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Introducing Semantics
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. This clear and
comprehensive textbook is the most up-to-date introduction to the
subject available for undergraduate students. It not only equips students
with the concepts they need in order to understand the main aspects of
semantics, it also introduces the styles of reasoning and argument which
characterize the field. It contains more than 200 exercises and discussion
questions designed to test and deepen readers’ understanding. More
inclusive than other textbooks, it clearly explains and contrasts different
theoretical approaches, summarizes current debates, and provides
helpful suggestions for further reading. Examples are drawn both from
major world languages, such as Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, Arabic,
Spanish and English, and from minority ones. The book also highlights
the connections between semantics and the wider study of human
language in psychology, anthropology and linguistics itself.

NICK RIEMER is a Senior Lecturer in the English and Linguistics departments at

the University of Sydney. His recent publications include The Semantics of
Polysemy: Reading Meaning in English and Warlpiri (2005).
Cambridge Introductions to Language and Linguistics
This new textbook series provides students and their teachers with accessible introductions to the major sub-
jects encountered within the study of language and linguistics. Assuming no prior knowledge of the subject,
each book is written and designed for ease of use in the classroom or seminar, and is ideal for adoption on a
modular course as the core recommended textbook. Each book offers the ideal introductory material for
each subject, presenting students with an overview of the main topics encountered in their course, and fea-
tures a glossary of useful terms, chapter previews and summaries, suggestions for further reading, and help-
ful exercises. Each book is accompanied by a supporting website.

Books published in the series:

Introducing Phonology David Odden
Introducing Speech and Language Processing John Coleman
Introducing Phonetic Science Michael Ashby and John Maidment
Introducing Second Language Acquisition Muriel Saville-Troike
Introducing English Linguistics Charles F. Meyer
Introducing Morphology Rochelle Lieber

Forthcoming:
Introducing Psycholinguistics Paul Warren
Introducing
Semantics
NICK RIEMER
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Cambridge University Press

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© Nick Riemer 2010

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 to

P, P, T, F, G

you know who you are

Contents
Note to the reader page xiii

1 Meaning in the empirical study of language 1

Chapter preview 1
1.0 What is semantics? 2
1.1 Meaning, communication and significance 3
1.2 Talking about meaning in English and other languages 6
1.2.1 ‘Meaning’ in English 7
1.2.2 ‘Meaning’ in Warlpiri 9
1.2.3 ‘Meaning’ in French 10
1.2.4 ‘Meaning’ in Chinese 11
1.3 The semiotic triangle: language, mind, world and meaning 13
1.4 Some initial concepts 16
1.4.1 Lexemes 16
1.4.2 Sense/reference/denotation/connotation 17
1.4.3 Compositionality 19
1.4.4 Levels of meaning 21
1.5 Object language and metalanguage 22
1.6 Breaking the circle 24
1.6.1 Meanings as referents/denotations 25
1.6.2 Meanings as concepts/mental representations 27
1.6.3 Meanings as brain states 32
1.6.4 Meaning and use 36
1.7 Meaning and explanation 38
Summary 40
Further reading 42
Exercises 42

2 Meaning and definition 45

Chapter preview 45
2.1 Meaning and the dictionary 46
2.1.1 Semantics and lexicography 46
2.2 The units of meaning 50
2.2.1 Words and morphemes 50
2.2.2 Meanings below the morpheme: sound symbolism 54
2.2.3 Meanings above the word level: idioms 56
2.2.4 Contextual modulation of meaning 57
2.3 Different ways of defining meanings 62
2.3.1 Real and nominal definition 62
2.3.2 Definition by ostension 65
2.3.3 Definition by synonymy 66
2.3.4 Definition by context or typical exemplar 66
2.3.5 Definition by genus and differentia 67
viii Contents

2.4 Definition and substitutability 69

2.5 Semantic primitives 70
2.6 Problems with definitions 76
2.7 Definition, understanding and use 79
Summary 80
Further reading 81
Exercises 82

3 The scope of meaning I: external context 87

Chapter preview 87
3.1 Meaning and context 88
3.2 External context: sense and reference 90
3.2.1 The Fregean distinction 90
3.2.2 The sense/reference distinction and linguistic description 94
3.2.3 Deixis 98
3.3 Dictionary and encyclopaedia 100
3.3.1 Knowledge of meaning and knowledge of facts 100
3.3.2 Problems with the dictionary–encyclopaedia distinction 103
Summary 105
Further reading 106
Exercises 106

4 The scope of meaning II: interpersonal context 107

Chapter preview 107
4.1 Interpersonal context: illocutionary force and speech acts 108
4.1.1 Locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts 109
4.1.2 Consequences of the illocutionary perspective 111
4.2 Interpersonal context: speaker’s intention and
hearer’s inference 113
4.3 Interpersonal context: implicature 116
4.3.1 Discrepancies between truth-functional
meaning and utterance meaning 116
4.3.2 Conventional and conversational implicature 118
4.4 Gricean maxims and the Cooperative Principle 119
4.4.1 Infringing the maxims 120
4.4.2 Questions about implicatures 121
4.5 Are the maxims universal? 122
4.6 Relevance theory 124
4.7 Semantics and pragmatics 129
Summary 131
Further reading 132
Exercises 132

5 Analysing and distinguishing meanings 135

Chapter preview 135
5.1 Lexical relations 136
5.1.1 Antonymy 137
5.1.2 Meronymy 140
 Contents ix

5.1.3 Hyponymy 142

5.1.4 Taxonomy 146
5.1.5 Synonymy 150
5.2 Componential analysis 154
5.3 Polysemy and meaning division 160
5.3.1 Polysemy, monosemy and homonymy 161
5.3.2 Tests for polysemy 162
5.3.3 Polysemy and monosemy as a cline 167
Summary 169
Further reading 170
Exercises 170

6 Logic as a representation of meaning 173

Chapter preview 173
6.1 Validity, soundness and logical form 174
6.2 Propositional logic 178
6.3 Logic as representation and perfection of meaning 186
6.4 Predicate logic 189
6.5 Truth, models and extension 196
6.6 Relations between propositions 201
6.6.1 Entailment 201
6.6.2 Presupposition 203
6.6.3 Contradictories, contraries and subcontraries 204
6.7 Meaning postulates 209
6.8 Definite descriptions 213
6.9 Logic and language 215
Summary 216
Further reading 219
Exercises 219

7 Meaning and cognition I: categorization and

cognitive semantics 223
Chapter preview 223
7.1 The semantics of categorization 224
7.1.1 Classical categorization 224
7.1.2 Problems with classical categories 225
7.1.3 Prototype categorization 228
7.1.4 Problems with prototype categories 233
7.2 Language and conceptualization: cognitive
approaches to semantics 238
7.2.1 Commitments of cognitive semantics 238
7.2.2 Idealized cognitive models 240
7.2.3 Embodiment and image schemas 241
7.2.4 Metaphor and metonymy 246
7.2.5 Radial categories in word meaning 250
7.2.6 Problems with cognitive semantics 254
Summary 256
Further reading 258
Exercises 258
x Contents

8 Meaning and cognition II: formalizing and

simulating conceptual representations 261
Chapter preview 261
8.1 Conceptual semantics 262
8.1.1 Concepts and decomposition 262
8.1.2 Developing conceptual semantics analyses 265
8.1.3 Problems with conceptual semantics 269
8.2 Semantics and computation 270
8.2.1 The lexicon in computational linguistics 272
8.2.2 Word sense disambiguation 277
8.2.3 Pustejovskian semantics 280
Summary 283
Further reading 284
Exercises 285

9 Meaning and morphosyntax I: the semantics

of grammatical categories 287
Chapter preview 287
9.1 The semantics of parts of speech 288
9.1.1 Variation in parts of speech systems 289
9.1.2 How are parts of speech delimited? 290
9.1.3 Grammatical category and discourse function 304
9.2 The semantics of tense and aspect 308
9.2.1 Tense 308
9.2.2 Aspect and Aktionsart 314
9.2.3 Typology of tense–aspect interactions 329
Summary 330
Further reading 332
Exercises 332

10 Meaning and morphosyntax II: verb

meaning and argument structure 335
Chapter preview 335
10.1 Verbs and participants 336
10.1.1 The traditional picture: thematic roles 337
10.1.2 Problems with thematic roles 341
10.1.3 Proto-roles 344
10.1.4 Thematic relations and conceptual structure 348
10.2 Verb classes and alternations 352
10.3 The meaning of constructions 359
Summary 365
Further reading 366
Exercises 366
 Contents xi

11 Semantic variation and change 369

Chapter preview 369
11.1 Sense, reference and metalanguage in
semantic comparisons 370
11.2 Semantic change 372
11.2.1 The traditional categories 373
11.2.2 Mechanisms and pathways of semantic change 377
11.2.3 Grammaticalization 384
11.3 Meaning through corpora 386
11.4 Semantic typology 390
11.4.1 Body parts 390
11.4.2 Colour vocabulary 392
11.4.3 Deictic motion 399
11.4.4 Lexicalization patterns in motion verbs 400
11.4.5 Spatial reference 407
11.5 Language and thought 411
Summary 418
Further reading 421
Exercises 421
Glossary 423
References 435
Index 451
Note to the reader
This introduction is intended for anyone coming questions as the relation between meaning and
to linguistic semantics for the first time, whether use, the relevance of referential and truth
as part of a linguistics degree or independently. conditional factors to linguistic meaning, the
The best way to approach the contents is to work nature of presupposition, the usefulness of
through the chapters in the order in which they theta-roles in the explanation of argument
appear. This is not the only way, however: after structure, the relative merits of definitional
the first chapter, the rest of the book has a and non-definitional approaches to semantic
modular structure and can be read in whatever content, the semantics of aspectual categories
sequence the reader prefers. Chapter 1 lays out or parts of speech, and the implications of pro-
the framework for what follows and explains totype effects for semantic modelling, among
some important preliminary ideas; once the many others, are all the focus of continuing
reader has familiarized themselves with these, debate. In this situation, questions of the way
they have all they need in order to begin reading the field is presented to beginners, and of the
anywhere else. For someone adopting this representation given to differing theoretical
approach to the book, the glossary explains the perspectives, become central.
most important recurrent terms, and can be Any introduction to a discipline calls for a
consulted whenever an unfamiliar concept is certain degree of simplification with respect to
encountered. The exercises interspersed through- the various messy and unclear currents of
out the text and at the end of each chapter are ongoing inquiry that constitute it. But the dan-
designed to deepen the reader’s engagement ger is that beginning students may, through an
with the material, and contain a mixture of arbitrary selectivity of theoretical perspective,
questions of different lengths and degrees of be misled into believing that complex matters
concreteness and difficulty. of genuine and legitimate controversy are in
A few comments about the spirit in which fact the objects of settled consensus. This would
the book has been written may be useful. be a serious misrepresentation of the state of
Semantics is surely distinctive among the staple the discipline, which an introduction has the
components of the introductory linguistics cur- obligation to avoid. As Chomsky has noted
riculum in the lack of disciplinary agreement (1995: 50), ‘to make very clear the limits of
over the basic theoretical questions at its cen- understanding is a serious responsibility in a
tre. Langacker’s (1987: 32) complaint about ‘the culture in which alleged expertise is given
striking lack of consensus about the proper often unwarranted prestige’. There is, needless
characterization of even the simplest or most to say, nothing to be gained from a stipulative
fundamental linguistic phenomena’ applies in approach to basic questions, whose only result
questions of meaning even more than else- would be to perpetuate the theoretical frag-
where in the discipline, and theoretical prolif- mentation which is already such a striking fea-
eration in the years that separate us from 1987 ture of contemporary semantic investigations.
has only increased the diversity of approaches Accordingly, this introduction is intended to
available. This diversity is, I believe, a major represent as much as is possible of the variety of
source of semantics’ vitality and interest, but it ways in which meaning is currently studied in
creates a problem for the writer who wants to linguistics, without any one approach being privi-
present a comprehensive and balanced intro- leged. Thus, although the reader will find an
duction to the field. Such basic theoretical exposition of the bases of, among other topics,
xiv Note to the reader

formal, cognitive, definitional, typological, struc- with languages radically different from one’s
tural, speech act and computational approaches, own remains as one of the most valuable conse-
the book is not written from the unique point of quences of my own initial exposure to linguis-
view of any. No textbook, however, can fail to tics, and has an important role to play within
reflect the author’s own conception of their field. the general goals of a liberal education. As a
But I have always tried to indicate the range of result, I have often included examples from
theoretical perspectives that inform linguistic minority indigenous languages, as well as from
semantic research, and to fairly and undogmati- major world languages like Arabic, Japanese,
cally indicate the attractions and disadvantages Chinese or English. The languages of small
of each. In the same spirit, I have also included indigenous communities are in the process of
some discussion of recent important topics in the being squeezed off the map by the forces of
discipline, like semantic typology, computational globalization; a linguistics textbook has an obli-
semantics and corpus semantics, which are not gation not to allow them to be lost from the
always reflected in introductory contexts. Far view of the discipline, and this needs to happen
from complicating things, the admission of alter- from students’ first exposure to the subject. Little
native perspectives seems to me to be pedagogi- known languages are identified genetically and
cally desirable: beginning students find it useful geographically on their first occurrence; the
to discover that the possibilities, questions and language’s family is given first, at the most
reservations which inevitably occur to them dur- informative level of genetic classification, followed
ing their initial exposure to the field are often by its general geographical location. Citations
reflected in the range of differing theoretical from the unpublished Warlpiri dictionary data-
approaches to the phenomena in question. base are marked ‘WlpD’; I am grateful to the
I have also tried not simply to present these Warlpiri lexicography group for making it
various ideas, but to show where they come available to me. I am also grateful to Georgetown
from and how they are relevant. This has been University Press (www.press.georgetown.edu)
done by situating the ideas historically, by for permission to reprint Figure 7.1.
drawing out their connections with other ques- In writing this book I have accumulated
tions confronting the empirical study of lan- many debts to people who read parts or all of
guage in linguistics and elsewhere, or, simply, the manuscript, supplied language data, made
by making clear how they relate to each other. unpublished material available, or advised me
The aim in this has been to avoid the appar- on any number of points of detail. I never fail to
ently arbitrary quality of the particular selec- be struck by the willingness and generosity
tion of topics which readers find in an intro- with which people have answered my many
duction like this. The current state of a disci- requests for help, and I could not have written
pline like semantics does not reflect a unidirec- the book without them. It is therefore a plea-
tional or homogeneous development, but is sure to thank Eran Asoulin, Brett Baker, Marika
shaped in both outline and detail by many con- Benedek, Antonio Castillo, Peter Dobrovic, Nick
tingencies of different sorts. Where relevant, I Evans, Marie Fellbaum, Iain Giblin, Amitavo
have tried to comment on these, so that the Islam, Mark Johnston, Alex Jones, Ed McDonald,
reader can have some sense of the unfolding David Nash, Andrew Riemer, Craig Ronalds,
dynamics of semantic research. The further Pieter Seuren, Peter Slezak, Lesley Stirling and
reading sections at the end of each chapter try Lawrence Warner, who all patiently and gener-
to give some possible leads to follow in further ously responded to the litany of queries I pre-
exploration of the field. sented to them. A special thanks must go to my
An important part of the role of any intro- colleagues in linguistics at the Universities of
ductory linguistics textbook, it seems to me, is Sydney and New South Wales, Bill Foley, Michael
to allow readers to appreciate the sheer variety Walsh, Mengistu Amberber and Debra Aarons; I
of human language. The shock of confrontation have appreciated their advice and encouragement
 Note to the reader xv

enormously. In particular, I should single out I am very obliged to both of them. I am also
Jane Simpson at the University of Sydney, who most grateful for the help in doing the research
first taught me semantics, and who has been an for this book provided by Winnie Chor, who not
unfailing source of wisdom ever since; several only supplied Chinese data, but also ably under-
versions of the manuscript were trialled in took many of the tedious and demanding tasks
undergraduate classes taught with her, and I which the preparation of a manuscript like this
am extremely grateful for her comments. Alan entails. Helen Young also helped assemble the
de Zwaan, Kristen Elliot, Olivia Rosenman, references and Ariel Spigelman the index. I am
Birgit Raabe, Judith Kessel and Erin O’Brien, particularly indebted to Andrew Winnard at
who were enrolled in various classes in which Cambridge University Press for his courtesy and
the book has been used, kindly gave me feed- understanding during the long gestation period
back from the reader’s point of view. David of the manuscript, and to the numerous anony-
Scarratt and Avery Andrews read and provided mous CUP referees, whose reactions and sug-
minute advice on Chapter 6, saving me from a gestions have led to many improvements.
number of embarrassing mistakes. Benjamin Finally, I could not have written any of this
Schultz gave me the benefit of his wisdom on without the unique contribution of Briony
Chapters 3 and 4. James McElvenny and Nina Neilson, to whom the book would have been
Riemer read the finished manuscript in its dedicated, if I did not feel that she deserves
entirety and suggested invaluable improvements; better.
 CHA PT E R

1 Meaning in the
empirical study
of language

CHAPTER PREVIEW
In this chapter we will introduce some important concepts for the study of semantics. In
1.1 we place the notion of linguistic meaning in the wider context of human communica-
tion and behaviour. Section 1.2 then examines some of the vocabulary that English and
other languages use for ordinary talk about meaning in language and related phenomena.
A consideration of how this everyday non-technical vocabulary varies cross-linguistically
can show some of the important different aspects of linguistic meaning. In section 1.3 the
semiotic triangle of mind, world and language is discussed, followed in 1.4 by an intro-
duction to five fundamental concepts:
◆ lexemes;
◆ sense and reference;
◆ denotation and connotation;
◆ compositionality; and
◆ levels of meaning.
Next (1.5), we introduce the concepts of object language and metalanguage, and distin-
guish a number of different possible relations between the language in which meanings
are described (the ‘metalanguage’) and the language whose meanings are described (the
‘object language’). We will then consider three different identifications of meaning: mean-
ings as objects in the world (referents: 1.6.1), as objects in the mind (concepts: 1.6.2), and
as brain states (1.6.3). An alternative identification is the notion of meanings as uses, dis-
cussed in 1.6.4. To end the chapter, we consider a view of meaning on which meanings
are unobservable, hypothetical constructs posited to explain facts about language use (1.7).
2 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

1.0 What is semantics?

Any attempt to understand the nature of language must try to describe
and explain the ways in which linguistic expressions have meaning. This
book introduces some of the aspects of meaning studied in linguistic
semantics, the branch of linguistics which, along with pragmatics, has
responsibility for this task. Semantics is one of the richest and most fasci-
nating parts of linguistics. Among the kinds of questions semanticists ask
are the following:

• What are meanings — definitions? ideas in our heads? sets of objects

in the world?
• Can all meanings be precisely defined?
• What explains relations between meanings, like synonymy, antonymy
(oppositeness), and so on?
• How do the meanings of words combine to create the meanings of
sentences?
• What is the difference between literal and non-literal meaning?
• How do meanings relate to the minds of language users, and to the
things words refer to?
• What is the connection between what a word means, and the con-
texts in which it is used?
• How do the meanings of words interact with syntactic rules and
principles?
• Do all languages express the same meanings?
• How do meanings change?
Clearly, semantics is a vast subject, and in this book we will only be able
to introduce the most important parts of it. ‘Meaning’, however, is a very
vague term. In ordinary English, the word ‘meaning’ is used to refer to
such different things as the idea or intention lying behind a piece of lan-
guage, as in (1), the thing referred to by a piece of language (2), and the
translations of words between languages (3).

(1) ‘I don’t quite understand what you’re getting at by saying “meat is murder”:
do you mean that everyone should be a vegetarian?’

(2) ‘I meant the second street on the left, not the first one.’
(3) ‘Seiketsu means “clean” in Japanese.’

