Boolean algebra, logic gates and canonical

representations.
Logic Gates:
Symbol set 1 Symbol set 2
(ANSI/IEEE Standard 91-1984)
a a
AND a.b & a.b
b b

a a
OR a+b 1 a+b
b b

NOT a 1 a'
a a'

a a
(a.b)' & (a.b)'
NAND b b

a a
NOR (a+b)' 1 (a+b)'
b b

XOR a a
ab =1 ab
b b
Dr VP-WASE 1
 Drawing a logic circuit
 When a Boolean expression is provided, we can easily
draw the logic circuit.
 Examples:
(i) F1 = xyz' (note the use of a 3-input AND gate)
x
y F1

z z'

(ii) F2 = x + y'z (can assume that variables and their x

complements are available) F2
y'
z y'z
(iii) F3 = xy' + x'z
x xy'
y'
F3
x'
z x'z
Dr VP-WASE 2
 What is Boolean expression of F5?
x

y F5

Positive logic:
Active High:
Enable 0: Disabled
1: Enabled

Negative logic:
Active Low:
Enable 0: Enabled
1: Disabled

Dr VP-WASE 3
 Basic boolean theorems
• A+1=A ; A+A = A ; A + 0 = A ; A + A’ = 1
• A.1 = A ; A.A = A; A . 0 = 0 ; A . A’ = 0
• A+A’B = A+B ; A’+AB = A’ + B ; A’ + AB’ = A’+B’
• A’’ = A ; A + A.B = A ;
• D’Morgans Theorem:
(a + b ) ‘ = a’ . b’
(a . b) ‘ = a’ + b’
• Duality: Replace AND by OR and 0 by 1.
Eg. A+1=1 = A.0 = 0 ; A.1=A  A+0=A ;
Dr VP-WASE 4
 Complement of Functions
 Given a function, F, the complement of this function, F', is
obtained by interchanging 1 with 0 and 0 with 1 in the
function’s output values.
x y z F1 F1'
0 0 0 0 1
Example: F1 = xyz'
0 0 1 0 1
Complement: 0 1 0 0 1
F1' = (xyz')' 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1
= x' + y' + (z')' DeMorgan
1 0 1 0 1
= x' + y' + z Involution 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1

Dr VP-WASE 5
Cannonical form

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Dr VP-WASE 7
Dr VP-WASE 8
 F1 = x’y’z + x’yz’ + x’yz + xyz’
F2 = x’y’z’ + x’y’z + xy’z + xyz

OR
F1 = ∑ m1 + m2 + m3 + m6
F2 = ∑ m0 + m1 + m5 + m7

Dr VP-WASE 9
 OR
F1 = ∏ (M0 , M4, M5, m7)
F2 = ∏ ( M2 , M3, M4 , M6)

Dr VP-WASE 10
 F = X’YZ + XY’Z + XYZ’ + XYZ
X Y Z F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 Dr VP-WASE 11
 Conversion of Canonical Forms
Sum-of-Minterms  Product-of-Maxterms
Rewrite minterm shorthand using maxterm shorthand.
Replace minterm indices with indices not already used.
Eg: F1(A,B,C) = m(3,4,5,6,7) = M(0,1,2)

Product-of-Maxterms  Sum-of-Minterms
Rewrite maxterm shorthand using minterm shorthand.
Replace maxterm indices with indices not already used.
Eg: F2(A,B,C) = M(0,3,5,6) = m(1,2,4,7)

Dr VP-WASE 12
Q. Consider the function
Example
f(A,B,C) = S m(0, 2, 5, 6).
a) Write this as a Boolean expression in canonical SOP form.
b) Rewrite the expression in canonical POS form.

a) F = A’B’C’+A’BC’+AB’C + ABC’ = ∑m(0,2,5,6)

A B C F F’ F’ = A’B’C + A’BC + AB’C’+ABC = ∑m(1,3,4,7)

0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 b) F =F’’ = (A’B’C + A’BC + AB’C’+ABC)’ using
D’morgans
0 1 0 1 0
F = (A+B+C’)(A+B’+C’)(A’+B+C)(A’+B’+C’)
0 1 1 0 1 i.e
1 0 0 0 1 F = ∏ (M1 . M3 . M4 . M7 )
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1

Dr VP-WASE 13
 Karnaugh Maps
 Introduction
 3-variable K-maps
 4-variable K-maps
 Simplification using K-maps
 Converting to Minterms Form
 Simplest SOP Expressions
 Getting POS Expressions
 Don’t-care Conditions
 Review
 Examples

Dr VP-WASE 14
 Introduction
 Systematic method to obtain simplified sum-of-products
(SOPs) Boolean expressions.
 Objective: Fewest possible terms/literals.( Simplified
expression)
 Diagrammatic technique based on a special form of Venn
diagram.
 Advantage: Easy with visual aid.
 Disadvantage: Limited to 5 or 6 variables.

