wOT211

ANATOMY, KINESIOLOGY AND OCCUPATIONAL

THERAPY
NIKKI Y. PESTAÑO, OTRP, RYT
TERMS

 Anatomy
- the study of the human body structure and function anatomy, physiology, physics, and geometry, and
relates them to human movement
- GROSS ANATOMY: macroscopic
 The study of anatomical structure that is visible or can be seen by the naked eye such as the
external or internal body organs
 Kinesiology
- study of human movement
- brings together the fields of anatomy, physiology, physics, and geometry, and relates them to human
movement.
- Thus, kinesiology utilizes principles of mechanics, musculoskeletal anatomy, and neuromuscular
physiology
 Biomechanics
- Mechanical principles that relate directly to the human body
- Movement of the human body itself
 Kinetics
- Forces causing movements without regards to what is moving or who is moving
- More on the push and pull itself
 Kinematics
- Time, space, and mass aspects of a moving system
PURPOSE:

 to understand movement and forces and manipulate them to prevent injury and restore function
 as OTs our focus is occupational engagement but we also have to know the body parts and how the body is
moving so we can know how to improve client’s physical skills and which parts have problems or difficulties.

CASE: MR MARK DEGURSE (L3 SPINAL CORD INJURY)

Mr Mark DeGurse is a 52-year-old married farmer. He and his wife have 5 children. Three of them, two boys and
a girl, still live at home and contribute substantially to the work of the farm both after school in the winter and during
the summer.

Mr DeGurse was injured in a farming accident, when he was trying to fix a piece of farm machinery in his
cornfield while he was harvesting his corn in the autumn. He was by himself and decided to fix the equipment anyway,
without waiting for help. It was an unfortunate decision, because he did not see a very heavy piece of the harvester
above him loosen. This part of the harvester gave way and fell on his back.He was found by his teenage son about 2
hours later.
He was rushed to the closest community hospital, then because of the suspected severity of his injuries, he was
airlifted to a large regional hospital. There it was determined that he had sustained internal injuries and a fracture of the
third lumbar vertebra. He had surgery that successfully repaired the internal injuries. He was not as lucky with the
fracture of his spine. His spinal cord was completely severed below the level of L3,resulting in paraplegia.
Mr DeGurse spent 4 weeks in intensive care, then after 3 weeks in an acute medical care unit, he was transferred
to the rehabilitation unit.
DESCRIPTIVE TERMINOLOGY
ANATOMICAL POSITION
 arbitrary position as a starting point from which movement or location of structures can be described.
 is described as the human body standing in an upright position, eyes facing forward, feet parallel and
close together, arms at the sides of the body with the palms facing forward. Although the position of the
forearm and hands is not a natural one, it does allow for accurate description.

FUNDAMENTAL POSITION
 The fundamental position (Fig. 1-1B) is the same as the anatomical position except that the palms face
the sides of the body. This position is often used in discussing rotation of the upper extremity
* Specific terms are used to describe the location of a structure and its position relative to other structures*
MEDIAL, LATERAL
 Medial
- refers to a location or
position toward the
midline,
 Lateral
- refers to a location or
position farther from the
midline. -

ANTERIOR, POSTERIOR
 Anterior
- Refers to the front of the
body or to a position
closer to the front.
 Posterior
- refers to the back of the
body or to a position
more toward the back.
VENTRAL, DORSAL
 Ventral
- is a synonym (a word with
the same meaning) of
anterior,
 Dorsal
- a synonym of posterior;
anterior and posterior are
more commonly used in
kinesiology.

DISTAL, PROXIMAL
 Distal and proximal are used to describe locations on the extremities.

 Proximal
- means toward the trunk.
 Distal
- Distal means away from
the trunk

SUPERIOR, INFERIOR
  Superior
- used to indicate the
location of a body part
that is above another or to
refer to the upper surface
of an organ or a structure
 Inferior
- Inferior indicates that a
body part is below another
or refers to the lower
surface of an organ or a
structure.

CRANIAL/ CEPHALAD, CAUDAL

 Cranial/ Cephalad
- cranial or cephalad (from
the word root cephal,
meaning “head”) to refer
to a position or structure
close to the head.
 Caudal
- Caudal (from the word
root cauda, meaning
“tail”) refers to a position
or structure closer to the
feet.

