Coordinate Systems

I. WHAT IS COORDINATE SYSTEM?

A. Coordinate System
• A coordinate system is an artificial mathematical tool that we construct in order to describe the position of a real object in
space.
• In other words, a coordinate system is a standardized method for assigning numeric codes to locations so that locations can
be found using the codes alone.
• Standardized coordinate systems use absolute locations.
• In a coordinate system, the x-direction value is the easting and the y-direction value is the northing. Most systems make both
values positive.
II. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF COORDINATE SYSTEMS USED? EXPLAIN EACH OF THEM IN BRIEF.
A. Different Types of Coordinate Systems with Brief Explanation
Basically, there are 3 different types of coordinate systems used as mentioned below:
• Cartesian coordinate system
• Cylindrical coordinate system
• Spherical coordinate system
These coordinate systems are briefly explained as follows:
B. Cartesian Coordinate System
The Cartesian or rectangular coordinate system is formed by three mutually perpendicular straight lines named as x, y, and z-axes.
Once the x and y-axes are fixed, the z-axis is determined by using cork-screw rule whereby one curls the fingers of right hand in the
direction from x to y, then the thumb points in the z-direction. The location of any point P in space can be specified uniquely by
defining its x, y and z coordinates. The coordinates x, y and z are the perpendicular distances of P from yz-plane at x=0, zx-plane at
y=0 and xy-plane at z=0 respectively as shown in Fig. 1. Here, ax, ay and az are unit vectors used to indicate the directions of the
components of any vector along the x, y and z-axes respectively.

Fig. 1. Cartesian coordinate system.

C. Cylindrical Coordinate System
Any point P in the cylindrical coordinate system is specified by assigning its coordinates (ρ, φ, z) as illustrated in Fig. 2. Here, ρ
is the perpendicular distance of the point from z-axis, φ is the angle between x and ρ-axes measured from the x-axis in the anti-
clockwise direction and z is the perpendicular distance of the point along z-axis from the xy-plane at z=0. aρ, aφ and az are unit vectors
used to indicate the directions of the components of any vector along the ρ, φ and z-axes respectively.

Fig. 2. Cylindrical coordinate system.

D. Spherical Coordinate System

A point P in space in spherical coordinate system is represented in terms of r, θ and φ as shown in Fig. 3. Here, r is the radial
distance from the origin to the point P, θ is the angle that r makes with the positive z-axis and φ is the angle between x and ρ-axes
measured from the x-axis in the anti-clockwise direction.

Fig. 3. Spherical coordinate system.

 III. HOW TO TRANSFORM ONE COORDINATE SYSTEM TO ANOTHER COORDINATE SYSTEM?
A. Transformation between Coordinate Systems
The transformation between coordinate systems involves two steps as follows:
• Changing of independents variables
• Changing of vector components
B. Transformation between Cartesian and Cylindrical Coordinate Systems
The coordinates of a point P in both Cartesian and Cylindrical coordinate systems are shown in Fig. 4.

(a) (b)

Fig. 4. Transformation between Cartesian and Cylindrical coordinate systems.

Hence, the result of transformation of independent variables from Cartesian coordinate system to Cylindrical coordinate system
and vice-versa are summarized in Table I.

TABLE I. TRANSFORMATION OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES BETWEEN CARTESIAN AND CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Independent Variables of Cartesian Coordinate System Independent Variables of Cylindrical Coordinate System

x, y, z ρ cos φ, ρ sin φ, z
𝑦
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥), z ρ, φ, z

