................555
Table X. Std. Reduction Potentials ............................................................................................................................555
Table Z. Selected Properties of the Elements ...........................................................................................................556
Table AA. Bond Dissociation Energies & Bond Lengths ............................................................................................558
Table BB. Thermodynamic Data ...............................................................................................................................559
Table DD. Selected Formulas and Equations ............................................................................................................561
Periodic Table of the Elements ..................................................................................................................................563

Table A. Standard Temperature and Pressure Table B. Selected Units

Name Values Name Symbol Quantity
“Standard” Pressure 1 atm 760 torr 101.3 kPa meter (SI) m
length
Standard Temperature 0 °C 32°F 273.15K centimeter cm
atm = atmosphere kilogram (SI) kg
mass
Torr = millimeter of mercury (mm Hg) gram g
kPa = kilopascal Pascal (SI derived) Pa
°C = degree Celsius atmosphere atm
pressure
°F = degree Fahrenheit mm of mercury mm Hg
K= kelvin Torr Torr
Kelvin (SI) K
temperature
Table C. Selected Prefixes degree Celsius °C
Factor Number of Units Prefix Symbol amt of substance (SI) mol mole
6
10 1,000,000 mega- M Joule (SI derived) J
3 energy
10 1,000 kilo- k kilocalorie kcal
−1
10 0.1 deci- d second (SI) s time
−2
10 0.01 centi- c liter L, ℓ volume
−3
10 0.001 milli- m part per million ppm concentration
−6
10 0.000 001 micro- molarity M, mol
concentration

Chemistry 1 Chemistry Reference Tables Page: 550
Table D. Physical Constants for Water
Freezing Point @ 1 atm 0 °C = 273.15 K
Boiling Point @ 1 atm 100 °C = 373.15 K
Heat of Fusion 333.6 J/g
Heat of Vaporization 2270 J/g
Specific Heat Capacity (Cp) 4.184 J/g∙°C
Freezing Point Depression Constant (Kf) 0.52 °C/m
Boiling Point Elevation Constant (Kb) 1.86 °C/m

Table E. Vapor Pressure and

Figure F. Phase Diagram for Water
Density of Water
Temp Pvap density
3
(°C) (kPa) (g/cm )
0.01 0.61173 0.99978
1 0.65716 0.99985
4 0.81359 0.99995
5 0.87260 0.99994
10 1.2281 0.99969
15 1.7056 0.99909
20 2.3388 0.99819
25 3.1691 0.99702
30 4.2455 0.99561
35 5.6267 0.99399
40 7.3814 0.99217
45 9.5898 0.99017
50 12.344 0.98799
55 15.752 0.98565
60 19.932 0.98316
65 25.022 0.98053
70 31.176 0.97775
75 38.563 0.97484
80 47.373 0.97179
85 57.815 0.96991
90 70.117 0.96533
95 84.529 0.96192
100 101.32 0.95475
105 120.79 0.95475
Chemistry 1 Chemistry Reference Tables Page: 551
Table G. Solubility Guidelines
Ions That Form Ions That Form INSOLUBLE
EXCEPT with EXCEPT with
SOLUBLE Compounds Compounds
+ + 2–
Group I ions (Li , Na , etc.) carbonate (CO3 )
+ 2–
ammonium (NH4 ) chromate (CrO4 ) Group I ions,
– 3– +
nitrate (NO3 ) phosphate (PO4 ) ammonium (NH4 )
– 2–
hydrogen carbonate (HCO3 ) sulfite (SO3 )
–
chlorate (ClO3 ) 2– Group I ions,
– sulfide (S ) +
perchlorate (ClO4 ) Group II ions, NH4
– – + –
acetate (C2H3O2 or CH3COO ) Ag hydroxide (OH ) Group I ions,
– – – + + 2+ 2+ 2– + 2+ 2+ +
halides (Cl , Br , I ) Ag , Cu , Pb , Hg2 oxide (O ) NH4 , Ba , Sr , Tl
2– 2+ 2+ 2+ + 2+
sulfates (SO4 ) Ca , Sr , Ba , Ag , Pb

Table H. Ksp Values for Some

Figure I. Solubilities of Selected Compounds
Insoluble Salts at 25 °C
Compound Ksp
−5
MgCO3 1.0 × 10
−5
PbCl2 1.7 × 10
−6
BaF2 2.0 × 10
−6
CuCl 1.0 × 10
−8
PbI2 1.6 × 10
−8
AgOH 1.0 × 10
−9
BaCO3 8.1 × 10
−9
CaCO3 3.8 × 10
−10
SrCO3 9.4 × 10
−10
AgCl 1.8 × 10
−10
BaSO4 1.1 × 10
−11
CaF2 3.9 × 10
−11
Mg(OH)2 1.0 × 10
−12
Ag2CrO4 9.0 × 10
−12
CuI 5.0 × 10
−13
AgBr 3.3 × 10
−13
PbSO4 2.5 × 10
−13
PbCO3 1.6 × 10
−14
Mn(OH)2 4.0 × 10
−14
PbCrO4 1.8 × 10
−14
Fe(OH)2 1.6 × 10
−16
AgI 1.5 × 10
−18
Zn(OH)2 7.9 × 10
−18
FeS 4.0 × 10
−18
HgCl 2.0 × 10
−23
ZnS 1.0 × 10
−28
PbS 8.4 × 10
−29
CdS 3.6 × 10
−34
Al(OH)3 1.6 × 10
−36
CuS 8.7 × 10
−36
Fe(OH)3 1.3 × 10
−50
Ag2S 2.0 × 10
−53
HgS 3.0 × 10
Chemistry 1 Chemistry Reference Tables Page: 552
Table J. Number Prefixes
Number Inorganic Organic Number Inorganic Organic
1 mono- meth- 6 hexa- hex-
2 di- eth- 7 hepta- hept-
3 tri- prop- 8 octa- oct-
4 tetra- but- 9 nona- non-
5 penta- pent- 10 deca- dec-

Table K. Polyatomic Ions

ion formula ion formula ion formula ion formula
2+ + − 2−
americyl AmO2 ammonium NH4 cyanate OCN dichromate Cr2O7
2+ + − 2−
carbonyl CO hydronium H3O thiocyanate SCN imide NH
2+ + − 2−
thiocarbonyl CS iodyl IO2 selenocyanate SeCN molybdate MoO4
2+ + − 2−
chromyl CrO2 nitrosyl NO tellurocyanate TeCN peroxide O2
2+ + − 2−
neptunyl NpO2 thionitrosyl NS hydroxide OH oxalate C2O4
2+ + − 2−
plutoryl PuO2 phosphoryl PO iodate IO3 phthalate C8H4O4
2+ + − 2−
selinyl SeO thiophosphoryl PS methanolate CH3O selenate SeO4
2+ + − 2−
selenoyl SeO2 phospho PO2 methanethiolate CH3S disulfide S2
2+ − − 2−
thionyl / sulfinyl SO acetate CH3COO ethanolate C2H5O sulfate SO4
2+ − − 2−
sulfonyl / sulfuryl SO2 amide NH2 permanganate MnO4 thiosulfate S2O3
2+ − − 2−
uranyl UO hydroxylamide NHOH nitrate NO3 dithionate S2O4
2+ − − 2−
vanadyl VO azide N3 superoxide O2 silicate SiO3
2+ − 2− 3−
mercury (II) Hg hydrazide N2H3 tetraborate B4O7 borate BO3
2+ − 2− 3−
mercury (I) Hg2 bromate BrO3 carbide C2 arsenate AsO4
− 2− 3−
chlorate ClO3 carbonate CO2 phosphate PO4
− 2− 4−
cyanide CN chromate CrO4 orthosilicate SiO4