As we will see, an important initial task of linguistic semantics is to dis-

tinguish between these different types of meaning, and to make it clear
exactly what place each of them has within a principled theory of lan-
guage (see Sections 1.4 and 1.6).
Each of the chapters of this book introduces some essential concepts for
understanding the ways in which meaning can be analysed in linguistics.
This first chapter is an introduction to the issues and concepts studied
in linguistic semantics. In Chapter 2 we consider the relation between
 1.1 Meaning, communication and significance 3

meanings and definitions. When we think about word meanings, defini-

tions in dictionaries quickly come to mind: we know that, if uncertain
about a word’s meaning, we can look it up in a dictionary. This means that
it is important to be clear about the similarities and differences between
the aspects of meaning that interest linguists, on the one hand, and
lexicographers (dictionary-writers) on the other. In Chapters 3 and 4 we
discuss the relation between word meaning and word use: how do we
distinguish between what a word actually means, and the way in which it
happens to be used on a given occasion? Chapter 5 looks at attempts to
analyse the meanings of words into sets of basic components, and dis-
cusses the problem of determining just how many meanings a given word
has. In Chapter 6 we introduce some concepts from formal logic which
have been fruitfully applied to the analysis of natural language meanings,
and in Chapters 7 and 8 we look at the ways research inspired by psychol-
ogy has been used to illuminate linguistic semantic questions, and how
the results of this research can be modelled on computers. Chapter 9
explores the semantics of the parts of speech and of tense and aspect.
Chapter 10 discusses the relationship between semantics and syntax,
a subject which raises many important questions. Chapter 11 emphasizes
a somewhat different aspect of meaning, its changeability. Meaning is
always changing, both synchronically (i.e. between different speakers at
the same time) and diachronically (over time). No comprehensive study of
meaning can neglect this variation and change.
QUESTION How closely does the subject matter of semantics seem to cor-
respond with what you would have thought are the main questions to
ask about meaning in language?

1.1 Meaning, communication and significance

Informally, it is easy to agree that meaning is the heart of language.
Meaning, we might say, is what language is for: to have a language without
meaning would be like having lungs without air. Only when sequences of
sounds or letters have (or are judged capable of having) a meaning do they
qualify as language: infants’ babbling and bird song, for example, use the
same medium as human language – sound – but since they do not, and
cannot, express meaning (except, perhaps, to the infants or the birds) we
do not consider them as examples of language in the full sense of the
word. Meaning is also central to the experience of using language, as any-
one knows who has ever listened to people talking in an unknown lan-
guage. Not only does such a language fail to express any meaning; it is also
often hard to catch hold of individual words: without knowing the mean-
ing of an utterance, it is hard to identify the separate words which consti-
tute it.
Without a capacity to express meaning, then, language loses one of its
essential aspects. We practically always speak or write in order to express
a meaning of one kind or another. This is most obviously true for pieces
4 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

of language which convey information: if someone suddenly says (4), then

a meaning has been conveyed, and you are in possession of some informa-
tion – whether true or false – which you may not have previously known.

(4) Engels was two and a half years younger than Marx.

But not only sentences have meanings. Even the shortest, most everyday
words, which we would not normally consider as containing information,
like the, not, of, or even ouch!, contribute something specific to the mean-
ings of utterances in which they occur and can thus be legitimately con-
sidered as having meanings in their own right. (For some scholars, the
study of the meanings of words like these belongs as much to pragmatics
and syntax as it does to semantics; we will discuss the difference between
semantics and pragmatics in 1.4.4.)
QUESTION Two apparent exceptions to the meaningfulness of language
are T-shirts worn in Japan and elsewhere with ‘nonsensical’ English
sentences on them, and people speaking in tongues at certain religious
meetings. Are there other examples of this kind? Are instances of lan-
guage use like this really non-meaningful? If so, what are some possible
implications for semantics? If not, why not?
Although the study of meaning is extremely ancient, the name semantics
was only coined in the late nineteenth century by the French linguist
Michel Bréal. Like many other names of branches of linguistics, the word
semantics reflects the origins of the Western tradition of linguistic analysis
in the writings of Greek thinkers from the fifth century BC onwards.
Semantics comes from the ancient Greek word semantikos, an adjective
meaning ‘relating to signs’, based on the noun sēmeion ‘sign’. In Ancient
Greek, one of the original uses of sēmeion was as a medical term for the
symptoms that were the signs of underlying diseases. This derivation high-
lights the close relation between the study of linguistic signs – words,
phrases, sentences and utterances – and the study of signs in general: both
artificial, conventional signs like road signs, clock faces, the symbols used
in computer programs, or the ‘signals’ communicated by different choices
of clothes; and natural signs like symptoms of disease, the level of the sun
in the sky (a sign of the time of day) or tracks on the ground (the sign that
an animal has passed). The study of signs in general is known as semiotics
or semiology (both Greek words also deriving from sēmeion). In the twen-
tieth century, the general study of signs became particularly important
and the new discipline of semiotics was created, especially as the result of
the work of the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (pronounced
‘purse’; 1839–1914) and of Bréal’s student, the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de
Saussure (1857–1913), often considered as the founder of modern
linguistics.
The meanings we can express through language are infinitely more
numerous, detailed and precise than those expressible through other
semiotic media. Yet the type of meaning found in language can be seen as
a subset of two broader categories of meaningfulness: the significance of
 1.1 Meaning, communication and significance 5

human behaviour in general, and the meaningfulness of communication

specifically. There are many meaningful ways of behaving which do not
involve language. These are not limited to those types of behaviour
involving structured sets of conventional, accepted symbols like the left-
right indicator lights on cars, the use of flags at sea to convey various spe-
cific messages, or the many types of symbol involving body parts (bowing,
waving, nodding and shaking the head, the thumbs up/thumbs down sig-
nals, the hand signs used in baseball, etc.). Many types of intentional
human behaviour can be seen as having a significance, or a meaning, in
the (broad) sense of the word, since they both express, and allow observers
to draw conclusions about, the nature and intentions of the participants.
Someone who has just got up from their seat on the bus is probably intend-
ing to get off. Someone who suddenly stops walking down the street to
search frantically through their pockets may just have realized that they
have forgotten their keys. Unlike the use of language, these types of behav-
iour do not involve any structured set of symbols or, necessarily, any com-
municative intention and are therefore non-semiotic. The person getting
up from their seat is not wishing to communicate anything to anyone, and
is not making use of any structured communicative symbols: they simply
want to get off. The use of fully articulated language, which does involve a
communicative intention, is thus only the fullest and most explicit way in
which we derive information about our environment: as a result, the
meaningfulness of language can be seen as a subset of the meaningfulness
of human behaviour.

QUESTION We have just given a number of examples of conventional

symbols. What are some others?

Even when an intention to communicate does exist, however, the use of

language is only one of a number of ways in which the intention can be
fulfilled. Take the example of someone at the dinner table suddenly chok-
ing on some food. They start to gasp, they go red in the face, their eyes
water, and all they can do is make a muffled, indistinct cry. To the other
people at the table, this communicates something: they realize that there
is something wrong and that help is needed. As a result, they could
quickly help the sufferer by giving them a glass of water or a slap on the
back. This, then, is an example of some information being made known
without the help of language: the person choking has just cried out, per-
haps involuntarily, and this is enough to attract the attention of others,
to tell them something about the current state of that person, and to
stimulate them to bring the required help. Now imagine that the person
choking, instead of simply crying out, articulates three quick syllables
consisting simply of three choking-sounding vowels, with the middle syl-
lable louder than the others: ‘* - * - *’. In this case, the other people at the
table might conclude that the three cries were substitutes for the three
syllables of the sentence ‘I’m CHOking!’, and would act on the basis of this
(correct) assumption. Here, even though the speaker can only manage to
articulate the syllable pattern of the intended phrase, communication
6 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

significance

communicated linguistic
meaning meaning

FIGURE 1.1
Significance, communicat-
ed meaning and linguistic
meaning.

successfully takes place. Of course, if they had enough breath left, they
could simply cry out ‘I’m choking’, and there would be no ambiguity.
These cases show that a fully articulated sentence is not always necessary
to communicate an intended meaning: the same meaning can be sug-
gested in a variety of different ways, all of which rely on implicit conven-
tions. The sentence expresses the intended meaning more precisely and
unambiguously than the others: both the single cry and its three syllable
variant are open to many interpretations, and are therefore much less
reliable than the fully explicit sentence. But we can nevertheless remove
the language from a communicative situation and retain much of the
meaning. Situations are inherently meaningful. Meaning, we might say, is
already there in the world: all we have to do is draw attention to it, and
language is the most specific and unambiguous way of doing so. The dif-
ferent types of meaningfulness we have been discussing so far could be
diagrammed as in Figure 1.1.

1.2 Talking about meaning in English and

other languages
Semantics, then, is the study of meaning. But what actually is meaning?
In Section 1.6 we will discuss some specific answers to this question. For
the moment, we will make a start by looking at what place the notion of
meaning has in our ordinary talk about language. The way we use the
concept of meaning in ordinary language is important because it provides
us with a pretheoretical starting point for theoretical semantic analysis,
and gives us the initial vocabulary with which we can begin to identify
and describe the phenomena which strike us. Informal talk about what
pieces of language mean is a very common part of everyday life: we
explain new words, give paraphrases of what people mean by a certain
phrase or expression, sometimes translate words from one language to
another in order to show their meaning. But even though we use the
 1.2 Talking about meaning cross-linguistically 7

notion of meaning naturally and unproblematically, it is quite another

thing to develop an explicit, rigorous explanation of it. In just the same
way, it is one thing to talk about the movements of celestial bodies like
the moon and stars – we do so, informally, all the time – but a different
one entirely to have a scientific understanding of them. And since mean-
ings cannot be seen, there is the initial question of how to pin down
exactly what we are and are not supposed to be investigating. It will help
us to accomplish this task if we examine the everyday vocabulary used to
talk about meaning in English and other languages. This vocabulary var-
ies considerably cross-linguistically; examining it can show some of the
important different aspects of linguistic meaning, and can allow us to see
how different languages impose different starting distinctions on what
we, in English, call ‘meaning’.

1.2.1 ‘Meaning’ in English

English uses the verb to mean to refer to a relationship involving at least
one of three different types of thing: language, the world (including peo-
ple, objects, and everything outside of ourselves) and our own minds or
intentions. Here are five typical examples of mean in English which exem-
plify some of these relationships:

(5) When I said ‘Dublin has lots of attractions’ I meant Dublin, Ireland, not
Dublin, Virginia.

(6) In Sydney, ‘the bridge’ means the Harbour Bridge.

(7) ‘Stout’ means ‘short and fat’.

(8) By turning off the music I didn’t mean that you should go.

(9) Trees mean water.

Sentence (5) distinguishes two possible places that the speaker could have
been referring to by the name ‘Dublin’, and specifies that only one of
them was intended. This, then, is a three-way relation between a piece of
language, a mind and the world: the world is represented by the two
places called Dublin, language by the sentence ‘Dublin has lots of attrac-
tions’, and mind by the speaker’s intention to refer to Dublin, Ireland. The
second sentence is a relation between language and world, without any
specific reference to people’s intentions. It says that the expression ‘the
bridge’ refers to one particular structure – the Sydney Harbour Bridge –
rather than any of the other bridges in Sydney. Even though it is obviously
only through the action of speakers’ minds that bridge has this reference,
there is no explicit mention of speakers’ minds in (6). In (7), there is no
explicit reference to either people’s minds or to the world: the sentence
reports an equivalence between two linguistic items, the word ‘stout’,
according to (7), is simply equivalent in some way to the words ‘short and
fat’. Sentence (8) refers to a mind–world relation: it is thus like sentence
(5), except that there is no language: the speaker denies that the action of
turning the music off was the result of any intention for the guests to leave.
8 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

Sentence (9) names a world–world relationship: the presence of one type

of object in the world (trees) reveals the presence of another (water).
The fact that the same verb is used in English for these non-linguistic
situations as well as the linguistic ones is noteworthy if we consider the
discussion in 1.1. Thus, while sentences (5)–(7) refer to linguistic meaning,
sentence (8) refers to communicated meaning, and sentence (9) refers to
what we have called significance. In sentence (8) (spoken, say, at a party
where it has got late and there are only a few guests left), the act of turn-
ing off the music could be interpreted as a sign of the end of the party:
sentence (8) is a way of saying that the speaker did not intend this. And to
say that ‘Trees mean water’ is to say that the presence of trees allows us to
conclude that there must be water nearby (compare the examples of sig-
nificance in the previous section). This is a conclusion we reach simply by
virtue of what we know about trees and water, and without there being
any communication as such.
In ordinary English, then, we use the same verb to refer both to the mean-
ings expressed by language and to those which are communicated non-lin-
guistically, as well as to those which emerge, without any communication,
as a result of the inherent significance of the world and human behaviour.
In a number of these situations, the idea of the intention of the communica-
tor seems to be an important part of what is being talked about through the
use of the verb mean. But meaning is not the only way in which situations
like those in (5)–(6) can be described in English: a number of other possible
modes of description are also available. To see this, let’s narrow the discus-
sion down to one particular example of language – a piece which many
people would think of as, simply, a mistake. Consider the following situa-
tion: Judy and Alastair are having a dinner party, and Alastair has gone out
to buy a few extra plates and cups for the guests. Coming home, he says:

(10) I’ve got some more cutlery for the party.

For most speakers of English, this would count as a mistake, since ‘cutlery’
refers not to cups and plates, but to knives, forks and spoons. But the fact
that this is a mistake in no way diminishes the need for a principled, lin-
guistic account of it: like other branches of linguistics, semantics describes
language as it is actually used and the use of a mistake as our example
here will allow the relevant issues to emerge particularly clearly.
How then can we describe what is happening in (10)? In context, we can
imagine three replies which Judy might make, each of which considers
Alastair’s ‘mistake’ from a different point of view:

(11) a. Judy: Cutlery?! We’ve got lots of cutlery! You mean you got more crockery!
Alastair: Oh yeah, crockery.

b. Judy: Cutlery?! Why did you say cutlery instead of crockery?

Alastair: Oh yeah, crockery.

c. Judy: Cutlery?! You did not! You got more crockery!

Alastair: Oh yeah, crockery.
 1.2 Talking about meaning cross-linguistically 9

In (11a) Judy uses the category of meaning to describe Alastair’s language,

and says that Alastair did not actually mean ‘cutlery’: what he meant was
‘crockery’. In (11b) she talks about what Alastair ‘says’. Here, she could be
described as talking not about language meaning, but language use: she
notes that Alastair has used the term cutlery when the term crockery would
be expected. In (11c), Judy simply denies what Alastair has said. In so
doing, she can be described as applying the categories of truth and falsity
to Alastair’s utterance: according to her, it is simply not true that Alastair
bought cutlery, a fact which Alastair then admits.
Ordinary English, then, makes available at least three different ways of
talking about language: meaning, use and truth. Each of these three cat-
egories of ordinary language description highlights a particular aspect of
the occurrence. Description in terms of truth places the emphasis on the
objective facts of the situation by concentrating on the relation between
language and reality: does the language used correspond to the actual
state of affairs? Description in terms of use makes no explicit reference to
the facts, but limits itself to a consideration of equivalences between the
piece of language in question and an assumed norm: Alastair said cutlery
when, in the same circumstances, most people would have said crockery.
Lastly, description in terms of meaning places the emphasis on the speak-
er’s intentions: for Judy to say that Alastair meant crockery is, in this
context, the equivalent of saying that he intended to say crockery, and to
note a discrepancy between this assumed intention and the actual words
used.
As we will see in Section 1.6, each of these ordinary language modes of
description has its own developed, theoretical analogue.

1.2.2 ‘Meaning’ in Warlpiri

In English, then, the one verb ‘mean’ is used to describe reference, linguistic
meaning, intention, and general significance. Given the frequency with
which, in English, we use this verb to talk about the relations between lan-
guage, intention and the world, it may be surprising to discover that there
are languages which do not make use of any similar notion in order to talk
about situations like those in (5)–(6) above. One such language is Warlpiri, a
Pama-Nyungan language spoken in central Australia. In a sense, Warlpiri
has no equivalent for the verb mean, and the links between reference, lin-
guistic equivalence, intention, and general significance are quite differently
constituted.
In Warlpiri, the most common way of asking about the ‘meaning’ of a
word does not involve any verb. For example, to ask about the meaning of
the word karnta (‘woman’), one would simply say (12):

(12) Nyiya karnta-ju?

what karnta-TOPIC
‘What is a karnta?’/‘What does “karnta” mean?’

This could be translated as either ‘what does karnta mean?’ or as ‘what is

a karnta?’. And when the meaning of a word is explained or defined, once
10 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

again no separate verb meaning ‘mean’ is involved. In the following

example, for instance, the speaker is explaining the meaning of the word
ngalyarra:

(13) Ngalyarra ngula-ju yanjilypiri panu.

Ngalyarra that-TOPIC stars many
‘Ngalyarra – that is many stars’/‘Ngalyarra means “many stars”.’
(WlpD: ngalyarra)

The absence of the specific verb ‘mean’ is characteristic of a wider set of

contexts in Warlpiri; there is also very often no separate verb that would
be the equivalent of ‘is’ in English, as the following examples show:

(14) Ngamirliri, ngula-ji kirrirdipardu.

curlew that-TOPIC tall
‘The curlew is tall.’ (WlpD: ngamirliri)

(15) Jajirdi kuyu wita.

native cat animal small
‘The native cat is a small animal.’ (WlpD: jajirdi)

The result of this is that Warlpiri makes less of a distinction than English
between what a word means, and what its referent actually is. To say what a
word means is simply to describe the object or situation it refers to. Language–
world relations are described in the same way as world–world ones.
Warlpiri does, however, have a way of explicitly mentioning the language-
user, as can be seen in the following example:

(16) Mirni-nya karnalu wurnturu ngarri-rni. Kala mirnimpa,

mirni-FOCUS 1PL.SUBJ far call-NONPAST but mirnimpa
ngula-ju kutu-pardu karnalu ngarri-rni.
that-TOPIC close-rather 1PL.SUBJ call-NONPAST
‘We use mirni to mean far, whereas by mirnimpa we mean rather
close.’ (WlpD: mirnimpa)

But the verb used here, ngarri-rni, which simply means ‘call’, does not
make any reference to the speaker’s intentions, an important component
of the notion of ‘meaning’ in English. The literal meaning of (16) is some-
thing like ‘we call far things mirni, whereas we call close things mirnimpa.’
This is simply a fact about language use: ngarrirni ‘call’ makes no reference
to any intention of the speaker, and the verb manngi-nyanyi ‘think, intend’,
is not typically used to refer to the meaning of words.

1.2.3 ‘Meaning’ in French

Whereas, in Warlpiri, the meanings of words are not discussed in the
same terms as the intentions of speakers, in French there is a close link
between these two domains. The most common way of expressing ‘mean’
 1.2 Talking about meaning cross-linguistically 11

in French is the expression ‘vouloir dire’, which literally means ‘to want
to say.’ To ask ‘what do you mean?’ in French is to ask ‘what do you want
to say?’ Talking about meaning in French, then, inherently involves talk-
ing about volition (‘wanting‘), as in the following expressions:

(17) Qu’est-ce que tu veux dire par cela?

what is it that you want to say by that?
‘What do you mean by that?’

(18) Que veut dire cette phrase latine?

what wants to say this phrase latin
‘What does this Latin phrase mean?’

(19) Que veut dire ce vacarme, cette agitation?

what wants to say this clamour this agitation
‘What does this clamour and agitation mean?’

(20) Le baromètre a baissé; cela veut dire qu’ il

the barometer has gone down that wants to say that it
va pleuvoir.
is going to rain
‘The barometer has gone down; that means it’s going to rain.’

As (19) and (20) show, this is even the case when talking of what words,
phrases and non-linguistic things mean: as in English, the same expression
is used to refer both to the meaning of language, and the meaning of non-
linguistic occurrences. Vouloir dire is not, of course, the only word available
in French for the expression of ideas about meaning; the verb signifier
(from the Latin signum ‘sign’ and facere ‘to make’) has a similar sense.
Another contrast between French and English is that unlike in English, the
French words that express the noun ‘meaning’ and the verb ‘to mean’ are
not related. In French the noun ‘meaning’ is translated by the word sens,
from which English gets the word ‘sense’, and which has a similar range of
meanings: as well as referring to linguistic meaning, sens refers to the per-
ceptual senses (sight, hearing, etc.), to a direct and intuitive grasp of some-
thing (e.g. a ‘sense’ of rhythm), as well as having the meaning expressed in
English by saying that something ‘makes sense’. Just like vouloir dire, then,
sens classes linguistic meaning together with certain inner, subjective pro-
cesses of human consciousness; not, however, as in the case of vouloir dire,
volitional ones, but ones connected with the faculties of perception and
judgement.

