CHAPTER

Stage Settings
10

Stage settings
establish a play’s
atmosphere. In
Andrew Lloyd
Webber’s Sunset
Boulevard, shown
here, the charac-
ters are dwarfed
by the imposing
paneled room that
includes a sweep-
ing staircase.

T he theater, for all its artifices, depicts life

in a sense more truly than history.
—GEORGE SANTAYANA, POET AND PHILOSOPHER

396
SETTING THE SCENE
Focus Questions
What are the purposes of scenery in a play?
What are the effects of scenery in a play?
How has scenic design developed from the Renaissance through modern
times?
What are some types of sets?
What are some of the basic principles and considerations of set design?
How do you construct and erect a set?
How do you paint and build scenery?
How do you shift and set scenery?
What are some tips for backstage safety?

Vocabulary
box set curtain set value
unit set unity tints
permanent set emphasis shades
screens proportion intensity
profile set balance saturation
prisms or periaktoi hue

A thorough study of the theater must include developing

appreciation of stage settings and knowledge of how they are
designed and constructed. Through the years, audiences have
come to expect scenery that not only presents a specific locale
effectively but also adds an essential dimension to the production
in terms of detail, mood, and atmosphere. Scenery and lighting
definitely have become an integral part of contemporary play writ-
ing and production.
 All drama students should have a basic knowledge of stagecraft
and design. You will find there are many things backstage to be
done by those with enthusiasm and a willingness to learn.
Backstage theater experience can bring you the satisfaction of
knowing that you have played a part in making a successful show
possible and can help you discover talents and acquire skills that
will be useful beyond your theater experiences.
NOTE: Many traditional theater terms are used in this chapter. If
you are uncertain about the meaning of a term, check the Glossary
at the back of this book.

Purposes of Scenery
F ROM
THE PROS
Sets, also called scenery, serve numerous purposes, some basic
and others quite complicated and even psychological. The most
important purpose of scenery is to provide a place to act. The set
”For me, that’s should define the time and the setting of the play.
where the passion is,
in the discovery of a Time Historical period
life, in bringing a Season of year
person back to life— Time of day
what they did, their Changes in time during the play
period, the whole
atmosphere of their Setting Climate and geographical conditions
world.“ Socioeconomic situation
Cultural background
—CHARLES
MCCLENNAHAN, Political-governmental system of area
SET DESIGNER Interior or exterior
Rural or urban
Real or imaginary

A set should also help inform the audience about the effects of the envi-
ronment on the characters, and how, in turn, the characters’ personality
traits affect their surroundings. For example, in You Can’t Take It with You,
the strange conglomeration of mismatched objects found in the living room
indicates the let-one-do-as-one-pleases attitude of the Sycamore family.

398
Producing the Drama

 Minimal scenery
focuses attention on
Another important function of a set is to reveal the interrelationships the characters. In this
between people as well as their ranks, stations, influence, or positions in production of M.
their families, offices, or communities. Scenery can provide a means of Butterfly by David
Henry Hwang, John
focusing audience attention on the actor. Elevating an actor on a stairway Lithgow’s character
or a platform provides a strong stage position. Furniture and actors can be controls center stage
arranged to facilitate triangular blocking with the key actor at the center even though he is
seated.
upstage point of the triangle. Well-placed doorways can dramatically frame
the actor.
Some plays call for the simplest scenery possible. Our Town has been
a popular play for high school productions not just because of the power of
its drama but because it does not require any scenery. In Our Town,
Thornton Wilder uses the most effective designer: the audience’s imagina-
tion. This play has inaccurately been called “the play without scenery”;
there is scenery, however—the scenery that Wilder felt was necessary for
the universality he sought. Many directors and their casts have failed to
recognize that such a stage design demands an even stronger interpretation
of the roles by the actors than do productions with conventional scenery.
Scenery should also indicate the style of the production. For example,
sets for plays done in the romantic style are very different from sets for
plays in the epic style. (See Chapter 6 for a discussion of styles of drama.)
Of course, stage settings are not totally realistic, especially when presented
on a proscenium stage. Theater conventions—practices generally accepted
Stage Settings
399
Compare the sketch
of a set for Porgy and
Bess with the photo-
graph of the actual
set. The scenic
designer’s sketch of a
crowded, old-fash-
ioned neighborhood
comes to life after the
set is constructed.

400
Producing the Drama

in lieu of realistic depiction—determine general positions for set pieces
and entrance areas. Following are a few of the staging conventions used in
the theater:
• Almost all furniture faces the audience.
• Exterior doors are usually offstage right.
• Interior doors are usually stage left or upstage.
• Fireplaces tend to be placed on stage-right walls.
• French doors are usually stage left.
• Living-room and dining-room furniture often appear in the same
area.

▼
Another important function of scenery is to create mood and
atmosphere. The reaction of the audience to the actors and the CUE
script may be determined to a great extent by the mental frame-
work a set creates. For example, if the set is painted in bright yel- “Use the least to say
lows, oranges, and pinks, the audience will expect the play to be the most” is a basic rule
correspondingly light and cheery. On the other hand, if a set is for all aspects of the-
painted in violets, dark blues and greens, grays, and black, the ater—from acting to
audience will expect the play to be heavy and serious. The scenic stagecraft.
designer utilizes the known psychological effects of color and
design to arouse a subconscious emotional reaction from the audience.
Sets should be aesthetically satisfying, however, even when an atmosphere
of fear, chaos, or mystery is intended.

Scenic Design
Set designers must always remember that a scenic design can be only as
elaborate or difficult as the crew and budget can handle. Effective design
adds to a production color and life that can make theater an exciting expe-
rience. Even costumes seem more appropriate and attractive against an
appropriate background. In addition, a careful selection of stage furnishings
can make the set and its people seem complete and correct.

SCENIC DESIGN AND THE DRAMA STUDENT

The basic high school drama course is concerned more with the principles
of scenic design and construction than with the actual building of sets.
However, some knowledge of scenic design is valuable whether or not you
plan to take a course in stagecraft. Every performer needs to know the role
of the director, the scenic designer, the technical director, the stage man-
ager, and the stage crew in order to appreciate the contribution each makes
and to achieve the spirit of cooperation essential to successful productions.

Stage Settings
401

The lighting and In bringing a play to
scenery combine to
life, the scenic designer
give the setting of
Frankenstein a is next to the director in
gloomy, ominous importance. The aim of
atmosphere. both is to create an
atmosphere that ex-
presses the meaning of
the play. Scenic design-
ers do not build real
rooms, houses, or moun-
taintops; instead, they
use painted canvas, cre-
ative lighting, and spe-
cial effects to stir the
imagination of the audi-
ence so that the play-
wright’s dream seems a
reality. The scenic de-
signer works with scenery, lighting, makeup, and costumes to create illu-
sions. The more convincing the illusions, the better the production.

Effective scenery and design should . . .

• match the author’s intent and the director’s interpretation
• always serve the actor, never dominate him or her
• complement the costumes, never clash with them
• never become an obstacle course for blocking
• work toward consistency, avoiding distractions
• aid the action of the play, not hinder it
• fit the needs of the play
• be simple in design, construction, and shifting

Application
ACTIVITY

Select a scene from a familiar play or from A Treasury of Scenes and

Monologues. Write a short description of the amount and type of
scenery you would use to fulfill the basic purposes of scenery discussed
on pages 398–401.

402
Producing the Drama

DEVELOPMENT OF SCENIC DESIGN
From the Renaissance to contemporary times, devoted theater technicians
and designers have striven to improve scenery and light design in an effort
to more intensely convey meanings through visual sensations.
Renaissance Stage design as we know it came into being in Italy in the
mid-fifteenth century. The oldest structure still remaining is the solidly
built and heavily decorated Teatro Olimpico, still perfectly preserved in
Vicenza. It was modeled after the ancient Roman theaters and opened on
March 3, 1585. Behind the entrances appeared painted stucco walls show-
ing city streets in perspective. Lining those streets are buildings covered
with statues of diminishing size. This technique produced the amazing
effect of a city stretching into the distance.
The large central entrance of the Teatro Olimpico was the forerunner
of the proscenium arch. The first real proscenium was an elaborate struc-
ture surrounding a frame with a curtain. Behind this frame, actors per-
formed against painted scenes. To facilitate scenery changes, periaktoi,
prism sets modeled after the revolving prisms of the Greek theater, were
sometimes used.