Table L. Flame Test Colors

Element Color Element Color Element Color
Ba yellow-green K pink Pb blue
Ca orange-red Li fuchsia Sb pale green
Cu blue-green Mg bright white Sr red
Fe gold Na yellow Zn blue-green

Table M. Aqueous Ion Colors

Ion Color Ion Color
+ 2+
Cu green V violet
2+ 3+
Cu blue V blue-green
2+ 2−
Fe yellow-green CrO4 yellow
3+ 2−
Fe orange-red Cr2O7 orange
3+ 2+
Cr violet [Cr(NO3)3] to green [CrCl3] Cu(NH3)4 dark blue
2+ 2+
Ni green FeSCN red-brown (wine-red to dark orange)
2+ 2+
Mn pink Co pink
7+ − 2−
Mn purple (e.g., the MnO4 ion) CoCl4 blue
3+ 2+ 4+ 3+
Pb blue-green (Pb and Pb are clear) Ti(H2O)6 purple

Table N. Colors of Assorted Compounds

Compound Color Compound Color
F2 pale yellow gas NO colorless gas
Cl2 green-yellow gas NO2 brown gas
Br2 red-brown liquid metallic sulfides of transition metals
I2 dark metallic solid; dark violet vapor sulfides tend to be black
S8 yellow odorous solid metallic oxides of colored transition metals
PbI2 bright yellow precipitate oxides tend to be colored
Fe2O3 reddish-brown (rust)
Chemistry 1 Chemistry Reference Tables Page: 553
Table O. Common Acids Table P. pKa Values for Common Acids
Formula Name Acid pKa Conj. Base
−
HCl (aq) hydrochloric acid H2O 15.7 OH
2− 3−
HNO3 (aq) nitric acid HPO4 12.6 PO4
− 2−
H2SO4 (aq) sulfuric acid HCO3 10.2 CO3
+
H3PO4 (aq) phosphoric acid NH4 9.2 NH3
−
H2CO3 (aq) carbonic acid HCN 9.1 CN
− 2−
HC2H3O2 (aq) ethanoic acid H2PO4 7.2 HPO4
or CH3COOH (aq) (acetic acid) H2S 7.0 HS
−

−
H2CO3 6.4 HCO3
−
Table Q. Common Bases CH3COOH 4.8 CH3COO
−
Formula Name HCOOH 3.7 HCOO
−
NaOH (aq) sodium hydroxide HNO2 3.3 NO2
−
KOH (aq) potassium hydroxide HF 3.2 F
Ca(OH)2 (aq) calcium hydroxide C6H8O7 −
3.1 C6H7O7
NH3 (aq) aqueous ammonia (citric acid)
−
H3PO4 2.2 H2PO4
− 2−
Table R. Common Acid-Base Indicators HSO4 2.0 SO4
−
pH Range of HNO3 −1.4 NO3
Indicator Color Change +
Color Change H3O −1.7 H2O
−
bromophenol blue 3.0 – 4.6 yellow−purple HCl −7.0 Cl
−
methyl orange 3.2 – 4.4 red−yellow HBr −9.0 Br
−
bromocresol green 3.8 – 5.4 yellow−blue HI −10 I
−
methyl red 4.4 – 6.2 red−yellow HClO4 −10 ClO4
−
litmus 5.5 – 8.2 red−blue H2SO4 −12 HSO4
bromothymol blue 6.0 – 7.6 yellow−blue
phenol red 6.8 – 8.4 yellow−red Any acid with a pKa value less than 1 is a strong
thymol blue 8.0 – 9.6 yellow−blue acid; any base whose conjugate acid has a pKa
phenolphthalein 8.2 – 10 clear−pink value greater than 14 is a strong base.

