Power system control

P/f control

Prof. Tadeusz Skoczkowski, Ph.D., El. Eng.

Electric Power Systems

2015
Ways to control power flow
 Prime mover and excitation control of
generators
 Open and Close Breakers
 Reactive Power Compensation

2
Ways to control power flow (cont.)

 High Voltage DC (HVDC)

 Rectifies AC to DC then inverts DC to AC
 Economical for long distances
 Harmonics
 Isolation
 Frequency

3 5/12/06
Ways to control power flow (cont.)

 Transformers
 Tap-Changing-Under-Load (TCUL) Transformers
 Ability to change the ratio of transformation while energized
 Requires additional circuitry
 Phase shifting transformer
 Addition of “90° out of phase” voltage
 Useful for controlling real power
 Most cases there is a fixed range

4 5/12/06
Drawbacks of These Methods
 Set minimum and maximum constraints
 Fixed change
 Power transfer frequency requirement
 Harmonics

5 5/12/06
Power and
frequency control
Asynchronous connection
The interconnected AC networks that tie the power
generation plants to the consumers are in most cases
large. The map below shows the European situation.

There is one grid in Western Europe, one in Eastern

Europe, one in the Nordic countries. Islands like Great
Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete,
Gotland, etc. also have their own grid with no AC
connection to the continent. The other continents on
the globe have a similar situation.
Even if the networks in Europe have the same nominal
frequency, 50 cycles per second or Hertz (Hz), there is
always some variation, normally less than ± 0.1 Hz,
and in certain cases it may prove difficult or impossible
to connect them with AC because of stability concerns.
An AC tie between two asynchronous systems needs
to be very strong to not get overloaded. If a stable AC
tie would be too large for the economical power
exchange needs or if the networks wish to retain their
independence, than a HVDC link is the solution.
And in other parts of the world (South America and
Japan) 50 and 60 Hz networks are bordering each
other and it would be impossible to exchange power
between them with an AC line or cable. HVDC is then European interconnected power grids
the only solution.
Schematic diagram of different timescales of
power system dynamics and controls
Frequency operating and control actions

Trip conditions for generation units

For example in Australia, for
the mainland regions, the Δf1,
Δf2, Δf3 and Δf4 are specified
as 0.3 Hz, 1 Hz, 2 Hz and 5
Hz, respectively
Automatic response of the system in case of frequency
increase (Polish case)
- Dalsze samoistne ograniczenie mocy na JW
>52,50 Hz oraz ich automatycznego odstawienia z pracy
w skutek aktywacji regulatora
Stan bezpieczeństwa turbiny
AWARYJNY
[EMERGENCY] 52,00 Hz
- Możliwość wystąpienia samoistnego ograniczania
mocy na JW oraz ich automatycznego
odstawienia z pracy w skutek aktywacji
regulatora bezpieczeństwa turbiny

51,50 Hz
Całkowita redukcja mocy FW

51,30 Hz Aktywacja RO(P) – 1 s

50,50 Hz Rozpoczęcie procesu redukcji mocy FW

Stan
ZAGROŻENIA - Aktywacja dodatkowego pasma regulacji
50,30 Hz
[ALERT] pierwotnej (zwiększenie rezerwy sekundowej) na
blokach z ustawioną strefą martwą f=300 mHz

50,20 Hz
- możliwa zmiana trybu pracy RC (blokowanie)

Stan
NORMALNY 50,15 Hz
Aktywacja podstawowego
[NORMAL] pasma regulacji pierwotnej
50,00 Hz

Rafał Kuczyński
Polskie Sieci Elektronergetyczne
Operator Spółka Akcyjna
 Increase of Active Power Consumption
f1 = 50 Hz (3000 RPM)

Kinetic energy in the rotating

parts of the generator and
turbine are 200 MJ

Suddenly a 10 MW load is connected. What happens to the frequency?

In 1 second the load consumes 10 MJ more active power P

2
1 1 E1 200 f1 502
E  J 2  J 4 2 f 2  2 J 2 f 2  
E2 190 f 2 2
 2  f 2  48.73 Hz
f2
2 2
The frequency will drop to 48.7 Hz

Electrical Power System Essentials

Increase of Reactive Power Consumption
10 kV system:
P = 2 MW; cos φ = 0.9
Xgen = 3 Ω
This results in:
I = 128 A ∠-26°
Q = 969 kvar

• Suddenly the load consumes Q = 1.5 Mvar and P remains at 2 MW.