The proscenium arch evolved from the arched entrance of the Teatro Olimpico in Italy. The
columns and statues shown in this model resemble those in ancient Roman theaters.

Stage Settings
403

 The raked stage, another Renaissance invention, became popular in
England and was still used in London early in the twentieth century. In an
attempt to create perspective, the stage floor was slanted upward toward
the back of the stage. The terms upstage and downstage came into being;
actors actually walked up or down the stage.
Both the beautifully elaborate scenery used in performances of dra-
matic allegories and the simple house facades of the Elizabethan playhouse
were representative of the Renaissance. Dramatists experimented with
backdrops, wing settings, revolving stages, and shutters—movable flats on
tracks used for quick scene changes.
Restoration In England during the Restoration period, most of the acting
took place on raked aprons, with little action in the scenery behind the
proscenium. At this time, the proscenium was a very thick wall with one
or two doors in each side wall to enable the actors to enter on the apron
rather than in back of the frame.
Nineteenth Century In the nineteenth century, more efforts were made
to suit the scenery to the individual play. Certain scenes, however,
remained typical:
• interior sets—canvas drops and wings painted to represent a room
• exterior scenes—painted trees, fountains, gates, and pathways
• entrances—wings parallel to the back wall
• street scenes—painted buildings, store windows, signs, and street
lamps
By the middle of the nineteenth century, designers were seeking
greater accuracy in historical and realistic representation. The beginnings
of realism took root with these notable changes:
• the gradual shrinking of the apron
• the addition of orchestra seats
• the elimination of painted backdrops
• the closing of the wings, which gave the illusion of left and right
walls onstage
Twentieth Century The cry for realism was answered in the twentieth
century by André Antoine in France and David Belasco in the United
States. Their stage sets were so photographically accurate that their style
of design was called naturalism. Belasco was so concerned with exact
detail that his scenery sometimes distracted the audiences from the action
of the play. The naturalists were important because their ultrarealistic sets
worked toward making the drama more realistic.
Most realistic stage sets today are designed with selective realism.
This modified form of realism, developed because the many details of nat-
uralism confused the audience, stems from a belief that an impression of
404
Producing the Drama
actuality is better theatrically and artistically. The designer selects scenic This realistic set for
“MASTER HAROLD” . . .
elements that convey the idea of the locale rather than attempting to cre- and the boys by Athol
ate an exact replica of it. Fugard shows the St.
The modern realistic interior set in a proscenium theater has all George’s Park Tea
Room in Port
essential entrances, doorways, windows, and so on placed in a two-sided or
Elizabeth, South
three-sided room. The room is usually placed off-center and at an angle Africa. Actor Danny
instead of squarely on the stage in the old-fashioned manner. The prosce- Glover, gesturing
nium stage has been called “fourth wall theater.” The fourth wall is imag- broadly, dominates
the simple setting.
inary, of course, and its presence is only suggested. Furniture usually faces
that fourth invisible wall, through which the audience observes the action.
There have been attempts to treat the fourth wall as an actual wall by plac-
ing a sofa with its back to the audience or by having an actor look out an
imaginary window while facing the fourth wall. Lighting has helped estab-
lish this illusion of reality.
Twentieth-century exterior sets are quite often only suggestive.
Plastics—three-dimensional structures—and cut-outs—two-dimensional
profiles—are placed against a drop or sky cyc. A ground row, a type of low
cut-out, is used to break the line between the floor and the drop and to give
the illusion of distance.
The twentieth century has seen many experiments in scenic design.
Two important designers were Adolphe Appia and Gordon Craig. Both
experimented in symbolic scenic design. Adolphe Appia concentrated on
three-dimensional forms, which he contended were essential for the per-
formance of the three-dimensional actor. He emphasized the importance
of the actor and used dramatic lighting innovations to focus attention on
Stage Settings
405
 the performer. Gordon Craig, on the other hand, believed the essential
message of a play could be conveyed most effectively by the scenic
designer. He even suggested eliminating the actors and replacing them
with super-marionettes.

TRADITIONAL SETS
Stage sets are as varied as plays and the characters that appear in them.
Selectivity, simplicity, and consistency are important to a stage designer.
Sets should be planned so that they may be built firmly, handled easily,
and packed efficiently. Most of all, actors should be able to move about
easily and safely and should feel that the set provides an appropriate
atmosphere for the characters they are portraying.
The most common type of interior set has been the box set, which
replaced the old wings and drops of the nineteenth century, but it, too, has
been replaced by other forms in recent years. The box set consists of two
or three walls built of flats and often covered by a ceiling.
Another common type of set, the unit set, is made up of several
scenic units that can be moved about the stage, turned, and interchanged
to create several settings. A unit might be a building placed down left with
a ground-level wooden door and a second-level balcony window. The
appearance of the unit can be completely altered by moving it up right,
changing its angle, and removing the wooden door and the balcony rail.
Unit sets are quite practical for schools that wish to present multiset
plays, to present a program of one-act plays, or to build units that can be
arranged to fit the needs of almost any play in a small theater.

This setting from

Philadelphia Story
uses a box set with
three sides and a ceil-
ing to give the impres-
sion of a room. Box
sets give a set depth
and naturalness.

406
Stage Settings
407
 Permanent Set

The permanent set, yet another type of staging, rarely changes during
the play. There are basically three kinds of permanent sets. Most high
schools use a single permanent set for straight plays. A simple doorway
can be either an interior or an exterior entrance, a gate, or a passageway.
The platform is equally versatile. Controlled lights help determine the
locale. A second important type of permanent set consists of many open-
ings, some of which are large. Doors, windows, arches, curtains, and back-
ing units are placed within or behind the openings to simulate scene
changes. The third type is a modification of the permanent set, called the
multiple set, which has several distinct acting areas separated with
dividers, such as platforms or railings. Flexible, controlled lighting is
necessary.
Further opportunities for scenic variations are provided by using
screens and profile sets. Screens consist of two-fold and three-fold flats,
which are used either to form walls against a drapery background or to
cover openings or furnishings as a quick means of changing scenes.
Screens can be almost any height and width and are usually freestanding.
Profile sets, sometimes called cut-down or minimum sets, can be
constructed of screens, but the chief difference between profile sets and
screens is that the profile set, like the box set, forms the entire perimeter
of the setting. Colors and patterns from gobos that suggest changing
moods and emotions may be aimed against the background cyclorama to
bring about a strong identification with the action.
408
Producing the Drama
 Screen Set

When fast changes with a minimum of equipment and space are

needed, prisms, also called periaktoi, can be used. These are usually equi-
lateral or isosceles triangles mounted to a wheeled carriage, which can be
pivoted. Each periaktos is made up of either three six-foot flats or two four-
foot flats and one six-foot flat. At least four periaktoi are needed, but for
more variety in combination and position and for more set possibilities,
six or eight can be used. Doorways can be created in the following ways:
• Use a space between two periaktoi. This is the simplest method.
• Hook a normal floor flat between two periaktoi.
• Hang inserts, or plugs, between two periaktoi. The shape of the
plugs can either resemble ordinary doors or match a stylistic
design.
Window, bookcase, and fireplace flats can also be used as one side of
a periaktos. The periaktoi are especially valuable for schools that lack fly
space, have trouble masking the sides of the stage, or need quick changes
with limited equipment.
Set designers have frequently used curtain sets as substitutes
for constructed scenery. A curtain set simply uses curtains as a
backdrop for a play. The typical school cyclorama rarely provides an
Stage Settings
409
410
Producing the Drama
 Curtain Set

adequate background for a play, but sometimes limitations of space, equip-

ment, and budget force the director to use a modified curtain set. There
are, however, many effective ways to use curtains. A formalistic set with
ramps, platforms, columns, and so on might look best against a curtain set.
The placing of a few flats, such as doorways, windows, and fireplaces,
between curtains can often turn a plain curtain set into an acceptable the-
atrical set. Stage drapes can be gathered or pulled back much like huge
window curtains. Nevertheless, curtains can never be transposed into con-
vincing realistic sets. One of the disadvantages of a curtain set is that the
acting area is always the same size and shape. Therefore, many designers
who have had to use curtain backgrounds have used freestanding set pieces
and furniture to “shape” their sets within the frame of the cyclorama.
The use of a black cyclorama can be quite impressive. Controlled
lighting can be used to make the actors and furnishings stand out sharply
against the black space. White furniture and white makeup are also espe-
cially striking against a black background.
Another kind of set that is very effective is the skeleton set. This kind
of set consists simply of frames and openings that can be left empty or
filled by draperies, backings, and doors.