Figure S. Bonding Triangle

EN  average electroneg ativity EN  electroneg ativity difference

Chemistry 1 Chemistry Reference Tables Page: 554

Table T. Symbols Used in Nuclear Chemistry Table U. Selected Radioisotopes

Decay
Name Notation Symbol Nuclide Half-Life
Mode
alpha particle
4
2 He or 24 α
3
H 12.26 y β−
beta particle (electron) 0
-1 e
or -1 
0 β
− 14
C 5730 y β−
gamma radiation 0
0
γ
16
N 7.2 s β−
neutron 1
0n n
19
Ne 17.2 s β+
proton 1
1H
or 11 p p
24
Na 15 h β−
positron 0
1 e
or 1 
0 β
+ 27
Mg 9.5 min β−
32
P 14.3 d β−
Table V. Constants Used in Nuclear Chemistry
36
Cl 3.01 × 10 y
5
β−
Constant Value
37
K 1.23 s β+
mass of an electron (me) 0.00055 amu
40
K 1.26 × 10 y
9
β+
mass of a proton (mp) 1.00728 amu
42
K 12.4 h β−
mass of a neutron (mn) 1.00867 amu
37
Ca 0.175 s β−
51
Becquerel (Bq) 1 disintegration/second Cr 27.7 d α
Curie (Ci)
10
3.7 x 10 Bq
53
Fe 8.51 min β−
59
Fe 46.3 d β−
Figure W. Neutron/Proton Stability Band
60
Co 5.26 y β−
85
Kr 10.76 y β−
87
Rb 4.8 × 10 y
10
β−
90
Sr 28.1 y β−
99
Tc 2.13 x 10 y
5
β−
131
I 8.07 d β−
137
Cs 30.23 y β−
153
Sm 1.93 d β−
198
Au 2.69 d β−
222
Rn 3.82 d α
220
Fr 27.5 s α
226
Ra 1600 y α
232 10
Th 1.4 x 10 y α
233 5
U 1.62 x 10 y α
235 8
U 7.1 x 10 y α
238 9
U 4.51 x 10 y α
239 4
Pu 2.44 x 10 y α
241
Am 432 y α
Chemistry 1 Chemistry Reference Tables Page: 555
Table X. Activity Series Table Y. Std. Reduction Potentials
Non- 0
Metals Half-Reaction E (V)
metals
+ −
Cs F2 Li + e  Li(s) −3.040
+ −
Rb Cl2 Cs + e  Cs(s) −3.026
+ −
Reacts with cold H2O K Br2 Rb + e  Rb(s) −2.98
+ −
and acids, replacing Na I2 K + e  K(s) −2.931
2+ −
hydrogen. Reacts with Li Ba + 2 e  Ba(s) −2.912
2+ −
O2, forming oxides. Ba Sr + 2 e  Sr(s) −2.899
2+ −
Sr Ca + 2 e  Ca(s) −2.868
+ −
Ca Na + e  Na(s) −2.71
2+ −
Mg Mg + 2 e  Mg(s) −2.372
2+ −
Be Be + 2 e  Be(s) −1.85
Reacts with steam (not 3+ −
Al Al + 3 e  Al(s) −1.66
cold H2O) and acids, 2+ −
Mn Mn + 2 e  Mn(s) −1.029
replacing hydrogen. −
Zn 2 H2O + 2 e 
Reacts with O2, − −0.828
Cr H2(g) + 2 OH
forming oxides. 2+ −
Fe Zn + 2 e  Zn(s) −0.762
3+ −
Cd Cr + 3 e  Cr(s) −0.74
2+ −
Does not react with H2O. Co Fe + 2 e  Fe(s) −0.44
3+ − 2+
Reacts with acids, Ni Cr + e  Cr −0.42
2+ −
replacing hydrogen. Sn Cd + 2 e  Cd(s) −0.40
2+ −
Reacts with O2, Pb Co + 2 e  Co(s) −0.28
2+ −
forming oxides. H2 Ni + 2 e  Ni(s) −0.25
2+ −
Sb Sn + 2 e  Sn(s) −0.13
Reacts with O2, forming 2+ −
Bi Pb + 2 e  Pb(s) −0.13
oxides. + −
Cu 2 H + 2 e  H2(g) 0.000
+ −
Ag S(s) + 2 H + 2 e  H2S(g) +0.14
Fairly unreactive, 4+ − 2+
Hg Sn + 2 e  Sn +0.15
forming oxides only 2+ − +
Au Cu + e  Cu +0.159
indirectly. 2+ −
Pt Cu + 2 e  Cu(s) +0.340
+ −
Arrows indicate direction from LEAST to MOST Cu + e  Cu(s) +0.520
− −
active elements. An element can replace any I2(s) + 2 e  2 I +0.54
3+ − 2+
element below itself on the activity series. Fe + e  Fe +0.77
+ −
Ag + e  Ag(s) +0.800
2+ −
Note that the order of elements in the activity Hg2 + 2 e  2 Hg(l) +0.80
2+ −
series is similar to, though not quite identical Hg + 2 e  Hg(l) +0.85
with, the order of elements/ions in the table of 2+ − 2+
2 Hg + 2 e  Hg2 +0.91
Std. Reduction Potentials (Table Y).
− −
Br2(l) + 2 e  2 Br +1.07
2+ −
Pt + 2 e  Pt(s) +1.188
+ −
O2(g) + 4 H + 4 e  2 H2O +1.23
− −
Cl2(g) + 2 e  2 Cl +1.36
3+ −
Au + 3 e  Au(s) +1.52
3+ − 2+
Co + e  Co +1.82
− −
F2(g) + 2 e  2 F +2.87
o
E values at 1 M concentration and 1 atm.
Chemistry 1 Chemistry Reference Tables Page: 556
Table Z. Selected Properties of the Elements
st
atomic specific electro- 1 ioniza-
melting boiling common
atomic atomic element mass heat density neg- tion
point point oxidation
# symbol name (IUPAC capacity (g/mL) ativity potential
°C °C states
2005) (J/g∙K) (Pauling) (kJ/mol)
89 Ac actinium 227 1050 3200 — 10.1 1.1 499 +3
13 Al aluminum 26.98 660 2467 0.9 2.7 1.61 578 +3
95 Am americium 243 994 2607 0.11 13.7 1.3 578 +3,4,5,6
51 Sb antimony 121.8 631 1950 0.21 6.69 2.05 834 +3,5
18 Ar argon 39.95 −189.2 −185.7 0.52 0.00178 1521 0
33 As arsenic 74.92 817 617 0.33 5.73 2.18 947 ±3,+5
85 At astatine 210 302 337 — — 2.2 917
56 Ba barium 137.3 725 1640 0.204 3.5 0.89 503 +2
97 Bk berkelium 247 986 — — 14 1.3 601 +3,4
4 Be beryllium 9.012 1278 2970 1.82 1.85 1.57 899 +2
83 Bi bismuth 209.0 271 1560 0.12 9.75 2.02 703 +3,5
107 Bh bohrium 272 — — — — — — —
5 B boron 10.81 2079 2550 1.02 2.34 2.04 801 +3
35 Br bromine 79.90 −7.2 58.8 0.473 3.12 2.96 1140 ±1,+5
48 Cd cadmium 112.4 320.9 765 0.23 8.65 1.69 868 +2
20 Ca calcium 40.08 839 1484 0.63 1.55 1 590 +2
98 Cf californium 251 — — — — 1.3 608 +3
6 C carbon 12.01 3367 4827 0.71 2.25 2.55 1086 ±4
58 Ce cerium 140.1 798 3257 0.19 6.66 1.12 534 +3,4
55 Cs cesium 132.9 28.4 669 0.24 1.87 0.79 376 +1
17 Cl chlorine 35.45 −101 −34.6 0.48 0.00321 3.16 1251 −1
24 Cr chromium 52.00 1857 2672 0.45 7.19 1.66 653 +3,2,6
27 Co cobalt 58.93 1495 2870 0.42 8.9 1.88 760 +2,3
112 Cn copernicum 285 — — — — — — —
29 Cu copper 63.55 1083 2567 0.38 8.96 1.9 745 +2,1
96 Cm curium 247 1340 — — 13.5 1.3 581 +3
110 Ds darmstadtium 281 — — — — — — —
105 Db dubnium 268 — — — — — — —