If a vector 𝑨 = 𝐴𝜌 𝒂𝝆 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 is given in cylindrical coordinate system, it can be expressed in the Cartesian coordinate
system as 𝑨 = 𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 . The vector components Ax, Ay and Az can be obtained in terms of the vector components and
independent variables of Cylindrical system by dot multiplying the vector A in both systems by ax, ay and az respectively.
(𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒙 = (𝐴𝜌 𝒂𝝆 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒙 (1)
𝐴𝑥 = (𝐴𝜌 𝒂𝝆 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒙 (2)
From Fig. 4(b),
𝒂𝝆 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝒂𝒚 (3)
𝒂𝝋 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 𝒂𝒚 (4)
 Hence,
𝒂𝝆 . 𝒂𝒙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 (5)
𝒂𝝋 . 𝒂𝒙 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 (6)
𝒂𝒛 . 𝒂𝒙 = 0 (7)
Therefore,
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 − 𝐴𝜑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 (8)
Ay can be obtained from,
(𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒚 = (𝐴𝜌 𝒂𝝆 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒚 (9)
𝐴𝑦 = (𝐴𝜌 𝒂𝝆 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒚 (10)
Now,
𝒂𝝆 . 𝒂𝒚 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 (11)
𝒂𝝋 . 𝒂𝒚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 (12)
𝒂𝒛 . 𝒂𝒚 = 0 (13)
Therefore,
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 (14)
Az can be obtained from,
(𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒛 = (𝐴𝜌 𝒂𝝆 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒛 (15)
𝐴𝑧 = (𝐴𝜌 𝒂𝝆 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒛 (16)
Hence,
𝒂𝝆 . 𝒂𝒛 = 0 (17)
𝒂𝝋 . 𝒂𝒛 = 0 (18)
𝒂𝒛 . 𝒂𝒛 = 1 (19)
Therefore,
𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴𝑧 (20)
Similarly, the vector components Aρ, Aφ and Az can be obtained in terms of the vector components and independent variables of
Cartesian system by dot multiplying the vector A in both systems by aρ, aφ and az respectively.
(𝐴𝜌 𝒂𝝆 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝝆 = (𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝝆 (21)
𝐴𝜌 = (𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝝆 (22)
𝐴𝜌 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 (23)
𝑥 𝑦
𝐴𝜌 = 𝐴𝑥 ( ) + 𝐴𝑦 ( ) (24)
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

Aφ can be obtained from,

(𝐴𝜌 𝒂𝝆 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝝋 = (𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝝋 (25)
𝐴𝜑 = (𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝝋 (26)
𝐴𝜑 = − 𝐴𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 (27)
𝑦 𝑥
𝐴𝜑 = −𝐴𝑥 ( ) + 𝐴𝑦 ( ) (28)
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

Az can be obtained from,

(𝐴𝜌 𝒂𝝆 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒛 = (𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒛 (29)
 𝐴𝑧 = (𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒛 (30)
𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴𝑧 (31)
The result of transformation of vectors from Cartesian coordinate system to Cylindrical coordinate system and vice-versa are
summarized in Table II.

TABLE II. TRANSFORMATION OF VECTORS BETWEEN CARTESIAN AND CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Vectors of Cartesian Coordinate System Vectors of Cylindrical Coordinate System

Ax, Ay, Az 𝐴𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 − 𝐴𝜑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑, 𝐴𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑, Az

𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥
𝐴𝑥 (
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
) + 𝐴𝑦 (
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
), −𝐴𝑥 (
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
) + 𝐴𝑦 (
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
), Az Aρ, Aφ, Az

C. Transformation between Cartesian and Spherical Coordinate Systems

The coordinates of a point P in both Cartesian and Spherical coordinate systems are shown in Fig. 5.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5. Transformation between Cartesian and Spherical coordinate systems.

From the projection of r on the z-axis and onto the xy-plane as shown in Fig. 5 (a),
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 (32)
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 (33)
𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (34)
Hence, the result of transformation of independent variables from Cartesian coordinate system to Spherical coordinate system
and vice-versa are summarized in Table III.

TABLE III. TRANSFORMATION OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES BETWEEN CARTESIAN AND SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Independent Variables of Cartesian Coordinate System Independent Variables of Spherical Coordinate System

x, y, z r sin θ cos φ, r sin θ sin φ, r cos θ

−1 𝑧 −1 𝑦
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2
), 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
𝑥
r, θ, φ

From Fig. 5 (a) and Fig. 5 (b),

𝒂𝒓 = sin 𝜃 𝒂𝝆 + cos 𝜃 𝒂𝒛 (35)
𝒂𝒓 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (cos 𝜑 𝒂𝒙 + sin 𝜑 𝒂𝒚 ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝒂𝒛 (36)
 𝒓
𝒂𝒓 = (37)
𝑟
𝑥 𝒂𝒙 +𝑦 𝒂𝒚 +𝑧 𝒂𝒛
𝒂𝒓 = (38)
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2