What happens?
• The power factor drops to 0.8
• The current becomes I = 146 ∠-37°
• The terminal voltage drops with 100 V

Electrical Power System Essentials

Response of governor with output
feedback
Activation of power reserves and frequency of power system as a
function of time, for a situation where a large power plant is
disconnected from the power system
Increase of Reactive Power Consumption

• P remains 2 MW
• Q increases from 969 kvar  1.5 Mvar
• I increases from 128 A ∠-26°  147 A ∠-37°
• V drops with 100 V

Electrical Power System Essentials

Increase of Reactive Power Consumption


S  P  jQ  V  I
V11  V2  2
I
Z

V1(1 )  V2 ( 2 )
I 
Z(  )
Electrical Power System Essentials
Increase of Reactive Power Consumption

R  X  Z  Z  X( / 2)

S  P  jQ  V  I
V1 V2 V1 V2
P  ReS   sin1   2   1   2 
X X
V1 V2
2
Q  ImS   cos1   2   V1  V2 
V2 V2

X X X
Conclusion:
• The voltage depends on the reactive power
• The angle of transmission depends on the active power
Electrical Power System Essentials
 Relations between basic parameters in
power system
P – active power
P f f- frequency

(P-f)  (Q-U) (Q-U)  (P-f)

Small impact impact is
noticeable

Q – reactive
power Q U U - voltage

Frequency control system is

In power system there are two main control
much slower than voltage
systems :
control system. Therefore
• Central system of frequency control
impact of the two pairs (P-f)
• Voltage control systems
and (Q-U) is not equal
 Some Important Conclusions
• Load is always changing.
• To maintain power balance, generators need to produce more or less to
keep up with the load.
• When Gen < Load (Gen > Load), generator speed and frequency will drop
(rise).
• => We use this generator speed and frequency as control signals!

• The frequency is a common parameter throughout the system

• The voltage is controlled locally

• The control mechanism for P (rotor angle) and Q (voltage amplitude)

operate more or less separately
 Impact of non balanced power on
frequency
Rated frequency in the power system

Power delivered by ith

generator
No balanced power

f n P
n m
df P   Pgi   Poj
 i 1 j 1

dt Tem Pn Power jth load

Total power of all generators in the

Averaged time constant of the system
system elements (5…10s)
The system frequency reaches steady-
state at a value that causes the sum of the
on-line generator output MW to be equal to
the system load MW.
With this type of governor, when the system
load increases, the system frequency
decreases and visa versa.
How do we control frequency to 60 Hz, no
matter what the load is?
Active Power and Frequency Control
 The frequency of a system is dependent on active power balance
 As frequency is a common factor throughout the system, a change
in active power demand at one point is reflected throughout the
system
 Because there are many generators supplying power into the
system, some means must be provided to allocate change in
demand to the generators
 speed governor on each generating unit provides primary speed
control function
 supplementary control originating at a central control center
allocates generation
 In an interconnected system, with two or more independently
controlled areas, the generation within each area has to be
controlled so as to maintain scheduled power interchange
Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
• Primary control
• Immediate (automatic) action to sudden change of load.
• For example, reaction to frequency change.

• Secondary control
• To bring tie-line flows to scheduled.
• Corrective actions are done by operators.

• Economic dispatch
• Make sure that the units are scheduled in the most
economical way.

The control of frequency and power generation is commonly referred to as

load–frequency control (LFC) which is a major function of automatic
generation control (AGC) systems.
Primary control
 Schematic block diagram of a synchronous generator with basic frequency
control loops

Dynamic controller is usually a

Speed governor senses the change
simple integral or proportional
in speed (frequency) via the primary
integral (PI) controller.
and supplementary control loops.

Speed changer provides a

steady-state power output
setting for the turbine.

The supplementary loop performs a feedback Hydraulic amplifier provides the

via the frequency deviation and adds it to the necessary mechanical forces to position
primary control loop through a dynamic the main valve against the high-steam (or
controller. The resulting signal (ΔPC) is used to hydro-) pressure
regulate the system frequency.
Schematic diagram of LFC and AVR of a
synchronous generator

AVR
LPC
 Primary Speed Controls
 Isochronous speed governor
 an integral controller resulting in constant speed
 not suitable for multimachine systems; slight differences in speed
settings would cause them to fight against each other
 can be used only when a generator is supplying an isolated load or
when only one generator in a system is required to respond to load
changes