66 Dy dysprosium 162.5 1412 2567 0.17 8.55 1.22 573 +3
99 Es einsteinium 252 — — — — 1.3 619 +3
68 Er erbium 167.3 1529 2868 0.17 9.07 1.24 589 +3
63 Eu europium 152.0 822 1529 0.18 5.24 547 +3,2
100 Fm fermium 257 — — — — 1.3 627 +3
114 Fl flerovium 289 — — — — — — —
9 F fluorine 19.00 −219.8 −188.1 0.82 0.0017 3.98 1681 −1
87 Fr francium 223 27 677 0.7 380 +1
64 Gd gadolinium 157.3 1313 3273 0.23 7.9 1.2 593 +3
31 Ga gallium 69.72 29.8 2403 0.37 5.9 1.81 579 +3
32 Ge germanium 72.63 947.4 2830 0.32 5.32 2.01 762 +4,2
79 Au gold 197.0 1064 3080 0.128 19.3 2.54 890 +3,1
72 Hf hafnium 178.5 2227 4600 0.14 13.3 1.3 659 +4
108 Hs hassium 270 — — — — — — —
2 He helium 4.003 −272.2 −268.9 5.193 0.000179 2372 0
67 Ho holmium 164.9 1474 2700 0.16 8.8 1.23 581 +3
1 H hydrogen 1.008 −259.1 −252.9 14.304 0.0000699 2.2 1312 ±1
49 In indium 114.8 156.6 2080 0.23 7.31 1.78 558 +3
53 I iodine 126.9 113.5 184 0.214 4.93 2.66 1008 −1,+5,7
77 Ir iridium 192.2 2410 4130 0.13 22.4 2.2 878 +4,3,6
26 Fe iron 55.85 1535 2750 0.44 7.86 1.83 762 +3,2
36 Kr krypton 83.80 −157 −152 0.248 0.00374 3 1351 0
57 La lanthanum 138.9 920 3454 0.19 6.15 1.1 538 +3
103 Lr lawrencium 262 — — — — — — +3
82 Pb lead 207.2 327.5 1740 0.13 11.4 2.33 716 +2,4
3 Li lithium 6.968 180.5 1342 3.6 0.543 0.98 520 +1
116 Lv livermorium 293 — — — — — — —
71 Lu lutetium 175.0 1663 3402 0.15 9.84 1.27 524 +3
12 Mg magnesium 24.31 649 1090 1.02 1.74 1.31 738 +2
25 Mn manganese 54.94 1244 1962 0.48 7.43 1.55 717 +2,3,4,6,7
Chemistry 1 Chemistry Reference Tables Page: 557
st
atomic specific electro- 1 ioniza-
melting boiling common
atomic atomic element mass heat density neg- tion
point point oxidation
# symbol name (IUPAC capacity (g/mL) ativity potential
°C °C states
2005) (J/g∙K) (Pauling) (kJ/mol)
109 Mt meitnerium 276 — — — — — — —
101 Md mendelevium 258 — — — — 1.3 635 +3,2
80 Hg mercury 200.6 −38.9 357 0.139 13.5 2 1007 +2,1
42 Mo molybdenum 95.95 2617 4612 0.25 10.2 2.16 684 +6,3,5
115 Mc moscovium 288 — — — — — — —
60 Nd neodymium 144.2 1016 3127 0.19 7 1.14 533 +3
10 Ne neon 20.18 −248 −248.7 0.904 0.0009 — 2081 0
93 Np neptunium 237 640 3900 0.12 20.2 1.36 605 +5,3,4,6
28 Ni nickel 58.69 1453 2730 0.44 8.9 1.91 737 +2,3
113 Nh nihonium 284 — — — — — — —
41 Nb niobium 92.91 2468 4742 0.26 8.57 1.6 652 +5,3
7 N nitrogen 14.01 −209.9 −195.8 1.04 0.00125 3.04 1402 −3
102 No nobelium 259 — — — — 1.3 642 +2,3
118 Og oganesson 294 — — — — — — —
76 Os osmium 190.2 3045 5030 0.13 22.6 2.2 839 +4,6,8
8 O oxygen 16.00 −218.4 −183 0.92 0.00143 3.44 1314 −2
46 Pd palladium 106.4 1554 3140 0.24 12 2.2 804 +2,4
15 P phosphorus 30.97 44.1 280 0.77 1.82 2.19 1012 −3
78 Pt platinum 195.1 1772 3827 0.13 21.4 2.28 868 +4,2
94 Pu plutonium 244 641 3232 0.13 19.8 1.28 585 +4,3,5,6
84 Po polonium 209 254 962 0.12 9.32 2 812 +4,2
19 K potassium 39.10 63.25 760 0.75 0.86 0.82 419 +1
59 Pr praseodymium 140.9 931 3017 0.19 6.77 1.13 527 +3,4
61 Pm promethium 145 1042 3000 0.18 7.26 — 535 +3
91 Pa protactinium 231.0 1570 4000 0.12 15.4 1.5 568 +5,4
88 Ra radium 226 700 1140 0.12 5 0.9 509 +2
86 Rn radon 222 −71 −61.8 0.09 0.00973 — 1037 0
75 Re rhenium 186.2 3180 5600 0.13 21 1.9 760 +7,4,6
45 Rh rhodium 102.9 1966 3727 0.242 12.4 2.28 720 +3,4,6
111 Rg roentgentium 280 — — — — — — —
37 Rb rubidium 85.47 38.9 686 0.363 1.53 0.82 403 +1
44 Ru ruthenium 101.1 2310 3900 0.238 12.4 2.2 710 +4,3,6,8
104 Rf rutherfordium 267 — — — — — — —
62 Sm samarium 150.4 1074 1794 0.2 7.52 1.17 545 +3,2
21 Sc scandium 44.96 1541 2832 0.6 2.99 1.36 633 +3
106 Sg seaborgium 271 — — — — — — —
34 Se selenium 78.97 217 685 0.32 4.79 2.55 941 +4,−2,+6
14 Si silicon 28.09 1410 2355 0.71 2.33 1.9 787 ±4
47 Ag silver 107.9 962 2212 0.235 10.5 1.93 731 +1
11 Na sodium 22.99 97.8 883 1.23 0.971 0.93 496 +1
38 Sr strontium 87.62 769 1384 0.3 2.54 0.95 549 +2
16 S sulfur 32.07 112.8 444.7 0.71 2.07 2.58 1000 −2
73 Ta tantalum 180.9 2996 5425 0.14 16.6 1.5 761 +5
43 Tc technetium 98 2172 4877 0.21 11.5 1.9 702 +7,4,6
52 Te tellurium 127.6 449.5 989.8 0.2 6.24 2.1 869 +4,6,−2
117 Ts tennessine 292 — — — — — — —
65 Tb terbium 158.9 1365 3230 0.18 8.23 — 569 +3,4
81 Tl thallium 204.4 303 1457 0.13 11.9 1.62 589 +1,3
90 Th thorium 232.0 1750 4790 0.12 11.7 1.3 587 +4
69 Tm thulium 168.9 1545 1950 0.16 9.32 1.25 597 +3,2
50 Sn tin 118.7 232 2270 0.227 7.31 1.96 709 +4,2
22 Ti titanium 47.87 1660 3287 0.52 4.54 1.54 659 +4,3,2
74 W tungsten 183.8 3410 5660 0.13 19.3 2.36 770 +6,4
92 U uranium 238.0 1132 3818 0.12 19 1.38 598 +6,3,4,5
23 V vanadium 50.94 1890 3380 0.49 6.11 1.63 651 +5,2,3,4
54 Xe xenon 131.3 −111.8 −107.1 0.158 0.00589 2.6 1170 0
70 Yb ytterbium 173.1 819 1196 0.15 6.97 — 603 +3,2
39 Y yttrium 88.91 1523 3337 0.3 4.47 1.22 600 +3
30 Zn zinc 65.38 419.6 906 0.39 7.13 1.65 906 +2
40 Zr zirconium 91.22 1852 4377 0.27 6.51 1.33 640 +4
Chemistry 1 Chemistry Reference Tables Page: 558
Table AA. Bond Dissociation Energies & Bond Lengths
Values given are homolytic bond dissociation energies, meaning that the electrons are divided equally between the
two atoms.