𝒂𝜃 = cos 𝜃 𝒂𝝆 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝒂𝒛 (39)

𝒂𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (cos 𝜑 𝒂𝒙 + sin 𝜑 𝒂𝒚 ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝒂𝒛 (40)
From previous result,
𝒂𝝋 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 𝒂𝒚 (41)
Now if a vector 𝑨 = 𝐴𝑟 𝒂𝒓 + 𝐴𝜃 𝒂𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝜑 is given in Spherical coordinate system, it can be expressed in the Cartesian
coordinate system as 𝑨 = 𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 . The vector components Ax, Ay and Az can be obtained in terms of the vector
components and independent variables of Spherical system by dot multiplying the vector A in both systems by ax, ay and az
respectively.
(𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒙 = (𝐴𝑟 𝒂𝒓 + 𝐴𝜃 𝒂𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 ) . 𝒂𝒙 (42)
𝐴𝑥 = (𝐴𝑟 𝒂𝒓 + 𝐴𝜃 𝒂𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 ) . 𝒂𝒙 (43)
Hence,
𝒂𝒓 . 𝒂𝒙 = {𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝒂𝒚 ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝒂𝒛 } . 𝒂𝒙 (44)
𝒂𝒓 . 𝒂𝒙 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 cos 𝜑 (45)
𝒂𝜽 . 𝒂𝒙 = {𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝒂𝒚 ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝒂𝒛 } . 𝒂𝒙 (46)
𝒂𝜽 . 𝒂𝒙 = cos 𝜃 cos 𝜑 𝒂𝝋 . 𝒂𝒙 (47)
𝒂𝝋 . 𝒂𝒙 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 (48)
Therefore,
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 − 𝐴𝜑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 (49)
Ay can be obtained from,
(𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒚 = (𝐴𝑟 𝒂𝒓 + 𝐴𝜃 𝒂𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 ) . 𝒂𝒚 (50)
𝐴𝑦 = (𝐴𝑟 𝒂𝒓 + 𝐴𝜃 𝒂𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 ) . 𝒂𝒚 (51)
Now,
𝒂𝒓 . 𝒂𝒚 = {𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (cos 𝜑 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝒂𝒚 ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝒂𝒛 } . 𝒂𝒚 (52)
𝒂𝒓 . 𝒂𝒚 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 sin 𝜑 (53)
𝒂𝜽 . 𝒂𝒚 = {𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (cos 𝜑 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝒂𝒚 ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝒂𝒛 } . 𝒂𝒚 (54)
𝒂𝜽 . 𝒂𝒚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 (55)
𝒂𝝋 . 𝒂𝒚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 (56)
Therefore,
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 (57)
Az can be obtained from,
(𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒛 = (𝐴𝑟 𝒂𝒓 + 𝐴𝜃 𝒂𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 ) . 𝒂𝒛 (58)
𝐴𝑧 = (𝐴𝑟 𝒂𝒓 + 𝐴𝜃 𝒂𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 ) . 𝒂𝒛 (59)
Now,
𝒂𝒓 . 𝒂𝒛 = {𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (cos 𝜑 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝒂𝒚 ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝒂𝒛 } . 𝒂𝒛 (60)
𝒂𝒓 . 𝒂𝒚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (61)
 𝒂𝜽 . 𝒂𝒛 = {𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (cos 𝜑 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝒂𝒚 ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝒂𝒛 } . 𝒂𝒛 (62)
𝒂𝜽 . 𝒂𝒛 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (63)
𝒂𝝋 . 𝒂𝒛 = 0 (64)
Therefore,
𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝐴𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (65)
Similarly, the vector components Ar, Aѳ and Aφ can be obtained in terms of the vector components and independent variables of
Cartesian system by dot multiplying the vector A in both systems by ar, aѳ and aφ respectively.
(𝐴𝑟 𝒂𝒓 + 𝐴𝜃 𝒂𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 ) . 𝒂𝒓 = (𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒓 (66)
𝐴𝑟 = (𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝒓 (67)
𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (68)
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴𝑥 ( ) + 𝐴𝑦 ( ) + 𝐴𝑧 ( ) (69)
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴𝑥 ( ) + 𝐴𝑦 ( ) + 𝐴𝑧 ( ) (70)
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2