Schematic of an isochronous governor Response of unit with isochronous governor

ωr = rotor speed Y = valve/gate position

Pm = mechanical power
Primary Speed Controls
 Governor with Speed Droop
 speed regulation or droop is provided to assure proper load sharing
 a proportional controller with a gain of 1/R
 If percent regulation of the units are nearly equal, change in output of
each unit will be nearly proportional to its rating
 the speed-load characteristic can be adjusted by changing governor
settings; this is achieved in practice by operating speed-changer
motor

Block diagram of a speed governor with droop

Governor with steady-state feedback

(a) Block diagram with steady-state feedback

(b) Reduced block diagram

 Percent Speed Regulation or Droop
percent speed or frequency change
Percent R  x 100
percent power output change
  NL   FL 
   x 100
 0 

where
ωNL = steady-state speed at no load
ωFL = steady-state speed at full load
ω0 = nominal or rated speed

E.g, a 5% droop or regulation means that

a 5% frequency deviation causes 100%
change in valve position or power output.

Ideal steady-state characteristics of a

governor with speed droop
 Primary Control
Speed governor control of a generating unit

The droop (regulation) of

generator i

f / f r
Rgi  
Speed governor characteristics Pgi / Pgi ,r

Electrical Power System Essentials

Steady-state speed characteristic
(droop) curve
 Steady-state frequency– power relation
for a turbine-governor
1
pm  pref   f
R
where
Δf is the change in frequency,
Δpm is the change in turbine mechanical power output,
Δpref is the change in a reference power setting.
R is called the regulation constant.

f=1
f / f r
Rgi  
Pgi / Pgi ,r

For the speed governer 3 cases can be distingushed:

1. Standalone generator
2. Generator connected to an infinite line
3. Two generators in parallel
 Equation is the area steady-state
frequency–power relation.
1
pm  pref   f  pref    f
R

β – area frequency response In practice, β is somewhat higher than that

characteristic due to system losses and the frequency
dependence of loads.
 1 1 
     .... 
 R1 R2  The units of β are MW/Hz when Δf is in Hz
and Δpm is in MW

β can also be given in per-unit.

Power output as a function of frequency
 Control of Generating Unit Power Output
 three characteristics representing three load reference settings shown,
each with 5% droop
 at 50 Hz, characteristic C results in zero output;
 characteristic B results in 50% output;
 characteristic A results in 100% output

Power output at a given speed can 52,5

be adjusted to any desired value by 52
controlling load reference 51,5 2.5 Hz = 5%
51
When two or more units are Frequency, Hz 50,5
operating in parallel: 50
A
• adjustment of droop establishes 49,5
B
49
proportion of load picked up C
48,5
when system has sudden 48
changes 47,5
• adjustment of load reference 47
0 20 40 60 80 100
determines unit output at a given Power output, %
frequency
 f / f r
Rgi  
Primary Control Pgi / Pgi ,r
A standalone generator
A standalone generator feeding a single load supplies 50 MW at 50 Hz.
The generator has a nominal rated power of 200 MW and its speed
governor has a droop of R=0.02 pu. The active power consumption of
the load suddenly increases to 100 MW.

ΔP 50
f   R  f r   0.02  50   0.25 Hz
Pr 200

A generator connected to an infinite bus

A generator connected to an infinite bus supplies 50 MW at 50 Hz. The
generator has a nominal rated power of 200 MW and its speed governor has a
droop of R=0.62 pu. When the frequency drops to f2=49.5 Hz, the active power
supplied by the generator increases with

f / f r 0.5 / 50
P    Pr   200  33.3 MW
R 0.06
 Primary Control
Load Sharing by Parallel Units

f f
P1  P1  P1  P2  P2  P2 
R1 R2

Load sharing by parallel units with Response of a generating unit with a governor
drooping governor characteristics having speed-droop characteristics
Load sharing by parallel generating units

P1 R2

P2 R1
Primary Control
Two generators in parallel

Pg1,r  200 MW ; Rg1  0.02 pu Pg1 f / f r


Pg 2,r  200 MW ; Rg 2  0.06 pu Pg1,r Rg 1
Pg 2 f / f r

Pg 2,r Rg 2
Pg1 / Pg1,r Rg 2

Pg 2 / Pg 2,r Rg 1
Pg1 / 200 0.06 Pg1
 3 3
Pg 2 / 200 0.02 Pg 2
Calculation of steady-state speed
characteristic
R(per unit), the slope of the “droop” curve, is defined as
f(p.u.)/ P(p.u.), where f(p.u.)= f(Hz) / 60.0,
and P(p.u.)= P(MW) / Unit Capacity.