Dr VP-WASE 15
 3-variable K-maps

 There are 8 minterms for 3 variables (a, b, c). Therefore,

there are 8 cells in a 3-variable K-map.
b
b
bc bc
a a 00 01 11 10
00 01 11 10
a'b'c' a'b'c a'bc a'bc' 0 m0 m1 m3 m2
0
OR
a m4 m5 m7 m6
a ab'c' ab'c abc abc' 1
1
c
c

Above arrangement ensures that minterms Note Gray code sequence

of adjacent cells differ by only ONE literal.
(Other arrangements which satisfy this
criterion may also be used.)

Dr VP-WASE 16
 3-variable K-maps

 There is wrap-around in the K-map:

 a'b'c' (m0) is adjacent to a'bc' (m2)
 ab'c' (m4) is adjacent to abc' (m6)
bc
a 00 01 11 10
0 m0 m1 m3 m2

1 m4 m5 m7 m6

Each cell in a 3-variable K-map has 3 adjacent neighbours.

In general, each cell in an n-variable K-map has n adjacent
neighbours. For example, m0 has 3 adjacent neighbours:
m1, m2 and m4.

Dr VP-WASE 17
 Solve it yourself (Exercise 6.1)
1. The K-map of a 3-variable function F is shown below.
What is the sum-of-minterms expression of F?
b
bc
a 00 01 11 10
0 1 0 0 1

a 0 1 0 0
1

2. Draw the K-map for this function A:

A(x, y, z) = x.y + y.z’ + x’.y’.z

Dr VP-WASE 18
 4-variable K-maps

 There are 16 cells in a 4-variable (w, x, y, z) K-map.

y
yz
wx 00 01 11 10
00 m0 m1 m3 m2

01 m4 m5 m7 m6
x
m12 m13 m15 m14
11
w
m8 m9 m11 m10
10
z

Dr VP-WASE 19
 4-variable K-maps

 There are 2 wrap-arounds: a horizontal wrap-around and a

vertical wrap-around.
 Every cell thus has 4 neighbours. For example, the cell
corresponding to minterm m0 has neighbours m1, m2, m4
and m8.
yz y
wx
m0 m1 m3 m2

m4 m5 m7 m6
x
m12 m13 m15 m14
w
m8 m9 m11 m10

Dr VP-WASE 20
 Simplification Using K-maps
 Based on the Unifying Theorem:
A + A' = 1
 In a K-map, each cell containing a ‘1’ corresponds to a
minterm of a given function F.
 Each group of adjacent cells containing ‘1’ (group must
have size in powers of twos: 1, 2, 4, 8, …) then corresponds
to a simpler product term of F.
 Grouping 2 adjacent squares eliminates 1 variable, grouping 4
squares eliminates 2 variables, grouping 8 squares eliminates 3
variables, and so on. In general, grouping 2n squares eliminates n
variables.

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 Simplification Using K-maps
 Group as many squares as possible.
 The larger the group is, the fewer the number of literals in the
resulting product term.

 Select as few groups as possible to cover all the squares

(minterms) of the function.
 The fewer the groups, the fewer the number of product terms in
the minimized function.

Dr VP-WASE 22
 Simplification Using K-maps
 Example:
F (w,x,y,z) = w'xy'z' + w'xy'z + wx'yz'
+ wx'yz + wxyz' + wxyz
= S m(4, 5, 10, 11, 14, 15)
y
yz
wx 00 01 11 10
00

01 1 1
x (cells with ‘0’ are not
11 1 1
w
shown for clarity)
1 1
10
z

Dr VP-WASE 23
 Simplification Using K-maps
 There are 2 groups of minterms: A and B, where:
A = w'xy'z' + w'xy'z
= w'xy'(z' + z)
= w'xy'

B = wx'yz' + wx'yz + wxyz' + wxyz y

yz
= wx'y(z' + z) + wxy(z' + z)
wx 00 01 11 10
= wx'y + wxy
00
= w(x'+x)y A
01 1 1
= wy x
11 1 1
w
10 1 1 B

z
Dr VP-WASE 24
 Simplification Using K-maps
 Each product term of a group, w'xy' and wy, represents
the sum of minterms in that group.
 Boolean function is therefore the sum of product terms
(SOP) which represent all groups of the minterms of the
function.
F(w,x,y,z) = A + B = w'xy' + wy