1.2.4 ‘Meaning’ in Chinese

In Mandarin Chinese, there is no single word with the same range of mean-
ings as English mean or meaning. The verb zhi, whose core meaning is ‘point’,
can express all of the relations between mind, language and world dis-
cussed in the previous sections, except the world–world relation. Thus, we
find zhi used for the mind–language–world relation, as in (21):
12 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

(21) Dang wo shuo ‘Coles’, wo shi zhi Central de

when I say ‘Coles’ I BE point Central POSS
‘Coles’, bu shi TownHall de ‘Coles’.
‘Coles’ not BE TownHall POSS ‘Coles’
‘When I say “Coles”, I mean the “Coles” in Central but not the
“Coles” in Town Hall.’

As well, it can be used for the language–world relation:

(22) Zao-can shi zhi zao-shang chi de yi can.

breakfast BE point morning eat POSS one meal
‘“Breakfast” means the meal you have in the morning.’

Zhi may also be used to specify a word’s translation:

(23) ‘Linguistics’ shi zhi yu-yan-xue.

‘Linguistics’ BE point yu-yan-xue
‘“Linguistics” means yu-yan-xue.’

However, when a monolingual definition is given, the noun yi-si ‘meaning’

is typically used:

(24) Miao-tiao de yi-si shi shou ji xian-xi

‘Miao-tiao’ POSS meaning BE thin and delicate
‘“Miao-tiao” means thin and delicate.’

Yi-si is also used in a way that parallels the English use of meaning to
express the language–mind relation:

(25) Wo ming-bai ne de yi-si.

I understand you POSS meaning
‘I understand what you mean.’

A native speaker explains yi-si here in the following way: ‘the speaker is
conveying the message that he can reveal what’s in the hearer’s mind and
the intention behind it. It is actually similar to saying “I understand what
you are thinking about”’ (W. Chor, p.c.). But yi-si cannot be used for the
world–world relation:

(26) *Jin-qian de ji-si shi quan-li.

money-POSS meaning BE power
‘Money means power.’

To express this, deng-yu ‘equal’ may be used:

(27) Jin-qian deng-yu quan-li.

money equal power
‘Money means power.’
 1.3 The semiotic triangle 13

We thus find that, taken together, the translations of mean/meaning in

Mandarin have a similar range of senses to their English equivalents,
except that Mandarin has no equivalent to money means power or clouds
mean rain. However, the fact that the verb meaning ‘point’ is the basic way
of expressing the verbal notion brings in a connection between meaning
and gesture which is not familiar from English.

1.3 The semiotic triangle: language, mind,

world and meaning
We have seen in the previous section that a number of languages,
including French and English, make an important connection in their
standard vocabularies between language and the world of inner con-
scious processes like volition, perception and intention. Other lan-
guages, by contrast, like Warlpiri, seem to bypass this connection by
talking about the meaning of language in the same terms used to talk
about the identity of things in the world. All of these relations are
important. To describe meaning fully, we seem to have to make reference
to three principal terms: language, the world, and the human mind.
Following Ogden and Richards (1949: 10), these three aspects of the
meaning phenomenon are often symbolized as the ‘semiotic triangle’,
as shown in Figure 1.2 below.

THOUGHT

causal relation causal relation

FIGURE 1.2
SYMBOL relation of truth/falsity REFERENT The semiotic triangle.

At the top of the triangle is what Ogden and Richards called ‘thought’.
This reflects the fact that language comes from human beings, and is
therefore ultimately a product of processes in the mind or brain. But
‘thought’ can be a misleading label for these processes, for two reasons.
First, these mental processes need not be conscious. Even though we
sometimes do consciously think about what we are going to say, our
speech is more often spontaneous, emerging without our being aware of
any preliminary stage of mental preparation. Since it is the brain that
produces language, we know that some such preliminary stage must have
taken place, but since this stage is so often unconscious, the label
‘thought’ is not the most appropriate (see Chapter 11 for more discussion).
14 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

The second reason that ‘thought’ is an unfortunate label for the mental
processes at the origin of speech is that it excludes the non-rational, emo-
tional side of our inner life. The processes leading to speech should not be
limited to what we would class simply as ‘thinking’, but extend to include
our emotions and volition as well. This is most obviously true with excla-
mations: exclamations of pain, surprise or happiness often do not reflect
anything we would describe as a ‘thought’, but rather reflect a particular
feeling. The same is true for many other types of words, like diminutives,
which may correspond to feelings of (roughly) affection; and imperatives,
which may be accompanied by feelings of control, superiority, pride, etc.
Evaluative words more generally, expressing the speaker’s emotional
attitude, often force us to recognize a strong emotional component.
Thus, ‘marvellous’, ‘wonderful’, ‘fantastic’ and ‘good’; and ‘appalling’,
‘terrible’, ‘frightful’ and ‘bad’ and their synonyms express more than the
fact that the speaker approves or disapproves of whatever is being referred
to: crucially, these adjectives are often associated with particular positive
or negative feelings in the speaker. In order to remove the unwanted
implication that the mental processes leading to speech are purely con-
scious and non-emotional, we can replace ‘thought’ in Ogden and
Richards’ diagram with the more neutral term ‘psychology’.

QUESTION Apart from emotion, what other aspects of psychology are

relevant to the production and understanding of language? Which are of
the most relevance to linguistic meaning?
The leftmost point of the triangle, the ‘symbol’, is the most straight-
forward. The symbol, in this terminology, is whatever perceptible token is
chosen to express the speaker’s intended meaning. In the case of spoken
language, the symbols will be strings of speech sounds, in the case of
written language, they will be marks on the page, and in the case of sign
languages, they will be particular handsigns. Since in this book we are
exclusively concerned with linguistic communication, we can replace the
broader term ‘symbol’ with the simple ‘language’.
The last apex of the triangle is the ‘referent’, or whatever things, events
or situations in the world the language is about. Thus, the sentence the
dogs bark, the caravan goes by has as its referent a particular situation: a
situation in which certain dogs bark and a certain caravan goes by. Within
that sentence, the expressions the dogs and the caravan also have referents:
the actual dogs and caravan being spoken about. Note that someone who
hears this sentence does not necessarily know what the exact referents of
these nouns are; in the absence of any special knowledge about which
dogs and caravans are being referred to, a hearer could only identify
the dogs and caravan in question if the sentence was spoken when they
were actually present (and even then they would have to assume that the
hearer was talking about the dogs and caravan at hand, not some
others).
This leads to the important point that we do not have any access to the
world as it actually, objectively is. The only referents we can know are ones
which are perceived by our senses or imagined in our minds: ones for
 1.3 The semiotic triangle 15

which, in other words, we have mental representations (see 1.6.2 below).

The dogs and caravan in question are only available and known to us inso-
far as they can be represented, that is perceived, remembered, or other-
wise thought about by us. The world of referents, that is, must be consid-
ered not as a world of real external entities, but as a world of representa-
tions which are projected by the mind. Another way of putting this would
be to say that the world of referents is within the domain of psychology. As
humans with minds, we have no access to the world, with a definite cast of
fixed, pre-established referents. All we can know, and all that can be rele-
vant to our understanding of language, is the world as it is represented by
our minds through perception, memory, imagination or other experi-
ence. And since we are all different, the ways in which we perceive,
remember or imagine referents are also likely to differ in some ways.

Question What problems might the existence of differing representa-

tions of the same referent pose for understanding meaning?
We can now consider the relations between the three points of the trian-
gle. First, note that psychology has a causal relation to both referent and
symbol. On the side of the symbol, the causal relation to psychology is
explained by the fact that, as already observed, it is our minds that create
language by choosing and constructing the particular linguistic expres-
sions used. It is in our psychology that the decision to speak is made, and
the particular words used are chosen. In the case of the referent (which,
as we have already seen, must itself already be considered as within the
domain of psychology), the causal relation comes from the fact that in
using language we intend our words to have a certain referent. For exam-
ple, if I point to a car parked on the street and say ‘that car has its lights
on’ I intend my words to refer only to the car in question, and not to any
of the others that also happen to be present. I have, in other words, chosen
this car, rather than another, as the referent of my words, and I expect the
hearer of my words to do the same.
In contrast to the causal relations on the psychology-symbol and
psychology-referent sides of the triangle, there is no causal relation
between symbol and referent. Words have no direct relation to the things
they stand for. There is no inherent relation between a string of sounds
and a particular referent: this is the reason that different languages use
entirely different words for the same thing. The only reason dogs refers to
dogs and caravan refers to a caravan is that these are the referents which
English speakers have learnt to associate with them, and this is a fact
about people’s psychology rather than an essential connection between
the words and the objects to which they refer. Even onomatopoeic words
like the names for animals’ calls (e.g. ‘cuckoo’, ‘moo’, ‘quack’ and ‘meow’),
which might be thought to constitute an exception to this rule, since
their sounds are similar to the calls they represent, are not in fact any
different. Even though there is certainly a similarity between word and
referent, this similarity is a conventional one which, just as for other
words, has to be learned (that is why different languages represent these
sounds differently: for example, ‘quack’ in French is coin-coin). The connection
16 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

between onomatopoeic words and their referents is thus mediated by the

psychology of language users.
In light of these remarks, we can redraw the semiotic triangle as in
Figure 1.3:

PSYCHOLOGY

produces selects

LANGUAGE
REFERENT AS
REPRESENTED TO
PSYCHOLOGY OF
SPEAKER

FIGURE 1.3
The semiotic triangle, re-
labelled.

1.4 Some initial concepts

In this section we introduce some important concepts which we will need
in the chapters that follow. The exposition here is only preliminary; each
concept will receive a more detailed treatment later in the book.

1.4.1 Lexemes
To linguists and non-linguists alike, the word is the most basic and obvious
unit of language. But in many languages, units which we would want to
recognize as a single word can appear in many different morphological
forms. Thus, in English, go, goes, went, have gone and to go are all forms of
the verb to go. Other languages have many more morphological variants
of a single word-form. In Ancient Greek, for example, a single verb,
tithe-mi, which means ‘put’, has several hundred different forms, which
convey differences of person, number, tense and mood, such as e-the--ka ‘I
put’, tithei-e-te-n ‘you two might put’, tho--men ‘let us put’, etc. But these dif-
ferent forms only alter some aspects of the meaning of the word. Both go
and tithe-mi share a large component of meaning between their different
forms: tithe-mi always has the sense ‘put’, and the forms of the verb to go
always have the sense ‘go’, regardless of whether the sentence in question
is ‘I went’ or ‘you have gone’. For this reason, a semantic description does
 1.4 Some initial concepts 17

not need to treat all the variant morphological forms of a single word
separately. The lexeme is the name of the abstract unit which unites all
the morphological variants of a single word. Thus, we can say that go, goes,
went, have gone and to go all are instantiations of the lexeme to go, and
e-the--ka, tithei-e-te-n and tho--men are all instantiations of the lexeme tithe-mi.
We usually refer to the lexeme as a whole using one of the morphological
variants, the citation form. This differs from language to language: for
verbs, for example, English, French and German all use the infinitive as
the citation form (to go, aller, gehen), whereas Warlpiri uses the non-past
form of the verb (paka-rni ‘hitting’, yi-nyi ‘giving’).

Not all languages have a word for ‘word’

Not all languages have a word corresponding to English ‘word’:
Warlpiri, again, makes no distinction between ‘word’, ‘utterance’,
‘language’ and ‘story’, all of which are translated by the noun yimi.
In Cup’ik (Yup’ik, Central Alaska), the word for ‘word’ also means
‘sayings, message’ and ‘Bible’ (Woodbury 2002: 81). Dhegihan (Siouan,
North America) has a single word, íe, referring to words, sentences
and messages (Rankin et al. 2002).

1.4.2 Sense/reference/denotation/connotation
As we have already seen, the English word ‘meaning’ is rather vague. One
important distinction we can make within the general notion of a lex-
eme’s meaning is between its sense and its referent (or reference). To
simplify the introduction of these terms, we will confine our discussion to
nouns; we will see in 1.6.1 how they apply to other lexical categories.
The sense of a lexeme may be defined as the general meaning or the con-
cept underlying the word. As a first approximation, we can describe this as
what we usually think of as contained in a dictionary entry for the word
in question, although we will see later that this characterization needs
significant modification. The notion of sense can be made more explicit
through contrast with the category of referent. A word’s referent is the
object which it stands for on a specific occasion of use. For example,
consider (28):

(28) The queen has fallen off the table.

If I am talking about a rowdy evening at Buckingham Palace in 2009,

the referent of the word queen is Her Majesty, Elizabeth II, and the referent
of the word table is a particular piece of English royal furniture. But if I am
talking not about Elizabeth II but about Queen Margrethe of Denmark,
the words queen and table have different referents: not Elizabeth II and the
English piece of furniture, but Margrethe and the Danish one. On each of
the occasions (28) is uttered, there is one and only one referent of each
word.
18 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

A word’s referent, then, is the particular thing, person, place, etc.

which an expression stands for on a particular occasion of use, and it
changes each time the word is applied to a different object or situation
in the world. (As we will see in Chapter 3, not all uses of nouns are refer-
ring, but we will ignore this for the moment.) By contrast, a word’s sense
does not change every time the word takes on a new referent. Regardless
of whether the referent of queen is Elizabeth II or Margrethe, its sense is
something like ‘female reigning monarch’. This is not to say, however,
that ‘female reigning monarch’ is the only sense of the word queen.
Another sense of queen is ‘second highest ranking piece in a game of
chess’. This would be the sense involved if I uttered (28) while talking
about a game of chess in the café, where queen would refer to a particular
chess piece. Yet another sense of the word queen is ‘third highest card in
a suit, behind ace and king’: this would be the sense involved if I uttered
(28) in reference to a game of bridge at the kitchen table. In these two
cases, queen does not only have two new different referents, the particu-
lar chess piece and the particular card, but two new different senses as
well: ‘second highest ranking piece in a game of chess’ and ‘third high-
est card in a suit, behind ace and king’. In all the utterances of (28), by
contrast, ‘table’ has the single sense ‘piece of furniture with raised flat
surface used for putting things on, eating at, etc.’. Obviously, words like
queen and table stand for many different people and objects in the world:
they have, in other words, many different referents. The referents
change each time we talk about a different queen, or a different table.
The entire class of objects, etc., to which an expression correctly refers is
called the expression’s denotation.
Words have the referents they have by virtue of a certain act on the part
of the speaker, which we will call the act of reference. We will use this
term to describe what the speaker does in applying a particular language
expression to a particular referent in the world. In uttering (29), for
example,

(29) Dr Schreber suffered his first illness in the autumn of 1884.

the speaker makes reference to a certain person, Dr Schreber, to a certain

disease, his first illness, and to a certain time, the autumn of 1884. These
individual objects are the referents of the words in (29), and it
is only in virtue of an act of reference, undertaken by the speaker, that the
words ‘Dr Schreber’, ‘first illness’, and ‘the autumn of 1884’, have the ref-
erents they do. Since reference is an act, it is subject to exactly
the same problems as all other human ventures, and it may not be suc-
cessful. Thus, if I suddenly say to you ‘I saw that cat again’, and you don’t
know what cat I mean, reference will not have been successful. Even
though I, as speaker, have referred to a particular cat, you (the hearer)
are not able to recover the referent intended, i.e. identify the cat in
question.
 1.4 Some initial concepts 19

Reference, referents and denotation

Some writers use the term reference and denotation interchangeably,
but in this book we will distinguish the two. An expression’s denota-
tion is the class of possible objects, situations, etc. to which the word
can refer. The term reference, by contrast, has two uses:

• as the name of the act by which a speaker refers to a referent;

• as a synonym of referent, i.e. as the term for the object(s) to which
an expression refers on a particular instance of use.

In this book, we will not try to distinguish these two senses of reference
with separate terminology. Reference sometimes means the act of refer-
ring, and sometimes means a referent. The context will remove any
doubt about which sense is intended.

Sense, reference and denotation are three aspects of what is commonly

conveyed by the loose term ‘meaning’. A fourth, very important aspect of
meaning is connotation. Connotation names those aspects of meaning
which do not affect a word’s sense, reference or denotation, but which
have to do with secondary factors such as its emotional force, its level of
formality, its character as a euphemism, etc. ‘Police officer’ and ‘cop’, for
example, have very different connotations, but similar denotations, as do
the following pairs:

(30) brat and child

toilet and rest room
country town and regional centre
underprivileged area and slum
mutt and dog
doctor and quack
incident and accident

We will consider connotation again in Chapter 11.

QUESTION Think of some other pairs of words in English or any other
language you know which have different connotations. Would you also
want to say that they have different senses?

1.4.3 Compositionality
All human languages have the property of productivity. This is simply the
fact that the vocabulary of any given language can be used to construct a
theoretically infinite number of sentences (not all of which will be mean-
ingful), by varying the ways in which the words are combined. For exam-
ple, given the words the, a, has, eaten, seen, passing, contemporary, novelist and
20 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

buffalo, the following figure among the large number of meaningful sen-
tences that can be constructed:

(31) The novelist has seen the buffalo.

A novelist has eaten the buffalo.
A contemporary novelist has seen a buffalo.
The novelist has seen a passing buffalo.
A buffalo has eaten a passing contemporary novelist

and so on. (We can also construct ungrammatical sentences like A the nov-
elist eaten passing has, but since these are meaningless we will ignore them
here.) Most people have probably never heard (32) before:
(32) There are no remains of ancient Indian aircraft technology
yet, as speakers of English, we understand immediately what it means.
How does this ability arise? One answer is that meaning is compositional.
This is to say that the meanings of sentences are made up, or composed,
of the meanings of their constituent lexemes. We understand novel sen-
tences because we understand the meanings of the words out of which
they are constructed. Since we know the individual meanings of there, are,
no, remains, of, Indian, and so on, we know the meaning of any grammatical
sentence in which they are combined. On the contrary, if a novel sentence
contains a word which we do not know, we do not know what the sentence
means. Thus, if you are told that the distribution of seats was aleatory, and
you do not know that aleatory means ‘random’, then the sentence, taken
as a whole, will not be meaningful. It is important to note that not all
combinations of words are necessarily compositional. One especially
important category of non-compositional phrase is idioms. For example,
if I say that so-and-so has thrown in the towel, most English speakers will
recognize that I am not talking about anyone literally ‘throwing’ a ‘towel’,
but that I simply mean that the person in question has given up on what-
ever venture is being spoken about. The phrase throw in the towel, then, is
not compositional, since its overall meaning, ‘to give up’, does not derive
from the meanings of its individual component lexemes.
QUESTION In the following sentences, which of the highlighted expres-
sions can be considered compositional, and which are idioms? Do any
belong to some third category?
If you keep on making that noise I’ll go through the roof.
He’s just kicked the bucket.
Stop dragging the chain: we’ll never get there.
We’ve run out of time, so we’ll have to wrap things up.
Can you run off twenty more copies?
After the delay the plane took off as normal.
I’ll take twenty per cent off the price.
This is a nice and hot cup of tea.
My hands are lovely and warm.
Try and get a better deal next time.
Hello down there!
 1.4 Some initial concepts 21

Based on the distinction between the meanings of words and the mean-
ings of sentences, we can recognize two main divisions in the study of
semantics: lexical semantics and phrasal semantics. Lexical semantics is
the study of word meaning, whereas phrasal semantics is the study of the
principles which govern the construction of the meaning of phrases and
of sentence meaning out of compositional combinations of individual
lexemes.