Hydrogen Compounds Group IVA Compounds Group VA Compounds

D r D r D r
Bond Bond Bond
(kJ/mol) (pm) (kJ/mol) (pm) (kJ/mol) (pm)
H−H 432 74 C−C 346 154 N−N 167 145
H−B 389 119 C=C 602 134 N=N 418 125
H−C 411 109 C≡C 835 120 N≡N 942 110
H − Si 318 148 C − Si 318 185 N−O 201 140
H − Ge 288 153 C − Ge 238 195 N=O 607 121
H − Sn 251 170 C − Sn 192 216 N−F 283 136
H−N 386 101 C − Pb 130 230 N − Cl 313 175
H−P 322 144 C−N 305 147 P−P 201 221
H − As 247 152 C=N 615 129 P−O 335 163
H−O 459 96 C≡N 887 116 P=O 544 150
H−S 363 134 C−P 264 184 P=S 335 186
H − Se 276 146 C−O 358 143 P−F 490 154
H − Te 238 170 C=O 799 120 P − Cl 326 203
H−F 565 92 C≡O 1072 113 P − Br 264 ?
H − Cl 428 127 C−B 356 ? P−I 184 ?
H − Br 362 141 C−S 272 182 As − As 146 243
H−I 295 161 C=S 573 160 As − O 301 178
C−F 485 135 As − F 484 171
C − Cl 327 177 As − Cl 322 216
Group VIIA Compounds C − Br 285 194 As − Br 458 233
D r C−I 213 214 As − I 200 254
Bond
(kJ/mol) (pm) Si − Si 222 233 Sb − Sb 121 ?
F−F 155 142 Si − N 355 ? Sb − F 440 ?
Cl − Cl 240 199 Si − O 452 163 Sb − Cl(5) 248 ?
Br − Br 190 228 Si − S 293 200 Sb − Cl(3) 315 232
I−I 148 267 Si − F 565 160
At − At 116 ? Si − Cl 381 202
I−O 201 ? Si − Br 310 215 Group VIA Compounds
I−F 273 191 Si − I 234 243 D r
Bond
I − Cl 208 232 Ge − Ge 188 241 (kJ/mol) (pm)
I − Br 175 ? Ge − N 257 ? O−O 142 148
Ge − F 470 168 O=O 494 121
Ge − Cl 349 210 O−F 190 142
Group IIIA Compounds Ge − Br 276 230 S=O 522 143
D r Ge − I 212 ? S − S(8) 226 205
Bond
(kJ/mol) (pm) Sn − F 414 ? S=S 425 149
B−B 293 ? Sn − Cl 323 233 S−F 284 156
B−O 536 ? Sn − Br 273 250 S − Cl 255 207
B−F 613 ? Sn − I 205 270 Se − Se 172 ?
B − Cl 456 175 Pb − F 331 ? Se = Se 272 215
B − Br 377 ? Pb − Cl 243 242
Pb − Br 201 ?
Pb − I 142 279
Chemistry 1 Chemistry Reference Tables Page: 559
Table BB. Thermodynamic Data

Standard enthalpy of formation (H f ) & standard entropy ( S ) for selected compounds. Note that standard
enthalpy values are in kilojoules per mole, whereas entropy values are in joules per mole∙Kelvin.
  