* Like dorsal and ventral, cranial and caudal are terms that are best used to describe positions on a quadruped (a four-
legged animal). Humans are bipeds, or two-legged animals*

SUPERFICIAL, DEEP
 Superficial
- describes a position
closer to the surface of
the body. 
 Deep
- describes a position
farther from the surface of
the body.
 SUPINE, PRONE
 Supine
- a person is lying straight,
with the face, or anterior
surface, pointed upward.
 Prone
- A person in the prone
position is horizontal,
with the face, or anterior
surface, pointed
downward

BILATERAL, CONTRALATERAL and IPSILATERAL

 Bilateral
- refers to two, or both,
sides.
 Contralateral
- refers to the opposite side
 Ipsilateral
- refers to the same side of
the body

SEGMENTS OF THE BODY

 The body is divided into segments according to bones
 UPPER EXTREMITY
ARMS
the bone (humerus) between
the shoulder and the elbow
joint

FOREARM
 the forearm (radius and ulna) is
between the elbow and the
wrist. is distal

HAND
to the wrist.

 LOWER EXTREMITY
THIGH
The thigh (femur) is between
the hip and the knee joint

LEG
The leg (tibia and fibula) is
between the knee and the
ankle joint

FOOT
is distal to the ankle.

 TRUNK
 THORAX
The thorax, or chest, is made
up of the ribs, sternum, and
mostly thoracic vertebrae

ABDOMEN
The abdomen, or lower trunk,
is made up of the pelvis,
stomach, and mostly lumbar
vertebrae.

NECK
Cervical vertebrae

HEAD
skull

Arthrokinematic motion (Chapter 4) refers to a joint’s surface motion in relation to the body segment’s motion. For
example, the surface of the proximal end of the humerus moves down, while the body segment (arm) moves up.
Typically consists of rolls, glides/ slides, spins. Body segments are rarely used to describe joint motion. For example,
flexion occurs at the shoulder, not the arm. The motion occurs at the joint (shoulder), and the body segment (arm) just
goes along for the ride! An exception to this concept is the forearm. It is a body segment but functions as a joint as well.
Technically, joint motion occurs at the proximal and distal radioulnar joints; however, common practice refers to this as
forearm pronation and supination.
OSTEOKINEMATICS
 The branch of biomechanics concerned with the description of bone movement when a bone swings through a
range of motion around the axis in a joint, such as with flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, or rotation.
 Deals with the relationship of the movement of the bones around a joint axis
 Refers to the movements of the joints in relation to how the bone segment is moving
JOINTS
 Neck  Trunk
 Shoulder  Hip
 Elbow  Knee
 Wrist  Ankle
 Finger  Toe
MOVEMENTS
 FLEXION, EXTENSION
 FLEXION
- The bending movement of one
bone on another, bringing the
two segments together and
causing an increase in the joint
angle.
- Usually this occurs between
anterior surfaces of articulating
bones, and surfaces move
toward each other.
 EXTENSION
- the straightening movement of
one bone away from another,
causing an increase of the joint
angle.
- This motion usually returns the
body part to the anatomical
position after it has been flexed
(The joint surfaces tend to
move away from each other.
- Hyperextension: is the
continuation of extension
beyond the anatomical position

 ABDUCTION, ADDUCTION
- Exceptions to this midline definition are the fingers and toes. The reference point for the fingers is the
middle finger
  ABDUCTION
- is movement away from the
midline of the body
 ADDUCTION
- movement toward the midline

 EXTERNAL/ LATERAL ROTATION

the anterior surface rolls
outward, away from the
midline,

 INTERNAL/ MEDIAL ROTATION

If the anterior surface rolls
inward toward the midline

 CIRCUMDUCTION

- is motion that describes a

circular, cone-shaped
pattern.
- It involves a combination
of four joint motions: (1)
flexion, (2) abduction, (3)
extension, and (4)
adduction.

 LATERAL FLEXION
 Leaning or bending towards
one side

 DORSIFLEXION, PLANTAR FLEXION

 DORSIFLEXION
- brings the dorsum
(back) of the foot
back toward the
tibia, so the toes
are beginning to
point towards the
sky.
- This is a position of
high ankle stability.
 PLANTAR FLEXION
- pointing the foot
away from the tibia
and down into the
ground.
- This is a position of
low ankle stability,
and most
ligamentous ankle
sprains occur in a
position of
plantarflexion.