1.4.4 Levels of meaning

The distinction between word meaning and sentence meaning, then,
defines a basic contrast between lexical and phrasal semantics. Another
important contrast is the one between sentence meaning as just described
and utterance meaning. We can define sentence meaning as the composi-
tional meaning of the sentence as constructed out of the meanings of its
individual component lexemes. But the meaning of a sentence as built up
out of its component parts is often quite different from the meaning it actu-
ally has in a particular context. In everyday talk we regularly use words and
expressions ironically, metaphorically, insincerely, and in other ‘non-literal’
ways. Whether there is any principled theoretical difference between these
non-literal ways of talking and the literal ones, and, if so, what it is, is an
important question which we will discuss in Chapter 7; for the moment, we
can simply recognize that there are many uses in which words seem to
acquire a strongly different meaning from the one they normally have.
Suppose that while cooking Peter has just spilled a large quantity of spa-
ghetti carbonara all over the kitchen floor. Hearing the commotion, Brenda
comes into the kitchen, sees what has happened, and utters (33)

(33) You’re a very tidy cook, I see.

It is clear that Brenda doesn’t literally mean that Peter is a tidy cook, but
that she is speaking ironically. What she actually means is the opposite of
(33): Brenda is drawing attention to the fact that Peter has precisely not been
a tidy cook. In cases like this, we say that there is a difference between sen-
tence meaning and utterance meaning. The sentence meaning of (33) is the
literal, compositional meaning as built up from the meanings of the indi-
vidual words of the sentence. If we did not speak English, we could discover
the sentence meaning of (33) by finding out what its translation was in our
own language. The utterance meaning, by contrast, is the meaning which
the words have on a particular occasion of use in the particular context in
which they occur. (Utterance meaning is sometimes referred to in other
books as speaker meaning. But since the role of the hearer is just as impor-
tant as that of the speaker, the more neutral term utterance meaning is
preferred here.) The utterance meaning is the one which is picked up in the
conversation. In reply to (33), Peter might well say (34):

(34) I’m sorry. I don’t know how I could have been so clumsy.

But if Brenda’s comment in (33) was meant literally, the reply in (34)
would be very strange: people do not usually have to apologise for being
22 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

tidy. What (34) shows is that it is the utterance meaning, not the sentence
meaning of (33) to which Peter is reacting: given the situation, Brenda is
clearly not congratulating him on his tidiness as a cook, and it is the utter-
ance meaning which forms the basis for the continuation of the conversa-
tion.
The distinction between sentence meaning and utterance meaning is
also linked to the difference between semantics and pragmatics. For
those linguists who accept such a division, semantics is taken to study
sentence meaning, whereas pragmatics studies utterance meaning and
other principles of language use. The job of semantics is to study the
basic, literal meanings of words as considered principally as parts of a
language system, whereas pragmatics concentrates on the ways in which
these basic meanings are used in practice, including such topics as the
ways in which different expressions are assigned referents in different
contexts, and the differing (ironic, metaphorical, etc.) uses to which lan-
guage is put. As we have already seen, a division between semantics and
pragmatics is by no means universally accepted in linguistics. Many ‘prag-
matic’ topics are of central importance to the study of meaning, and in
this book we will not recognize any absolute distinction between the two
domains.

1.5 Object language and metalanguage

Like any other branch of linguistics, semantics deals with the words,
phrases and sentences with which we communicate. But for semantics the
immediate objects of study are not these words, phrases and sentences
themselves, in the sense of the sounds, sequences of letters or handsigns
which we utter or perform and can then write down or record. As the study
of meaning, semantics is interested in something which cannot be per-
ceived directly through our senses, but which, in one way or another, we
experience in using and thinking about language. We cannot see, hear or
touch a word’s meaning: meanings are things we understand. It is not
meanings that go between speaker and hearer: the only things that are
transferred from one speaker to the other are sound waves in the air. This
means that in order to get started in semantics, we need a way of identify-
ing meanings and bringing them to light in an unambiguous way so that
we can begin to study them.
The main way in which we normally reveal the meanings of linguis-
tic expressions is, quite simply, by describing them in language. But
since it is language that we’re interested in in the first place, we need
to distinguish between the language whose meanings we want to
describe and the language in which we couch the descriptions. The lan-
guage whose meanings we are describing is called the object language.
The language in which we describe these meanings is called the
metalanguage.
When we propose a metalanguage description of the meaning of
an object language expression, we are using one type of meaning (the
 1.5 Object language and metalanguage 23

meaning of the metalanguage expression) to explain another kind (the

meaning of the object language expression). Let us take the example of
English as the metalanguage for Dutch, as would be the case if we were
explaining the meaning of the Dutch word groot to an English speaker.
One possible metalanguage explanation, or definition, that we could give
of groot in English would be the word ‘tall’, as in (35):

(35) Dirk is groot, maar Lou is klein.

‘Dirk is tall, but Lou is short.’

The object language expression groot is here defined by the metalan-

guage expression ‘tall’. But note that not all aspects of the word ‘tall’ are
relevant to this definition: it is completely irrelevant to the definition of
groot that the metalanguage definition we have chosen, ‘tall’, has four
letters, or is a monosyllable, or starts with the consonant /t/. All these
phonetic and orthographic details are irrelevant to semantics, since the
only thing that matters for the purpose of defining groot is what ‘tall’
means. To tell someone that groot means ‘tall’ is to make a statement
about two meanings, and to say that these two meanings are the same.
The particular phonetic and other characteristics of the metalanguage
term are therefore irrelevant: as long as the person for whom the
definition is intended understands the meaning of ‘tall’ in English, the
definition is successful.
This confronts us with an interesting problem. For couldn’t it be
objected that, in one way, we haven’t actually explained anything when
we define groot as ‘tall’? We have certainly given a definition of the word
which will help an English speaker to understand the meaning of the
Dutch sentence. But if we want to go beyond the problem of allowing
people to translate from one language to another, hasn’t our analysis left
something crucial out? On hearing our explanation that the meaning of
groot is ‘tall’, someone might easily object by pointing out that this expla-
nation only shows an equivalence between two words in English and
Dutch, and does nothing to explain what this meaning, which both groot
and tall express, actually is. ‘I know what groot means in English’, they
might say, ‘but you haven’t told me what it actually is for something to
mean something.’ And even though we could go on to give a more detailed
explanation of ‘tall’, perhaps using terms like ‘elevated in stature’, ‘not
short’, etc., for as long as we continue to explain the meaning of a word
by using the meanings of other words, we will not have satisfied our
objecter’s curiosity.
For many linguists, this objection is rather forceful. As long as we go on
defining meanings by other meanings, we leave out the essential task of
explaining what meaning actually is. We can see this very clearly by con-
sidering the case of circular definitions. Consider someone who wants to
find out the meaning of the English word ‘humorous’. One possible defini-
tion of ‘humorous’ would be ‘droll’. But this definition would only be
effective if the meaning of ‘droll’ was already known. If it was not, it too
would need to be explained: ‘droll’, perhaps, could be plausibly explained
24 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

through the metalanguage definition ‘amusing’. ‘Amusing’, in turn, could

be defined as ‘funny’, as in (36).

(36) humorous ⇒ droll ⇒ amusing ⇒ funny.

Depending on the person for whom the definition was intended, this
chain of definitions would sooner or later achieve its purpose: if the per-
son knew the meaning of ‘funny’, we could stop the explanation at this
point, so that ‘humorous’ would have been defined through ‘droll’, ‘droll’
through ‘amusing’, and ‘amusing’ through ‘funny’. It is obvious, however,
that this chain could not go on for ever. Sooner or later we would run out
of new words: if the language learner did not know even what ‘funny’
meant, we can imagine giving up in frustration, and saying, simply, ‘funny
just means “humorous”’. In this case, it’s clear that our unfortunate lan-
guage learner would be none the wiser, since ‘humorous’ was the word
whose meaning was originally in question. Since ‘humorous’ has been
used both as an object language term and a metalanguage term, the defi-
nition is circular and does not succeed in telling us anything new:

(37) humorous ⇒ droll

⇑ ⇓
funny ⇐ amusing

Clearly, then, for as long as we remain within the circle of definitions by

substituting one word or phrase as the definition of another, we remain
confined within language. The lexical resources of any language are lim-
ited: at some point, the metalanguage definitions will have to include
object language terms, and thereby introduce circularity. We can continue
to refine our definitions and search out the most precise and explanatory
ways of couching them, but in contenting ourselves with this task we will
not have provided any account of what the meanings we are defining actu-
ally are, nor of how they relate to any of the three points of the semiotic
triangle. In particular, we will have left it completely obscure what it is for
a speaker to understand the meaning of a word. If I understand the mean-
ing of ‘droll’, then the definitional chain can be stopped. But what does it
mean to say that I understand the meaning of ‘droll’? What is it that I actu-
ally understand? For many linguists, the fact that we cannot answer these
questions about meaning by remaining inside the definitional circle
means that we have to look outside language for answers. If linguistics is
to play a part in explaining the way language can be actually used by real
speakers, we need to find a point at which the circle can be broken in order
to link meaning in with something non-linguistic. We will consider a few
proposals about how this could be done in the next section.

1.6 Breaking the circle

As pointed out by Quine (1961: 47), until the development of ‘a satisfactory
explanation of the notion of meaning, linguists in semantic fields are in
 1.6 Breaking the circle 25

the situation of not knowing what they are talking about’. This is perhaps
not such a dire situation as it sounds: after all, empirical investigation
always aims to increase our knowledge of some unknown phenomenon,
provisionally characterized using ordinary language. As the inquiry pro-
ceeds, we get a sharper idea of the nature of the thing being studied, and
it may not matter that in early stages we have to rely on notions for which
we cannot yet give any satisfactory explanation. Many fields of empirical
inquiry begin with only hazy and imprecise conceptions of the real object
of their investigation. The history of genetics is a case in point. Mendel,
acknowledged by most historians as the founder of the field, discovered
the principles of inheritance without any understanding of either chro-
mosomes or DNA, both of which later became central parts of the theory
of cell biology. The fact that his advances were thus made in ignorance of
the fundamental nature of inheritance does not in any sense discredit
them: Mendel might not have known exactly what his discoveries were
ultimately about, or what the mechanisms were that implemented
the facts he observed, but his rigorous investigations meant that he was
able to reach valuable conclusions which would only be fully character-
ized later. The fact that he could not have precisely characterized the
nature of the phenomenon he was observing was not an obstacle to prog-
ress (see Gribbin 2002: 536–541 for discussion).
Still, to say the least, it would obviously be useful if we had some initial
idea about what meaning is best thought of as being – of how, in other
words, we can break the definitional circle. This preliminary idea will
help us to formulate the best set of specific questions to ask in our inves-
tigation. In this section, we will consider several suggestions about how
the definitional circle might be broken and the notion of meaning expli-
cated in a way which might satisfy objections like Quine’s.

1.6.1 Meanings as referents/denotations

One way to break the definitional circle would be to stress the role of the
referent or denotation as the main component of the meaning of a lin-
guistic expression. Under this theory, metalanguage explanations of a
meaning should be seen as names of the referents of the object language
term. As we saw in Section 1.2.1, ordinary discourse about language in
English often seems to make an implicit identification between an expres-
sion’s meaning and its referent:

(38) In Sydney, ‘the bridge’ means the Harbour Bridge.

The ‘meaning’ of ‘bridge’, the speaker of (38) seems to be suggesting, is the

actual harbour bridge itself. ‘Bridge’, we might say, means what it refers to;
its meaning on any one occasion of use is its referent. Outside of the nar-
row context of (38), we could say that the meaning of bridge in general is just
its denotation – the class of all bridges. This identification of meaning and
referent/denotation succeeds in breaking the circle because it identifies
meaning with non-linguistic objects in the world: the meaning of ‘bridge’
on a particular instance of use is the real bolts and metal structure. Given
26 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

this interpretation of the meaning of ‘bridge’, it doesn’t matter that we

would eventually run out of new words with which to define it, since we
can ultimately analyse its meaning ostensively, i.e. simply by pointing at
the actual bridge itself.
As was pointed out in the discussion of the semiotic triangle (1.2.1), the
referents of expressions must be taken not as actual objects in the world,
but as representations in the world as projected by the speaker. This
means that in order to understand reference we already have to invoke the
realm of speakers’ individual psychologies, the particular ‘versions’ of the
world as projected by their psychology. The postulation of the world of
projected representations allows us to avoid an objection which might
otherwise count against referential theories of meaning. This is the objec-
tion that it is often the case that there simply is no referent for a given
expression, as in (39a–c), or that the referent is unknown, as in (39d–f):

(39) a. The German victory in World War II

b. Robin Hood’s private helicopter
c. The water on the Moon
d. The most distant point from Earth
e. The first person ever to use language
f. The fate of the environment

A theory which identified meanings with real world referents would have
to say that the expressions in (39a–c) simply have no meaning, since the
things they refer to never actually existed, or are impossible; and it would
have to say that the meaning (referent) of the expressions in (39d–f) was
unknown, since although we can be confident that all of the things
referred to by the expressions exist, we do not know what they are. But if
referents are taken to be representations projected within the realm of
people’s psychology rather than real objects in the actual world, this prob-
lem disappears. Whether or not there is any object referred to by the
words Robin Hood’s private helicopter, we can easily think of situations in
which a speaker might simply imagine, pretend or otherwise entertain
the possibility that such a helicopter did exist. For the speaker of (39b),
then, the referent of Robin Hood’s private helicopter can be taken as the
speaker’s representation of the helicopter in their projected world.
The reader will easily see that similar explanations can be constructed for
the other examples in (39).
The identification between meaning and reference may be successful in
breaking the definitional circle, but it leads to a very fragmented picture
of the nature of language: on the reference theory of meaning, ‘bridge’
has as many different meanings as it has different referents. This variety
clashes with our pretheoretical intuition that the meaning of bridge is
actually something much more unitary: although there are many differ-
ent individual bridges out there in the world, the meaning of the word
bridge, or, we might say, the concept of a bridge is a unified, single entity.
The idea that an expression’s meaning is its referent is at least easy to
understand for nouns referring to discrete, concrete things. But it is much
 1.6 Breaking the circle 27

less clear what the referents of other lexical categories might be. What are
the referents of abstract nouns like scandal, generosity or impermanence? Since
there is no isolable object in the world to which these nouns apply, the
notion of a referent is rather hard to invoke. And what about adjectives
like sweet, polished or ineffectual, or verbs like to have, to allow or to go? In the
case of ‘grammatical’ words the problem is even greater: what is the denota-
tion of of, or of the? These cases all pose problems for the referential theory
of meaning: because the words have no referents/denotations, they are left
without any specifiable meaning. Yet it is obviously the case that these
words do have meanings, which we can paraphrase metalinguistically and
explain to others. We will consider this question further in Chapter 6.
A second problem with the theory of meaning as reference is the fact
that a single referent may often be referred to by a variety of different
expressions. Thus, the expressions in the two halves of (40a–d) each pick
out just a single individual:

(40) a. The first country to adopt a law requiring parental leave; the home coun-
try of IKEA
b. The most frequently handed in, and the least frequently claimed, object
on the Tokyo subway; portable device with handle used for protection
against rain
c. The inventor of Chupa Chups; friend of Salvador Dali and husband of
Nuria Serra
d. Institution for lending money; institution for depositing money

In (40a) we have alternative ways of referring to Sweden, in (40b) of umbrel-

las, in (40c) of the Spanish confectionery king Enric Bernat Fontlladosa,
and in (40d) of the word bank. Yet we surely do not want to say that the
meanings of these expressions are the same. While the objects referred to
by the expressions ‘institution for lending money’ and ‘institution for
depositing money’ have the same denotation – banks – they clearly don’t
have the same sense. We could imagine a bank which suddenly stopped
lending money even though it continued to accept deposits: something
like this, indeed, happened during the Argentinian financial crisis of 2002
and the global one of 2008. If meaning simply is reference/denotation, then
examples like this should not be possible. The fact that linguistic expres-
sions can be identical in reference but different in meaning leaves us no
choice but to conclude that there is more to meaning than reference/
denotation.

1.6.2 Meanings as concepts/mental representations

The referential/denotational theory of meaning broke the definitional
circle by emphasizing the referent side of the sense/referent pair. Another
way out of the circle is to identify meanings with concepts: the metalan-
guage definitions of an object language meaning, in this theory, are the
names of the concepts associated with the object language term. The use
of the term ‘concept’ in linguistics derives from philosophy, where it has
28 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

a very long history of discussion and controversy. For our purposes, con-
cepts can be seen as a way of talking about the basic constituents of
thought. In the words of Prinz (2002: 1) ‘[w]ithout concepts, there would
be no thoughts. Concepts are the basic timber of our mental lives.’ As we
will see later, many investigators think it is necessary to distinguish
between primitive concepts and others. On this view, our stock of
concepts is built up from a stock of primitive concepts, which cannot
themselves be broken down into any constituent parts. This level of prim-
itive concepts is the bedrock of the whole conceptual system; all other
concepts can be analysed into combinations of these simpler primitives,
just as all molecules can be analysed down into their basic component
atoms. For the moment, we will not distinguish between primitive and
non-primitive concepts; we discuss the distinction in detail in Chapters 2
and 8.
If we imagine the process of thinking as a sort of internal conversation
with ourselves, then concepts are the individual words and expressions of
which this conversation consists. Concepts are implicated in practically
every aspect of our mental lives. It is on the basis of concepts that we
determine things’ identity: if I want to know whether some animal is a
mammal or a marsupial, for example, I subconsciously compare its prop-
erties against the properties of the concepts MAMMAL and of MARSUPIAL.
Concepts are also needed to explain how we recognize objects in the
world as themselves: if I know, when looking at a golf ball, that it is a golf
ball, it is because the visual image accords with my concept GOLF BALL.
Similarly, it is because of the involvement of concepts that our thought
has continuity: if I am studying semantics, for example, I am progres-
sively refining concepts like MEANING and REFERENCE with which I under-
stand the functioning of language, and it is the same concepts MEANING
and REFERENCE which are developed over the entire time I am studying. We
have concepts corresponding to abstract words like democracy, possession or
time, but equally for everyday ones like hand, red, go, hungry, anticlockwise
and up.
One very common way of describing language in the Western tradition,
going back to Aristotle, is to see language as communicating ideas: on this
understanding, we choose the particular words we use in order to achieve
the closest fit with the particular ideas we have. And, indeed, as pointed
out by Reddy (1993), we often talk, in English and many other European
languages, as though language was a receptacle into which we put ideas
in order to transfer them to the hearer, as in (41):

(41) There are a lot of ideas in that sentence.

You can get the same meaning across in different ways.
I can put the same idea in different words.

Language, then, is often spoken about as though it was the ‘conduit’ for
ideas. A natural extension of this common understanding of language is
that what words actually mean are ideas or concepts. Thus, the meaning
of the word ‘tolerant’ is our concept TOLERANCE: when we say ‘Oliver is
 1.6 Breaking the circle 29

tolerant’, we are attributing to Oliver certain properties which together

define our concept TOLERANCE, like patience, kindness, respect for the opin-
ions of others, and so on. These properties can be thought of as combined
together into the concept TOLERANCE, rather like the different components
of a definition of tolerance in a dictionary.
The hypothesis that meanings are concepts has considerable attraction.
First, it answers to the intuition that language is intimately connected with
the rest of our mental lives. It does seem precisely to be because of the
thoughts and concepts we have that we use the words we use. If I say ‘horse-
drawn carriages are old-fashioned’, then this will often be because this is
exactly what I think: I am reporting a link between the concepts HORSE-
DRAWN CARRIAGE and the concept OLD-FASHIONED. Language and thought are
very hard to tease apart: whether or not we always think ‘in language’, we
often need to use language to externalize the results of our thought, to
bring these results into the public domain for the purposes of communica-
tion, and it seems to be in language that most of our ideas can be given
their most precise form. Since there is this clear causal connection between
language and thought, the idea that the meanings expressed through lan-
guage correspond to concepts is a neat way of effecting the link between the
world of public, external communication and our private, mental lives.
Second, the conceptual theory of meaning has often been taken to
explain compositionality and relations between meaning. The concept
HORSE-DRAWN CARRIAGE can be seen as built up from the concepts HORSE and
the concept CARRIAGE, as well as some third element corresponding to the
word ‘drawn’. Similarly, the meaning of the linguistic expression horse-
drawn carriage has these very three elements (at least), and they can be
individually changed to create different expressions with different mean-
ings. In such cases, we can explain the changed meanings as corresponding
to changed concepts. Thus, instead of a horse-drawn carriage, we can
imagine an ox-drawn carriage or a horse-drawn plough: in these cases, we have
substituted the concepts OX and PLOUGH for HORSE and CARRIAGE, and these
substitutions explain the altered meaning of the expressions. The concep-
tual hypothesis also explains certain other links between the words ‘horse
drawn carriage’ and other words. For example, a little reflection will
reveal that HORSE-DRAWN CARRIAGE is a member of the more inclusive con-
cept MEANS OF TRANSPORT, and is linked, by association, with such concepts
as COACHMAN, PASSENGER, REINS, WHEEL, etc. It is these conceptual links
which ultimately explain the comprehensibility of sentences like (42a)
and (43a), and of how they are different from those of (42b) and (43b):

(42) a. A horse-drawn carriage is an old-fashioned means of transport.

b. A horse-drawn carriage is an old-fashioned cheese.