ΔH f S ΔH f S ΔH f S
Subst. State kJ
Subst. State kJ
Subst. State kJ
( mol ) ( molJK ) ( mol ) ( molJK ) ( mol ) ( molJK )
Ag s 0 42.6 Cr2O3 g −1139.7 81.2 MnO2 s −520.0 53.0
+
Ag aq 105.79 72.7 Cu s 0 33.2 N2 g 0 191.5
+
AgCl s −127.01 96.2 Cu aq +71.7 40.6 NH3 g −45.94 192.3
+2 +
AgBr s −100.4 107.1 Cu aq +64.8 −99.6 NH4 aq −133.26 113.4
−
AgNO3 s −124.4 140.9 CuO s −157.3 42.6 NO2 aq −104.6 123.0
−
Al s 0 28.3 Cu2O s −168.6 93.1 NO3 aq −206.85 146.4
+3
Al aq −538.4 −321.7 Cu(OH)2 s −450 108 N2H4 ℓ +50.6 121.2
AlCl3 s −704 110.7 CuS s −53.1 66.5 NH4Cl s −314.4 94.6
Al2O3 s −1675.7 50.9 Cu2S s −79.5 120.9 NH4NO3 s −365.6 151.1
Al(OH)3 s −1277 CuSO4 s −771.4 107.6 NO g +90.2 210.7
−
Ba s 0 62.8 F aq −335.35 −13.8 NO2 g +33.2 240.0
BaCl2 s −858.6 123.7 F2 g 0 202.7 N2O g +82 220
BaCO3 s −1216.3 112.1 Fe s 0 27.3 N2O4 g +9.2 304.2
Ba(NO3)2 s −992 214 Fe(OH)3 s −823.0 106.7 Na s 0 51.2
+
BaO s −553.5 70.4 FeO s −272 61 Na aq −240.34 59.0
Ba(OH)2 s −998.2 112 Fe2O3 s −824.2 87.4 Na2CO3 s −1131 136
BaSO4 s −1473.2 132.2 Fe3O4 s −1118.4 146.4 NaHCO3 s −948 102
Be s 0 10 FeSO4 s −929 121 NaCl s −411.2 72.1
BeO s −599 14 H2 g 0 130.6 NaF s −573.6 51.5
+
Br2 ℓ 0 152.2 H aq 0 0.0 NaNO3 s −467 116
Br− aq −121 82 HBr g −36.29 198.6 NaOH s 425.6 64.5
−
C s 0 5.7 HCO3 aq −689.93 91.2 Ni s 0 29.9
CCl4 ℓ −135.4 216.4 HCl g −92.31 186.8 NiCl2 s −316 107
CHCl3 ℓ −134.5 201.7 HF g −273.30 173.7 NiO s −239.7 38.0
−
CH4 g −74.8 186.2 HI g 26.50 206.5 OH aq −230.015 −10.8
C2H2 g +226.7 200.8 HNO3 aq −174.1 155.6 O2 g 0 205.0
−2
C2H4 g +52.3 219.5 HPO4 aq −1299.0 −33.5 P4 s 0 164.4
−
C2H6 g −84.7 229.5 HSO4 aq −886.9 131.8 PCl3 g −287.0 311.7
C3H8 g −103.8 269.9 H2O ℓ −285.830 69.9 PCl5 g −374.9 364.5
CH3OH ℓ −238.7 126.8 H2O g −241.826 188.7 PH3 g +5 210
− −3
C2H5OH ℓ −277.7 160.7 H2PO4 aq −1302.6 90.4 PO4 aq −1277.4 −222
C6H12O6 s −1275 212 H2S g −20.6 205.7 Pb s 0 64.8
+2
CO g −110.53 197.6 Hg ℓ 0 76.0 Pb aq 0.92 10.5
+2
CO2 g −393.51 213.6 Hg aq 170.21 −32.2 PbBr2 s −278.7 161.5
−2
CO3 aq −675.23 −56.9 HgO cr −90.79 70.3 PbCl2 s −359.4 136.0
−
Ca s 0 41.4 I aq −56.78 111.3 PbO s −219.0 66.5
+2
Ca aq −543.0 −53.1 I2 s 0 116.1 PbO2 s −277.4 68.6
CaCl2 s −795.8 104.6 K s 0 64.2 PbS s −100 91
+
CaCO3 s −1206.9 92.9 K aq −252.14 102.5 PbSO4 s −920 149
CaO s −634.92 39.8 KBr s −393.8 95.9 S s 0 31.8
Ca(OH)2 s −986.1 83.4 KCl s −436.7 82.6 SO2 g −296.81 248.1
Ca3(PO4)2 s −4126 241 KClO3 s −397.7 143.1 SO3 g −395.7 256.7
−2
CaSO4 s −1434.1 106.7 KClO4 s −432.8 151.0 SO4 aq −909.34 20.1
Cd s 0 51.8 KNO3 s −494.6 133.0 S - 2 aq
+2
Cd aq −75.92 −73.2 Mg s 0 32.7 Si s 0 18.8
+2
CdCl2 s −391.5 115.3 Mg aq −467.0 −138.1 SiO2 s −910.7 41.8
CdO s −258.35 54.8 MgCl2 s −641.3 89.6 Sn s 0 51.6
+2
Cd(OH)2 s −561 96 MgCO3 s −1095.8 65.7 Sn aq −8.9 −17.4
CdS s −162 65 MgO s −601.60 26.9 SnO2 s −577.63 52.3
CdSO4 s −935 123 Mg(OH)2 s −924.5 63.2 Zn s 0 41.6
+2
Cl2 g 0 223.0 MgSO4 s −1284.9 91.6 Zn aq −153.39 −112.1
−
Cl aq −167.080 56.5 Mn s 0 32.0 ZnI2 s −208.0 161.1
− +2
ClO4 aq −128.10 182.0 Mn aq −220.8 −73.6 ZnO s −350.46 43.6
Cr s 0 23.8 MnO s −385.2 59.7 ZnS s −206.0 57.7
Chemistry 1 Chemistry Reference Tables Page: 560
Table CC. Some Common & Equivalent Units and Approximate Conversions

Some Common & Equivalent Units

Length 1 in. (inch) = 2.54 cm
12 in. = 1 ft. (foot)
3 ft. = 1 yd. (yard)
5,280 ft. = 1 mi. (mile) = 1,760 yd

Mass 1 lb. (pound) = 16 oz. ~ 454 g

1 ton = 2000 lb.
1 tonne = 1000 kg

Volume 1 pinch = ≤ 1 8 teaspoon

3 teaspoons = 1 tablespoon (Tbsp)
2 tablespoons = 1 ounce
8 oz. (ounces) = 1 cup
2 cups = 1 pint
2 pints = 1 quart
4 quarts = 1 gallon

Some APPROXIMATE Conversions

Length 1 cm ~ width of a small paper clip
6 in. ~ length of a (US) dollar bill
1 ft. ~ 30 cm
1m ~ 1 yd.
1 mi. ~ 1.6 km
0.6 km ~ 1 mi.