For a 600 MW unit that has a governor response of 20 MW

for a frequency excursion that settles out at 59.9 Hz,
R=f(p.u.) / P(p.u.) = (0.1/60)/(20/600)
=0.05 or 5% droop.

Once the droop is known, the MW response to frequency

deviation can be determined by (P/f)=(1/R), or P=(1/R)
x f.
For the 600 MW unit with 5% droop, (P/600)=(1/0.05) X
(f/60), or P=200MW/Hz
 Network power frequency control
P

f
  the network power frequency characteristic [MW/Hz]
ΔP  the amount of generation required to correct the power imbalance [MW]
Δf  the differencebetwen scheduled and actual system frequency[Hz]

1 Pgi ,r P 1 Pgi ,r
P   Pg1      f    
i i Rgi f r f i Rgi f r

Example

Pg1,r  200 MW ; Rg1  0.02 pu

Pg 2,r  200 MW ; Rg 2  0.06 pu

P 1 Pgi ,r 1 200 1 200

         266.6 MW / Hz
f i Rgi f r 0.02 50 0.06 50
 Synchronous machine. Movement of
the rotor ω – rotor angular speed
ωs - prędkość synchroniczna ϑ – power angle of the
generator
J – moment of inertia Δω=ω- ωs – relative rotor D – damping factor
angular speed
MD – Damping torgue of the rotor

d d 2 1 d
J  J 2  Mm  Me  MD MD  D D
dt dt s s dt

Tm S n Mm – mechanical Me – electromagnetic
s 2 J
MJ  Tm  rotor driving torque torque of the generator
s Sn

MJ – coefficient of rotor inertia d

Tm – mechanical time constant  
Sn – apparent power of the genreato dt
d 2
d d d
M J 2  Pm  Pe  D MJ  Pm  Pe  D
dt dt dt dt
Pm  Pe ( )  M   D 43
Generator Mechanical Model
Generator Mechanical Block Diagram

Tm  J m  TD  Te ( )
Tm  mechanical input torque (N-m)
J  moment of inertia of turbine & rotor
 m  angular acceleration of turbine & rotor
TD  damping torque
Te ( )  equivalent electrical torque
 Generator Mechanical Model, cont’d
In general power = torque  angular speed
Hence when a generator is spinning at speed s
Tm  J m  TD  Te ( )
Tm s  ( J m  TD  Te ( )) s Pm
Pm  J ms  TDs  Pe ( )
Initially we'll assume no damping (i.e., TD  0)
Then
Pm  Pe ( )  J ms
Pm is the mechanical power input, which is assumed
to be constant throughout the study time period
Generator Mechanical Model, cont’d

Pm  Pe ( )  J  ms
m  st    rotor angle
d m
m    m  s  
dt
m  m  
Pm  Pe ( )  J s m  J s
J s  inertia of machine at synchronous speed
Convert to per unit by dividing by MVA rating, S B ,
Pm Pe ( ) Js 2s
 
SB SB S B 2s
Generator Mechanical Model, cont’d

Pm Pe ( ) J s 2 s
 
SB SB S B 2 s
Pm  Pe ( ) J  s2 1
  (since  s  2 f s )
SB 2S B  f s
J  s2
Define H  per unit inertia constant (sec)
2S B
All values are now converted to per unit
H H
Pm  Pe ( )   Define M 
 fs  fs
Then Pm  Pe ( )  M 
Generator Swing Equation
This equation is known as the generator swing equation
Pm  Pe ( )  M 
Adding damping we get
Pm  Pe ( )  M   D
This equation is analogous to a mass suspended by
a spring
k x  gM  Mx  Dx
Load as a function of frequency (load
damping)
Governor and load characteristic curve intersection
 Composite System Regulating Characteristics
 System load changes with frequency. With
a load damping constant of D, frequency
sensitive load change:
 PD = D   f
 When load is increased, the frequency
drops due to governor droop;
Due to frequency sensitive load, the net
reduction in frequency is not as high.
 The composite regulating characteristic 
includes prime mover characteristics and
load damping. An increase of system load
by PL results in a generation increase of
PG due to governor action, and a load
reduction of PD due to load characteristic
 PL
f SS 
1 R1  1 R2      1 Rn   D
 PL  PL
    (PL )
1 Req  D 
 β is the stiffness or composite frequency
response characteristic of the system.
Secondary Control
AGC for Single and
Multi Areas

53
From a central site, you increase or
decrease the 60Hz set-points until the
sum of the 60Hz set-points is equal to
the system load. Then the frequency will
stabilize at 60Hz.
This form of supplemental control is
called Automatic Generation Control
(AGC) and more specifically, Load
Frequency Control (LFC).
Secondary Control
Static Speed-Power Curve