Aѳ can be obtained from,

(𝐴𝑟 𝒂𝒓 + 𝐴𝜃 𝒂𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 ) . 𝒂𝜃 = (𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝜃 (71)
𝐴𝜃 = (𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝜃 (72)
𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 − 𝐴𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (73)
𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 − 𝐴𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (74)
𝑧𝑥 𝑧𝑦 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴𝑥 { } + 𝐴𝑦 { } − 𝐴𝑧 ( ) (75)
√(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 ) √(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 ) √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2

Aφ can be obtained from,

(𝐴𝑟 𝒂𝒓 + 𝐴𝜃 𝒂𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝒂𝝋 ) . 𝒂𝝋 = (𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝝋 (76)
𝐴𝜑 = (𝐴𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒂𝒛 ) . 𝒂𝝋 (77)
𝐴𝜑 = − 𝐴𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 (78)
𝑦 𝑥
𝐴𝜑 = − 𝐴𝑥 ( ) + 𝐴𝑦 ( ) (79)
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

The result of transformation of vectors from Cartesian coordinate system to Spherical coordinate system and vice-versa are
summarized in Table IV.

TABLE IV. TRANSFORMATION OF VECTORS BETWEEN CARTESIAN AND SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Vectors of Cartesian Coordinate System Vectors of Spherical Coordinate System

𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 − 𝐴𝜑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑, 𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 +
Ax, Ay, Az
𝐴𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 , 𝐴𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝐴𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑧𝑥
𝐴𝑥 ( ) + 𝐴𝑦 ( ) + 𝐴𝑧 ( ), 𝐴𝑥 { }+
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 √(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )
Ar, Aѳ, Aφ
𝑧𝑦 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑦 𝑥
𝐴𝑦 { } − 𝐴𝑧 ( ), − 𝐴𝑥 ( ) + 𝐴𝑦 ( )
√(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 ) √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

IV. WHICH COORDINATE SYSTEMS ARE USED FOR NAVIGATION?

A. Coordinate Systems Used for Navigation
Modeling aerospace trajectories requires positioning and orienting the aircraft or spacecraft with respect to the rotating Earth.
Navigation coordinates are defined with respect to the center and surface of the Earth. The following coordinate systems are used
for navigation:
 • Geographic coordinate system
• Local tangent plane coordinate system
• Earth-centered, Earth-fixed coordinate system
These coordinate systems are described as follows:
B. Geographic Coordinate System
• The geographic coordinate system facilitates describing the position of any point located on the surface of the spherical
Earth. Fig. 6 summarizes how we use three variables in this coordinate system to locate a point at or above the Earth’s
surface.

Fig. 6. Geographic coordinate system.

• Longitude, often designated by the Greek letter theta (θ), is the East-West angular distance measured from a prime meridian,
which is a predetermined North-South line of origin that rotates with the Earth. On the Earth it is the North-South arc running
through Greenwich, England. Longitude is usually measured toward the East from 0° to 360°, although sometimes it is
measured East or West from the meridian and then designated as such. For example, longitudes of 100° and 200° are
equivalent to 100° E and 160° W respectively.
• Latitude, often designated by the Greek letter phi (φ), is the North-South angular distance from the equator. The Earth’s
North and South poles mark the rotational axis of the planet; the equator is equidistant between the poles. Latitude is
measured from – 90° (south pole) to + 90° (North pole). The equator is at zero degrees latitude.
• Altitude and elevation (z), is the radial distance from the Earth’s center. By convention, either mean sea level (MSL) or
ground level is used as a reference level.
C. Local Tangent Plane Coordinate System
• Local tangent plane coordinate (LTP) system, sometimes named local vertical, local horizontal coordinate (LVLH) system,
is a geographical coordinate system based on the local vertical direction and the Earth’s axis of rotation. It consists of three
coordinates: one represents the position along the Northern axis, one along the local Eastern axis and one represents the
vertical position. Two right-handed variants exist: East, North, Up (ENU) coordinates and North, East, Down (NED)
coordinates. They serve for representing state vectors that are commonly used in aviation and marine cybernetics.
• In many targeting and tracking applications, the local East, North, Up (ENU) Cartesian coordinate system is far more
intuitive and practical than ECEF or Geodetic coordinates. The local ENU coordinates are formed from a plane tangent to
the Earth’s surface fixed to a specific location and hence it is sometimes known as a “Local Tangent” or “Local Geodetic”
plane.
 Fig. 7. Local East, North, Up (ENU) coordinate system.