1
Volume 1 pinch ~ ≤ 8 teaspoon
1 mL ~ 10 drops
1 teaspoon (tsp) ~ 5 mL ~ 60 drops
1 tablespoon (Tbsp) = 3 tsp ~ 15 mL
2 Tbsp. = 1 fl. oz. ~ 30 mL
1 C (cup) = 8 fl. oz. ~ 250 mL
1 qt. (quart) ~ 1L

Mass 1 small paper clip ~ 1 gram (g)

1 nickel (5¢ coin) ~ 5g
1 oz. ~ 30 g
1 pound (lb.) = 16 oz. ~ 0.5 kg
1 ton = 2000 lb. ~ 1 tonne

Speed 60 mi./h ~ 100 km/h ~ 30 m/s

Density air ~ 1 g/L

fresh water ~ 1 g/mL ~ 8.3 lb./gal.
3 3
~ 1 tonne/m ~ 1 ton/yd.
Chemistry 1 Chemistry Reference Tables Page: 561

Table DD. Selected Formulas and Equations

M
Density D D = density M = mass V = volume
V
1 mol = [molar mass] g (molar mass = formula weight = gram formula mass)
Mole Conversions 1 mol = 22.4 L of gas at 0 °C and 1 atm
23
1 mol = 6.022 × 10 molecules, atoms, or particles
measured value - accepted value
Percent Error % error  *100%
accepted value
Percent mass of part
% composition  *100%
Composition mass of whole
moles of solute (moles of solute)(dissociation factor)
molarity (M)  normality (N) 
liter of solution liter of solution
moles of solute
Concentration molality (m) 
kg of solvent
moles of A grams of solute
mole fraction ( A )  parts per million (ppm)   1,000,000
total moles grams of solvent
P1 V1 PV P = pressure n = moles
 2 2
Gases T1 T2 V = volume (L) T = temperature (K)
atm  8.31 LkPa  62.4 Ltorr
R  0.0821 Lmol
PV = nRT K molK molK
1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 760 torr = 760 mm Hg = 29.92 in. Hg = 1.013 bar = 14.7 psi
Pressure PA = χAPT PA= partial pressure of A χA = mole fraction of A
PT = PA + P B + PC + … PT = total pressure
+ −
NA = normality of H3O NB = normality of OH
Titration NAVA = NBVB
VA = volume of acid VB = volume of base
Tf = freezing point depression
Tb = boiling point elevation (°C)
Tf = imKf (°C)
Kf = freezing point depression constant (H2O = 0.52 °C/m)
Colligative
Kb = boiling point elevation constant (H2O = 1.86 °C/m)
Properties Tb = imKb
i = van’t Hoff factor (dissociation factor) π = osmotic pressure
m = molality M = molarity (mol/L) N = normality (mol/L)
π = iM RT = N RT
R = ideal gas const. T = temperature (K)
+
pH = −log[H3O ] [H3O ][A  ]
Ka 
pOH = −log[OH ]
− [HA]
pKa = −log(Ka)
pH  pKa  log
base
Acid-Base
pH + pOH = 14
Kb 

[H B][OH ] 

pKb = −log(Kb)
acid 
−14
Kw= Ka∙Kb = 1 × 10 [B]
Δn Kp = gas press. Kc = molar conc. Δn = change in
Equilibrium Kp = Kc(RT)
equil. const. equil. const. # moles
q = m Cp T q = heat T = change in temperature
Heat q = m Hf m = mass Hf = heat of fusion
q = m Hv Cp = specific heat capacity Hv = heat of vaporization
ΔG° = ΔH° − TΔS° G° = standard free energy S° = standard entropy
Thermodynamics
ΔG° = −RT ln K H° = standard enthalpy T = temperature (K)
q=
charge
q I = current (amperes) t = time (seconds)
I (Coulomb
Electrochemistry t
s)
F = Faraday’s constant = 96,000 Coulomb per mole electrons
ΔG° = −nFE° n = moles of electrons E° = standard reduction potential
K = °C + 273.15 K = Kelvin
Temperature
°C= (°F−32) * 5/9 °C = degrees Celsius °F = degrees Fahrenheit
t
A = amount left t = total elapsed time t
Radioactive Decay A  Ao  12 ½ number of half-lives = 
  Ao = original amount τ½ = half-life ½
 Periodic Table of the Elements
Chemistry 1

1 18
IA VIII A

Period
1 ±1 atomic # → 29 +2,1 ← ions commonly formed 2
H 2 atomic symbol → Cu 13 14 15 16 17 He
1 1s
hydro gen II A English element name → co pper III A IV A VA VI A VII A helium

1.008 63.55 ← atomic mass (rounded) 4.003

3 +1 4 +2 5 +3 6 −4 7 −3 8 −2 9 −1 10

2 2s Li Be 2p B C N O F Ne
lithium beryllium bo ro n carbo n nitro gen o xygen fluo rine neo n
6.968 9.012 Gases Liquids Metalloids 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 +1 12 +2 13 +3 14 −4 15 −3 16 −2 17 −1 18
Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar
3 3s 3p
so dium magnesium III B IV B VB VI B VII B VIII B VIII B VIII B IB II B aluminum silico n pho spho rus sulfur chlo rine argo n
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 +1 20 +2 21 +3 22 +4,3,2 23 +5,2,3,4 24 +3,2,6 25 +2,3,4,6,7 26 +3,2 27 +2,3 28 +2,3 29 +2,1 30 +2 31 +3 32 +4,2 33 −3 34 −2 35 −1 36

4 4s K Ca 3d Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn 4p Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
po tassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chro mium manganese iro n co balt nickel co pper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bro mine krypto n
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.97 79.90 83.80
37 +1 38 +2 39 +3 40 +4 41 +5,3 42 +6,3,5 43 +7,4,6 44 +4,3,6,8 45 +3,4,6 46 +2,4 47 +1 48 +2 49 +3 50 +4,2 51 +3,5 52 −2 53 −1 54

5 5s Rb Sr 4d Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd 5p In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium stro ntium yttrium zirco nium nio bium mo lybdenum technetium ruthenium rho dium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimo ny tellurium io dine xeno n
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.95 98 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 +1 56 +2 71 +3 72 +4 73 +5 74 +6,4 75 +7,4,6 76 +4,6,8 77 +4,3,6 78 +4,2 79 +3,1 80 +2,1 81 +1,3 82 +2,4 83 +3,5 84 +4,2 85 86

6 6s Cs Ba † 5d Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg 6p Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
cesium barium lutetium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium o smium iridium platinum go ld mercury thallium lead bismuth po lo nium astatine rado n
132.9 137.3 175.0 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 209 210 222
87 +1 88 +2 ## +3 ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ##

7 7s Fr Ra ‡ 6d Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn 7p Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
francium radium lawrencium rutherfo rdium dubnium seabo rgium bo hrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium ro entgentium co pernicum niho nium flero vium mo sco vium livermo rium tennessine o ganesso n
223 226 262 267 268 271 272 270 276 281 280 285 284 289 288 293 292 294

57 +3 58 +3,4 59 +3,4 60 +3 61 +3 62 +3,2 63 +3,2 64 +3 65 +3,4 66 +3 67 +3 68 +3 69 +3,2 70 +3,2

lanthanides † 4f La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
(rare earth metals) lanthanum cerium praseo dymium neo dymium pro methium samarium euro pium gado linium terbium dyspro sium ho lmium erbium thulium ytterbium
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 145 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.1
89 +3 90 +4 91 +5,4 92 +6,3,4,5 93 +5,3,4,6 94 +4,3,5,6 95 +3,4,5,6 96 +3 97 +3,4 98 +3 99 +3 100 +3 101 +3,2 102 +2,3

actinides ‡ 5f Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
actinium tho rium pro tactinium uranium neptunium pluto nium americium curium berkelium califo rnium einsteinium fermium mendelevium no belium
227 232.0 231.0 238.0 237 244 243 247 247 251 252 257 258 259
Page 563
Chemistry 1 Index Page 564