Dr VP-WASE 25
 Simplification Using K-maps
 Larger groups correspond to product terms of fewer literals. In
the case of a 4-variable K-map:
1 cell = 4 literals, e.g.: wxyz, w'xy'z
2 cells = 3 literals, e.g.: wxy, wy'z‘ & group of 2 cells is a
pair
4 cells = 2 literals, e.g.: wx, x'y group of 4 cells is a quad
8 cells = 1 literal, e.g.: w, y', z group of 8 cells is a octet
16 cells = no literal, e.g.: 1

Dr VP-WASE 26
 Simplification Using K-maps
 Other possible valid groupings of a 4-variable K-map
include:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1
1

P P P

Dr VP-WASE 27
 Simplification Using K-maps
 Groups of minterms must be
(1) rectangular, and
(2) have size in powers of 2’s.
Otherwise they are invalid groups. Some examples of
invalid groups:

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

O O
Dr VP-WASE 28
 Converting to Minterms Form
 The K-map of a function is easily drawn when the
function is given in canonical sum-of-products, or sum-
of-minterms form.
 What if the function is not in sum-of-minterms?
 Convert it to sum-of-products (SOP) form.
 Expand the SOP expression into sum-of-minterms
expression, or fill in the K-map directly based on the SOP
expression.

Dr VP-WASE 29
 Converting to Minterms Form
 Example:
f(A,B,C,D) = A(C+D)'(B'+D') + C(B+C'+A'D)
= A(C'D')(B'+D') + BC + CC' + A'CD
= AB'C'D' + AC'D' + BC + A'CD
A
AB'C'D' + AC'D' + BC + A'CD AB
CD 00 01 11 10
= AB'C'D' + AC'D'(B+B') + BC + A'CD
00 1 1
= AB'C'D' + ABC'D' + AB'C'D' +
BC(A+A') + A'CD 01
D
= AB'C'D' + ABC'D' + ABC + A'BC + 11 1 1 1
A'CD C
10 1 1
= AB'C'D' + ABC'D' + ABC(D+D') +
A'BC(D+D') + A'CD(B+B') B
= AB'C'D' + ABC'D' + ABCD + ABCD' +
A'BCD + A'BCD' + A'B'CD

Dr VP-WASE 30
 Simplest SOP Expressions
 To find the simplest possible sum of products (SOP)
expression from a K-map, you need to obtain:
 minimum number of literals per product term; and
 minimum number of product terms

 This is achieved in K-map using

 bigger groupings of minterms (prime implicants) where possible;
and
 no redundant groupings (look for essential prime implicants)

Implicant: a product term that could be used

to cover minterms of the function.

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 Simplest SOP Expressions
 A prime implicant is a product term obtained by
combining the maximum possible number of minterms
from adjacent squares in the map.
 Use bigger groupings (prime implicants) where possible.

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1
O
1 1 1
P

Dr VP-WASE 32
 Simplest SOP Expressions
 No redundant groups:
1 1 1 1

1
1

1
1
O 1
1

1
1
P
1 1 1 1

Essential prime implicants

 An essential prime implicant is a prime implicant that

includes at least one minterm that is not covered by any
other prime implicant.

Dr VP-WASE 33
 Solve it yourself (Exercise 6.2)
Q. Identify the prime implicants and the essential prime
implicants of the two K-maps below.

b
A
bc
a AB
00 01 11 10 CD 00 01 11 10

0 1 1 0 1 00 1 1 1

a 0 1 0 0 01 1 1
1 D
11 1 1 1
c C
10 1 1 1

Dr VP-WASE 34
 Simplest SOP Expressions
 Algorithm 1 (non optimal):
1. Count the number of adjacencies for each minterm on the K-map.
2. Select an uncovered minterm with the fewest number of
adjacencies. Make an arbitrary choice if more than one choice is
possible.
3. Generate a prime implicant for this minterm and put it in the
cover. If this minterm is covered by more than one prime
implicant, select the one that covers the most uncovered
minterms.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until all the minterms have been covered.

Dr VP-WASE 35
 Simplest SOP Expressions
 Algorithm 2 (non optimal):
1. Circle all prime implicants on the K-map.
2. Identify and select all essential prime implicants for the cover.
3. Select a minimum subset of the remaining prime implicants to
complete the cover, that is, to cover those minterms not covered
by the essential prime implicants.