OPEN-SPACE TECHNIQUES
Scenic artists have had to develop new techniques of set design for the
thrust stage, a low platform stage that projects into the audience. Since the
audience surrounds the thrust stage on three sides, conventional scenery
Stage Settings
411
 should be placed deep on the stage to avoid blocking the audience’s view.
Designers have used cut-down sets and screens quite successfully, but one
of the most effective innovations is the floating-screen, or multiple-plane
set. This technique employs single flats or narrow drops that are placed or
hung at various depths parallel to the front of the stage to provide con-
cealed entrances for actors and suggest a locale.
Arena stages (theater-in-the-round) use a different approach. Since the
audience completely surrounds the stage, scenery will undoubtedly block
the view of at least some of the spectators. Objects normally placed on walls,
such as pictures, are often casually laid on tables or suspended from thin
wires. For example, a mirror may be simply an open frame suspended from
above. A window may be represented by only a partial frame. The furniture
must allow the actors to move constantly in S and circular patterns.

Procedures in Scenic Design

The basic goal of scenic design is to create a functional background for the
action without intruding on that action. A set may have aesthetic appeal,
establish tone and atmosphere, convey symbolism, and even aid in the
expression of the theme. If it does not provide the actors with a workable
environment, however, it has failed in its primary function.
Although the designer has overall responsibility for the scenic design,
both the designer and the director must work together during different
phases of the planning. The sequence of a designer’s tasks during
the early planning is important.

F ROM
THE PROS
Designer’s Preliminary Tasks
1. Read the play several times.
”I don’t think you
2. Discuss the play and production style with the director,
can read a play
who provides the foundation for design, including the
abstractly without a
basic floor plan.
sense of where it’s
3. Make a sketch, called a rendering, that scenically
going to be done.“
expresses the meaning and spirit of the play.
—DAVID JENKINS, SET 4. Consider available equipment, funds, and materials.
DESIGNER FOR THE 5. Enlarge the sketch into a perspective drawing.
ELEPHANT MAN AND
OTHER PEOPLE’S
6. Work out a detailed floor plan showing positions and sizes
MONEY of entrances, windows, and all props.
7. Build a three-dimensional model of the set design.
8. Draft elevations and working drawings (detailed construc-
tion illustrations or blueprints).

412
Producing the Drama

Stage Settings
413
 PREDESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Numerous factors must be considered before a production can be designed.
Although the budget of the production is important, the stage, the equip-
ment, and the number and kinds of sets to be used also affect the design.
When several sets are required, the designer must always plan for the
weight and mobility of scenic units and for the available fly space, among
countless other factors. Before designing a set, the scenic designer should
answer certain important questions.

PREDESIGN CHECKLIST
Size and shape of auditorium
Is the floor raked? What type of seating arrangement is being
used? (This is important in gymnasium-auditorium combina-
tions and in small theaters.)
Space
How much storage space is available? What are the dimensions
of the apron and wings? What equipment is available? How deep
is the fly space? Are flies high enough to handle a drop without
tripping? Is the system manual, electrically winched, or counter-
weighted?
Flats, drops, and scrims
How many flats, drops, and scrims are there? What are the
heights and the widths of flats?
Special units
How many constructed platforms, ramps, and staircases are
there?
Lighting
What kind of lighting equipment is available? How flexible is
CUE ▼
Time and sound are
this equipment?

A scenic designer should also be aware of two other basic

considerations when planning a scenic design: the play and the
two important factors audience.
to consider when
scenery is shifted. The Play The first consideration of scenic design is the play
During a scenery itself—its theme, type, and style. The designer must be aware of
change, a long wait important scenes and of special effects essential to the play,
and an excessive including lighting needs. The functional aspects of the set—the
amount of noise com- location of doors, windows, fireplaces, elevated areas, essential
ing from the stage can props, and so on—provide the information necessary for a pre-
be disconcerting for an liminary design. Since a set is the background for actors, their
audience. experience, ages, sizes, costumes, and makeup must be consid-
ered. A scenic designer must plan a set with and without people

414
Producing the Drama

 Even from this dis-
tance and angle, the
simple set for Les
Liaisons Danger-
euses is fully visible
to the audience.

to produce one that looks appropriate with both the maximum and the
minimum number of performers who will occupy it.
The Audience Naturally, the designer must also consider the audience.
Because the spectators must see all important action, the designer must
take sight lines from the front corner seats and the highest balcony seats.
This means that the side walls must be raked (set at an angle) so that every
person in the audience can see each entrance. Likewise, the designer must
position elevated upstage platforms so that the upper balcony audience
will not see “headless” actors. Second-story levels are often slightly raked
toward the audience. The designer might have to “cheat down” the height
of a second story and even lower the heights of doors and banister rails to
accommodate the highest seats.

Application
ACTIVITY

Make a survey of your theater or auditorium using the Predesign

Checklist on the opposite page. Add any additional information that
might be helpful if you were planning a production. Be prepared to
discuss the information you gather.

Stage Settings
415

ARTISTIC CONSIDERATIONS
Because stage design is a specialized art, a scenic designer should keep in
mind several artistic principles. One of the most important principles is
unity. This principle demands that all elements of the set form a whole
that centers around the theme of the play. All furniture and properties
must coordinate with the background and, if possible, should be a part of
the stage design in period and composition.
Another important principle is emphasis, or focusing the audience’s
attention on a particular object, area of the stage, or piece of furniture.
Everything else on the stage should be subordinate to this center of inter-
est. A good set design can emphasize a point of interest in several ways.
• Place it in a prominent position.
• Paint it a color that makes it stand out from the rest of the set.
• Make it the focus of all lines of interest.
• Play light upon it.
Proportion and balance are also important artistic principles.
Proportion uses the human being as the unit of measurement. In realistic
plays, all scenic elements are scaled to a person six feet tall. Nonrealistic sets
may make people appear dwarfed or engulfed by rocks or towering buildings.

This stage picture

from Hello, Dolly! is
balanced; the per-
formers are evenly
distributed over the
stage with the
“Yonkers” sign as a
central axis.
Balance requires an equal distribution of emphasis from one side of the stage
to the other. This may be achieved through line, mass, and shape. For exam-
ple, an archway might be balanced by a large upright chest, or a staircase
might be balanced by a dominant portrait. Except in stylized settings, asym-
metrical or informal balance is preferable to perfect symmetry.
The central axis is the focal point in the design, usually the deepest
point just off-center. The halves of the stage on either side of this axis
should be balanced but not exactly alike. The director and the scenic
designer must work closely together because the position, number, and
importance of people onstage influence the balance of the scenic pattern.
For example, a strong character who is to exemplify spiritual leadership
and is the center of interest in a scene might be placed on a higher level
against tall columns, a high arched doorway, or long drapes, with the other
characters, perhaps a large crowd, below. The emphasis of the strong char-
acter’s influence in the minds of the audience will offset the size of the
crowd, and the stage picture will balance.
Equally important is the artistic principle of line. The lines in
draperies, columns, or costumes alter the sense of proportion and may
even have a psychological effect on the observer. For example, consider the
potential psychological connotations of the following:

Long vertical lines dignity, elevation, hope, or spirituality

Horizontal lines emotional stability, calmness, or tranquility
Diagonal lines driving force, strife, uncertainty, or
concentration
Curved Lines ease, comfort, wealth, or expanse
Curves and angles intense excitement (if combined with
contrasting colors)
Crooked/jagged lines chaos, shattered dreams, injustice, or pain

The final two artistic values of importance to scenic designers are

mass and shape. Mass takes into consideration the concepts of bulk and
weight, both of which are difficult to determine unless tested under the
lights. Dark-colored objects usually appear heavier than light-colored
objects. Shape often influences both the concept of mass and the psycho-
logical reaction to objects on the stage. Remember that shape is outline,
while mass is three-dimensional. Shapes may be geometric or free-form,
natural or stylized, realistic or impressionistic. A circle may seem infinite
or eternal; a square or cube may appear staid or unimaginative; a triangle
may seem uplifting or securely founded; a diamond may seem calming and
restful. Both mass and shape influence the balance of a set.
Stage Settings
417
 The rising diagonal lines of stretched fabric in this scene from C̆apek’s R.U.R. (Rossum’s
Universal Robots) give it a sense of otherworldly strangeness appropriate for a futuristic
drama. The bareness of the set, combined with white scenery and costumes, makes every-
thing seem clean and simple.

USE OF COLOR
Color is one of the most important elements of staging because various col-
ors and their combinations produce very different emotional effects. The
relationship between characters or scenes and the colors used
CUE ▼
Colors almost always
might be important factors in a play’s success. Onstage, color
effects are achieved by playing colored lights on the pigments used
in sets, costumes, stage furnishings, and even makeup. Because
arouse emotional colored light makes very definite and often surprising changes in
responses; these the appearance of pigment, it is necessary to experiment with both
responses can help light and pigment to get the desired result. Although this may be
establish the mood and a long and involved process, it is fascinating to see what happens
atmosphere for each to fabrics and painted surfaces under different lighting.
scene and for the The primary pigment colors are red, yellow, and blue. The
whole play. secondary colors are orange, green, and violet. The primary colors
of light are red, green, and blue, and the secondary colors are yel-
low, cyan (a light blue-green), and magenta.
418
Producing the Drama
 Red = Complementaries Red

Violet Orange Magenta

Yellow

White

Blue Yellow Blue Green

Green Cyan

PIGMENTS LIGHT

Sets and costumes are sometimes color coded for both identification
and emotional response. Color coding means identifying the emotional
tone of a scene by its color dominance; for example, a “pink

▼
scene” may be one of romantic fantasy; a “red scene” may be one
of anger or passion. Characters, too, may be color-coded in styl- CUE
ized productions.
Black is the absence of
Colors differ from each other in hue, value, and intensity.
light and therefore is
Hue indicates the purity of color—the redness, the blueness, and
the absence of color.
so on. The various colors seen in the spectrum of a beam of light
White is the fusion of
passing through a prism are called hues. As light falls on different
all the spectral colors.
surfaces, the colors are absorbed or reflected. A surface that
absorbs all the hues except green appears to be green because it
reflects only that color.
If the emphasis of a costume or prop is important, the value of the
color is a consideration. The value of a color is its lightness or darkness and
is determined by the amount of black or white mixed with it. Each color
is said to have a value scale, running from white at one end to black at the
other. Consider the differences between light or pastel colors, tints, and
dark or deep colors, shades.

Tints Shades

contain more white contain more black

suggest youth, comedy, suggest dignity, seriousness,
informality repose

Stage Settings
419

 Color can also differ in its intensity. Intensity, often referred to as
saturation, is the brightness or dullness of a color. To add intensity to a
color, illuminate it with a light of the same color. To lessen the intensity of
a color, add gray to the pigment or place the color by its complementary
color. The complementary color for any one of the three primary colors (red,
blue, yellow) can be achieved by mixing together the two other primaries.
For example, if you wish to get the complementary color of red, mix
together the other two primary colors, blue and yellow, and you get green.
(Refer to the illustration on the previous page.)
A color wheel is an invaluable aid in designing because it
CUE ▼
A point to remember:
shows the relationships of the various hues. The colors next to
each other on the wheel are analogous, or contain the same hue.
For example, yellow, yellow-orange, and orange are analogous,
green-blue and blue- since they all contain yellow. When analogous colors are used, a
green are not the same dash of complementary color provides balance.
color. The color named Since neither pigments nor materials for coloring lights are
second is the dominant likely to have pure color, endless experiments are required to get a
hue. Therefore, green- desired effect. You can experiment with the effect of light on the
blue is blue with a pigments on actual sets as they are built. Run through the color
tinge of green in it, cycle of night to day—black, pale gray, light yellow, light red, deep
and blue-green is green red, orange, and full daylight. Then reverse this cycle to run from
with a tinge of blue. daylight through the sunset hues to darkness, ending with the
green-blue conventionally used to simulate moonlight on the stage.

In Roseleaf Tea, the

stage lighting creates
beams of weak sun-
light that make nat-
ural shadows.

420
Producing the Drama

 Notice how the effec-
tive use of color leads
the eye to the points
of balance in this
scene from Blood
Wedding.

In any stage set there should be a controlling color scheme that car-
ries out the predominant mood and atmosphere of the production. The
most effective color schemes are those that give a single, unifying impres-
sion. Remembering that colors are referred to as warm or cool might be
helpful when striving for a single impression to give continuity to a play.
Red, orange, and yellow are warm colors. You see them in sunlight and fire.
Blue, green, and violet are cool colors. You see them in deep pools and in
shadows under leafy trees. Warm hues seem to advance, or move forward
in space, because they attract attention quickly. Cool colors appear to
recede, or move back in space, because they are less noticeable. However,
a stage background or set piece painted in warm colors looks smaller
because it seems nearer, while one painted in cool colors looks larger. A
warm-colored costume or object generally catches the eye at once and
looks important. Objects or persons dressed in cool colors are generally less
noticeable to the audience. The warm colors are stimulating and exciting,
appropriate for highly emotional scenes and for comedies. Cool colors give
a sense of tranquility and are usually the predominant colors in serious
comedies and in tragedies. One should bear in mind that too much stress
on warm colors can be very irritating and too many cool colors depressing.

Stage Settings
421

 Certain stage traditions are based on known reactions to color.
Following these traditions is an important means of getting satisfactory
empathetic responses from the audience. Colors are used in stage design to
communicate the following qualities:

blue calm, cold, formal, spiritual, pure, truthful, depressing

orange exhilarating, cheerful, lively
red aggressive, passionate, bloody, angry, strong
yellow cheerful, happy, youthful, cowardly
pink fanciful, romantic
green youthful, eternal, reborn, jealous
soft green restful, soothing, tranquil
purple mournful, mystic, regal
gray neutral, depressing, negative, somber
brown earthy, common, poverty-stricken
black melancholic, tragic, gloomy, deathlike
white truthful, pure, chaste, innocent, peaceful

CUE ▼
To emphasize a cos-
Numerous other design aspects contribute to a balanced
production. If a design is to be interesting, it must have variety
through contrast and subordination. Too often high school stage
tume or prop, place it settings give every scenic element equal strength and dominance.
against a background This is not to say that a single motif carried through an entire
of a different value or scene of a production will not effectively underscore the unity
hue. To make the cos- and harmony of design. The key to good design is simplicity.
tume or prop inconspic- Cluttered sets, overly designed walls, or too many colors should
uous, show it against a be avoided in artistic stage sets.
background of its own
value or hue.

Application
ACTIVITY

Decide on a color scheme for a scene from a play that you have seen
or read. Remember to consider the personalities and roles of the char-
acters in that scene.

422
Producing the Drama


Constructing the Set
Selectivity, simplicity, and consistency should be remembered when plan-
ning, designing, and constructing the set for a production. Sets should be
planned so that they can be built firmly, set up steadily, struck rapidly, car-
ried easily, and packed away efficiently. Above all, they must blend with
the actors and with the theme of the play. The most common sets involve
draperies, flats, or drops, most of which must be bought or rented; or
designed, assembled, and painted.