Index
acceleration, 61 calorimetry, 478, 479 dipole moment, 340, 343, 495
accuracy, 36, 38, 72 catalyst, 514, 519 direction, 36, 37, 474
acid, 7, 124, 174, 297, 438, 536, cell, 396, 442, 443 dissolve, 7, 28, 46, 112, 264, 345,
537, 540, 543, 548, 555, 563 charge, 75, 85, 129, 163, 164, 165, 372, 373, 374, 375, 377, 378,
air, 137, 138, 148, 225, 255, 395, 168, 169, 177, 180, 181, 190, 380, 384, 387, 388, 392, 393,
416, 491, 562 193, 214, 247, 259, 266, 273, 394, 395, 404, 416, 438, 520,
alkali, 263 274, 279, 282, 283, 284, 286, 536
alkali metal, 263 289, 290, 291, 294, 311, 314, distance, 23, 176, 192, 195
alkaline, 263 332, 337, 338, 343, 412, 434, double displacement, 402, 408
alkaline earth metal, 263 436, 437, 438, 563 double replacement, 408, 411, 412,
alpha decay, 193 chemical bond, 112, 279, 307, 335, 413
alpha particle, 193, 195, 208 342, 428, 500 effusion, 155, 157
Amonton, 128 chemical equilibrium, 522 electrolysis, 417
amphoteric, 537 chemical formula, 112, 148, 174, electrolytic cell, 442, 443
amplitude, 223 278, 281, 286, 287, 290, 300, electromagnet, 206
assumptions, 140 306, 356, 359, 360, 366, 367, electron, 162, 163, 166, 167, 168,
atom, 74, 75, 112, 123, 162, 163, 392, 419 170, 171, 193, 194, 197, 199,
164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, chemical reaction, 7, 17, 18, 30, 43, 213, 214, 215, 219, 221, 223,
173, 174, 183, 199, 200, 201, 125, 130, 163, 167, 229, 244, 224, 228, 230, 231, 234, 238,
204, 214, 221, 223, 224, 230, 246, 352, 381, 402, 403, 407, 239, 240, 244, 245, 246, 247,
233, 238, 244, 246, 247, 257, 408, 411, 419, 427, 428, 435, 248, 249, 254, 263, 265, 266,
265, 266, 267, 269, 272, 273, 446, 447, 452, 453, 456, 496, 267, 306, 307, 308, 309, 311,
274, 279, 280, 281, 286, 287, 497, 502, 514, 517, 518, 519, 313, 314, 318, 319, 320, 324,
300, 301, 307, 308, 309, 310, 523 435, 556
311, 313, 314, 317, 318, 319, chemical symbol, 165 electron capture, 194
320, 323, 324, 332, 335, 337, circuit, 208 electronegativity, 254, 269, 270,
338, 339, 351, 353, 412, 419, collision 280, 281, 306, 330, 331, 332,
420, 434, 435, 436 elastic, 135 333, 334, 335, 343
atomic mass, 157, 163, 164, 183, color, 178 electrostatic, 7, 108, 224
184, 256, 257, 258, 259, 351, combination, 10, 19, 74, 145, 174, element, 9, 111, 112, 114, 123, 163,
352, 353, 360 223, 402, 497, 548 164, 165, 167, 173, 183, 213,
atomic number, 164, 165, 196, 237, combined gas law, 139, 140 228, 229, 231, 234, 238, 240,
254, 258, 259 combustion, 402, 408, 411, 435, 248, 254, 255, 256, 257, 260,
atomic radius, 272 508, 510, 511 265, 266, 269, 270, 274, 281,
band of stability, 192, 193, 194 composition, 7, 162, 166, 174, 190, 287, 289, 290, 291, 333, 343,
base, 7, 73, 74, 75, 413, 438, 536, 359, 402 359, 360, 407, 412, 421, 422,
537, 540, 543, 548, 555, 563 compound, 76, 96, 98, 99, 111, 112, 435, 436, 437, 500, 557
basic, 84, 168, 389, 533, 540, 541 114, 133, 148, 164, 167, 174, empirical formula, 350, 359, 360,
beta decay 257, 281, 282, 283, 284, 287, 361, 362
beta minus, 193 289, 290, 291, 297, 299, 307, energy, 135, 170, 176, 195, 199,
beta plus, 194 314, 342, 343, 351, 353, 359, 200, 206, 207, 208, 219, 473,
beta particle, 195 360, 361, 362, 365, 366, 380, 474, 475, 477, 484, 493
binding energy, 199, 200 382, 392, 397, 407, 408, 412, kinetic, 473, 474, 493
Bohr model, 219 435, 436, 437, 447, 448, 498, enthalpy, 7, 375, 491, 494, 495,
boiling, 7, 108, 110, 111, 113, 119, 499, 500, 502, 503, 507, 509, 497, 498, 499, 500, 507, 509,
122, 129, 151, 205, 262, 263, 523, 537, 539 517, 561, 563
264, 330, 343, 372, 392, 393, concentration, 46, 85, 99, 100, 372, entropy, 7, 375, 472, 491, 494, 496,
394, 563 378, 387, 394, 396, 397, 514, 497, 561, 563
boiling point, 7, 108, 111, 113, 122, 520, 524, 541, 542, 551, 557 equilibrium, 18, 85, 493, 514, 522,
129, 151, 262, 263, 264, 330, conjugate, 537 523, 524, 529, 530, 540, 542
343, 372, 392, 393, 394, 563 Cornell Notes, 9 expand, 477, 483
boiling point elevation, 392, 394, current, 206 fermion, 180
563 debye, 340 fission, 190, 204, 205
bonding, 17, 278, 279, 306, 307, decomposition, 402, 407, 435 fluid, 116, 129, 404
323, 324 density, 7, 45, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 97, force, 176, 181, 192, 193, 199, 219
boson, 180 98, 100, 108, 111, 113, 262, 330,
buffer, 533, 548 552, 563
burning, 111, 113, 433 dipole, 340, 343, 344, 345, 374,
calorimeter, 30, 31, 43 377, 495
Chemistry 1 Index Page 565
formula, 14, 30, 39, 61, 86, 112, kinetic molecular theory, 108, 128 osmotic pressure, 397, 563
124, 136, 145, 148, 156, 157, kinetics, 7, 18 oxidation, 7, 433, 434, 435, 436,
174, 230, 281, 283, 284, 286, limiting reactant, 456, 457, 458, 437, 438, 441, 442
287, 288, 290, 291, 294, 300, 459 oxidation number, 7, 433, 436, 437
314, 333, 340, 343, 351, 356, limiting reagent, 456 oxidation state, 436
359, 360, 361, 362, 366, 367, liquid, 33, 34, 100, 108, 109, 110, particle, 108, 163, 168, 171, 214,
392, 397, 437, 554, 563 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 215, 223, 229, 443, 495, 514,
free energy, 7, 496, 563 120, 121, 122, 129, 130, 135, 556
Gibbs free energy, 496, 497 151, 206, 264, 279, 343, 345, percent error, 39, 72
fuse, 206 378, 381, 393, 395, 404, 473, percent yield, 7, 446, 464, 465
fusion, 115, 116, 117, 190, 206, 483, 484, 485, 554 period, 74, 76, 229, 231, 260, 270
484, 485, 563 mass defect, 199, 200 periodic law, 258
galvanic cell, 442 mass number, 164, 165, 183, 184, periodic table, 17, 112, 213, 231,
gamma ray, 195, 207, 208 196 234, 237, 238, 240, 244, 245,
gas, 4, 7, 89, 90, 101, 108, 109, 110, matter, 4, 16, 17, 23, 84, 87, 108, 247, 248, 254, 257, 258, 259,
115, 116, 118, 120, 122, 124, 109, 112, 114, 120, 123, 128, 260, 263, 264, 270, 351, 353
125, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 173, 309, 351, 423, 428, 438 periodic trend, 7
133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, melt, 117, 206, 264 phase change, 483
139, 140, 141, 144, 145, 146, metal, 13, 45, 90, 168, 208, 280, physical, 7, 18, 74, 84, 108, 109,
148, 150, 152, 155, 156, 167, 289, 309, 333, 342, 343, 344, 111, 112, 113, 120, 123, 173,
240, 244, 247, 266, 267, 343, 407, 412, 416, 434, 437, 442, 230, 257, 258, 260, 330, 392,
351, 356, 378, 381, 394, 395, 443, 453 417, 495
397, 404, 477, 483, 484, 486, metathesis, 408 plasma, 206, 483
495, 500, 554, 563 metric system, 74, 77, 145 positive charge, 163, 168, 169, 208,
gas constant, 89, 90, 133, 145, 156, mixture, 108, 111, 112, 113, 114, 266, 273, 274, 282, 284, 289,
397, 563 156, 395 332, 337
gravity, 176 molecule, 120, 122, 123, 151, 157, power, 81, 195, 202, 207
half-life, 201, 202, 208 164, 167, 256, 260, 299, 300, precision, 36, 38, 40, 44, 48, 52, 72,
heat, 7, 13, 18, 30, 31, 33, 34, 43, 309, 313, 317, 318, 319, 320, 491, 502, 507, 515
85, 90, 129, 131, 168, 200, 205, 332, 337, 338, 339, 340, 342, pressure, 134, 137, 138, 139, 141,
206, 262, 266, 343, 375, 403, 343, 353, 359, 380, 394, 404, 146, 205, 477
404, 408, 416, 417, 473, 474, 419, 420, 422, 447, 495, 499 propagation, 204
475, 476, 477, 478, 479, 483, momentum, 135, 473 proton, 163, 171, 199, 204, 214,
484, 485, 486, 487, 492, 493, negative charge, 163, 168, 229, 215, 533, 556
495, 497, 499, 500, 502, 503, 274, 282, 283, 284, 289, 311, quantum, 18, 166, 170, 171, 219,
505, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511, 332, 337, 338 221, 223, 224, 228, 238
517, 530, 563 neutralization, 536 quantum mechanics, 18
heat capacity, 343, 563 neutralize, 208 quantum number, 170, 171, 224
heat of fusion, 484, 485, 563 neutrino, 180 quark, 176, 181, 192, 193, 194
heat of vaporization, 484, 486, 563 neutron, 163, 171, 199, 204, 215, radiation, 74, 75, 195, 207, 556
heating curve, 485, 486 556 radioactive, 190, 196, 201, 205,
hydrocarbon, 362, 408, 411 noble gas, 240, 244, 247, 264, 266, 207, 208
hydrogen bond, 330, 343, 344, 345, 267, 270 radioactive decay, 191, 192, 193,
374 nonmetal, 280, 289, 333, 342, 344 194, 195, 196, 197, 201
hydroxide, 124, 278, 288, 383, 533, non-metal, 261, 262, 280 reactant, 30, 31, 407, 447, 452, 456,
553, 554, 555 non-metal, 280 457, 458, 459, 505, 520
ideal gas law, 146 non-metal, 307 reaction, 7, 31, 43, 62, 123, 124,
inorganic, 18 non-metal, 309 173, 204, 205, 206, 352, 380,
intermolecular force, 342, 343, 375, non-metal, 407 381, 403, 404, 407, 408, 411,
377, 382 non-metal, 412 412, 413, 416, 419, 420, 427,
ion, 164, 165, 166, 214, 247, 264, nonpolar bond, 334 428, 433, 434, 435, 438, 441,
266, 267, 270, 274, 279, 280, nuclear, 123, 124, 125, 162, 190, 442, 443, 447, 452, 453, 456,
283, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 196, 199, 205, 206, 207, 214, 457, 459, 464, 465, 496, 500,
291, 293, 294, 297, 311, 314, 259, 273, 495 502, 503, 505, 507, 508, 509,
343, 344, 345, 374, 377, 380, nucleus, 162, 163, 164, 166, 168, 510, 511, 515, 516,517, 518,
381, 382, 407, 413, 416, 427, 169, 170, 171, 199, 204, 214, 519, 520, 522, 523, 524, 529,
436, 437, 500, 533, 537, 554 221, 223, 230, 231, 266, 272, 536, 548
isotope, 183, 184, 190, 196, 208 273, 274, 319 reagent, 456
Kelvin, 140, 146 orbital, 166, 224, 230, 232, 234, redox, 435, 438, 441
kinetic energy, 97, 130, 131, 145, 238, 239, 248, 249, 323, 324 reduction, 7, 433, 434, 435, 438,
151, 155, 157, 378, 473, 474, organic, 18, 281, 508 441, 442, 563
493, 495, 517, 520 osmosis, 396, 397
Chemistry 1 Index Page 566
relative error, 38, 39, 42, 43, 45, 46, specific heat capacity, 13, 30, 43, units, 14, 17, 43, 55, 57, 72, 73, 74,
62 90, 476, 477, 478, 485, 486, 563 75, 76, 84, 85, 89, 90, 91, 93, 96,
salt, 100, 112, 114, 393, 394, 443, spectrum, 217 97, 109, 111, 115, 140, 145, 146,
536 speed, 193, 194, 199, 204 156, 157, 353, 356, 477, 498,
scientific notation, 49, 52, 72, 78, standard model, 178 502, 507
80, 81, 82, 83 stoichiometry, 7, 18, 356, 372, 446, valence, 246, 247, 248, 249, 257,
significant figures, 14, 47, 48, 49, 447, 448, 449, 452, 453, 456, 260, 262, 263, 264, 270, 278,
52, 53, 54, 57, 72, 84, 94, 96, 99, 458, 464, 465, 502, 505 280, 306, 307, 313, 314
109 strong force, 176, 181, 192 valent, 247, 257, 266, 267, 280,
single displacement, 402, 407 surroundings, 484, 492, 493 308, 309, 311, 324, 437
single replacement, 407, 411, 412, synthesis, 402, 407, 435 vapor, 7, 115, 120, 122, 151, 392,
416, 435 system, 9, 11, 13, 16, 19, 27, 33, 36, 395, 404, 554
solid, 72, 108, 109, 110, 113, 114, 38, 47, 55, 59, 64, 73, 80, 84, 91, velocity, 195
115, 116, 118, 120, 121, 129, 96, 109, 111, 115, 473, 483, 484, VSEPR, 306, 317, 318, 319, 320,
130, 135, 166, 215, 264, 279, 491, 492, 493, 502, 507 321, 324, 325
343, 365, 380, 393, 404, 428, temperature, 134, 137, 138, 139, water, 17, 28, 30, 31, 43, 45, 74, 99,
442, 473, 483, 484, 485, 554 140, 141, 146, 208, 473, 474, 112, 113, 114, 117, 119, 124,
solubility, 373, 380, 383, 384 477, 478, 479, 480, 485, 486, 138, 151, 174, 205, 225, 255,
soluble, 263, 264, 342, 373, 382 487, 492, 493 263, 264, 297, 330, 339, 343,
solute, 342, 373, 374, 375, 377, theoretical yield, 464 345, 365, 366, 367, 377, 380,
378, 380, 382, 384, 387, 388, theory, 7, 11, 19, 22, 23, 130, 162, 381, 382, 384, 387, 388, 389,
389, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 166, 167, 168, 169, 174, 306, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 404,
397 317, 318, 397, 419, 515, 524, 412, 416, 417, 438, 442, 493,
solution, 11, 14, 46, 100, 112, 372, 533 533, 536, 537, 539, 540, 542,
373, 374, 375, 378, 380, 381, thermal equilibrium, 493 562
384, 387, 388, 389, 392, 393, thermal expansion, 473 wave, 171, 217, 223
394, 395, 397, 404, 420, 427, thermometer, 41, 57, 473, 493 wavelength, 171
442, 443, 453, 540, 541, 542, uncertainty, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, weak force, 176, 192, 193
548 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 52, 53, 57, weight, 57
solvent, 113, 342, 343, 373, 374, 58, 61, 62, 63, 66 wire, 206
375, 377, 378, 382, 384, 387, unit, 4, 39, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 82, work, 58, 59, 81, 193
392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 539 85, 88, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98, yield, 464, 465
specific heat, 13, 30, 43, 90, 343, 99, 145, 163, 190, 226, 340, 387,
563 452, 458