Dr VP-WASE 36
 Simplest SOP Expressions
 Example:
f(A,B,C,D) =  m(2,3,4,5,7,8,10,13,15)
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1 1
All prime implicants
01 1 1
D
11 1 1 1
C
10 1 1

Dr VP-WASE 37
 Simplest SOP Expressions
A
AB A
CD 00 01 11 10 AB
00 CD 00 01 11 10
1 1
01
1 1 00 1 1 Essential prime
D

C
11 1 1 1 01 1 1
implicants
10 1 1 D
11 1 1 1
B C
10 1 1

B
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1 1 Minimum cover
01 1 1
D
11 1 1 1
C
10 1 1

Dr VP-WASE 38
 Simplest SOP Expressions

A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10
A'BC'
00 1 1 AB'D'
01 1 1
D
11 1 1 1
C
10 1 1 BD
B

A'B'C

f(A,B,C,D) = BD + A'B'C + AB'D' + A'BC'

Dr VP-WASE 39
 Getting POS Expressions
 Simplified POS expression can be obtained by grouping
the maxterms (i.e. 0s) of given function.
 Example:
Given F=m(0,1,2,3,5,7,8,9,10,11), we first draw
the K-map, then group the maxterms together:
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1 0 0 1

01 1 1 0 1
D
11 1 1 0 1
C
10 1 0 0 1

Dr VP-WASE 40
 Getting POS Expressions
A A
AB AB
CD 00 01 11 10 CD 00 01 11 10

K-map 00 1 0 0 1 00 0 1 1 0 K-map
of F 01 1 1 0 1 01 0 0 1 0 of F'
D D
11 1 1 0 1 11 0 0 1 0
C C
10 1 0 0 1 10 0 1 1 0

B B

 This gives the SOP of F' to be:

F' = BD' + AB
 To get POS of F, we have:
F = (BD' + AB)'
= (BD')'(AB)' DeMorgan
= (B'+D)(A'+B') DeMorgan

Dr VP-WASE 41
 Don’t-care Conditions
 In certain problems, some outputs No.
0
A
0
B
0
C
0
D
0
P
1
are not specified. 1 0 0 0 1 0
2 0 0 1 0 0
 These outputs can be either ‘1’ or 3
4
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
‘0’. 5 0 1 0 1 1
6 0 1 1 0 1
 They are called don’t-care 7
8
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
conditions, denoted by X (or 9 1 0 0 1 1
sometimes, d). 10
11
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
X
X

 Example: An odd parity generator 12

13
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
X
X
for BCD code which has 6 unused 14 1 1 1 0 X
15 1 1 1 1 X
combinations.

Dr VP-WASE 42
 Don’t-care Conditions
 Don’t-care conditions can be used to help simplify
Boolean expression further in K-maps.
 They could be chosen to be either ‘1’ or ‘0’, depending on
which gives the simpler expression.

Dr VP-WASE 43
 Don’t-care Conditions
C
 For comparison: AB
CD
00 01 11 10
 WITHOUT Don’t-cares: 00
1 1
P = A'B'C'D’ + A'B'CD + A'BC'D 01
1 1
B
+ A'BCD' + AB'C'D 11
A
10 1

 WITH Don’t-cares: C
CD
AB 00 01 11 10
P = A'B'C'D' + B'CD + BC'D
00 1 1
+ BCD' + AD
01
1 1
B
11 X X X X
A
10 1 X X

Dr VP-WASE 44
 Review – The Techniques
 Algebraic Simplification.
 requires skill but extremely open-ended.

 Karnaugh Maps.
 can obtain simplified standard forms.
 easy for humans (pattern-matching skills).
 limited to not more than 6 variables.

 Other computer-aided techniques such as Quine-

McCluskey method (not covered in this course).

Dr VP-WASE 45
 Review – K-maps
 Characteristics of K-map layouts:
(i) each minterm in one square/cell
(ii) adjacent/neighbouring minterms differ by only 1 literal
(iii) n-literal minterm has n neighbours/adjacent cells

 Valid 2-, 3-, 4-variable K-maps

b b

a'b' a'b m0 m1
OR
a ab' ab a m2 m3

Dr VP-WASE 46
 Review – K-maps
b b
bc bc
a 00 01 11 10 a 00 01 11 10
0 a'b'c' a'b'c a'bc a'bc' 0 m0 m1 m3 m2

a ab'c' ab'c abc abc' a m4 m5 m7 m6

1 1

c c
y
yz
wx 00 01 11 10
00 m0 m1 m3 m2

01 m4 m5 m7 m6
x
11 m12 m13 m15 m14
w
10 m8 m9 m11 m10

Dr VP-WASE 47
 Review – K-maps
 Groupings to select product-terms must be:
 (i) rectangular in shape
 (ii) in powers of twos (1, 2, 4, 8, etc.)
 (iii) always select largest possible groupings of minterms
(i.e. prime implicants)
 (iv) eliminate redundant groupings

 Sum-of-products (SOP) form obtained by selecting

groupings of minterms (corresponding to product terms).