(43) a. The coachman jumped down from the horse-drawn carriage.

b. The sunrise jumped down from the horse-drawn carriage.

The meaning of (42a) and (43a) is clear and easily understood because the
words all express related concepts. But since the concepts expressed as the
30 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

meanings of the words in (42b) and (43b) are not inherently connected,
the meaning of these sentences is much harder to interpret.
Meaning relations like synonymy (sameness of meaning) are also easily
explained by the conceptual hypothesis. Two words are synonyms if they
have the same meaning. And ‘having the same meaning’ means ‘instanti-
ating the same concept’. Thus, ‘Islamic’ and ‘Muslim’ might be said to be
synonyms, because the corresponding concept, which we can either refer
to as MUSLIM or ISLAMIC, is identical.
Third, the hypothesis that meanings are concepts guarantees the genu-
ineness of communication. Because meanings of words are concepts, two
people who talk, agree or disagree about something are doing more than
‘playing with words’; they are talking, agreeing or disagreeing about cer-
tain concepts, which are being compared and progressively reconciled
with each other during the exchange. And as the concepts are compli-
cated, easy, familiar or unfamiliar, so are the meanings. It is therefore the
level of concepts that guarantees that genuine communication between
people can actually take place.
What form do concepts take psychologically? This is an extremely con-
troversial question. An answer favoured by many linguists, adopted from
philosophy and cognitive science, is that concepts have the form of sym-
bolic mental representations. Mental representations are the fixed men-
tal symbols – the ‘language of thought’ – which are instantiated in our
minds in some stable, finite medium, and which our thought consists in.
On the view of concepts as mental representations, thinking and express-
ing meaning are both to be understood as the manipulation of mental
symbols, in much the same way that using language is the manipulation
of a fixed series of linguistic symbols in the medium of air, paper or hand-
signs. Communication, then, involves using the conventional names for
individual mental representations. Since these individual mental repre-
sentations belong to a language-like format in which the contents of
mental events are expressed or recorded in the mind, their ‘translation’
into the words of natural language follows readily.
There are, however, a number of reasons we should be cautious in the
claim that meanings correspond to concepts. We will mention only three
now. First, some words seem more naturally compatible than others with
an interpretation of their meanings as concepts. Thus, while it seems
quite plausible to say that the meanings of democracy, punctuation, pan-
orama, or love are concepts, this move is less obvious for words like ouch!,
me, you or this, or so-called ‘function’ words, like if, not, like or very. Words
like these do not seem to be able to call up the rich range of associations
and inherent connections which characterize democracy, love, etc. The
point here is not to rule out the possibility that the meaning of all these
words may in fact correspond to concepts, but simply to suggest that the
initial intuitive plausibility of this is not as great.

QUESTION Can you propose any ‘conceptual’ content for the above words?
What about words like brown, zig-zag or bitter? If so, what is it? If not, why
not?
 1.6 Breaking the circle 31

Second, just like meanings, concepts cannot be seen or otherwise identi-

fied unambiguously. This means that their postulation is not immediately
controllable by objective, empirical means. Psychologists and psycholin-
guists have certainly developed experiments in which the properties of
particular hypothetical concepts can be experimentally tested, but this
has only been done for a fraction of words, largely from well-known lan-
guages, and, like any experimental result, the conclusions are open to a
variety of interpretations. It is therefore unclear, given the present state of
research, whether the postulation of concepts is scientifically justifiable,
or whether it is simply a term we have adopted from our untutored, pre-
theoretical views about the nature of our mental lives. There is, of course,
no in principle problem with postulating unobserved entities in semantics –
any science works by postulating the existence of unobserved (and some-
times unobservable) factors which are hypothesized to explain the
observed facts. It is simply that, in linguistics, the detailed experimental
work is only starting to be done that would put these unobserved entities
on a more solid empirical footing.
Third, even if an expression’s meaning can partly be identified with
the concept it evokes, there must be more to it than that. For example,
if I say the words Wallace Stevens was a poet and an insurance broker, I do not
mean that my concept of Wallace Stevens was a poet and an insurance
broker: I mean that a certain real person, Wallace Stevens himself, was.
Part of what I mean, then, is the actual, real-world person that my words
refer to. And this real-world person could prove to have quite different
properties from the ones reflected in my concept of him. For example, I
might mistakenly believe that Wallace Stevens is the author of Death of a
Salesman: that fact, then, forms part of my concept of Wallace Stevens.
But this doesn’t mean that when I say Wallace Stevens was a poet and an
insurance broker I am saying something false, even though it isn’t true
that the author of Death of a Salesman was a poet and an insurance bro-
ker. What makes my words true does not depend on the concept I have
of Wallace Stevens, but on who this expression refers to. This isn’t just
the case with proper names. Imagine that I’m confused about the differ-
ence between lyrebirds and bowerbirds. I can tell the two apart, but I
wrongly believe that lyrebirds are the birds that decorate their nests,
and that bowerbirds are the birds that are incredibly good mimics.
When I tell someone that the bowerbird has just come back, my meaning
isn’t just that ‘the bird that is an incredibly good mimic’ has just come
back; it’s that that particular bird (whatever it’s actually called) has just
come back. So while we might want to say that words express certain
concepts, there does seem to be an important referential component to
meaning which goes beyond concepts.
The hypothesis that meanings correspond to concepts has been very
popular in linguistics. For many semanticists, this hypothesis is not, as it
might appear, an alternative to an identification of meaning with refer-
ence or denotation, but is rather complementary to it. This is because
under the conceptual theory of meaning the semanticist’s task is not
simply over once the referents and denotations have been identified for
32 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

the words under investigation. Concepts can be identified with senses, the
general meanings of words as considered separately from their specific
reference on any given occasion of use. Thus, once we have identified
the referents and so the denotation of the noun fire, we can go on to
explore the features of our concept FIRE which may be relevant to language.
These features go beyond the mere identification of the objects denoted
by the word. For example, we will discover that there is a close link
between our concept FIRE and such other concepts as HOT, FLICKERING, DAN-
GEROUS, BURN, RED etc. These conceptual links are useful for three reasons.
First, they explain the compatibility between the word fire and words like
hot, flickering, dangerous and burn, in just the same way as for examples
(42a) and (43a) above, and account for the fact that these words will often
occur in similar contexts in actual language. Second, the conceptual the-
ory can explain certain extended meanings, such as that some hot things
like intense summer weather or spicy food may also be described with the
adjective ‘fiery’: presumably this has something to do with the close con-
ceptual link between our concepts HOT and FIRE. Last, and most important,
the postulation of the concept FIRE as the meaning of fire explains why fire
has the referents it has. Thus, to the question ‘why are these things, and
not different ones, called fires?’, the conceptual theory of meaning gives
the reply ‘because only these objects, and not others, accord with the
concept FIRE which the word fire expresses’. Clearly, these are extremely
informal explanations. Nevertheless, the only reason that even this low
level of explanatory depth is possible is the presumed link between lan-
guage and concepts. If we could analyse the meaning of fire no further
than by itemizing a list of its referents, none of these commonsense obser-
vations about the relation of fire to other words would be justified. The
conceptual theory of meaning thus provides a convenient rationale for a
fruitful investigative practice, and justifies many commonsense observa-
tions about meaning.
QUESTION How might concepts provide an answer to some of the prob-
lems of the referential/denotational theory of meaning?

1.6.3 Meanings as brain states

A natural thought about meaning is to identify it with brain states: under-
standing or intending a certain meaning, on this identification, would just
be having the neurons of one’s brain in a particular configuration. From
one point of view, this identification seems very plausible. After all, isn’t
language ultimately a product of our brain? If we understood how the brain
works, wouldn’t we understand all the details of language, semantic ones
included? Isn’t it only the rudimentary state of our current understanding
of brain processes that prevents us from giving the details of this identifica-
tion? According to this line of thinking, semantics, along with the rest of
linguistics, will one day be reduced to, or unified with, brain science, in the
same way that the classical theory of genetics can be reduced to or unified
with that of molecular biology. In other words, once brain science has pro-
gressed, we will no longer need the technical vocabulary of semantics, but
 1.6 Breaking the circle 33

will be able to talk wholly in terms of synaptic connections, neurotransmit-

ters, proteins and so on. In just the same way, the modern language of
molecular biology, involving chromosomes, nucleotides and DNA sequences,
has at least partly replaced the older one of genes as the best way of describ-
ing the details of inheritance.
This is an attractive position in many ways: brain states must ultimately
cause all behaviour, including language. But it is going too fast to con-
clude from this that we will eventually be able to identify meanings with
brain states and reduce semantics to brain science. The first obstacle is
that it’s hard to see how brain states could have the properties that mean-
ings have. Meanings, the way we normally think of them, have mutual
connections to each other – of synonymy, antonymy, class inclusion and
so on. For example, the meaning ‘cat’ has the following relations with
other meanings:

• it is an instance of a broader class of meanings, ‘mammals’, ‘domestic

animals’, ‘four-legged animals’ and so on;
• it is, in some sense, the ‘opposite’ of the meaning ‘dog’;
• it can be synonymous with the meaning ‘feline’.
These are facts about the meaning of cat that we will presumably want a
theory of semantics to reflect. It is not clear, though, how this could hap-
pen in a theory which identified meanings and brain states. How can one
brain state be the opposite of, or synonymous with, another? The brain is
just physical matter; it makes as little sense to say that a state of brain
matter is the opposite of, or synonymous with, another as it does to say
the same of the state of the electrons in my computer at any one time. It
therefore seems that meanings have a property which prevents them from
being completely identified with brain states.
This problem is just one instance of the broader problem of intentional-
ity. Intentionality is the term philosophers use to describe the essential
aboutness or contentful nature of language. A word like cat has a certain psy-
chological content: it refers to (is about) a certain class of creatures, cats.
The same is true of a verb like sit: this refers to, or is about, a certain class
of actions, the actions of sitting. Many philosophers think there is some-
thing deeply special about intentionality, in that it is a property that is
distinctively mental: purely physical things like my brain or my computer,
which consist of configurations of electrons, just aren’t the types of thing
which can possess intentionality. Electrons, whether in my brain or in my
computer, aren’t about anything; they’re just there. As a result, any
attempt to simply identify something intentional like language with
something non-intentional like a brain state cannot be successful.
How do we square this with the obvious truth that it is the brain that is
ultimately responsible for linguistic production and understanding? If
meaning is one of the factors to be taken into account in the production
of utterances, and if brain processes will ultimately explain the whole
production of utterances, then surely they must explain meaning too!
It would just be illogical to say that everything that happens in language
is determined by brain processes, and in the same breath to exclude
34 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

meaning. Here we need to invoke the concept of levels of explanation or

levels of description, an important notion in cognitive science discussed
by Marr (1982). Attending to the notion of levels of explanation/descrip-
tion will show us that there is room for both intentional meanings and
non-intentional brain states in our explanations of language.
Consider a computer chess program. There seem to be several levels on
which we can describe and explain what the program is doing. The first is
the informal level, on which we describe the computer as simply following
the rules of chess with the aim of beating its opponent. A particular move
might be described as ‘castling to protect the king’, for example, or ‘taking
a pawn’, or ‘sacrificing the bishop’. This mode of description uses ordi-
nary, everyday vocabulary of the sort we could also use for explaining
people’s behaviour. It makes reference to beliefs, intentions, and desires:
the computer’s belief that its king could be threatened, its desire to pro-
tect it, and its intention to castle in order to achieve this. In one way, the
computer doesn’t really have beliefs, desires or intentions, of course, but
we talk as though it does, since this is a useful way of describing and
understanding what is happening. Let’s call this the intentional level of
explanation.
A second, lower level of explanation is more detailed: this level consists
in specifying the different steps of the program that the computer is run-
ning. This explanation wouldn’t use the ordinary terms of everyday inten-
tional, psychological explanation, but would lay out the sequence of
individual input and outputs that the computer processes. The computer
has some way of representing the input positions (the position of the
pieces after each move), and a set of algorithms for turning inputs into
outputs in a way that makes it likely to win. Let’s call this the algorithmic
level of explanation. Understanding this level will give us a detailed way
of predicting what the computer is going to do next: if we have access to
the specific program it is running, we can work out its next move in
advance. Notice that there are several different ways in which the inten-
tionally described actions the computer performs could be realized algo-
rithmically. There’s more than one possible chess program that a com-
puter could run, yet all of them produce behaviour which is open to a
single type of intentional explanation: the difference between different
chess programs disappears at the intentional level of explanation where,
whatever program the computer is actually running, we can still always
describe it as ‘castling to protect the king’, ‘taking a pawn’, ‘sacrificing the
bishop’ and so on. The details of the program become invisible as we move
to the higher level.
Finally, there’s the lowest level, the level of implementation: this is
the level of description/explanation which concerns the specific way in
which the algorithm is instantiated physically in the particular machine
involved. Just as a single fact on the topmost intentional level can corre-
spond to several different states on the lower algorithmic level, so a single
algorithm can be implemented in multiple ways in an actual physical
machine. This is most obvious if we think about the difference between
the most up-to-date type of computer, which runs on a solid-state drive, a
 1.6 Breaking the circle 35

conventional one using a spinning hard disk, and an old-fashioned one

using magnetic tape or punch cards. All these machines can run the same
algorithms, but the physical details of how they do so are completely dif-
ferent.
Clearly, all three levels of explanation are necessary to understand what
is going on when the computer plays chess. Since there is a variety of pos-
sible physical realizations of the program on the implementational level,
the next highest level, the algorithmic one, gives us a powerful way of
abstracting from the details of the actual physical system that is perform-
ing the operations and describing the inputs and outputs of the program.
But it is the intentional level that is the most relevant when we ask why
the computer is behaving as it is. The intentional level, which consists of
explanations like ‘protecting the king’, ‘taking a pawn’, ‘sacrificing the
bishop’, makes sense of the computer’s actions as a chess-player, not just
as a machine. The algorithms and their physical instantiations are just a
meaningless sequence of actions if we can’t place them in the context that
allows them to make sense, and it is only the intentional level that does
this. Marr (1982) draws an analogy with trying to understand bird flight:
we can’t understand bird flight by limiting ourselves to feathers, the
implementational level. We have to go beyond this to look at the wider
place of feathers within a complex of notions like lift, air pressure, energy,
gravity, weight and so on. Studying the physical constitution of the feath-
ers in the absence of these other considerations will be fruitless.
Language is arguably the same way. Studying brain states will only tell us
how language is implemented. It will tell us nothing about the higher-level
relations that tie this implementation in with the rest of our psychology. As
a result, meanings are unavoidable as part of the explanation of utterances.
If I tell you that my head is killing me, then part of the explanation for my
utterance involves my belief that my head hurts, my desire to communicate
this fact to you, and the fact that those words convey that idea as their mean-
ing. I could have expressed the same belief in a number of different ways,
for example by saying I’ve got a migraine, or my headache’s come back, or by
clutching my head and saying the usual problem again in a long-suffering tone
of voice. Since each of these utterances is expressed differently, they would
correspond to different brain states. But we can concisely capture what they
have in common by appealing to the level of their meaning: even though
the brain states that produce them are different, they are united by the
similarities of the meanings they convey. Just talking about brain states
makes this elementary generalization impossible.
Especially at the current rudimentary stage of our knowledge of the
brain, then, we have no choice but to continue to appeal to meanings in
our explanations of language. Brain states are too complicated and too
variable (both within and between individuals) to allow us to capture the
straightforward generalizations we can capture using the intentional
vocabulary of meaning. Meanings are the thread that guides us through
the variety and confusion of brain states and input–output sequences;
only by invoking meanings can we relate language to human behaviour
and psychology in general. Understanding brain states will be important
36 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

for understanding language, but not at the expense of meaning. Studying

brain states will tell us how the brain does what it does. Studying mean-
ing as part of an intentional level study of human psychology and behav-
iour will tell us what it is doing and why it is doing it. It is thus a confu-
sion of explanatory levels to claim that meaning can be reduced to brain
state.

1.6.4 Meaning and use

An alternative to the three previous theories is the view that a word’s
meaning consists simply in the way it is used. This is the use theory of
meaning, and it has been advanced, in different forms, by behaviourist
psychologists such as Skinner (1957), and linguists such as Bloomfield
(1933). (A rather different, non-behaviourist use theory was advanced by
Wittgenstein 1953.) Behaviourist proponents of the use theory typically
reject the very notion that words have hidden, unobservable properties
called meanings: since meanings are inherently unobservable, it is, they
would claim, unscientific to use them in explanations. (This argument
would no longer be accepted by philosophers of science: scientific expla-
nation usually involves unobservables.) Use theorists have claimed that the
only objective, scientific way to explain language is to avoid postulating
unobservable objects called meanings, and to attend only to what may
actually be observed, the particular sequences of words and expressions
that occur in actual examples of language use, and to describe the rela-
tion between these linguistic forms and the situations in which they are
used. According to these investigators, the explanatory task of semantics
is to provide not an abstract characterization of meanings, whether inter-
preted as concepts or denotations, but a causal, predictive account of the
way a given language is actually used. In the words of Skinner (1957: 5),
‘What happens when a man speaks or responds to speech is clearly a ques-
tion about human behavior’, and the only correct way to answer it is to
proffer a precise account of what linguistic behaviour is likely to be pro-
duced in different situations.
Thus, for Bloomfield (1933: 139), the only meaning a linguistic form has
is ‘the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response which it
calls forth in the hearer’. To take a particularly simple example, one of the
‘meanings’ of ‘sorry’ in English might be described as a situation where
the speaker apologises; the hearer’s typical response will be to treat the
utterance as an apology and behave accordingly (e.g. by letting the inci-
dent drop, by not accusing the speaker of rudeness, by themselves saying
sorry, etc.). We can describe this situation without having to make any
reference to a ‘meaning’ of sorry: external analysis of the situation is all
that is needed.
QUESTION Can the meanings of the following words be described in
terms of situations? Hi, please, you, apple, thanks, this
The project of specifying the uses of linguistic units is not as remote as it
might seem from the traditional semantic project of describing denota-
tions or senses. Indeed, the traditional notion of meaning itself is
 1.6 Breaking the circle 37

ultimately aimed at explaining language-use, since it is the meaning of

individual linguistic expressions that is taken to explain the way they are
used: words are used in accordance with their meanings. For proponents of
the use theory of meaning, we should directly describe the actual situa-
tions themselves in which language is spoken or written, rather than
doing this via the intermediary notion of meaning. When we have devel-
oped a full theory of the way in which speakers actually use language,
then the goal of semantics will have been fulfilled.
The main objection against use theories of meaning is simply the mind-
boggling variety of the situations in which linguistic forms may be used.
As Bloomfield acknowledges, the number of different situations in which
language is used is infinite. There are very few, if any, linguistic expres-
sions which are automatically called up by a specifiable external situa-
tion. If the meaning of a linguistic form is the situation of the speaker’s
utterance and the hearer’s response, there will be very few words for
which a description like the one just given for sorry would even seem plau-
sible. It would not seem to be a feasible project to specify the situations in
which most of the words in the previous paragraph are used, since they
are not highly context bound and can be used in practically any situation.
Think of some of the possible situations in which the noun way, for
example, might be used. To catalogue these, we would need to know the
individual circumstances of a representative number of speaker/hearer
pairs in whatever linguistic community we were investigating, including
what was referred to by way on each occurrence of use, the situation
which prompted the speaker to utter it, and the response given by the
hearer. For even straightforward, unremarkable instances of way like I
don’t know the way or which way is quicker? this will already involve a huge
variety of different specific situations. But if we add instances where way
is used sarcastically, metaphorically, dishonestly, or simply by mistake, it
will be clear that the use theory is massively complicated, and that the
extraction of any regularities or generalizations about language use will
be extremely complicated (Chomsky 1959 has classic objections against
this kind of use theory of language).
The prospects for a use theory might be better if the focus changes from
the individual word to higher-level linguistic units. It does seem to be the
case that there are many phrases and sentences which have a more pre-
dictable relationship to their situations than the individual words of
which they are composed. Thus, conversational routines like greetings,
invitations, asking for the time, congratulating, wishing luck and many
others involve highly stereotyped instances of language such as those in
(44), which are to some extent predictable from the situations in which
they occur.