CONSTRUCTING THE FLAT

The basic unit of construction for box sets, screens, periaktoi, and cut-
down scenery is the flat; therefore, learning as much as possible about flats
is to your advantage as a scenic designer or stage crew member. Also, since
most plays require an interior set, you should learn the procedures for flat
building, assembling, and painting.
The most satisfactory height for flats for the high school stage is
twelve feet, although ten- and fourteen-foot flats are not uncommon. Large
university and professional stages with high prosceniums may accommo-
date flats up to twenty-four feet high. On the following page is a list of the
basic flats needed.
By painting the pieces
of a set in neutral col-
ors, you can plan to
use the pieces inter-
changeably to create
more than one scene.

423
 Plain Flats Special Flats
Width Number Needed Type Width Number Needed
1 ft. 2–4 Door flat 5–6 ft. 2–3
1 1/2 ft. 2 Window-bookcase flats 5–6 ft. 2
2 ft. 2–4 Fireplace flat 5–6 ft. 1
3 ft. 6–8 Arch flat (booked) 8 ft. 1
4 ft. 6–8 French door, sliding door 8 ft. 1
5 or 6 ft. 6–8 (booked)
24–32 7–8

This system requires about thirty to forty flats, depending on the size
of the stage. One of the advantages of this system is that there are match-
ing flats for alcoves, bay windows, periaktoi, and columns. Another advan-
tage is that it is easy to plan wall dimensions and designate flats accord-
ingly. Care must be taken to keep the design from turning out nearly
symmetrical, however.
To construct a flat, you will need some basic materials: lum-
CUE ▼
The best fabric for cov-
ber, fabric, hardware, rope, and glue. Most flats are built of #2
grade 1” ✕ 4” pine. The boards used for stiles and rails should be
absolutely straight and free of any loose knots. The corner braces
ering flats is canvas, but are made from 1” ✕ 2” stock. The corner blocks, keystones, and
its cost makes it prohib- mending plates are cut from 1/4” plywood. Refer to page 426 for
itive for most groups. a detailed illustration of a flat.
The next best choice is Another kind of flat is the rigid flat, which can be built from
unbleached muslin. plywood instead of cloth. These flats are strong, require little
frame bracing, and last longer than those made of cloth, but they
are much heavier than cloth flats.
The special stage hardware
needed for a well-made flat
includes three lash-line cleats, two
tie-off cleats, and a stage brace
cleat. Clout nails (1 1/4” soft nails
that clinch themselves when a
piece of heavy metal is placed
under the stile or rail before ham-
mering), threepenny box nails, or
screws are used to attach plywood
to the frame. Staples and diluted
white glue are used to fasten cloth
to the finished frame.

424
Producing the Drama

 Framing is the first step in the construction of a flat. The most com-
mon joint used is the butt joint, a joint formed by fastening pieces together
end to end. However, miter joints—joints formed by cutting the ends of
the pieces at an angle and fitting them together—are better, since they are
stronger and do not chip or split as easily. When using butt joints, cut the
top and bottom rails to the exact width the finished flat is to be. This
allows the flat to slide without splitting the stiles. This also means that the
boards used for the stiles must be cut to the desired height of the flat minus
the width of the two rails. Check exact lumber sizes with a lumber sales-
person and always measure carefully. Common names for lumber sizes do
not reflect actual sizes. For example, 1” ✕ 4” lumber is always less than
one inch by four inches. Check your measurements again before cutting.
A good rule to remember is “Measure twice; cut once.”
After cutting the top and bottom rails and the two stiles,
assemble the frame. If you do not have a template, you can use an
adjustable framework as a mold, or you can nail two boards at a ▼ CUE
ninety-degree angle to serve as a square. Framing is easier when The most important
one person can hold the square while another person does the tool for scenery build-
nailing. Then, keeping the square in place, nail on the corner ing is probably the
blocks. A butt joint requires eleven nails; a miter joint needs only framing square. Usually
ten nails. If you use a butt joint, the grain of the corner block must made of metal, this
run across the joint. tool has at least one
Whenever you attach anything to the back of a flat, it must ninety-degree angle
be set back three-fourths of an inch from the edge. A scrap piece and at least two
of 1” ✕ 4” wood on edge will serve as a guide. This allows two straight edges. It is
flats to be joined at a right angle without a crack appearing used to check right
between the flats. angles.
Next, put in one or two toggle rails, or bars. Toggle rails
should be set at the same height so that keeper hooks may hold a
stiffener board when the set is erected. Usually eight- to ten-foot flats
require one toggle, while flats twelve feet and taller require two toggles.
The toggles should be cut the width of the flat less the width of the two
stiles. Do not measure the toggle by the space between the stiles. If nec-
essary, force the stiles in or out so the total width is exactly the same as
the top and bottom rails. Cover the joint with keystones.
You can now install the corner braces. Notice that both are on the left
side of the flat. If they were on opposite corners, the flat would torque
(twist) diagonally. Corner braces do not need to be exact but are approxi-
mately the length of a rail. A forty- to sixty-degree angle is created if the
corner braces are placed properly. Use mending plates to secure the joint,
and your flat is fully framed. (Mending plates are 1 1/2” ✕ 5” pieces of 1/4”
plywood cut lengthwise with the grain.) At this point your flat is fully
formed. Now screw on the hardware.

Stage Settings
425

426
Producing the Drama
 ▼
Make the frame flameproof by washing it with a solution of
two pounds of borax, two pounds of sal ammoniac, and two gal- CUE
lons of water. Then turn the flat face side up and cover it with
muslin. The muslin should overlap all sides unless there is a fin- You can approximate
ished edge, which can be placed one-quarter inch from the outer all measurements for
edge of one stile. Place staples every four inches, one-quarter inch placement of the hard-
from the inner edge of one stile or rail. Many set builders prefer ware except for the tie-
to drive the staples only partway and remove them after the glue off cleats, which must
dries. Others drive staples all the way and leave them. be exactly two feet
Once the cloth is stapled in place on one stile, following from the floor to facili-
these steps may simplify the next task. tate lashing.

1. Fold the cloth back over the staples.

2. Spread glue onto the stile.
3. Fold the cloth back down onto the glue.
4. Smooth the cloth down with a wood block.
5. Carefully stretch the cloth across the frame.
6. Allow it to “belly” to the floor in the center.
7. Be careful at the corners. There will be extra mate-
rial because of the bellying of the cloth. Be sure
the fabric does not pull or wrinkle.
8. Repeat the stapling-gluing process on the other
stile and on both rails.
9. Do not place any glue on toggles or corner braces.
10. Now staple one-half inch in from the outer edge of
the frame around all four sides.
11. Flameproof the cloth with the same solution that
was used on the frame.
You are now ready to size, or paint on a glue-water mix-
ture, a process that prepares the cloth in the following ways:
• It seals the pores.
• It provides a good painting surface.
• It stretches the cloth like an artist’s canvas.
The easiest sizing to use is made from a commercial cold-
water sizing to which a little whiting has been added. Some brands
of sizing need a little more water than the directions on the box
▼ CUE
When constructing a
indicate. To see whether sizing is properly thinned, dip your fin- flat, DO NOT wrap the
gers into the mixture. They should tend to just stick together. cloth around the frame
After the sized muslin dries, use a razor knife to trim the selvage and staple it to the
(waste) off one-quarter inch from the outer edges of the stiles and back side. If you do, the
rails. Do not trim the cloth flush with the outside edge of the flat, frame might bow.
or the cloth will be pulled loose when the flat is handled.

Stage Settings
427

A crew puts the fin-
ishing touches on a
large backdrop.

To finish the flat, put a length of rope, called a lash line, through the
hole drilled in the upper right corner block, knot the end, and pull it back
tightly. Cut the rope six inches longer than the flat.