 INVERSION, EVERSION
 INVERSION
- moving the sole of
the foot inward at the
ankle
- facing towards the
midline of the body
 EVERSION
- the outward
movement
- facing away from the
midline of the body

 ULNAR, RADIAL DEVIATION

  ULNAR DEVIATION
- the hand moves
medially from the
anatomical position
toward the little
finger side at the
wrist
 RADIAL DEVIATION
- When the hand
moves laterally, or
toward the thumb
side,

 RETRACTION, PROTRACTION
 RETRACTION
- mostly a linear
movement in the same
plane but toward the
midline
- returns the body part
toward the midline, or
back to anatomical
position.
- Retraction refers
to bringing together.
 PROTRACTION
- mostly a linear
movement along a
plane parallel to the
ground and away from
the midline
- the shoulder girdle
moves the scapula
away from the midline,
as does protraction of
the jaw,
- Protraction refers to
protruding or sticking
out. 

 SUPINATION, PRONATION
- Rotation of the forearm
  SUPINATION
- When the elbow is
flexed, the “palm
up” position
 PRONATION
- “palm down” refers
to pronation
- the palm is facing
backward, or
posteriorly

 OPPOSITION, RE-POSITION
 OPPOSITION
- the movement
of bringing the pads
of the thumb and
little finger
together in the
midline of the hand.
 RE-POSITION
- Returning the thumb
and little (or one of
the others!) finger
back to
resting anatomical
position.

 ELEVATION, DEPRESSION
 ELEVATION
- upward movements
of the scapula or
mandible. 
 DEPRESSION
- downward
movements of the
scapula or
mandible. 
PLANES OF MOVEMENT
FRONTAL PLANE

- passes from side to side and divides the

body into the front and back.
- Abduction and adduction movements
occur in this plane
- eg jumping jack exercises, raising and
lowering arms and legs sideways,
cartwheel.

TRANSVERSE PLANE

- passes through the middle of the body

and divides the body horizontally in an
upper and lower half.
- Rotation types of movement occur in this
plane
- eg hip rotation in a golf swing, twisting in
a discus throw, pivoting in netball,
spinning in skating.

SAGITTAL PLANE

- a vertical plane that divides the body into

left and right sides.
- Flexion and extension types of movement
occur in this plane
- eg kicking a football, chest pass in netball,
walking, jumping, squatting.

AXES OF MOVEMENT
FRONTAL AXIS
 FRONTAL AXIS
- this line runs from left to right through the
center of the body.
- For example, when a person performs a
somersault they rotate around this axis.

SAGITTAL/ ANTEROPOSTERIOR AXIS

- this line runs from front to back through

the center of the body.
- For example, when a person performs a
cartwheel they are rotating about the
sagittal axis

VERTICAL AXIS
- This line runs from top to bottom through
the center of the body.
- For example, when a skater performs a
spin they are rotating around the vertical
axis.

TYPES OF MOTION

LINEAR/ TRANSLATORY MOTION

- Occurs In a more or less straight line from one location to another.
- All the parts of the object move the same distance, in the same direction, and at the same time.
I. Rectilinear motion
- Movement that occur in a straight line
II. Curvilinear motion
- Movement that occurs in a curved path that isn’t necessarily circular.
ROTARY/ ANGULAR MOTION
- Movement of an object around a fixed point
- All the parts of the object move through the same angle, in the same direction, and at the
same time, but they do not move in the same distance
GENERAL MOTION
- Combination of linear and angular motion
*Generally speaking, most movement within the body is angular; movement outside the body tends to be linear.
Exceptions to this statement can be found. For example, the movement of the scapula in elevation/ depression and
protraction/retraction is essentially linear. However, the movement of the clavicle, which is attached to the scapula, is
angular and gets its angular motion from the sternoclavicular joint. *
DEGREES OF FREEDOM