(44) how are you?

do you have the time?
good luck
congratulations!
have a nice weekend.
38 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

Yet in spite of the perhaps greater possibilities at the phrase level, the
problem for the use theory of meaning remains the enormous variety of
sentences which make up any individual’s linguistic behaviour. Even if
there are some very stereotypical phrases which crop up more or less pre-
dictably in given situations, this does not detract from the huge number
of phrases and sentences uttered by a language user which are novel. The
use theory of meaning, in other words, seems to ignore the compositional-
ity of language. It is because the meanings of sentences are built up out of
the meanings of words that we can put words into different combinations
to suit new communicative needs, including in situations which we have
never previously encountered. The situations in which language is used
are constantly changing, yet we do not mysteriously lose our ability to
communicate. A theory of meaning must be able to explain how it is that
we can use old words to convey new meanings which have never been pre-
viously conveyed, in situations in which we have never previously been
placed.
QUESTION Do obsolete, old-fashioned or archaic words pose a problem
for the use theory? If so, why? If not, why not? Do the conceptual and
referential/denotational theories fare any better?

1.7 Meaning and explanation

We’ve now considered four proposals about the nature of meaning: mean-
ing as reference/denotation, meaning as concepts, meaning as brain states
and meaning as use. What conclusions can we draw? One particular con-
clusion concerns the status of the term ‘meaning’ itself. Even though the
notion of a word’s meaning can be used to facilitate many tasks on the
level of practical language use (explanation of new words, translation
from one language to another, prescriptive regulation of disputes over
usage, etc.), and seems indispensable on the intentional level of explana-
tion discussed in 1.6.3, we should consider the possibility that ‘meaning’
is essentially a pretheoretical, informal notion which will not have any pre-
cise equivalent in a detailed account of linguistic behaviour on the other
two levels.
QUESTION What are some other everyday, pretheoretical notions about
language which have to be abandoned for the purposes of ‘scientific’
linguistics?
Perhaps, then, we do not need to choose between the different theories of
meaning discussed in the previous section. As suggested in 1.2, ‘meaning’
can be seen as a shorthand way of talking about a whole variety of sepa-
rate phenomena which are all individually important in our talk about
language, especially on the intentional level of explanation, but which do
not necessarily correspond to any single entity that will be revealed by
careful empirical study. The English language category ‘meaning’, in
other words, which in any case only has approximate equivalents in other
languages, might have no precise role in a full understanding of language.
 1.7 Meaning and explanation 39

By contrast, the various aspects of meaning that we have distinguished in

this chapter – reference, conceptual content, connotation, and so on – are
all factors for which linguistic semantics does owe a principled explana-
tion, and for which it should try to find theoretical analogues. There is no
single way of breaking the definitional circle: ‘meaning’ is many different
things, none of which should be ruled out as irrelevant to the eventual
explanation of language.
In this context, we can specify an important condition that any princi-
pled theory of language must meet. This condition is linked to the idea
that the ultimate goal of research into language must be to contribute to
the causal explanation of people’s utterances. To achieve a thorough under-
standing of our linguistic ability, we will eventually need to be able to
specify the detailed causal mechanisms which lead up to the production of
utterances by speakers in real time. In order to achieve this, we will need a
precise account of what the various phonological, semantic, morphosyn-
tactic and semantic properties of different linguistic forms are, and of the
ways in which these properties are combined in actual discourse sequences
in different contexts of use. This goal is exactly the same as the one aimed
at in other sciences: chemistry, for example, specifies the various proper-
ties of different molecules, in virtue of which they enter into sequences of
causal interaction with each other, and embryology aims at understanding
the properties of fertilized cells, in virtue of which a step-by-step under-
standing of their development into full organisms can be achieved. In the
case of linguistics, the detailed nitty-gritty of a causal account is a long way
off. What is more, the fine detail of an account of linguistic behaviour on
the implementational level will have to be provided by neurolinguists and
other brain scientists who will be able to isolate the physiological under-
pinnings of linguistic phenomena. The semanticist’s role is an earlier one,
which consists in isolating the important properties of the linguistic sys-
tem, on the intentional and perhaps algorithmic levels, for which these
experimental scientists will need to find the physical mechanisms.
The distant goal of a causal account of language behaviour, however,
suggests a possible role for the notion of meaning in semantics. From this
perspective, we can suggest that to talk about a word’s meaning is a short-
hand way of talking about whatever property of a word could enter into causal
explanations of its use. In our ordinary talk about language, one of the main
functions of the category of meaning is to explain word use: we use the
words we use because of the meanings they have. But in order to go beyond
this pretheoretical level and explain a word’s use in a rigorous way, which
might be ideally compatible with a causal account of language, a word’s
meaning may include many different explanatory properties and necessi-
tate consideration of referents and concepts and situations of use.
As a result, we do not need any single, categorical answer to the question
of whether meaning is denotation or concepts or uses. To phrase the ques-
tion as a set of exclusive choices like this is counterproductive, since it may
well turn out that all of these categories will need to be invoked in order to
explain the use of different words. Thus, as we noted at (44), there is a sub-
class of words and phrases in any language whose use seems particularly
40 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

closely linked to certain recurrent and specifiable situations; the most obvi-
ous way of explaining the use of these words is to associate them with the
particular contexts and situations in which they occur, and the use theory
of meaning will be the most relevant. Other words, however, seem best
explained by the particular conceptual associations they call up; for these,
attention to the link between words and concepts will be the most relevant.
If I say, for example, The holidays were a nightmare, then the words holidays and
nightmare call up a whole variety of specific connotations and associations
(see the question below) for which the conceptual theory of meaning will
be most appropriate. In still other cases, such as proper names and ‘deictics’
like here, it seems to be a word’s referent which is the most important factor
in accounting for the word’s use on a given occasion: if I say that man just fell
over, the ‘meaning’ of that man is best described as the actual person to
whom I am referring. This is not to say that concepts are irrelevant for
expressions like that man or for words like those in (44), or that referents and
denotations are irrelevant for words like holiday or nightmare. In most cases,
indeed, we will need to attend to all three aspects of a word’s ‘meaning’, in
considering how its relations with referents/denotations, associated con-
cepts and uses mutually combine to account for its presence in a particular
linguistic context. It is just to say that in all these cases attention to the
explanatory purpose of talk about meaning will direct us towards which-
ever conception of meaning seems to provide the best explanation of the
particular semantic phenomenon at hand.
QUESTION Describe the concepts HOLIDAY and NIGHTMARE in as much
detail as possible. How much of this detail is relevant to explaining
linguistic behaviour?

Summary The meaningfulness of language is an instance of the

meaningfulness of behaviour
The meaningfulness of language can be seen as just one instance of
the meaningfulness of human behaviour and communication in gen-
eral, and is one of the systems of structured meaningfulness studied in
semiotics.

‘Meaning’ is a very vague term

‘Meaning’ is a very vague term: in English it refers to a variety of dif-
ferent relations between the world, language and speakers. Most lan-
guages do not have precise equivalents for the English term ‘meaning’,
and some use a very different stock of lexical resources to talk about
meaning-like phenomena.

The semiotic triangle

For the purposes of linguistics, we can isolate three particularly
important factors relevant to the study of meaning: the psychology of
 Summary 41

speakers, which creates and interprets language, the referent of the

language expression as projected by the language user’s psychology,
and the linguistic expression itself: these three points constitute the
semiotic triangle.

Lexemes
In providing a semantic description of a language, we do not need to
treat all the variant morphological forms of a single word separately.
Instead, we describe the meanings of a language’s lexemes, or the
abstract units which unite all the morphological variants of a single
word.

Sense, reference, denotation and connotation

There are several different aspects of the meaning of a lexeme: its ref-
erent on any one occasion of use, its denotation, which is the set of all
its referents, and its sense, or the abstract, general meaning which can
be translated from one language to another, paraphrased, or defined
in a dictionary. Connotation names those aspects of meaning which
do not affect a word’s sense, reference or denotation, but which have
to do with secondary factors such as its emotional force, its level of for-
mality, its character as a euphemism, etc.

Compositionality
Meaning is often compositional, which means that the meanings of
sentences are made up, or composed, of the meanings of their con-
stituent lexemes.

Sentence and utterance meaning

Sentence meaning is the compositional meaning of the sentence as
constructed out of the meanings of its individual component lexemes.
Utterance meaning is the meaning which the words have on a par-
ticular occasion of use in the particular context in which they occur.
Semantics studies sentence meaning, whereas pragmatics studies
utterance meaning and other aspects of language use.

Object language and metalanguage

In analysing meaning we distinguish the object language, or the lan-
guage whose meanings are being described, from the metalanguage,
the language in which we describe these meanings.

Explanations of meaning in terms of meanings are circular

When we propose a definition in a metalanguage as an analysis of the
meaning of an object language term, the more basic questions, ‘what
is meaning?’ and ‘what is it to understand a meaning?’ are left unan-
swered. All definitions of meaning in language, therefore, are ultimately
circular because they use one kind of meaning to explain another.
42 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

Four ways of breaking the circle

There are four important answers to the question ‘what is meaning?’:
the referential/denotational theory of meaning, the conceptual theo-
ry of meaning, the brain states theory and the use theory. We do not
have to categorically choose between these theories. Instead, recogniz-
ing that the notion of meaning in linguistics is a way of talking about
the factors which explain language use, we can see referents, concepts,
brain states and uses as all relevant to this task.

Further reading
Saussure (1983) is essential reading for semantics, as for linguistics generally. For useful introductions to
semiotics, see Sebeok (1994), Cobley (2001) and Hawkes (1983). Lyons (1977: Chapter 7) provides a thor-
ough introduction to the concepts of sense and reference; see also Chapter 3 of this book and the refer-
ences mentioned there. Levinson (1983) and Mey (2001) are standard introductions to utterance meaning and
pragmatics. Martin (1987), Frawley (1992) and Chapter 2 of Allan (1986) are good introductions to different
theories of meaning. On the role of concepts in semantics see Jackendoff (1983) and (1989) and on con-
cepts more generally, the opening chapters of Prinz (2002). Cummins (1989) is an introduction to meaning
and mental representation, and Murphy (2002) is a compendium of psychological research on concepts,
including their relation to word meaning. Lakoff (1987) explores a specific conceptual theory of meaning.
Lyons (1977: Chapter 5) is a detailed account of the use theory of meaning. Jung-Beeman (2005) gives a
glimpse into research on meaning in cognitive neuroscience. On the history of modern European and
American semantics, see Gordon (1982). For information on non-European semantic traditions and a discus-
sion of the Greek origins of Western semantics, see van Bekkum et al. (1997). Ullmann (1972) and Ogden
and Richards (1949) are classic works in the history of semantics which still have many insights. On the con-
trast between theoretical and pretheoretical perspectives in linguistics, see Chomsky (2000).

Exercises
Questions for discussion
1. In Section 1.1 we discussed the relation between meaning, communica-
tion and significance. Consider the cases of pure, wordless music and ‘non-
sense’ language. Can either of these be said to be meaningful? If so, how
is this meaningfulness different from that of language? Would you consider
it as communication? If so, what is communicated? If not, why not?
2. In 1.2 we considered the words available for the representation of meaning-
phenomena in English, French, Warlpiri and Chinese. Choose a language
you know and describe what words are available to talk about meaning, and
their similarities and differences with the languages discussed.
3. In ancient philosophy, the study of the meanings of words was not usually
recognized as a distinct subject. Instead, language and meaning were
mainly discussed for what they revealed about the nature of the world,
logic and our ideas. What do you think the most important links are
between the study of linguistic semantics and other branches of enquiry?
4. We saw in 1.6.1 that some linguistic expressions have a sense but do not
have a reference/denotation. Do you think there could be any linguistic
expressions with reference/denotation but no senses? If so, what are
they? If not, why not?
 Exercises 43

5. For each word in the following sentences, assume a particular occasion

of utterance, and try to specify a sense, referent and denotation. Is this
possible for all the words? Could it make sense to talk about the refer-
ents of words which are not nouns? Do any words have particular con-
notations?

(a) The standard incubation period of Mad Cow Disease is between

three and five years.
(b) You are squabbling about the question whether the buttons of the
National Guard should be white or yellow.
(c) Brazilian officials, like those from India to China, describe their
steadily expanding space effort as a commercial and strategic
necessity, as well as a matter of national prestige.
(d) You gave that one to me then.

6. The phrase Australian passport is clearly compositional, since its meaning

consists of the meaning of passport and the meaning of Australian: an
Australian passport is a passport that is Australian. But consider the
phrase a false passport. A false passport is not a passport that is false,
since a false passport is not a (real) passport at all. There is thus a way in
which the meaning of the phrase false passport does not contain the
meaning of the word passport. Is this a problem or not for the idea of
compositionality? Are the following phrases also problematic? If so, state
why. If not, why not?

This is fake caviar.

My old baby-sitter was only eleven.
A flea is less than a millimetre high.
I am going partly bald.

7. Like other branches of linguistics, semantics is a descriptive, not a pre-

scriptive enterprise, and aims to describe the meanings of words as they
are actually used by speakers, and not as they ‘should’ be used. Give
examples of, and describe the meanings of the following words, and
comment on any discrepancies between this description and a prescrip-
tive view of their meaning: disinterested, infer, fulsome, inflammable,
champagne, monkey, insane, golden.
8. Consider the following quotation:

We must not allow our words to change their meanings, but must make
sure that we use them in their correct senses. For if we are careless with
meanings, we will lose them, and there will be many ideas which we will
no longer be able to express. For ‘disinterested’ does not mean the same
as ‘uninterested’, ‘fulsome’ does not mean the same as ‘full’, ‘infer’ does
not mean the same as ‘imply’. If we lose these differences of meaning,
we will lose the differences in the concepts they express.

Do you agree with these statements? What assumptions about language

do they contain?
9. Some dictionaries use pictures in order to escape the problem of circular
definitions. What are the advantages and limitations of this strategy?
Consider how easily the meaning of the following words could be conveyed
pictorially: oak, to punch, black, happy, microscope, water, underneath,
arch, machine, sensitivity, internet, thin, popular, to sleep, horrendous.
44 MEANING IN THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE

10. The Internet contains a number of automatic translation programmes.

What problems do you think are posed by the project of translating
meanings from one language to another automatically? Why are human
beings so much better at translation than computers? Consider the role
of context, background knowledge, intuition, memory and any others
which you think are relevant.
11. We often talk about seeing or putting meanings into things which do not
have them. Astrologers, for example, see ‘meanings’ in the stars. Other
people claim to understand meanings in tea leaves. How are these
‘meanings’ different from the ones communicated in language?
12. Words are not the only linguistic units that communicate meaning. Discuss
whether each of the following categories can communicate meaning,
and, if so, what sorts: intonation, speech volume, speech speed, length of
sentence, choice of language, and (for type-written language) choice of
typeface.
13. Does it make sense to speak of a lexeme‘s reference?
14. Consider the following words: squabble, fight, argue, bicker, dispute, dis-
agree, debate, contend, spat. Describe how they differ in sense and con-
notation.
15. Review the examples in (40). Now try to devise alternative descriptions of
the denotations of the following nouns: hand, baseball, breakfast, nine,
red, stranger, person, heart disease.
16. You are sent out to learn, and write a dictionary and grammar of a previ-
ously unrecorded language. While in the field, you notice that whenever a
plane passes overhead the speakers look up and utter the word paabo.
How many different possibilities can you think of for the meaning of this
word? What problems can you imagine in trying to work out which is the
right one? Are there any general consequences for the study of meaning?
 CHA PT E R

2 Meaning and
definition

CHAPTER PREVIEW
This chapter considers the role of definition in the description of meaning, through four
main questions:
◆ What units need to receive definition?
◆ What forms should the definitions take?
◆ Can definitions be grounded in a set of semantic primitives?
◆ What is the place of definition in semantics generally?
We begin by contrasting the types of definition that might appear in dictionaries from the
types that interest a theoretical semantic analysis (2.1). Before any definition can begin, we
have to confront an initial question: what are the meaning-bearing units of the language for
which definitions are required? We explore this question by looking at meaning on, above
and below the word level in 2.2, paying particular attention to certain problematic cases.
The next section distinguishes definition of things (real definition) from definition of mean-
ings (nominal definition), and cognitive from extensional definitions, and discusses
some differences of opinion in linguistics as to what the proper objects of linguistic defini-
tion are (2.3.1). We then distinguish different possible definitional strategies, including
◆ definition by ostension (2.3.2)
◆ definition by synonymy (2.3.3)
◆ definition by context and typical exemplar (2.3.4)
◆ definition by genus and differentia (2.3.5).
The test of truth preserving substitutability is introduced as a standard criterion of
definitional adequacy (2.4), and we discuss the problem of definitional circularity and
the question of semantic primitives (2.5).
We then exemplify the extreme difficulty involved in couching successful definitions of
words (2.6), before finally devoting some discussion to the relationship between defini-
tion and understanding (2.7).
46 MEANING AND DEFINITION

2.1 Meaning and the dictionary

The concept of a word’s meaning is closely linked to the concept of defini-
tion, which was first made explicit in Greek philosophy by Aristotle.
Definitions have been particularly important for conceptual theories of
meaning (1.6.2), which traditionally assumed a close link between con-
cepts and definitions: knowing the concept HORSE, for example, is simply
the ability to use the word horse in a way that accords with or fits its defini-
tion. If I have the concept HORSE, I will be prepared to utter, or assent to, a
large number of propositions, including the following, which depend on
the definition of horse as ‘a large, four-footed mammal with hooves and a
mane’:

(1) a. If X is a horse, X is an animal.

b. If X is a horse, it has a mane.
c. X is a rooster, so X is not a horse.
d. If X is a horse, it is a large four-footed mammal with hooves
and a mane.

As a result, an understanding of definition is necessary for any attempt to

develop a conceptual theory of word meaning. Furthermore, when people
think of a word’s meaning, they are inclined to think of something like its
definition in a dictionary. Since about the sixteenth century, dictionaries
have played an extremely important role in the way we think about and
use our own language, and their existence and popularity can be related
to a complex of pretheoretical ideas about the nature and role of lan-
guage: a whole linguistic ideology. As a result, it is important to clarify
the similarities and differences between the definitions that might be
proposed in theoretical linguistic semantics, and the types that can be
found in dictionaries.