ERECTING THE SET

Flats can be either lashed or hinged
together. If you plan to hinge all
scenery, every hinge should be matched
using loose pin (backflap) hinges. Tight
pin hinges are good only if the hinges
are to be removed after the production.
If only one set is required for the play
and if it is permissible to nail into the
stage floor, it is usually advisable to
floor block—to tack a small block of
wood to the floor on both sides or each
union where two flats meet. This keeps
the walls straight and strengthens
them. Stop cleats or stop blocks may be
placed on the back of flats to prevent
one flat from being pushed behind the
other, especially at sharp angle junc-
tions. Walls that shake and rattle when
a door is slammed have been identified

428
Producing the Drama

with amateur theater far too often. Proper bracing will eliminate nearly all
such distractions.
Adjustable stage braces provide support for an individual flat. One
brace is used for each flat except for door flats and occasionally for
window flats, which need two braces. The hook of the brace is
inserted upside down and turned over firmly against the stile as
shown. It is very important that the brace be correctly installed;
a hole in the muslin and a wobbly flat might be the price of
incorrect installation. The brace can be anchored to the
floor by stage screws or by a floor plate. If stage screws can
be used, drill a hole before inserting the screw. If the
wood forming the stage floor is reasonably close-
grained, the same hole can be used over and over for
many years. (The dust from the stage will fill the
hole sufficiently to secure the brace time after
time.) If holes cannot be drilled in the floor, a
wood block may be lightly tacked to the floor
and the stage screw anchored into the
block.
When there are restrictions against
the use of any nails or screws in the
floor or when the wood is too soft to
hold such hardware, a floor plate is an
easy solution. A floor plate is simply
a piece of plywood with a nonslip
rubber pad on its underside and a spe-
cial hardware adapter, which any
school shop can make, bolted to the
brace. Stage weights or concrete
blocks are placed on top of the floor
plate to hold it in place. Pieces of
two-inch lumber will work satisfac-
torily if there is not enough time to
make floor plates.
Another type of bracing is the jack. A jack is a triangular wooden
brace hinged to fold out of the way or placed on wheels to allow large units
to be moved more easily. Jacks are often used with set pieces and ground
rows. Similar in function to the jack is the foot iron, an L-shaped piece of
strap iron attached to the back of the flat and anchored to the floor with a
stage screw. Foot irons are most often used when there is insufficient space
for jacks or braces.
The use of keeper hooks is another means of strengthening walls.
Wherever there are two or more flats in a straight line, these handy pieces

Stage Settings
429

 of hardware can be hooked
over the top and toggle rails
of each flat, and a stiffener
board can be dropped into
the notches, making the
entire wall section one solid
unit. Some technicians pre-
fer hinged stiffeners, but
keeper hooks are conve-
nient, quick, and effective
and can be made by any
metal shop.
Once the set is assem-
bled, apply the dutchman. A
dutchman is a strip of muslin four to five inches wide used to cover the
cracks between flats. A dutchman is never used on a set
that is to be shifted, except booked flats or screens. The
dutchman is dipped in sizing, placed over the crack, and
brushed down smoothly. If flats are perfectly matched, a
strip of masking tape can be substituted for a dutchman.
Novice grips can have a difficult time trying to move
flats, but there are some simple techniques that make the
task far less awkward.
Edging One grip lifts a flat from the floor to a posi-
tion for moving by edging, or getting the flat up on one
side. Another grip grasps the stile and pulls the flat up.
Walking Walking a flat requires two or three grips.
One grip puts a foot against the bottom rail to steady the
flat, and one or two others lift the top rail, gradually rais-
ing the flat to an upright position by moving hand-over-
hand on the stiles. With two grips, the one with his or her foot against the
bottom of the flat should also hold onto a stile to guide and steady the flat.
Floating The best and safest way to lower a flat is by float-

▼
ing. One grip simply places a foot against the back of the bottom
CUE rail, pushes the flat over, and allows it to fall or float to the floor
face down.
It is wise to wear gog-
Running Moving a flat is called running it. A grip grasps
gles and a dust mask
an upright flat with both hands on the stile on the side toward
when floating a flat
which the flat is to go, lifts that edge slightly, and slides the flat
because dust will rise
along without actually lifting or carrying it. A grip should not try
even from a clean floor.
to grasp both stiles and move the flat because the flat will act like
a sail, pulling the grip forward or falling backward on him or her.
430
Producing the Drama
 Application
ACTIVITY

Using a large piece of cardboard or a similar object, practice methods

of handling a flat that are discussed on the previous page.

PAINTING SCENERY
Painting the set is certainly one of the important steps in the completion
of a set, but it does not need to be the chore it often seems to be. One of
the problems faced by a less-experienced production staff is choosing and
handling scenic paints. There are certain paint qualities that are worth
considering, as well as a few approaches that can be taken.
1. vinyl, acrylic-base scenic paints Colors are pure, and costs are
fairly reasonable. These are generally recommended for stage set-
tings. At least one manufacturer features a line of paint in a form
designed for high school use.
2. ready-to-use casein paints Their cost is higher than that of vinyl
acrylics, and fewer colors are available. Casein is more water repel-
lent than dry color and can be used for scenery placed outside or in
damp locations.
3. latex paint Readily available and inexpensive, latex covers well,
will not bleed through, and cleans up easily with soap and water.
A good paint or hardware store can mix almost any desired color.
It might be less expensive, however, to start with a base, either an
existing paint or a pastel base from a paint store, and add universal
tinting colors, also available at paint stores. A disadvantage of
latex, however, is that when it is painted heavily on muslin, the
cloth absorbs the paint, causing the life of the cloth to be shortened
and the paint to crack.
After the paint has been chosen, the next step is to apply the base
coat. For best results, apply paint in random strokes or in figure eights. An
uneven base coat is better than a smooth finish, which has a flat appear-
ance and emphasizes all the flaws in the set. Some scenic painters scum-
ble the base coat, which requires two or more brushes and two or more
tones of the base color. Paint each tone on a small area and blend the tones
together. The paint will set unless you work quickly.
After applying the base coat, highlight and shadow the set and then
texture it. Highlights and shadows are essential if the scenery is to be
Stage Settings
431
 ▼
convincing and alive. Before applying these realistic dimensional
CUE touches, the painter must consider the primary light source,
that is, the direction and cause of the predominant light.
The texturing process is Moldings, paneling, wainscoting, shingles, siding, bricks, and
most important for a rocks must be carefully painted, even when they are built in
good paint job. The tex- three dimensions. You can create realistic bricks by applying a
ture coat hides flaws, base coat of mortar color and using a rubber sponge block cut to
dutchmen, and patches brick size. Press the sponge, dipped in paint, onto the scenery.
from the audience. Use from two to four colors such as red, gray, dark yellow, and
green. You can also cut three-dimensional bricks and rocks from
StyrofoamTM and glue them to plywood. Cardboard works well for
making shingles.
A painter here works
on a flat. Even though
he is just a few feet
away from the flat,
he must imagine
what his paint strokes
will look like to an
audience member in
the last row.