- the number of planes within which a joint moves

- Given that the body and its segments move in three planes of motion, the degrees of freedom are
maximal at three degrees as well
UNIAXIAL
- Moving around a single axis
- uniaxial joints are restricted to an arc of motion in a single plane around a single axis
- Includes two types because of their structural anatomy:
i. Hinge Joint
ii. Pivot Joint
BIAXIAL
- joint moves around two axes,
- the segments moves in two planes, and the joint has two degrees of freedom of motion.
- Include three structural type:
i. Condyloid
- The root word of “condyloid”—”condyle”—means knuckle,
- a condyloid-joint shape is a spherical convex surface partnered with an opposing
concave surface
- as seen in the metacarpophalangeal joints of the hand (your knuckles) and the
metatarsophalangeal joints of the foot.
ii. Ellipsoidal
- has a spindle-like shape in which one somewhat flattened convex surface articulates
with a fairly deep concave surface
- as seen at the radiocarpal joint at the wrist.
iii. Saddle
- each bony partner has a concave and convex surface oriented perpendicular to each
other, like a rider in a saddle.
- The carpometacarpal joint of the thumb is a saddle joint, but this joint is actually a
modified biaxial joint that is discussed in

*Both condyloid and ellipsoidal joints permit flexion-extension within the sagittal plane around the medial-lateral axis
and abduction-adduction within the frontal plane around an anterior-posterior axis*

TRIAXIAL
- have three degrees of freedom (greatest number of degrees of motion a joint can possess.)
- Movement takes place about three main axes, all of which pass through the joint’s center of rotation.
- The axis for flexion-extension has a medial-lateral direction; the axis for abduction-adduction has an
anterior-posterior direction; and the axis for rotation courses in a superiorinferior direction in the
anatomical position.
i. Ball-and-socket joint
- Hip and glenohumeral joints
MECHANICS/ BIOMECHANICS TERMS

 STATICS
- Deals with factor associated with nonmoving or nearly nonmoving systems
 DYNAMICS
- Involves factors associated with moving systems
- can be divided into kinetics and kinematics
  KINEMATICS
- involves the time, space, and mass aspects of a moving system
- can be divided into Osteokinematics and Arthrokinematics
 KINETICS
- Deals with forces associated with forces causing movement in a system
 OSTEOKINEMATCS
- Focuses on the manner in which bones move in space without regard to the movement of joint surfaces,
such as shoulder flexion/ extension
 ANTHROKINEMATICS
- Deals with the manner in which adjoining joint surfaces move in relation to each other – that is, in the
same or opposite direction

MECHANICAL TERMS

 FORCE
- Is a push or pull action that can be represented as a vector
 VECTOR
- Quantity having both magnitude and mass
 VELOCITY
- A vector that describes speed in a certain direction
 SCALAR
- Quantity that described only the magnitude
 MASS
- Refers to the amount of matter that a body contains
- Measure of inertia – it’s a resistance to change in motion
 INERTIA
- The property of matter that causes it to resist any change of its motion in either speed or direction.
 TORQUE
- The tendency of force to produce motion around an axis.
- Muscles around the body produces motion around joint axes
 FRICTION
- A force developed by two surfaces, which tends to prevent motion of one surface across another.

LAWS OF MOTION

LAW OF INERTIA
- An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion tends to stay in motion
- A force is needed to overcome the inertia of an object and cause the object to move, stop, or change
direction.
- The object’s acceleration depends on the strength of the force applied and the object’s mass.

LAW OF ACCELERATION
- the amount of acceleration depends on the strength of the force applied to an object.
- Acceleration can also deal with a change in direction.
- Force is needed to change direction; according to the law, the change in an object’s direction depends on
the force applied to it
 - Acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of an object.

LAW OF ACTION-REACTION
- states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
- The strength of the reaction is always equal to the strength of the action, and it occurs in the opposite
direction.
- Forces can be internal, such as muscular contraction, ligamentous restraint, or bony support.
- Forces can also be external, such as gravity or any externally applied resistance such as weight, friction,
and so on.

FORCE

LINEAR FORCE
- When two or more forces are acting along the same line
PARALLEL FORCES
- Occurs in the same plane and in the same or opposite direction
CONCURRENT FORCES
- Two or more forces must act on a common point but must pull or push in different directions
RESULTANTANT FORCE
- Overall effect of the different forces
FORCE COUPLE
- Occurs when two or more forces act in different directions, resulting in a turning effect
TORQUE