2.1.1 Semantics and lexicography

Dictionary-writing, or lexicography, is, in the words of Landau (1984: 121),
‘a craft, a way of doing something useful. It is not a theoretical exercise to
increase the sum of human knowledge but practical work to put together
a book that people can understand.’ Linguistic semantics, by contrast,
while also interested in the meanings of words, is exactly the sort of theo-
retical exercise with which Landau is drawing a contrast. Nevertheless,
the model of the dictionary or ‘lexicon’ (an older term for the same thing)
has been decisive in the way that many linguists conceive of the nature of
language:
Language exists in the form of a sum of impressions deposited in the
brain of each member of a community, rather like a dictionary of which
identical copies have been distributed to each individual. It is, thus,
something that is in each of them, while at the same time common to
all and existing independently of the will of any of its possessors.
(Saussure 1967: 38)
 2.1 Meaning and the dictionary 47

According to a common assumption, our brains holds a ‘store of words in

long term memory from which the grammar constructs phrases and sen-
tences’ ( Jackendoff 2002: 130). This stock of words and associated mean-
ings is usually referred to as the mental lexicon. On this view, the primary
task of linguistic semantics would be the specification of the stored
meaning representation – the ‘entry’ – associated with each lexeme in the
mental lexicon:

For the speaker/writer, accessing ‘words’ is a matter of mapping ideas

onto those stored meaning representations in the mental lexicon that
are associated with stable word forms, which can then be used to imple-
ment a spoken or written output. For the listener/reader, the major task
is to map portions of the linguistic signal onto the stored neurosensory
traces in the mental lexicon; once activated, these will in turn stimulate
their associated meaning representations.
(Garman 1990: 240–241)

The process of matching a meaning with a word is analogous to that

involved in consulting a dictionary. Just as a language-learner discovers
the meaning of an unknown word by looking it up in a dictionary, the
production and understanding of ordinary speech is conceived of as a
process of matching between stored word-forms and the stored mean-
ing representations associated with them in long-term memory. Like
dictionary definitions, these meaning representations are imagined as
discrete and relatively fixed. And just as dictionaries aim for a maxi-
mum degree of concision, it has been assumed that the mental lexicon
also seeks the most efficient, least redundant listing of lexemes’ mean-
ings.
In order to serve the purposes of serious linguistic description, the
entries in the mental lexicon must be much more detailed than is
usual in ordinary dictionaries. As well as containing information
about words’ meanings, they must also specify their grammatical prop-
erties, and contain a representation of their phonological structure.
Consider for example the Concise Oxford Dictionary entry for the verb
pour:

v. 1 intr. & tr. (usu. foll. by down, out, over, etc) flow or cause to flow esp.
downwards in a stream or shower 2 tr. dispense (a drink, e.g. tea) by pour-
ing. 3 intr. (of rain, or prec. by it as subject) fall heavily. 4 intr. (usu. foll. by
in, out, etc.) come or go in profusion or rapid succession (the crowd poured
out; letters poured in; poems poured from her fertile mind). 5 tr. discharge or
send freely (poured forth arrows). 6 tr. (often foll. by out) utter at length or
in a rush (poured out their story).

This entry presents, at first sight, a rather comprehensive description of

the verb. But there are a number of aspects of pour’s meaning and use
which the definition does not cover. First, constructions like (2) corre-
spond to sense number two, ‘dispense by pouring’, but are intransitive,
contrary to the dictionary’s specification.
48 MEANING AND DEFINITION

(2) Shall I pour?

Furthermore, the dictionary is silent about the conditions under which

pour in sense one is ‘usually’ followed by a preposition or prepositional
phrase. Whereas (3a) and (3b) are quite acceptable without any following
prepositional phrase, (4a) and (4b) seem more questionable, whereas (5a)
and (5b) are perfectly acceptable:

(3) a. I was pouring the tea when the phone rang.

b. They were pouring the concrete when the phone rang.

(4) a. ?I was pouring the rainwater when the phone rang.

b. ?I was pouring the mud when the phone rang.

(5) a. I was pouring the rainwater over the ground when the phone rang.
b. I was pouring the mud down the hole when the phone rang.

Clearly, then, the dictionary’s statement that pour in this sense is ‘usu-
ally’ followed by down, out, over etc., needs significant fleshing-out.
Similarly, the Concise Oxford does not tell us the limits on the preposi-
tional and subject combinations with which pour is acceptable: why are
the (a) examples in (6) and (7) clearly acceptable, but the others less
so?

(6) a. The crowd poured down the hill.

b. ? The firemen poured down the pole.

(7) a. The tourists poured into the museum.

?
b. The surfers poured into the ocean.
?
c. The passengers poured into the bus.
?
d. Fifty workers poured into the lift.

Extended or metaphorical uses of the verb raise a host of similar ques-

tions. What is it that determines the acceptability of (8), the unacceptabil-
ity of (10), and the ‘punning’ quality of (9)?

(8) The government are pouring money into healthcare.

(9) ?With its funding of a new dam, the government is pouring water into the
driest parts of the country.

(10) ??The government are pouring money out of education.

These and other questions all need to be answered in a comprehensive

description of the mental lexicon entry for the verb pour.
QUESTION Can you refine the description of the meaning of pour in
order to explain the facts in (2)–(10)? What other aspects of the meaning
and use of pour are not made explicit by the quoted definition?
 2.1 Meaning and the dictionary 49

The history of the dictionary

Dictionaries are extremely popular tools. This has not always been
the case, however: monolingual dictionaries did not exist in the West
until about the sixteenth century (Matoré 1968). Different sorts of
‘proto-lexicographical’ document existed in Antiquity and the Middle
Ages, such as the glossaries or word lists used to keep a record of
words which had fallen out of use in everyday language, but which
continued to be used in specialized speech genres like poetry. In
China, Japan and India, similar documents are also known from
an early date: the earliest Chinese proto-lexicographical work, for
instance, the Erya (a title which means ‘approaching what is elegant
and correct usage’), which is not a dictionary in the modern sense
but simply a collection of semantic glosses on classical Chinese texts,
probably dates from the third century BC (Malmqvist 1994: 5–6).
More surprising, perhaps, than the historical recency of the mod-
ern dictionary, is the fact that the monolingual dictionary is a later
invention than the bilingual one: the direct precursor of the modern
monolingual dictionary is the bilingual Latin-vernacular dictionary
or ‘lexicon’ which became popular in Europe between the end of the
fourteenth and the end of the fifteenth centuries (Auroux 1994: 119).
As noted by Auroux (1994), the novelty of the modern monolingual
dictionary lay in the fact that it was intended not for people who
wanted to acquire a language which they did not yet command, as
had been the case for the earlier bilingual dictionaries, but for people
who wanted guidance in the use of a language which they already
spoke. So completely has the monolingual dictionary eclipsed the
bilingual one as the lexicographical standard that, as pointed out
by Rey (1990: 19), we now largely think of definitions as exclusively
monolingual: whereas a bilingual dictionary contains equivalents or
translations, only a monolingual one contains definitions.

Word-based and meaning-based approaches to definition

The definitions found in dictionaries are the result of a word-based,
or semasiological approach to meaning. This sort of approach
starts with a language’s individual lexemes, and tries to specify
the meaning of each one. This is not the only possibility, however,
for the analysis of meaning in linguistics. The other approach, the
onomasiological one, has the opposite logic: start with a particular
meaning, and list the various forms available in the language for
its expression. Thus, whereas a semasiological analysis would start
with a list of verbs, say scare, frighten, terrify, startle, spook, and panic,
and specify a slightly different meaning for each (startle, for instance,
50 MEANING AND DEFINITION

referring to a considerably weaker form of alarm than panic), an ono-

masiological analysis would start with a general concept, FRIGHTEN,
and list all of these verbs as its possible realizations. The difference
between the two approaches corresponds to the difference between a
dictionary and a thesaurus. As a semasiological tool, a dictionary is a
list of words, and one accesses meanings through words. A thesaurus,
on the other hand, is a list of concepts: for a particular concept, the
thesaurus gives access to the different words through which the con-
cept could be expressed.
Semasiological and onomasiological analysis are in no way exclu-
sive: the semasiological approach emphasizes differences between
lexemes, the onomasiological one similarities. Furthermore, both are
necessary to a full description of the processes underlying commu-
nication. A complete description of linguistic performance will show
how a speaker achieves the mapping between the concept or meaning
she wishes to express and the word forms actually chosen: given the
need to express the concept or meaning FRIGHTEN, for example, what
are the onomasiological principles according to which one of the pos-
sible verbs listed above is chosen? For the hearer, however, a semasio-
logical approach is called for. Hearing or reading the word frighten
in a particular context, what is the meaning which the hearer will
assign to this verb?

2.2 The units of meaning

Any attempt to associate meanings and forms needs to ask what the mini-
mal meaning-bearing units of language are. Individual lexemes like spider,
crazy or elongate, are, quite clearly, the best examples of units with indi-
vidually describable meanings. But as we will see, we need to recognize
meanings both above and below the word level, and ambiguities about the
level of grammatical structure to which meaning is correctly attributed
are not infrequent.

2.2.1 Words and morphemes

How can we determine what counts as a lexeme (word) in a language?
Without a secure criterion of wordhood, it will be hard to decide – espe-
cially in unfamiliar languages – what units we should be trying to attri-
bute meanings to. For European languages with a well-established tradi-
tion of literacy, this question usually does not arise: words are the units
surrounded by spaces in standard orthography. This definition of ‘word’
will not take us very far, however, for two reasons. The first is that lan-
guages which have only recently been written down often have a very
fluid practice of word-division. A meaning-bearing unit considered by
one speaker as only part of a word will not infrequently be written as a
separate word by another speaker (see Dixon and Aikhenvald 2002: 7–9
 2.2 The units of meaning 51

for details). Speakers of Northern Sotho (Niger-Congo; South Africa), for

instance, show two ways of writing the sentence meaning ‘we shall skin
it with his knife’ (Dixon & Aikhenvald 2002: 8, quoting Van Wyk 1967).
The first is to put spaces between each morpheme:

(11) re tlo e bua ka thipa ya gagwe.

1PLS FUT 3SGO skin INST knife 9 his

The second is to recognize three distinct orthographic words:

(12) retloebua kathipa yagagwe.

These differing practices may sometimes become conventionalized in

such a way that closely related, typologically similar languages may adopt
differing orthographic conventions. For example, Northern Sotho’s rela-
tions, Southern Sotho (Niger-Congo, South Africa) and Tswana (Niger-
Congo, Botswana) are usually written according to the convention in (11),
while Zulu (Niger-Congo, South Africa) and Xhosa (Niger-Congo, South
Africa), whose morphological structure is entirely equivalent to that of
the other group, typically follow the convention in (12).
The second reason to be suspicious of writing as an indicator of word-
hood is that orthographic practice itself is not even stable within long-
standing traditions of literacy. An unbroken tradition of literacy links
Modern and Ancient Greek. Yet Ancient Greek was written without any
word-division, whereas modern Greek observes the norms familiar from
languages like English. We would obviously not want to say, however, that
Ancient Greek did not have words. Similarly, the reform of German spell-
ing rules made standard (for a trial period) in German schools since 1998
resulted in strikingly different word divisions, as can be seen from the
following list:

(13) Old (pre-1998) spelling Current spelling

eislaufen Eis laufen ‘skate’
aufsein auf sein ‘to be up’
gefangenhalten gefangen halten ‘keep prisoner’
wieviel wie viel ‘how much’

Linguists have advanced many criteria for the demarcation of the word
as an isolable linguistic unit. One common criterion is that of ‘potential
pause’: words are units before and/or after which pauses can be found in
spoken language. For languages like Chinese, which lack complex mor-
phology, this criterion may be workable. But for languages which show
even a small degree of morphological complexity, like English, it is clearly
unsatisfactory. Thus, Dixon and Aikhenvald (2002: 11) point out that one
may well pause at morpheme boundaries within a single word, for exam-
ple ‘it’s very un- <pause, perhaps including um> suitable.’ (Similarly, exple-
tives in English can be inserted within what we normally consider a single
word: abso-bloody-lutely.) Bloomfield’s famous definition of ‘word’ (1933:
178), as ‘a minimum free form’, i.e. the minimal unit which may appear
on its own without any additional grammatical material, is clearly
52 MEANING AND DEFINITION

insufficient: many canonical words like the, of or my do not usually appear

alone, but must presumably be considered as fully fledged words.
In order to introduce some clarity into the confusion over wordhood, it
seems necessary to distinguish two different levels on which words may
be defined. The first is the phonological level. Here, divisions between
words are determined according to the domain of application of phono-
logical rules and processes. In Dagbani (Gur, Northern Ghana), for
instance, the clearest description of stress can be given by assuming the
existence of a unit – the phonological word – each example of which
bears only one main stress, normally on the penultimate syllable (Olawsky
2002: 206). In order, therefore, to determine whether a given phonetic
string is a phonological word in Dagbani, one need only count the num-
ber of main stresses: if the unit in question has more than one main
stress, then it is more than one phonological word. Furthermore, the fact
that the penultimate syllable is typically the tonic (accent-bearing sylla-
ble) allows us to determine where the word boundaries lie. Many languages
are like Dagbani in calculating stress on the basis of phonological words:
as a result, stress is typically a useful indicator of the phonological word.
Other indicators are also found, however. Like Dagbani, Bare (Northern
Arawak, Brazil) shows penultimate stress (Aikhenvald 1996: 494). But this
language possesses an additional marker of phonological wordhood: aspi-
rated consonants can only be found in word-initial position (Aikhenvald
1996: 494): as a result, given a string with n aspirated consonants, one is
guaranteed of the presence of at least n phonological words.
The phonological level alone will often not be enough to demarcate word-
boundaries. Thus, stress in Dagbani and Bare is only mostly on the penulti-
mate syllable: exceptions are possible, and this can lead to ambiguity in word
division. As a result, the grammatical level of wordhood must also be consid-
ered. Dixon and Aikhenvald (2002: 19) propose three criteria for the recogni-
tion of those linguistic units which are independent grammatical words:
cohesiveness, fixed order and conventionalized coherence and meaning. The last crite-
rion ‘indicates that the speakers of a language think of a word as having its
own coherence and meaning. That is, they may talk about a word (but are
unlikely to talk about a morpheme)’ (Dixon and Aikhenvald 2002: 20).
QUESTION How reliable a criterion of grammatical wordhood is this? Do
speakers ever talk about the meaning of morphemes?
What about the first two criteria, cohesiveness and fixed order? Ancient Greek
(Indo-European, Eastern Mediterranean) provides a clear illustration of both.
Ancient Greek verbs were obligatorily multi-morphemic, consisting of at least
the elements root + inflection, as in the verb meaning ‘cure’, therapeu-o-:

(14) therapeu-o- ‘I am curing’

cure-1SG.PRES.INDIC
therapeu-ete ‘You (pl.) are curing’
cure-2PL.PRES.INDIC
therapeu-ousi ‘They are curing’
cure-3PL.PRES.INDIC
 2.2 The units of meaning 53

These elements must co-occur: the verb root therapeu- cannot occur with-
out an inflectional suffix, and the suffix cannot occur without a verb root.
The combination of verb root and inflectional affix thus constitutes a
word on the criterion of cohesiveness. These forms also illustrate fixed
order, in that one cannot invert the order root-suffix: the inflectional
markers are suffixes, not prefixes. As a result, the combination verb root +
inflection constitutes an unambiguous grammatical word in Ancient
Greek.

Mismatches between grammatical and phonological words

The criteria of grammatical and phonological word do not neces-
sarily coincide, as can be shown by compound nouns in Georgian
(Kartvelian, Georgia). Consider for example the following compound,
constructed from the noun roots t’ól ‘person of the same age group’
and amxánag ‘comrade’:

(15) t’ól-amxánag-i
person.of.same.age.group-comrade-NOM
‘comrades of the same age’

Based on considerations of cohesiveness and fixed order, this is a

single grammatical word. Neither t’ól nor the suffix -i may occur on
its own. Thus, the suffix -i is obligatorily an affix, and the root t’ól re-
quires its own inflectional suffixes when it appears independently as
a fully fledged noun. Similarly, the order of the elements of the word
is fixed: the meaning ‘comrades of the same age’ is expressed by the
form t’ól-amxánag-i, not (for example) *i-t’ól-amxánag or *t’ól-i-amxánag.
T’ól-amxánag-i thus conforms to the criteria of cohesiveness and fixed
order and constitutes a grammatical word. From the point of view of
stress-assignment, however, (15) is two phonological words: Georgian
phonological words take just a single primary stress per word (Harris
2002: 232–233), whereas t’ól-amxánag-i has preserved the stress of both
of its original noun elements. Such mismatches between grammatical
and phonological words are by no means the norm in the languages
of the world. Nevertheless, their existence illustrates the problematic
nature of the category ‘word’, which seems at first glance to be an
entirely intuitive and straightforward concept.

If words are the clearest type of meaning-bearing unit in a language,

they are certainly not the only ones: the domain of meaningfulness
extends both above and below the threshold of the individual word. Below
word level, morphemes, by definition, have meanings. Given the defini-
tion of a morpheme as the ‘minimal meaning-bearing unit’ of language,
it is clearly impossible to conceive of a morpheme without a meaning –
even if it is often hard to specify exactly what this meaning is. Quite often
54 MEANING AND DEFINITION

in linguistic analysis, it proves surprisingly difficult to come up with a

settled analysis of the meaning of a given morpheme. This is the case, for
instance, with the meanings of the possessive suffix -s and of many mor-
phemes involved in the verbal tense/aspect system in English (see 9.2):
semanticists agree that these morphemes have meanings, but disagree
about exactly what they are.
Above the level of the individual word, phrasal verbs and compounds
are two clear cases where a single meaning is associated with a combina-
tion of lexemes. Phrasal verbs consist of one or sometimes two ‘full’ verbs
followed by one or more particles, as in (16):

(16) dispose of, touch down, play around, call off, set up, break down, put up
with, get on with, look down on, make do with . . .

Compounds are most clearly illustrated by noun compounds, which con-

sist of two or more nouns conjoined into a single conventionalized seman-
tic unit:

(17) tree house, tennis match, instruction book, computer problem, space age, ink
jet printer, car insurance contract, pedestrian underpass, junk food, garbage
collection, zebra crossing, box office, hit man, getaway car, bullet train,
knuckle sandwich . . .

QUESTION Noun compounding is an extremely frequent means of word-

formation in English, and shows many different types of meaning rela-
tion between the compounded elements: a tree house is a type of house in
a tree, but a lighthouse is a type of ‘house’ which contains a light, and a
poorhouse was an institution for the accommodation of the poor. A com-
puter problem is a problem with a computer, and a zebra crossing is a cross-
ing that is striped like a zebra. Find twenty examples of noun compounds
from a newspaper, and describe the semantic relationships between the
constituent parts. Can you discern any regularities?
Idioms, discussed in 1.4.3 in relation to throw in the towel, also demonstrate
the existence of units of meaning associated with several words simulta-
neously, and we will consider the question of the meaning of grammatical
constructions in a later chapter (10.3). Thus, although we most often think
of meaning as something belonging to individual words, we must actually
recognize that words are only the most obvious of a number of meaning-
bearing units.

2.2.2 Meanings below the morpheme: sound symbolism

The question of what level of grammatical structure a meaning should be
attributed to may often be problematic, and boundary cases, where mean-
ings seem to straddle several different grammatical units, occur quite
frequently. One such boundary case is sound symbolism, (also known as
ideophony or onomatopoeia). This is the existence of semi-systematic cor-
respondences between certain sounds and certain meanings, usually
within the domain of the individual morpheme, such as English clash,
 2.2 The units of meaning 55

clang, clatter, etc. Such associations may sometimes have a clear imitative
basis, as with English click, thwack, meow, etc. Sound symbolism is by no
means limited to English, of course. In Ilocano (Cordilleran, Philippines),
for instance, a high front vowel is often used in words denoting high
pitched sounds, as in (18):

(18) singgit ‘high pitched voice’; sing-i ‘sobbing (of a child)’; sultip ‘whistle’;
riri ‘whimper’ (Rubino 2001: 304).

Here the choice of vowel imitates the characteristic timbre of the sound
referred to. Similarly, the alveolar fricative is often found in words repre-
senting rustling sounds or the sound of water:

(19) karasakas ‘rustling sound of leaves’; karasikis ‘rustling sound of bam-

boo’; kiras ‘sound of slippers’; saraisi ‘sound of rippling water’;
barasábas ‘sound of heavy rain, downpour’; barasíbis ‘sound of light
drizzle, drizzle’; dissuor ‘waves breaking’ (Rubino 2001: 305)

A possible connection might be discerned here between the acoustic qual-

ity of the fricative and the irregular, ‘perturbed’ sound of the referent. But
the imitative basis of such associations is often less obvious, at least to
English speakers. Egbokhare (2001: 90–91), for example, documents the
fact that many words indicating ‘smallness’ contain kp in Emai (Niger-
Congo, Nigeria):

(20) kpúkú ‘pointed/protruding’; small, compact and round, short

kpútú ‘stumpy’; small, compact and round, disproportional
kpúshú ‘stubby’; small, compact and round, rough
kpódó ‘round’; small, circular and supple, proportional
kpúdú ‘pellet-like’; small, compact and round, proportional
kpédé ‘proportionate’; small-sized, firm, proportional
kpéké ‘petit’; small, thin, short.