432
Producing the Drama

 There are several methods of texturing, any one of
which may work well for your particular sets.
Spattering is the most common method of texturing.
Use at least two colors, one a shade darker and the
other a tint lighter than the base color. You may also
use the complementary color to blend and harmonize
the colors in the set. Dip a four-inch brush into paint
that has been diluted one-third to one-half, wipe it
“dry” on the side of the pail, and shake the brush once
onto an old flat or dropcloth. Then stand a short dis-
tance from the set and strike the handle of the brush
against a board held by the other hand, causing drops of
paint to spatter the flats. This is a difficult technique to
master, so practice on an old flat first. The dark spat-
tering coat should normally be heavier at the top of the
walls to make them appear shadowed. Spattering can
also be done by using a very thin paint in a plastic spray
bottle.
Rag rolling is a second method of texturing. Dip a rag
or rolled-up piece of frayed burlap in paint, then roll it
over the walls to make them look like rough plaster.
Stippling is a texturing method that involves gently
touching the flat with a sponge, a crumpled rag, or the
tip of a dry brush which leaves clusters of paint drops.
Be sure to rotate the tool you are using to avoid creat-
ing an obvious pattern.
Featherdusting is another popular and quick textur-
ing technique. Dip an inexpensive featherduster into
the paint, shake it off over an old flat or dropcloth, and
gently press it against the flat. By turning the handle
slightly, you will get a different pattern each time the
duster is applied. Featherdusting is especially good for
foliage effects.
Dry brushing may be used for wall texturing or for
simulating wood grain. For walls use a dry brush,
stroke in one direction with a light color, and repeat
with a dark color. For a woodgrain effect, use long,
straight strokes with a dark color, and then repeat the
process with a lighter color.
Scenery painting is an art that develops with time,
experience, and experimentation. Watch what happens
Stage Settings
433
 to colors and textures under various lighting effects, and then consider how
you would represent them scenically.
Profile scenery and drops are challenges to stage painters because
such scenery almost always represents a three-dimensional object or a per-
spective scene. Gridding is the process used to make the enlarging from a
sketch to a drop. Mark off the drop into one- or two-foot squares and scale
the sketch proportionally, as shown. You may also transfer a drawing by
using a projector. Most copy machines can copy the drawing onto a piece
of clear plastic to produce a transparency. This can then be projected onto
the drop and outlined. It is important, for either of these methods, that the
drawing be a simple outline with clean lines.
One of the most challenging painting tasks for the inexperienced
scenery painter is the painting of rock walls. These often end up looking
like strange masses randomly placed in a large amount of gray mortar. On
a real wall the rocks are laid in a layer of mortar, light causes highlights
and shadows, and the texture and the color of the rocks give the viewer the
feeling of bulk and weight. Such scenery should be painted using at least
four colors with a wet-brush technique, which involves blending the col-
ors while the paint is wet.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

F TRANSFERRING A BACKDROP
DESIGN FROM THE SKETCH TO THE DROP
E THROUGH THE USE OF A SCALED GRID

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

434
Producing the Drama

 Painted wallpaper patterns can be applied using stencils, carved
blocks of rubber sponge or carpet padding, pattern rollers, and old paint
rollers. Stencils can be cut out of plywood or out of stencil paper that is
strengthened by a coat of acrylic, placed in a wooden frame, and reinforced
with wires.

Application
ACTIVITY

Try your skill at one of the methods of texturing, or design a wallpaper

pattern by first making your own stencils. For the wallpaper you can
use manila paper or any other paper to which paint will adhere.

SOLVING PROBLEMS
Because many plays and musicals require different scenery effects as well
as scenery and set changes, ingenuity can be helpful when trying to
achieve these effects and changes efficiently.
In addition to various methods of painting to achieve different
scenery effects, there is also a repertory of materials that can be used to cre-
ate three-dimensional props and scenery. Two materials seem to be the
most frequently used: plastics and papier-mâché.
1. Plastics have many uses on the stage. Expandable plastics can be
formed into rocks or almost anything for which a mold can be
formed. Because StyrofoamTM can be cut, shaped, glued, or
pressed so easily, it can be made into bricks, molding,

▼
statues, and trim. It can also be painted to replicate a
variety of different textures. CUE
2. Papier-mâché has long been a special-effects material for
the stage. You need wheat paste or stage sizing, strips Safety rules for han-
of newspaper or paper towels, and chicken wire, wire dling plastics: Have
cloth, or cardboard. With these supplies, you can create adequate ventilation.
small and large objects for the set. Wear protective cloth-
ing and masks.
Many problems might be encountered onstage. The com-
plexity of the production might determine their number or severity. Proper
planning should curtail many of them, however. Some common problems
and their solutions appear on the following page.

Stage Settings
435

 Insufficient stage space
• If the stage is shallow or lacks wing space, it can be extended out
into the pit area or over the front center seats.
• A runway can be built out from the center or can enclose the pit
and the orchestra.
• Acting areas can often be added to the side of the apron with
platforms.

Inadequate fly space

• Double, or trip, drops for storage.
• Use short drops that can be raised as high as possible and con-
cealed with low-hung borders.

Overly large stage opening

• Lower the grand drape to change the height of the opening.
• Add a false beam or ceiling to replace the first border.
• Add a false proscenium, a teaser, or tormentors to decrease height
and width.

Side areas that need masking

• Use portals or tabs similar to false prosceniums.
• Use screens, wings, hanging banners, and backs of double-walled
wagons.

Surfaces unsuitable for acting

• If floors are rough, sticky, or noisy, use a reversible canvas floor
cloth—brown on one side and green for grass on other side.
• Use carpets to reduce noise and provide a realistic appearance to a
room (carpets should lie flat or be tacked down).
• Pad stairs, wagons, and platforms to lessen noise.

Application
ACTIVITY

Choose a scene from a play and identify any problems that might exist
in staging that scene on your school stage. Suggest solutions.

436
Producing the Drama

Stage Settings
437
 SHIFTING THE SETTING
Shifting the scenery requires well-trained crew members who know what
their jobs are and how to get them done efficiently.
The stage manager “runs the show” backstage.
Grips move flats, periaktoi, and set pieces.
The flycrew raise and lower flown scenery and draperies.
The prop crew check properties in and out as they are set or struck.
The set dressers set and strike a set’s finishing touches.
There are many ways to change scenery in addition to those discussed
earlier in this chapter. A booked set may be dropped inside an existing set.
Screens can also be used for a set within a set. Drops are the most fre-
quently used type of flown scenery. Ground rows are usually brought in to
mask the junction where the drop meets the floor, and portals and false
prosceniums are used to mask the sides of the stage. The mask-
CUE ▼ ing of the wing areas, a problem associated with all exterior sets
and now quite regularly associated with the musical play, is a
challenge to the designer—the solution to which is often an even
It might be necessary to greater challenge to the crew. Once again, a black cyclorama can
make changes in full help simplify the problems. Even a full curved sky cyc will close
view of the audience. off the audience’s view of the backstage areas. But a sky cyc
The “invisible” stage- might make entrances and exits difficult.
hand—clothed in Wagon sets are another means of executing scene changes.
black—might be your A set is placed on a wheeled platform that can be rolled out onto
only recourse. the stage. A type of wagon arrangement that often works quite
well is the jackknife. The jackknife wagon, shown on the next
page, is stored perpendicular to the curtain line on the side of the stage,
usually behind the tormentor or false proscenium, and is pivoted out when
needed. A second wall can be attached back-to-back to the wagon, making
two sets possible for each wagon. Wagons require storage space in the
wings, which may be lacking, but they are often the best solution when fly
space is not available.
Some directors have complained that the elevation of the wagon
destroys the illusion they desire and eliminates the use of the apron unless
the actor steps down from the wagon. This problem may be corrected in
one of two ways.
1. Treat the wagon as a natural elevation, such as a hallway above a
sunken living room or a porch with the apron as the lawn.
2. Build up the apron with platforms that are flush with the front
edge of the wagon. Treat the apron as an extension of the wagon
set. Add hinged returns to the side walls of the set to frame the
apron acting area. This method takes more work but is worth the
effort.

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Producing the Drama

 A circular revolving stage can be used if you have the budget, equip-
ment, time, and skill. As many as three sets may be placed on a revolving
platform. However, revolving stages are expensive to build and take special
mechanical equipment to rotate smoothly. It is possible to build stages
that can be moved manually. If this is to be done, however, it would

Stage Settings
439

 ▼
probably be simpler and certainly more economical to bolt wag-
CUE ons together to make a revolving square with two sets back to
back. Of course, once a set is out of view of the audience, it can
Appropriate scenery be redressed for a new setting.
and set dressings On many stages, the counterweight systems have been
should support the replaced by electric winches. This has often caused more prob-
play, not overwhelm it. lems than it has solved. The winches are slow, and the number
that can be operated at one time is often limited.
Scenery that can be carried or rolled onto the stage, such as benches,
lampposts, rocks, and trees, are called set pieces. Before designing and
building set pieces, the scenic designer must decide how the unit will be
used. Is it only for show, or must it support weight or operate in some man-
ner? Those pieces that operate, such as windows that can open, lamps that
can light, or a tree that can support an actor sitting on a branch, are called
practical or practical-usable. Because theater is illusion, and time and
expense are always to be considered, few set pieces are built to be practical
unless the script requires it. Columns, trees (both shown below), and rocks
may be plastic, that is, three-dimensional, or simply two-dimensional cut-
outs. Three-dimensional pieces allow for more light and shadow effects,
but cut-outs might better convey a stylization and the feeling of illusion.