 Also known as a moment of force and can be thought of as a rotary force

 Also the amount of force needed by a muscle contraction to cause rotary joint motion
 The ability of force to produce rotation around an axis
 The amount of torque a lever has depends on the amount of force exerted and the distance it is from the axis.
 The twisting force (torque) exerted by the wrench can be increased either by
1. increasing the force applied to the handle, or
2. increasing the length of the handle.
 How much torque can be produced depends upon the strength of the force (magnitude) and its perpendicular
distance from the force’s line of pull to the axis of rotation.
MOMENT ARM
- (torque arm) perpendicular distance
- the moment arm of a muscle is the perpendicular distance between the muscle’s line of pull and the
center of the joint (axis of rotation)
 Torque is greatest when the angle of pull is at 90 degrees (Fig. 8-10A),
 Torque decreases as the angle of pull either decreases (Fig. 8-10B) or increases (Fig. 8-10C) from
that perpendicular position
STABILIZING FORCE
- Nearly all the force generated by the muscle is directed back into the joint, pulling the two bones
together
- Joint angle is less than 90-degrees or near 0-degrees (almost straight
- It pulls segments together so it does not break
- Moment arm is small and force is stabilizing
ANGULAR FORCE
 -
When the angle of pull is at 90-degrees, the perpendicular distance between the joint axis and the line of
pull is much larger,
- Angular force generated by the muscle is directed at rotating, not stabilizing, the joint
- As the muscle increases its angular force, it decreases its stabilizing force, and vice versa
- At 90 degrees, or halfway through its range (midrange), the muscle has its greatest angular force.
(optimal force) and ability to move the joint is strongest
DISLOCATING FORCE
- Joint angle more than 90-degrees or nearing 180-degrees (completely bent)
- Moment arm is small and force is dislocating
- Force is directed away from the joint
SUMMARY OF FORCES
 a muscle is most efficient at moving, or rotating, a joint when the joint is at or near 90 degrees. It becomes
less efficient at moving or rotating when the joint angle is at the beginning or near the end of the joint
range.
 some muscles have a much greater stabilizing force than angular force throughout the range, and therefore
are more effective at stabilizing the joint than moving it.
 Moment arm, size of the muscle, and contractile strength of the muscle all determine how effective a
muscle is in causing joint motion.

STABILITY
 STATE OF EQUILIBRIUM
- Object is balanced, all toques acting on it are even
- has three states of equilibrium:
i. Stable Equilibrium
- Occurs when an object is in a position where disturbing it would require COG to be raised
ii. Unstable Equilibrium
- Occurs only when a slight force is needed to disturb an object
iii. Neutral Equilibrium
- Exists when an object’s COG is neither raised nor lowered when it is disturbed
- Principles demonstrating the relationships between balance, stability, and motion:
1. The lower the COG, the more stable the object. In Figure 8-17, both triangles have the same base
of support. However, the triangle on the left is taller, has a higher COG, and thus is more unstable
than the triangle on the right. It would take less force to disturb the taller triangle.
2. The COG and LOG must remain within the BOS for an object to remain stable. (Keep in mind that
the LOG passes through the COG. Therefore, what can be said of one can be said of the other. For
the purpose of clarity, from this point forward, the term COG will be used.) The wider the BOS,
the more stable the object.
3. Stability increases as the BOS is widened in the direction of the force. A person standing at a bus
stop on a very windy day would be more stable when facing into the wind and placing one foot
behind the other, thus widening the BOS in the direction of the wind (Fig. 8-20).
4. The greater the mass of an object, the greater its stability. This concept is observed by looking at
the size of players on a football team. Linebackers are traditionally heavier, and thus harder to
push over, but they are not particularly fast. Halfbacks, whose job is to run with the ball, are
much lighter (and easier to push over). It can be said that what is gained in stability is lost in
speed and vice versa. CHAPTER 8 Basic Biomechanics 101
5. The greater the friction between the supporting surface and the BOS, the more stable the body
will be. Walking on an icy sidewalk is a slippery experience, because there is essentially no friction
between the ice and the shoe. Sanding the sidewalk increases the friction of the icy surface, thus
 improving traction. Having a surface with a great deal of friction is not always desirable. Pushing a
wheelchair across a hardwood floor is much easier than pushing one across a carpeted floor. The
carpet creates more friction, making it harder to push the wheelchair.
6. People have better balance while moving if they focus on a stationary object rather than on a
moving object. Therefore, people learning to walk with crutches will be more stable if they focus
on an object down the hall rather than look down at their moving feet or crutches.
 GRAVITY
- The mutual attraction between the earth and an object
 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
- Always directed vertically downward, toward the center of the earth (directed toward the ground)
 CENTER OF GRAVITY
- The balance point of an object at which torque on all sides is equal
- The point at which the planes of the body intersect
- HUMAN BODY: COG is located in the midline at about the level of, though slightly
anterior to, the second sacral vertebra of an adult
- COG of child is higher to that of an adult
 BASE OF SUPPORT
- The art of the body that is in contact with the supporting surface
 LINE OF GRAVITY
- Imaginary vertical line passing through the COG toward the center of the earth