Dr VP-WASE 48
 Review – K-maps
 Product-of-sums (POS) form obtained by selecting
groupings of maxterms (corresponding to sum terms) and
by applying DeMorgan’s theorem.
 Don’t cares, marked by X (or d), can denote either 1 or 0.
They could therefore be selected as 1 or 0 to further
simplify expressions.

Dr VP-WASE 49
 Examples
 Example #1:
f(A,B,C,D) =  m(2,3,4,5,7,8,10,13,15)
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1 1
Fill in the 1’s.
01 1 1
D
11 1 1 1
C
10 1 1

Dr VP-WASE 50
 Examples
 Example #1:
f(A,B,C,D) =  m(2,3,4,5,7,8,10,13,15)
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10
These are all the
00 1 1 prime implicants; but
01 1 1 do we need them
D
1 1
all?
11 1
C
10 1 1

Dr VP-WASE 51
 Examples
 Example #1:
f(A,B,C,D) =  m(2,3,4,5,7,8,10,13,15)
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1 1
Essential prime implicants:
01 1 1
D
11 1 1 1
B.D
C
10 1 1 A'.B.C'
B A.B'.D'

Dr VP-WASE 52
 Examples
A
AB A
CD 00 01 11 10 AB
00 CD 00 01 11 10
1 1
01
1 1 00 1 1 Essential prime
D

C
11 1 1 1 01 1 1
implicants
10 1 1 D
11 1 1 1
B C
10 1 1
SUMMARY
A B
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1 1
Minimum cover
01 1 1
D
11 1 1 1
C
10 1 1
f(A,B,C,D) = BD + A'B'C + AB'D' + A'B.C'
B

Dr VP-WASE 53
 Examples
 Example #2:
f(A,B,C,D) = A.B.C + B'.C.D' + A.D + B'.C'.D'
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1 1
Fill in the 1’s.
01 1 1
D
11 1 1
C
10 1 1 1

Dr VP-WASE 54
 Examples
 Example #2:
f(A,B,C,D) = A.B.C + B'.C.D' + A.D + B'.C'.D'
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1 1
Find all PIs:
01 1 1
D
11 1 1 A.D
C
10 1 1 1 A.C
B B'.D'

Are all ‘1’s covered by the PIs? Yes, so the answer is: f(A,B,C,D) =
A.D + A.C + B'.D'

Dr VP-WASE 55
 Examples
 Example #3 (with don’t cares):
f(A,B,C,D) =  m(2,8,10,15) +  d(0,1,3,7)
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 X 1
Fill in the 1’s and X’s.
01 X
D
11 X X 1
C
10 1 1

Dr VP-WASE 56
 Examples
 Example #3 (with don’t cares):
f(A,B,C,D) =  m(2,8,10,15) +  d(0,1,3,7)
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10 Do we need to have an
00 X 1 additional term A'.B' to
01 X cover the 2 remaining x’s?
D
11 X X 1 No, because all the 1’s
C
1 1 (minterms) have been
10
covered.
B

f(A,B,C,D) = B'.D' + B.C.D

Dr VP-WASE 57
 Examples
 To find simplest POS expression for example #2:
f(A,B,C,D) = A.B.C + B'.C.D' + A.D + B'.C'.D'
 Draw the K-map of the complement of f, f '.
A From K-map,
AB
CD 00 01 11 10
f ' = A'.B + A'.D + B.C'.D'
00 1 1
Using DeMorgan’s theorem,
01 1 1
D
11 1 1 f = (A'.B + A'.D + B.C'.D')'
C
10 1 = (A+B').(A+D').(B'+C+D)
B

Dr VP-WASE 58
 Examples
• To find simplest POS expression for example #3:
f(A,B,C,D) =  m(2,8,10,15) +  d(0,1,3,7)
• Draw the K-map of the complement of f, f '.
f '(A,B,C,D) =  m(4,5,6,9,11,12,13,14) +  d(0,1,3,7)
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10
From K-map,
00 X 1 1 f ' = B.C' + B.D' + B'.D
01 X 1 1 1 Using DeMorgan’s theorem,
D
11 X X 1
C f = (B.C' + B.D' + B'.D)'
10 1 1
= (B'+C).(B'+D).(B+D')
B

Dr VP-WASE 59
Example:

Dr VP-WASE 60
Dr VP-WASE 61
EX: Express the following function as a sum of min terms and as a product of max
terms:
F(A,B.C. D) =B'D + A'D + BD

Dr VP-WASE 62