Slope = -R  From,
1
PM  PC  
0 R
 Primary control: Immediate
2
change corresponding to
1 sudden change of load
(frequency)
 Secondary control: Change
in setting control power to
PM maintain operating frequency.
PC1 = PM 1 PC 2 = PM 2  The higher R (regulation), the
better.
55
Secondary Control
Steady-state speed characteristic with speed changer
Secondary Control 2 – work point after the
secondry control

0 – initial point of work fo

1- work point after the

primary control
Primary and Secondary Control
Frequency change in primary and secondary control
 Under-frequency Load Shedding
 Severe system disturbances can result in
cascading outages and isolation of areas,
causing formation of islands
 If an islanded area is under-generated, it
will experience a frequency decline unless
sufficient spinning generation reserve is
available.
 Frequency decline could lead to tripping of
steam turbine generating units by
protective relays
 There are two main problems associated
with under-frequency operation related to
thermal units:
 vibratory stress on long low-pressure
turbine blades; operation below
48.5 Hz severely restricted
 performance of plant auxiliaries driven
by induction motors; below 47 Hz plant
capability may be severely reduced or
units may be tripped off
 Underfrequency Load Shedding
(cont)

 To prevent extended operation of separated areas at low frequency, load

shedding schemes are employed.
An example of such scheme:
 12% load shed when frequency drops to 48.8 Hz
 12% additional load shed when frequency drops to 48.7 Hz
 12% additional load shed when frequency reaches 48.6 Hz
 24% additional load shed when frequency reaches 48.5 Hz

 A scheme based on frequency alone is generally acceptable for generation

deficiency up to 25%

 For greater generation deficiencies, a scheme taking into account both

frequency drop and rate-of-change of frequency provides increased selectivity
Purpose of AGC
 To maintain power balance in the system.
 Make sure that operating limits are not
exceeded:-
 Generators limit
 Tie-lines limit

 Make sure that system frequency is

constant (not change by load).

61
Overview of AGC

 Load is always changing.

 To maintain power balance, generators
need to produce more or less to keep up
with the load.
 When Gen < Load (Gen > Load),
generator speed and frequency will drop
(rise).
 => We use this generator speed and
frequency as control signals!
62
3 Components of AGC
 Primary control
 Immediate (automatic) action to sudden change of load.
 For example, reaction to frequency change.

 Secondary control
 To bring tie-line flows to scheduled.
 Corrective actions are done by operators.

 Economic dispatch
 Make sure that the units are scheduled in the most economical
way.
• We will consider:
• AGC for single generator
• AGC for 2 generators
• AGC for multi generators
• Area Control Error (ACE)
63
Supplementary Control of Isolated Systems
 With primary speed control, the only way a change in generation
can occur is for a frequency deviation to exist.
 Restoration of frequency to rated value requires manipulation of the
speed/load reference achieved through supplementary control

 the integral action of the control ensures zero frequency

deviation and thus matches generation and load
 the speed/load references can be selected so that generation
distribution among units minimizes operating costs
 Supplementary control acts more slowly than primary control.
This time-scale separation important for satisfactory performance.
Load Frequency Control (Single Area Case)

 Let us consider the problem of controlling the power

output of the generators of a closely-knit electric area so
as to maintain the scheduled frequency. All the
generators in such an area constitute a coherent group
so that all the generators speed up and slow down
together maintaining their relative power angles. Such an
area is defined as a control area. The boundaries of a
control area will generally coincide with that of an
individual DSO.
 Let us consider a single turbo – generator system
supplying an isolated load.
Balancing Authority Areas
 An balancing authority area (use to be called operating
areas) has traditionally represented the portion of the
interconnected electric grid operated by a single utility
 Transmission lines that join two areas are known as tie-
lines.
 The net power out of an area is the sum of the flow on its
tie-lines.
 The flow out of an area is equal to

total gen - total load - total losses = tie-flow

 Wide-area control
 Automatic generation control (AGC)
 Load is continually varying, causing frequency deviations.
 AGC regulates generator MW setpoints, to drive system frequency to its
desired value.
 The burden of load tracking is distributed across participating generators.
 Under-frequency load shedding
 A large generation deficit will cause frequency to rapidly decline.
 Examples: loss of a whole generating station, or system islanding.
 Tripping load restores the generation-load balance, arresting the frequency
decline.
 Special protection schemes
 Monitor for certain triggering conditions, for example tripping of a crucial
feeder under high power flow conditions.
 If triggering conditions are satisfied, then undertake (relatively local)
remedial action, such as redispatch generation and/or switch
capacitors/inductors.
 Action may or may not depend on other system conditions.
 Every significant event unfolds in a different way. The prescribed nature of
response may be inappropriate for unanticipated event scenarios.
 Implementation may be complicated, with consequences for predictability
and reliability of action.
67
Automatic Generation Control