• In an airplane, most objects of interest are below the aircraft; so it is sensible to define down as a positive number. The local
North, East, Down (NED) coordinates allow this as an alternative to the local East, North, Up (ENU) coordinates.

Fig. 8. Local North, East, Down (NED) coordinate system.

D. Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed Coordinate System

• The Earth-centered, Earth-fixed (ECEF), also known as Earth-centered rotational (ECR), is a geographic and Cartesian
coordinate system and is sometimes known as a “Conventional Terrestrial” system. It represents positions as X, Y and Z
coordinates.
 Fig. 9. Earth-centered, Earth-fixed (ECEF) coordinate system.

• The point (0, 0, 0) is defined as the center of mass of Earth, hence the term geocentric coordinates. The distance from a
given point of interest to the center of Earth is called the geocentric radius or geocentric distance.
• Its axes are aligned with the international reference pole (IRP) and international reference meridian (IRM) that are fixed with
respect to Earth’s surface, hence the descriptor Earth-fixed. Since Earth does not rotate about the z-axis, unlike an inertial
system such as Earth-centered inertial (ECI), therefore it is alternatively called Earth-centered rotational (ECR).
• These Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed (ECEF) coordinates are used by most satellite systems to designate an Earth position. This
is done because it gives precise values without having to choose a specific ellipsoid. Only the center of the Earth and the
orientation of the axis is needed. To convert to angular coordinates, more information is needed. Some high precision
applications remain in ECEF to avoid additional error. High precision geodetic benchmarks have both angular and ECEF
coordinates recorded in the data bases.
• WGS 84 is an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed terrestrial reference system and geodetic datum. WGS 84 is based on a consistent
set of constants and model parameters that describe the Earth’s size, shape, gravity and geomagnetic fields.
• A geodetic datum or geodetic system (also known as geodetic reference datum or geodetic reference system) is a coordinate
system and a set of reference points used for locating places on the Earth (or similar objects). An approximate definition of
sea level is the datum WGS 84, an ellipsoid, whereas a more accurate definition is Earth Gravitational Model 2008 (EGM
2008), using at least 2,159 spherical harmonics.
• At the highest accuracy, geodesy is done in an ECEF coordinate system. Different organizations have defined a series of these
over the last few decades. They are defined by specifying the locations of a small set of reference benchmarks. These
definitions are in ECEF. The US Department of Defense (DoD) system is called World Geodetic System 84 (WGS 84). This
World Geodetic System has several components. One of these is the reference frame. WGS 84 was used as the basis of the
GPS solutions. This was done by finding the WGS 84 ECEF locations of the stations that supply data for the Broad Cast
Ephemeris (BCE) computation. WGS 84 was a major successor to the previous system WGS 72. There was a significant shift
between the two systems in some parts of the world. The science community has been working on a series of world reference
systems that are called international terrestrial reference systems (ITRFs). The earliest ones were ITRF 92 and ITRF 94, which
were quite good. Modest improvements followed with ITRF 97 and ITRF 2000. The later two models were so accurate that
models of the motion of the crustal plates of the Earth had to be included.
V. HOW ARE ELLIPSOID AND GEOID RELATED TO CHARACTERIZE THE EARTH SURFACE?
A. Earth as an Ellipsoid
• An ellipsoid is an ellipse rotated in three dimensions about its shorter axis.
• The Earth’s ellipsoid is only 1/297 off from a sphere where the sphere is about 40 million meters in circumference.
 (a) (b)

Fig. 10. (a) A sphere (b) An ellipsoid.

• Many ellipsoids have been measured and mapped. Typical examples include WGS 84 and GRS 80.
• On an ellipsoid, the distance between parallels increases slightly as the latitude increases.

Fig. 11. Latitude and longitude on an ellipsoid.