Stage Safety
The safety of actors, crew members, and the audience is always of great
concern. Power equipment, stage weights, electric winch systems, paints,
plastics, and protruding nails are just a few of the materials that might lead
to physical injury.

440
Producing the Drama

 The fire curtain and the fire doors should be checked on a regular
basis to make sure that they are operating properly. The deluge systems
that replaced asbestos curtains have many design and operation problems
that often make them a threat more than a safety feature. The emergency
controls should not be situated so that they can be activated accidentally.
The shut-off crank must be accessible and never be chained off. The water
should not drain into the orchestra pit. If it does, there should be several
drains to carry off the water, and the electric outlets in the pit should be at
least a foot from the floor. Despite these precautions, a pit-draining deluge
system poses a real threat to musicians in the pit because of the electric
cords that are attached to music-stand lights and musical instruments.

General Stage-Safety Rules

1. Know the location and operation of all fire extinguishers and
fire alarms.
2. Know what to do if the sprinklers, the fire curtain, or the deluge
system is set off.
3. When you hear “Heads!” move quickly out of the way. Scenery
is coming down.
4. When you are above the stage and using a tool such as a wrench
to adjust lights or tighten bolts, always tie the tool to a line
attached to your belt so that it will not fall.
5. When you remove a weight from a batten, be certain that an
equal amount of weight is removed from the counterweight
system.
6. If an imbalanced counterweighted line takes off, do not try to
stop it by hand.
7. Always wear goggles when operating power equipment and
floating flats.
8. Do not wear loose-fitting or fringed clothing or dangling jewelry
when operating power equipment or when moving around gears
or winches.
9. Always wear shoes, preferably safety shoes.
10. Remove all protruding nails in boards, and keep nails swept off
the floor.
11. Be sure there is adequate ventilation when using materials that
emit toxic fumes.
12. Know the number and wattage of instruments plugged into a
circuit before turning it on.
13. Do not smoke or allow anyone else to smoke backstage.
14. Be alert and concerned about your safety and the safety of others.

Stage Settings
441

 Neon lights against the dark background emphasize the colorful costumes in Crazy for
You. The lights and colors complement the play and add to its impact.

442
Producing the Drama


Scenery and the Performance

▼
The drama student should recognize that scenery is an integral
part of modern play production. However, scenic design has CUE
developed as a complement to the play and might lose its impact
if looked upon as an end in itself. If scenery swallows up the per- Selecting a few perfect
former, the costume, the makeup, or the acting; if the scenery is elements can create an
in poor taste or is not aesthetically satisfying; if inappropriate sets atmosphere more effi-
cause the mood of the play to be lost; or if the set is a showpiece ciently than filling a
for a talented designer or for exuberant art students and does not stage with scenery and
serve the play—then the purposes and intent of the playwright furniture that is not
and the director become distorted and meaningless. quite appropriate for
Scenery should add to and never detract from the overall the production.
merit of a production. A little imagination, some inexpensive
materials and equipment, and the enthusiasm and talents of high school stu-
dents can easily bring to the audience a setting that enhances the total pro-
duction by making it an “everything-seemed-to-go-together” performance.
In order to accomplish this goal, high school directors, designers, and
production committees should work together to carefully select scenic ele-
ments, emphasizing those they wish to convey to the audience and mini-
mizing or eliminating those that would not make a positive contribution.
It is often the frequently overlooked little things that may make a realistic
set look complete—the right number and kinds of pictures on the wall; the
knickknacks on the shelf; the flowers in the vases around the room; the
choice of carpets, drapes, lamps, and furnishings; a flickering fire in the
hearth; the shadow lines and texturing on the walls. It is usually the small-
est number of elements with the greatest impact of identification and
meaning that make a set the most satisfying.
By using realistic tile
flooring and props,
the set designer for
FOB, by David Henry
Hwang, created a set
that gives the pro-
duction a realistic
atmosphere.

443


10 REVIEW
CHAPTER

Summary Summarize the chapter by answering the following questions.

and Key 1. Why should drama students study stagecraft?
Ideas
2. What is the purpose of scenery? How can it enhance a performance?
3. How has scenic design evolved over time?
4. Name and describe three types of sets.
5. What things must a designer know before designing a set?
6. What are four artistic considerations in building a set?
7. Describe the steps in constructing a flat.
8. What is the best fabric for flats? What is the next best choice?
9. Which crew members are responsible for shifting scenery?
10. List at least ten safety rules for staging a play.

Discussing 1. How does “using the least to say the most” apply to stagecraft?
Ideas 2. After watching a play, analyze the work of the set designer. How
many sets were there? What types of sets were used? What colors
dominated? What did the set contribute to or take away from the
play?
3. Describe a realistic set for the balcony scene of Romeo and Juliet.

FOCUS ON Safety

Constructing another world on the stage can the Internet for research.) Compile a list of
mean real-world dangers. That’s why it’s information or tips that are new to you or that
best to make safety a priority for all of the seem especially relevant to your venue. Share
people involved in a production, right from your research with the class.
the start. Preparation and attitude are key. Practicing Safety Measures Devise a
All cast members should be aware of hazards situation that would test another student’s
and should be prepared to deal calmly and knowledge of appropriate safety measures.
effectively with problems that arise. Then get together with a partner to exchange
Compiling Safety Guidelines Find situations and discuss solutions. Do this sev-
books, magazines, or Internet sites that give eral times to make sure that both of you have
safety information and guidelines for theaters a good handle on the guidelines. You might
or theater companies. Some companies and want to perform this exercise every time your
theater schools post their guidelines online. class puts on a theatrical production.
(Always check with your teacher before using

444
Producing the Drama

 REVIEW WORKSHOP

STAGE SETTINGS

INDEPENDENT this bare-bones set will intensify and reflect

the meaning of the play.
ACTIVITIES
Visual Metaphor Sometimes a central visual
A Play Without Scenery Because of budget metaphor can be very effective in a set design.
considerations, scenery has been eliminated Read over a play that you know well and
for this year’s play. With this in mind, choose select a visual metaphor for it. For example,
a play in which ideas are more important than you might choose the fragile unicorn in The
locale. You might consider plays like Whose Glass Menagerie or a tombstone for Death of
Life Is It Anyway? or The Diary of Anne a Salesman. Then decide how you will use
Frank. Using only objects such as platforms, the metaphor. How many set pieces might
boxes, and ramps, sketch what the stage resemble it? How could it be enlarged and
would look like for at least two scenes of the used in all the settings? Create a perspective
play. Include a written explanation of how drawing of your metaphorical set.

Cooperative Troubleshooting
Learning Imagine that Across the Woodworking Choose
Activity your drama class CURRICULUM a play that has several
wants to present Activities different locales, such as
a play such as Barnum or Bye Bye Birdie The Miracle Worker or
that demands more physical space than The Matchmaker. Build a three-dimensional
your stage and auditorium can accom- model of a multiple set with distinct acting areas.
modate. With a group of your class- Decide how you will separate one area from
mates, brainstorm ways that you might another.
make better use of the available space
Art Choose a scene from a favorite play and
or compromise on the scope of your pre-
design the setting in several rough sketches. Then
sentation. For example, you might build
demonstrate for your classmates how to paint
a thrust stage or add platforms to the
scenery. You may want to concentrate on one very
sides of the stage. Brainstorm ways to
specific task, such as different ways to create tex-
make the staging possible, come up with
ture, or you may want to illustrate a more general
some specific suggestions and drawings,
procedure, such as the way gridding is done. As an
and present your ideas to the class.
alternative, show your classmates how to make
Discuss with them whether your design
stylized plants, trees, and flowers out of papier-
will make an effective production or
mâché for a children’s play.
interfere with the integrity of the play.