 Most utilities use automatic generation

control (AGC) to automatically change
their generation to keep their ACE close to
zero.
 Usually the utility control center calculates
ACE based upon tie-line flows; then the
AGC module sends control signals out to
the generators every couple seconds.
Simplified Control Model
 Generators are grouped into control areas.
 Consider
 An area as one generator in single area, and,
 Tie-lines between areas as transmission lines
connecting buses in single area.
We can apply the same analysis to multi-area!!
 However, we have to come up with frequency-
power characteristics of each area.
 Actual application of this model is for power pool
operation.

69
ACE: Tie-Line Bias Control
 Use ACE to adjust setting control power, PCi , of each
area.
 Goal:
 To drive ACE in all area to zero.
 To send appropriate signal to setting control power,

 Use integrator controller so that ACE goes to zero at

steady state.

The following summarizes the two basic LFC objectives for an interconnected power
system:
1. Following a load change, each area should assist in returning the steady-state
frequency error Δf to zero.
2. Each area should maintain the net tie-line power flow out of the area at its scheduled
value, in order for the area to absorb its own load changes.

70
Power Pool Operation
 Power pool is an interconnection of the power
systems of individual utilities.
 Each company operates independently, BUT,
 They have to maintain
 contractual agreement about power exchange of
different utilities, and,
 same system frequency.
 Basic rules
 Maintainscheduled tie-line capacities.
 Each area absorbs its own load changes.

71
AGC for Multi Areas
During transient period, sudden change of load causes
each area generation to react according to its frequency-
power characteristics.
This is “called primary control”.

This change also effects steady state frequency and tie-

line flows between areas.
We need to
• Restore system frequency,
• Restore tie-line capacities to the scheduled value, and,
• Make the areas absorb their own load.
This is called “secondary control”.

72
Supplementary Control of Interconnected
Systems
 The objectives of automatic generation control are to maintain:
 system frequency within desired limits
 area interchange power at scheduled levels
 correct time (integrated frequency)
 This is accomplished by using a control signal for each area referred
to as area control error (ACE), made up of:
 tie line flow deviation, plus
 frequency deviation weighted by a bias factor Figure 11.27
illustrated calculation of ACE
 Bias factor, B, set nearly equal to regulation characteristic (I/R + D)
of the area; gives good dynamic performance
 A secondary function of AGC is to allocate generation economically
Area Control Error (ACE)

 The area control error (ACE) is the difference

between the actual flow out of an area and the
scheduled flow, plus a frequency component
ACEi  ( Pa,i  Ps ,i )  B f ,i ( fa  f s )  Pi  B f ,i f

 Ideally the ACE should always be zero.

 Because the load is constantly changing, each
utility must constantly change its generation to
“chase” the ACE.
Area Control Error (ACE)
 Control setting power of each area needs to be
adjusted corresponding to the change of
scheduled tie-line capacity and change of
system frequency.
 ACE measures this balance, and is given by,
ACE1  P12  B1f
ACE2  P21  B2 f
for two area case.
 1
Where Bi = Frequency bias constant of area i (>0) and Bi   DLi  
 Ri 

75
AGC for 2-Area with Tie-line Bias Control :
Static Speed-Power Curve
 Load in area 2 increases.

 Frequency of both area
drops.
 ACE makes Control 0
power of area 2 2’
  2
increases.
1
 Steady state is reached = Change in load 2
+
when frequency is back
at the operating point and
PM
generator in area 2 take
its own load. PM 1 PM 1 PM 2 PM 2 PM 2
PM 1

76
Functional diagram of a typical
Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
system
ACE   ptie  ptie sched   B f ,i  f  50  
 ptie  B f ,i  f

pref i   Ki  ACE  dt Area frequency response

characteristic β

 1 1 
    .... 
 R1 R2 

1
pm  pref   f  pref    f
R
 Secondary Control or
Load Frequency Control
Power exchange between three control areas
a)The original (scheduled)
situation
b) Incremental generation after
losing 400 MW of generation
in control area B