• An ellipsoid gives the base elevation for mapping, called a datum. For example, North American Datum 1927 (NAD 27)
and North American Datum 1983 (NAD 83).
• Particular datums are based on specific spheroids. For example, NAD 27 is based on the Clarke 1866 spheroid and NAD 83
is based on the GRS_1980 spheroid.
B. Earth as a Geoid
• Rather than using a regular shape like an ellipsoid, we can create a more complex model that takes into account the Earth’s
irregularities. The only thing shaped like the Earth is the Earth itself, thus the term geoid, meaning “Earth like”. Its shape
is based on the Earth’s gravity field, correcting for the centrifugal force of the Earth’s rotation. On the surface of geoid,
gravity is the same as its strength at mean sea level.
 Fig. 12. A geoid.

• Geodesy is the science of measuring the size and shape of the Earth and its gravitational and magnetic fields.
• In order to manage the complexities of the shape of a geoid model of the Earth, we use geodetic datum. Datum means any
numerical or geometric quantity which serves as a reference or base for other quantities. A geodetic datum is used as a
reference base for mapping. It can be horizontal or vertical. It is always tied to a reference ellipsoid.

Fig. 13. Earth surfaces.

 VI. EXPLAIN HOW ECCENTRICITY OR FLATTENING PLAYS A VITAL ROLE TO VISUALIZE THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH?
A. Eccentricity (Flattening) of the Earth
• Eccentricity (flattening) indicates how far the Earth is from being a perfect sphere.

Fig. 14. Earth as an ellipsoid.

• The eccentricity (flattening) of an ellipsoid (f) can be calculated from the following equation:
𝑎−𝑏
𝑓= (80)
𝑎

where, 𝑎 = 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 − 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and 𝑏 = 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

• Thus using the two axes’ lengths of an ellipsoid, we can calculate its eccentricity (flattening), with 𝑓 = 0 being a perfect
sphere and 𝑓 = 1 being a straight line.

Fig. 15. Examples of ellipsoid flattening.

• Newton estimated the Earth’s eccentricity to be about 𝑓 = 1⁄300. Modern satellite technology gives 𝑓 =
1⁄298 (~0.003357). These small values of f tell us that the Earth is very close to being a sphere, but not close enough to
ignore its eccentricity if we want to accurately locate features on the Earth.
 VII. WHAT IS TRANSFORMATION MATRIX? WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF IT IN COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION?
A. Transformation Matrix
• A transformation matrix is a 3 x 3 matrix given by,
𝑎 𝑏 0
𝑀𝑇 = ( 𝑐 𝑑 0) (81)
𝑒 𝑓 1
• The transformation matrix allows to alter the default coordinate system and map the original coordinates (x, y) to new
coordinates (xʹ, yʹ). Depending on how we alter the coordinate system, we effectively rotate, scale, move (translate) or share
the object.
B. Importance of Transformation Matrix in Coordinate Transformation
• To transform the coordinate system, we need to multiply the original coordinate vector to the transformation matrix. Since
the matrix is 3 x 3 and the vector is 2 x 2, therefore we need to add an element to it to match the size of the vector with the
matrix as required by multiplication rules. Thus the transformed vector is obtained as follows:
𝑎 𝑏 0
(𝑥ʹ 𝑦ʹ 1) = (𝑥 𝑦 1) . ( 𝑐 𝑑 0) (82)
𝑒 𝑓 1
• For example, to rotate an image on the bitmap of a page, the PDF renderer should take coordinates of each point of the
image, alter them using the above formula and render that pixel at the new coordinates.
VIII. NAME THE COORDINATE SYSTEM THAT IS USED IN GPS. EXPLAIN AND DERIVE THE MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION OF THE
TRANSFORMATION MATRIX OF THIS COORDINATE SYSTEM.
A. Coordinate System Used in GPS
The GPS or global positioning system is a satellite-based radio-navigation and position location system whose constellation
nominally consists of 24 satellites arranged in 6 orbital planes with 4 satellites per plane. It uses the Earth-centered, Earth-fixed
(ECEF) coordinate system which is a non-inertial system rotating with the Earth and whose origin is fixed with the center of the
Earth.
B. Mathematical Formulation of the Transformation Matrix of ECEF Coordinate System
The direction cosine matrix is called the transformation matrix of ECEF coordinate system. The mathematical formulation of this
direction cosine matrix is derived and explained as follows:

Fig. 16. Two coordinate systems.