SIMPLE MACHINES

- allow a person to exert a force greater than could be exerted by using muscle power alone
- increases moment arm of what you need to move
- this increase in force is usually at the expense of speed and can be expressed in terms of mechanical
advantage
LEVERS
- Usually a lever will favor either power or distance (range of motion), but not both
- Basic rule of simple machines: the advantage gained in power is lost in distance
- arrangement of the axis (A) in relation to the force (F) and the resistance (R) determines the type of lever
 Lever
- Rigid and can rotate around a fixed point when a force is applied
 Axis (A)
- The fixed point around which a lever rotates
 Force (F)
- Sometimes called effort, that causes the lever to move
- Usually muscular
 Resistance (R)
- Sometimes called load, that must be overcome for motion to occur can include the
weight of the part being moved (arm, leg, etc.), the pull of the gravity on the part, or an
external weight being moved by the body part
 Force Arm (FA)
- The distance between the force and the axis
- The longer the FA, the easier it is to move the part but will have to move at a greater
distance
 Resistance Arm (RA)
 - Distance between the resistance and the axis
- the longer the RA, the harder it is to move the part but will not have to move that far

CLASSES OF LEVERS

FIRST-CLASS LEVER
- First-class lever F _______________ R
A
- If the axis is close to the resistance, the RA will be shorter and the FA will be longer. Therefore, it will be
easy to move the resistance.
- If the axis is close to the force, just the opposite will occur; it will be hard to move the resistance.
o Longer FA, Shorter RA
1. It is easy to move the resistance (book),
2. The resistance is moved only a short distance,
3. The force has to be applied through a long distance.
o Shorter FA, Longer RA
1. It is harder to move the resistance,
2. The resistance moves a longer distance,
3. The force is applied through a short distance.
- AXIS: close to resistance = lever that favors Force
- AXIS: close to Force = lever that favors distance (ROM)
- AXIS: in between = lever that favors balance
- Moment arm =1

SECOND-CLASS LEVER
R
- Second-class lever _______________________
A F
- this lever favors power because a relatively small force (the muscle) can move a large resistance (the
body). However, the body can be raised only a fairly short distance.
- Moment arm = >1
THIRD-CLASS LEVER
F R
- Third-class lever ___________________
A
- advantage of the third-class lever is speed and distance.
- This is, by far, the most common lever in the body.

PULLEYS

- consists of a grooved wheel that turns on an axle with a rope or cable riding in the groove.
- Its purpose is to either change the direction of a force or to increase or decrease its magnitude

FIXED PULLEY
- is a simple pulley attached to a beam
- It acts as a first-class lever with F on one side of the pulley (axis) and R on the other
 - It is used only to change direction.
MOVABLE PULLEY
- has one end of the rope attached to a beam; the rope runs through the pulley to the other end where
the force is applied. The load (resistance) is suspended from the movable pulley
- The purpose of this type of pulley is to increase the mechanical advantage of force.

 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
- the number of times a machine multiplies the force
- The load is supported by both segments of the rope on either side of the pulley so it has a mechanical
advantage of 2
- It will require only half as much force to lift the load because the amount of force gained has doubled.
Although only half of the force is needed to lift the load, the rope must be pulled twice as far.
- In other words, it is easier to pull the rope, but the rope must be pulled a much farther distance.

EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE MACHINES

 WHEEL AND AXLE

- A lever in disguise
- The wheel and axle consists of a wheel, or crank, attached to and turning together with an axle. In other
words, it is a large wheel connected to a smaller wheel and typically is used to increase the force exerted.
- Turning around a larger wheel or handle requires less force, whereas turning around a smaller axle
requires a greater force.
 INCLINED PLANE
- No examples in the human body
- a flat surface that slants.
- It exchanges increased distance for less effort.
- The longer the length of a wheelchair ramp, the greater the distance the wheelchair must travel;
however, it requires less effort to propel the chair up the ramp, because the ramp’s incline is less.