Actual power export Scheduled power export of B freguency bias

of control area i [MW] control area i [MW] constant

Area Control Error of

control area i [MW] ACEi  ( Pa,i  Ps ,i )  B f ,i ( fa  f s )  Pi  B f ,i f
Network power
frequencies Actual frequency Scheduled frequency
characteristic of control
Electrical Power System Essentials
area i [MW]
 Secondary Control or
Load Frequency Control
Area A: λA= 13000 MW/Hz
Area B: λB= 16000 MW/Hz ACEi  ( Pa,i  Ps ,i )  B f ,i ( fa  f s )  Pi  B f ,i f
Area C: λC= 11000 MW/Hz

P 1 Pgi ,r
     A  B  C  40 000 MW / Hz
f i Rgi fr
P 400
   0.01 Hz
f 40000
PA   A f  13000 0.01  130 MW
PB  B f  16000 0.01  160 MW
PC  C f  11000 0.01  110 MW
ACE A  (130  0)  13000(0.01)  0 MW
ACE B  (260  500)  16000(0.01)  240  160  400 MW
ACEC  (390  (500))  11000(0.01)  0 MW
 Three Bus Case on AGC
-40 MW 40 MW
Bus 2 8 MVR -8 MVR Bus 1
1.00 PU
266 MW
133 MVR
1.00 PU
101 MW
5 MVR

-77 MW -39 MW
150 MW AGC ON
25 MVR 12 MVR 100 MW
166 MVR AVR ON
78 MW 39 MW
-21 MVR -11 MVR
Bus 3 1.00 PU
Home Area
133 MW
67 MVR
250 MW AGC ON
34 MVR AVR ON
Generation
is automatically Net tie flow is
changed to match close to zero
change in load
Multiple Generator Governor Response
Consider an isolated power system with three generators on-line and operating at
60Hz. The load is 360 MW and the generator outputs for units #1, #2 and #3 are
80MW, 120MW and 160MW, respectively.
A load of 21MW (P) is added. What frequency does the system settle at? How
much does each unit pick-up (MW)?
Since R(p.u.)=( f(Hz)/60)/( P(MW)/Capacity),
then (P/f)=(1/R) X Capacity/60).

UNIT CAPACITY R (DROOP) P/f

#1 300MW 0.100 (10%) 50MW/Hz
#2 450MW 0.075 (7.5%) 100MW/Hz
#3 600MW 0.050 (5%) 200MW/Hz
Solution:
Unit #1: P1=50 X f P1=50 X 0.06=3MW
Unit #2: P2=100 X f P2=100 X 0.06=6MW
Unit #3: P3=200 X f P3=200 X 0.06=12MW
Pi=350f=21MW, check: Pi=21MW
and f=21/350=0.06Hz
Frequency=60-0.06=59.94Hz
Example
 Two-area system,

A B

PGA0  PLA0  1000 MW PGB0  PLB0  10,000 MW

RA  0.015 rad per sec/MW DLA  DLB  0 RB  0.0015 rad per sec/MW
PLA  10 MW

 Find change in frequency, ACE, and

appropriate control action.

83
Example: Frequency Calculation

PMA  DLA  A  PLA  PAB  PLA  PAB

 From,
PMB  DLB  B  PLB  PBA  PBA

 And,   1  2

 And,
1 1
P   
A
M P   
B
M
RA RB
 We have,
 PLA  10
    0.0136 rad per sec
 1 1  1

1
  
 RA RB  0.015 0.0015

84
 Example: ACE Calculation

 First, find PAB from

1
  0.0136  0.9091MW
1
PM  
A
 
RA 0.015
PMA  PLA  PAB  PAB  PMA  PLA  9.091MW
PBA  PAB  9.091MW
 Then,

ACE A  PAB 
1
  9.091
1
 0.0136  10 MW
RA 0.015
ACEB  PBA 
1
  9.091
1
 0.0136  0 MW
RB 0.0015
85
Example: Control Action

 ACE indicates each area action to the

change of load.
 ACE of area B is zero, this means that
nothing should be done in area B.
 ACE of area A < 0, this means that area A
should increase the setting control power
by – (-10) = 10 MW to cover its own
load.

86
Three generators serving 360MW
Three generators serving 367MW
Three generators serving 374MW
Three generators serving 381MW
Load of 367MW and 60Hz SPs increased
by 7 MW
Illustration of typical governor dead
band
Dynamics of the Governor
and AGC Control
of System Frequency
Schematic diagram of LFC and AVR of a
synchronous generator
Turbine-governor block diagram
Block diagram for a simple steam turbine governor commonly known as
the TGOV1 model.