 Fig. 16 shows two two-dimensional systems (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). The second coordinate system is obtained from rotating the
first system by a positive angle α. A point p is used to find the relation between the two systems. The point p is located at (X1, Y1)
in the (x1, y1) system and at (X2, Y2) in the (x2, y2) system. The relation between (X2, Y2) and (X1, Y1) can be found from the following
equations:
𝑋2 = 𝑋1 cos 𝛼 + 𝑌1 sin 𝛼 (83)
𝑋2 = 𝑋1 cos (𝑋1 𝑜𝑛 𝑋2 ) + 𝑌1 cos (𝑌1 𝑜𝑛 𝑋2 ) (84)
𝑌2 = − 𝑋1 sin 𝛼 + 𝑌1 cos 𝛼 (85)
𝑌2 = 𝑋1 cos (𝑋1 𝑜𝑛 𝑌2 ) + 𝑌1 cos (𝑌1 𝑜𝑛 𝑌2 ) (86)
In matrix form, this equation can be written as,
𝑋2 cos (𝑋1 𝑜𝑛 𝑋2 ) cos (𝑌1 𝑜𝑛 𝑋2 ) 𝑋1
[ ]=[ ][ ] (87)
𝑌2 cos (𝑋1 𝑜𝑛 𝑌2 ) cos (𝑌1 𝑜𝑛 𝑌2 ) 𝑌1
The direction cosine matrix is defined as,
cos (𝑋1 𝑜𝑛 𝑋2 ) cos (𝑌1 𝑜𝑛 𝑋2 )
𝐶12 ≡ [ ] (88)
cos (𝑋1 𝑜𝑛 𝑌2 ) cos (𝑌1 𝑜𝑛 𝑌2 )
This represents that the coordinate system is transferred from system 1 to system 2. In a three-dimensional system, the directional
cosine can be written as,
cos (𝑋1 𝑜𝑛 𝑋2 ) cos (𝑌1 𝑜𝑛 𝑋2 ) cos (𝑍1 𝑜𝑛 𝑋2 )
𝐶12 ≡ [ cos (𝑋1 𝑜𝑛 𝑌2 ) cos (𝑌1 𝑜𝑛 𝑌2 ) cos (𝑍1 𝑜𝑛 𝑌2 ) ] (89)
cos (𝑋1 𝑜𝑛 𝑍2 ) cos (𝑌1 𝑜𝑛 𝑍2 ) cos (𝑍1 𝑜𝑛 𝑍2 )
If the transform is to rotate angle α around the z-axis and rotate angle β around the y-axis, it is easier to perform the transform
in two steps. In other words, the directional cosine matrix can be used in a cascading manner. The first step is to rotate a positive
angle α around the z-axis. The corresponding direction cosine matrix is,
cos 𝛼 sin 𝛼 0
𝐶12 = [− sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼 0] (90)
0 0 1
The second step is to rotate a positive angle β around the x-axis. Hence the corresponding direction cosine matrix is,
1 0 0
𝐶23 = [0 cos 𝛽 sin 𝛽 ] (91)
0 − sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽
The overall transform can be written as,
𝐶13 = 𝐶23 𝐶12 (92)
1 0 0 cos 𝛼 sin 𝛼 0
𝐶13 = [0 cos 𝛽 sin 𝛽 ] [− sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼 0] (93)
0 − sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽 0 0 1
cos 𝛼 sin 𝛼 0
𝐶13 = [− sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 sin 𝛽 ] (94)
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 − cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽
To transform coordinate system 1 to system n through system 2, 3, . . ., n-1, the following relation can be used:
𝐶1𝑛 = 𝐶𝑛−1
𝑛
∙ ∙ ∙ 𝐶13 = 𝐶23 𝐶12 (95)
𝑖
In general, each 𝐶𝑖−1 represents only one single transform. This cascade method is used to obtain the Earth-centered, Earth-fixed
(ECEF) coordinate system.