The block models the delays associated with the turbine; for
nonreheat turbines T2 should be zero.
The time delays Typical values are R=0.05 pu, T1 =0.5 seconds, T3=0.5 for a
associated with the non-reheat turbine or T2=2.5, and T3=7.5 seconds otherwise.
governor

The limits on the output

of this block account for
the fact that turbines
have minimum and
maximum outputs.

Dt is a turbine damping coefficient that is

usually 0.02 or less (often zero).
System Modeling: Turbine-Governor Model

 Small signal analysis model, relating mechanical power

to the control power and the generator speed.

1
R GM s 
PC - 1 PM
+ 1  sTG 1  sTT 
PC
Where = Small change in control setting power
 = Small change in governor synchronous speed
PM = Small change in mechanical output power
R = Regulation constant
GM s 
= Transfer function relating mechanical power to control signals

96
Speed-Power Relationship
 From synchronous turbine-governor: small
signal analysis model,
 
PM  GM s  PC   
1
 R 
 At steady state (s → 0,GM s → 1), we
have
1
PM  PC  
R

97
Block diagram of turbine–
governor system; (a) non-
reheat steam unit, (b)
reheat steam
unit and (c) hydraulic unit
Block diagram model of
governor with frequency
control loops for a non-reheat
steam generator unit

Dynamic response of
the closed-loop system
with (solid) and without
(dotted) supplementary
control
Addition of a speed changer
Turbine speed governing system
Block diagram representation of speed governor
system
Turbine transfer function model
Block diagram representation of generator-load
model
Block diagram model of load frequency control
(Isolated power system)
Proportional plus integral load frequency control
Dynamic response of load frequency controller
with an without integral control action
Power system equipped for
supplemental control
Two generators equipped with
governors having output feedback
Schematic of a governor with output
feedback
AGC for 2-Area with Tie-line Bias Control :
Static Speed-Power Curve
 Load in area 2 increases.

 Frequency of both area
drops.
 ACE makes Control 0
power of area 2 2’
  2
increases.
1
 Steady state is reached = Change in load 2
+
when frequency is back
at the operating point and
PM
generator in area 2 take
its own load. PM 1 PM 1 PM 2 PM 2 PM 2
PM 1

111
 AGC for 2-Area with Tie-line Bias Control: Block Diagram

Governor 1 sense speed

↑, try to ↓ mechanical
1 power
B1 Governor 1 sense speed 1 Frequency 1 ↑

ACE 1 = 0
↓, try to ↑ mechanicalR
1 PL1 Frequency 1 ↓
+ power
ACE1 K PC1 PM 1 -
 1 GM1 s  + GP1 s  s
s + 1 1
P+12
- -
P1  P12Different phase angle ↓ +
Transfer power 12 ↓
T12
Transfer power 12 ↑
-1 Setting control power 2 ↑ -1 Different phase angle ↑
-
P21+ P2  P21
ACE2 K PC 2 PM 2 - 2  2
 2
s
GM 2 s  + GP2 s  s
+ + Frequency 2 ↓
ACE 2 < 0 - -
B2
Governor 2 sense speed 1 PL 2 Load 2 ↑ Frequency 2 ↑
↓, try to ↑ mechanical
2 power
Governor 2 sense
R2 Steady state:

speed ↑, try to ↓ Maintain Frequency

mechanical power Set control power 2 > 0

112
Generator Voltage
Control

113
 Automatic Generation and Voltage Control
 In modern large interconnected systems, manual regulation is not
feasible and therefore automatic generation and voltage regulation
equipment is installed on each generator. Figure below gives the
schematic diagram of load frequency and excitation voltage regulators of
a turbo-generator.
 The controllers are set for a particular operating condition and they take
care of small changes in load demand without frequency and voltage
exceeding the prescribed limits. With the passage of time, as the change
in load demand becomes large, the controllers must be reset either
manually or automatically.
 Excitation voltage control is fast acting in which the major time constant
encountered is that of the generator field; while the power frequency
control is slow acting with major time constant contributed by the turbine
and generator moment of inertia – this time constant is much larger than
that of the generator field. Thus, the transients in excitation voltage
control vanish much faster and do not affect the dynamics of power
frequency control.
Schematic diagram of LFC and AVR of a
synchronous generator
The Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
system of a generator
Schematic diagram of load frequency and
excitation voltage regulators of a turbo-generator
Schematic diagram of alternator voltage regulator
scheme
Block diagram of alternator voltage regulator
scheme
Generation oscillations at the dead band
frequency

Thank you very much for your attention!

Any questions or remarks?