In all these cases we have a sound-meaning correspondence which

exists below the level of the individual morpheme. Neither the high front
vowel nor the alveolar fricative in Ilocano, nor kp in Emai can, formally,
be considered as individual morphemes, since one cannot remove them
from the ideophonic words in (19)–(20) and retain possible roots to which
other morphemes could attach. Yet the correspondence is widespread:
although not every s in Ilocano is used in words referring to rustling
sounds (cf. sarotsot ‘quick succession’, Rubino 2001: 315), the correspon-
dence is systematic enough to allow a hearer who is unfamiliar with
karasakas, for instance, to infer that the word probably refers to some sort
of sound. Reference to a rustling sound can therefore be considered as, in
some way, a semi-predictable part of the meaning of a unit which is nei-
ther a word nor a morpheme. Yet it is only in the words in which they
occur that this meaning exists: in describing sound symbolism in Emai, it
is necessary to specify that there are many words containing kp which do
not refer to small objects (e.g. úkpun ‘cloth’; ókpósó ‘woman’; Schaefer 2001:
344). Sound symbolism can therefore be considered simultaneously as a
56 MEANING AND DEFINITION

property of a word and of the relevant submorphemic unit, and the

description of sound symbolism in these languages must invoke both
lexical and submorphemic units: the reference to sound is conveyed by a
particular segment or sequence of segments, but only in certain words.

2.2.3 Meanings above the word level: idioms

Idioms constitute another boundary case where it is not clear what the
correct level is for the characterization of meaning. We defined idioms in
1.4.3 as non-compositional phrases – phrases like throw in the towel whose
overall meaning is not the same as the combined meaning of the indi-
vidual parts. However, it is often possible to advance an interpretation of
the individual words of an idiom which removes its idiomatic or non-
compositional character. For example, the English idiom to scoop the pool,
which means something like ‘to win or gain everything’, seems on the
face of it to lack any connection whatsoever with either pools or scoop-
ing: a speaker simply associates the meaning ‘win or gain everything’
with the entire unit scoop the pool, without trying to break the phrase
down further. Nevertheless, if we imagine scoop as having a meaning like
‘quickly gather up a large quantity of something in a single movement’,
and pool as meaning ‘the entire set of available items’ (cf. car-pool, pool of
credits, etc.), then the arbitrariness and non-compositionality of the
expression is reduced, and the interpretation ‘win or gain everything’
can follow unproblematically from the combined meanings of the
expression’s elements. For an empirical inquiry, everything hangs on the
question of whether speakers do in fact interpret scoop the pool composi-
tionally or non-compositionally, and there is doubtless no single answer
to this question. Thus, some English speakers will analyse it completely
into its constituent parts in the way just mentioned, others will interpret
it as a single, non-compositional idiom, and still others will interpret it
as partly compositional: the ‘quickly gather up’ interpretation of scoop,
for instance, might be ‘active’ for some English-speakers, while pool will
not receive any compositional interpretation. The fact that a variety of
possible interpretations is available for each component of the idiom,
with consequent differences in the overall interpretation of the expres-
sion, only adds to the ambiguity. Thus, other speakers of English might
associate scoop with a scoop in journalism (a news story obtained exclu-
sively by a single journalist), while others might analyse pool as in some
way referring to a body of water.
As we have been using the term, an idiom is a non-compositional com-
bination of words. But if we define an idiom as a non-compositional com-
bination of morphemes, then idioms can also exist on the sublexical level.
The English suffix -able is a case in point. Usually this suffix has its his-
torical meaning, ‘able to be V-ed’: fillable ‘able to be filled’, emailable ‘able
to be emailed’, movable ‘able to be moved’. In words like considerable and
fashionable, however, this meaning is not present, and the entire word
needs to be given a different analysis. Sublexical idioms are often found
in many American languages, which are characterized by a large degree
of noun-incorporation, a process in which independent noun stems may
 2.2 The units of meaning 57

be compounded with a verb stem in order to produce a larger, derived

verb. In the following example from Lakota (Siouan, Mississippi Valley;
Rankin et al. 2002: 181–182), a noun stem meaning ‘heart’ is compounded
with the verb stem meaning ‘be good’; the meaning of the resulting com-
pound, ‘I made him/her angry’, is in no way simply the combination of
the individual meanings of its component morphemes:

(21) bluchą’lwaxteni
Ø- b- yu- chą’t-waxte=ni
3OBJ- 1ACTR-BY.HAND heart-be.good=NEG
‘I made him/her angry’

Not all noun-incorporation is as semantically opaque or idiomatic as this,

but there are many less extreme examples. An interesting one comes from
another American language, Comanche (Uto-Aztecan, Oklahoma). Thus,
the composed meaning of the noun-verb compound in (22) is something
like ‘throw paper by force’. This verb can only be used, however, to refer to
the type of paper-throwing that one does when playing cards: the mean-
ing of the incorporated noun wana is ‘paper’, but in the verb in question
it only designates playing cards. As a result, the compound means ‘to
gamble’ (Mithun 1984: 855):

(22) wana-roh-peti-
paper-by.force-throw
‘to gamble’

2.2.4 Contextual modulation of meaning

The examples of noun-incorporation we have just seen show the meaning
of words and other morphemes varying according to their collocation,
the immediate linguistic context in which they occur. This sort of varia-
tion is found throughout language. We can see a similar phenomenon in
English, where the meanings of verbs seem to vary slightly depending on
the noun which they govern. If I cut my foot, for example, I am doing some-
thing that is rather different from what I am doing when I cut the grass, or
when I cut a cake, cut someone’s hair, cut the wood, cut a diamond, cut a deck of
cards, cut a disc or cut a notch. The nature of the event, the means by which
it is accomplished, its typical object, and the extent to which it is deliber-
ate may all vary in these different uses. Despite this variation, we have the
strong sense that essentially the ‘same’ meaning of cut is involved in all
those cases (in other words, we do not usually think of this verb as polyse-
mous; see 5.3). Cruse (1986: 52) refers to this phenomenon as the contex-
tual modulation of meaning. The degree of semantic ‘distance’ gets even
greater if we consider more ‘extended’ meanings, like cut a deal, cut corners,
cut a paragraph or cut prices.
This type of phenomenon poses an interesting descriptive and theoreti-
cal problem: do the differences in meaning of the different collocations
arise compositionally or not? Are the meanings of the collocations just
the results of the combinations of the meanings of their parts, or are the
58 MEANING AND DEFINITION

whole collocations themselves the meaning bearing units? In other

words, which of the following two possibilities gives the best semantic
description of English:

• one which lists the meanings of cut, foot, grass, cake, hair, etc., and sees
the specific meanings of the collocations cut one’s foot, cut the grass, cut
a cake, etc., as derived compositionally from the meanings of the
parts; or
• one which just lists all the different collocations in which cut appears,
and specifies a different meaning for the entire collocation?

We will examine each possibility in turn.

2.2.4.1 First possibility: compositionality

The first possibility is that the meanings of cut one’s foot, cut the grass, cut a
cake, etc., result compositionally from the meaning of the verb cut and the
meanings of its noun objects. The meaning of cut the grass just is the mean-
ing of cut combined with the meaning of grass. This might work in one of
two ways.

• The general meaning hypothesis: Cut might have the same vague or
general meaning in all its different collocations: it refers to some act
of accomplishing a material breach in a surface, with the particular
details of each type of breach being inferred by the listener, rather
than being built into the meaning of the verb itself.

Alternatively,

• The multiple meaning hypothesis: Cut might have a separate meaning

in each collocation: the cut in cut one’s foot has its own entry in the
mental lexicon (‘breach surface of, usually accidentally’), as does the
cut of cut the grass (‘sever one part of surface from another, usually
deliberately’).

Problems with the general meaning hypothesis The problem with the
first option is that describing this common core of general meaning sup-
posedly present in all cases of cut is not necessarily an easy matter (see
section 2.6): the Concise Oxford 2004 edition gives ‘make an opening, inci-
sion, or wound with a sharp tool or object’ as its definition, but this is not
involved when someone cuts butter, for example, nor when a whip cuts
someone’s flesh: the cutting object in these situations need not be sharp.
Perhaps, then, we need to dismiss these uses as in some way special or
extended and therefore absolve them from the scope of the vague defini-
tion: perhaps ‘make an opening, incision, or wound with a sharp tool or
object’ will work for all the others. Even if it does, though, we still have a
problem: the definition does not adequately distinguish cut from chop, slit,
stab or unpick: to chop a sausage, slit a letter, stab someone’s side or unpick a seam
is equally to ‘make an opening, incision, or wound with a sharp tool or
object’, but we could not also describe these actions as cutting. In our
 2.2 The units of meaning 59

effort to formulate the most general definition possible, we have drawn the
net too wide and failed to distinguish cut from various non-synonymous
verbs in the same semantic field.
QUESTION Can you formulate a general definition of cut which avoids
these problems? Consider other possible cutting objects, like cheese-
cutting wire.
QUESTION Another example of a similar problem would be the verb
crush in contexts like crush petals in the hand, crush paper, crush sugar and
crush a car under concrete: in spite of the presence of the same verb, the
action involved, and the resulting state of the object, differ considerably
with each collocation. Can you formulate an adequate general definition
which distinguishes crush from related verbs like bend, crease, fold and
squash?
The prototype-based models of meaning discussed in Chapter 7 constitute
a possible response to problems of this sort.

Problems with the multiple meaning hypothesis The second option is

to propose multiple meanings for cut, a separate one for each collocation.
In cut one’s foot, for example, cut could be described as meaning something
like ‘partially breach a surface with a sharp instrument, typically acciden-
tally’: when one cuts one’s foot, one typically does not detach one’s foot
from the rest of the body (this would be cutting it off ). In cut the grass, and
cut someone’s hair, on the other hand, the verb conveys the meaning of
more than just a partial breach in the surface of the object: the meaning
of these collocations is that one part of the object is completely detached
from the rest. Now consider cut a notch: here the object is brought into being
by the action of the verb: if I cut a notch into a stick, the notch did not exist
before I created it. As a result, the meaning of cut in cut a notch could be
paraphrased as ‘create by breaching with a sharp instrument’, an entirely
different meaning from that found in the other collocations, which all
presuppose the prior existence of the object being cut. Again, when we
talk of a whip cutting someone’s skin, we have the meaning of breach to a
surface, as in cutting one’s foot, but without the usual element of ‘sharp
object’: being made of leather, whips are not normally considered as
sharp.
We have, then, a list of different meanings of cut:

• ‘partially breach surface with a sharp instrument, typically acciden-

tally’,
• ‘create by partially breaching the surface with a sharp instrument’,
• ‘detach one part of object from another with one’s hands’,
• ‘detach one part of object from another with a sharp instrument’,
etc.

These will all have highly specific collocational restrictions: the meaning
‘partially breach surface with a sharp instrument, typically accidentally’,
for example, will be a very likely sense of cut in collocation with foot, but
60 MEANING AND DEFINITION

not with cake: cutting a cake is usually an entirely deliberate action. And
the meaning ‘create by partially breaching a surface with a sharp instru-
ment’ is quasi-obligatory in cut a notch, but excluded in cut wood, which
does not, as we have seen, involve any creation.
This second option has two problems. The first is the sheer number of
the different senses to be attributed to cut. Since the action of cutting in
each of the examples in question is slightly different, we seem to need a
very large range of different senses. While it is clearly impossible to define
the meaning of cut in just a single paraphrase – extended meanings like
cut text, cut a disc, etc., seem to demand a distinct set of definitions – the
recognition of a different sense of cut in each of the collocations seems to
fail to do justice to the fact that it is the same verb in all collocations: as
a result, we have some reason to think that it is also the same meaning
that is involved in all of them. Furthermore, given the assumptions about
the organization of the ‘mental lexicon’ mentioned above (2.1.1), the attri-
bution of a separate meaning to cut in each collocation has struck many
linguists as inefficient and inelegant, given the explosion it entails in the
number of separate verb entries: we no more want to propose separate
‘mental lexicon’ entries for the cut of cut a cake and cut one’s foot than we
would expect to find separate entries in a dictionary.
The second problem is related: given this variety of different possible
meanings of cut, how does the correct specific meaning get chosen in a
given case? How does a hearer know that the appropriate interpretation
of cut in cut a deck of cards is ‘detach one part of object from another with
one’s hands’ and not ‘create by partially breaching the integrity of a sur-
face with a sharp instrument’? The second option would clearly be wrong,
and our theory of the meaning of the expressions needs some way to
exclude it. Yet the description of the process of word sense disambigua-
tion is highly problematic, the best current computational models sig-
nificantly failing to match human ability (see 8.2.2 for details).
We can now recap the discussion up to this point. We have been consid-
ering the possibility that the meaning of collocations like cut one’s foot, cut
the grass etc. are derived compositionally from the meanings of their ele-
ments. We looked at two options for the details of this. The first is that the
meaning of cut is general or vague in each collocation. This creates the
problem of adequately defining this general or vague meaning in a way
which distinguished cut from other non-synonymous verbs. The second
option is that cut has a separate meaning in each collocation. But if we
adopt this solution we find that the number of definitions of cut explodes.
Confronted with this vast array of different meanings, how do speakers
know which one to choose in any given case?
The compositional solution therefore seems quite problematic. This is
not to say that we should reject it, just that it involves us in complex ques-
tions. Let us now look at the non-compositional solution.

2.2.4.2 Second possibility: non-compositionality

A number of the problems of the first solution are avoided if each colloca-
tion as a whole is seen as the relevant definition-bearing unit. On this
 2.2 The units of meaning 61

approach, the meaning of the collocation is not constructed composition-

ally; we learn one definition for the unit cut the grass, another for cut one’s
foot, and a third for cut a CD. Thus, the fact that in cutting the grass, a mower
or a scythe is the instrument of the action, and that in cutting a disc it is a
CD-burner, is not part of the meaning of cut itself, but is a property of the
collocation as a whole. This avoids several of the problems of the compo-
sitional solution:

• we do not have to advance a general definition of cut that will work in

every context, as we do in the general-meaning version of the compo-
sitional solution
• do not have the problem of word-sense disambiguation, since each
we
collocation carries its own definition.

Here is another consideration in favour of non-compositionality. It is not

just cut whose meaning is determined by its collocational environment: the
collocation also determines what reading is operative for cut’s object. Thus,
English speakers know that cutting the grass refers to the grown grass blades,
whereas planting the grass refers to grass seeds or shoots, and smoking grass
refers to the leaves of a completely different plant. They also know that it is
the physical CD that is involved in cutting a disc, but the ‘acoustic’ object in
listening to a disc. Because both verb and object have different meanings in
different collocations, it seems reasonable to think that the basic meaning-
bearing unit is the collocation as a whole, not the individual words.
Unfortunately, this solution is just as problematic as the compositional
one. It seems precisely to ignore our intuition of the compositionality of
the meanings of the collocations: the reason that cut the grass has the
interpretation it does is, surely, something about the combination of the
meanings of cut and the meaning of grass. It is not an arbitrary fact that
cut the grass means what it does: instead, the meaning of the phrase is
dependent on the meaning of its components, and this is the reason that
this meaning is not conveyed by some other sequence of different ele-
ments like plant the tree. And if one takes the analogy of the ‘mental lexi-
con’ seriously, this option also involves the threat of an explosion in the
number of entries. Analysing each collocation involving cut as having a
separately specified meaning would lead to an enormous amount of rep-
etition and redundancy in the mental lexicon, and would fail to extract
the generalization that the meaning of cut in each such collocation is
significantly similar to its meaning in other collocations.
We can summarize the choices here in Figure 2.1:

cut has the same vague/general FIGURE 2.1

meaning in every collocation Options for analysing
cut a cake compositional collocations.
cut someone’s hair meaning
cut the wood cut has a different meaning in
cut a diamond every collocation
cut a deck of cards
cut a disc
cut a notch,
non-compositional
etc. meaning
62 MEANING AND DEFINITION

These arguments are obviously shaped by many assumptions about

the nature and limits of linguistic competence. In the absence of a clear
understanding of how the brain actually does process and store language,
linguists have assumed that their description of assumed linguistic
competence should reflect the same criteria of economy and non-redun-
dancy that operate in real paper dictionaries. Thus, much linguistic
research has assumed that the mental lexicon does not contain a huge
number of independently listed entries, but that it extracts the maxi-
mum number of generalizations about the meaning of a verb like cut
across all its collocational contexts, in order to present the most eco-
nomical, least redundant entry. As a result, it has been the topmost
solution in Figure 2.1 that has traditionally been considered preferable.
We will see in later chapters how this assumption has been challenged
in more recent theories of language. One of these, in particular,
known as cognitive linguistics, specifically rejects the dichotomous
reasoning we see embodied in the claim that either the separate listing
or the compositional approach should be adopted to the question of
the mental representation of the meaning of collocations like these.
According to linguists in the line of Langacker (1987), this sort of think-
ing is an example of the exclusionary fallacy, the idea that ‘one analy-
sis, motivation, categorization, cause, function or explanation for a
linguistic phenomenon necessarily precludes another’ (Langacker 1987:
28). Langacker continues:
From a broad, pretheoretical perspective, this assumption is gratuitous
and in fact rather dubious, in view of what we know about the multiplic-
ity of interacting synchronic and diachronic factors that determine the
shape and import of linguistic expressions. (ibid)
Thus, even though it might seem inelegant to list all the different colloca-
tions of cut separately in the lexicon, this option should obviously not be
rejected if it somehow turns out (for example, through neuroscientific
experimentation) that this is, in fact, what speakers (unconsciously) do.
And this discovery would not of itself invalidate the idea that speakers
also simultaneously represent cut as having an independent meaning or set
of meanings which enter into composition each time the verb gains a new
set of arguments.

2.3 Different ways of defining meanings

So much, then, for the question of which units should be attributed defi-
nitions. In this section we will discuss a number of different ways in
which a word’s meaning can be defined.

2.3.1 Real and nominal definition

As already noted, the concept of definition goes back to Aristotle, who
discussed it at a number of points in his voluminous works. One of the
most important Aristotelian treatments of definition is to be found in the
 2.3 Different ways of defining meanings 63

Posterior Analytics, a treatise devoted to the explanation of the structure of

scientific knowledge. As discussed there, a definition (horismos) has two
quite different interpretations: ‘in defining,’ says Aristotle, ‘one exhibits
either what the object is or what its name means’ (Tredennick 1960:
II.7.92b). A definition can therefore be considered either as a sort of sum-
mation of the essence or inherent nature of a thing (real definition; Latin
res ‘thing’), or as a description of the meaning of the word which denotes
this thing (nominal definition; Latin nomen ‘name, noun’). Since Aristotle
is interested in providing a basis for an understanding of nature, it is the
first interpretation which he adopts: a definition of thunder, for example,
is not a description of the meaning of the word thunder, but expresses
thunder’s essential nature (for Aristotle, the noise of fire being extin-
guished in the sky).
Some people have considered that definitions of the underlying nature
of objects are the only type of definitions which can be of interest.
Diderot, for example, stated that ‘definitions of words differ in no way
from definitions of things’ (quoted in Meschonic 1991: 102). And since it
is scientific research which is taken to reveal this underlying nature,
these definitions will be formulated by scientific disciplines. The influen-
tial American linguist Leonard Bloomfield stated in a well-known passage
that
The situations which prompt people to utter speech, include every object
and happening in their universe. In order to give a scientifically accurate
definition of meaning for every form of a language, we should have to
have a scientifically accurate knowledge of everything in the speakers’
world. The actual extent of human knowledge is very small, compared
to this. We can define the meaning of a speech-form accurately when
this meaning has to do with some matter of which we possess scientific
knowledge. We can define the names of minerals, for example, in terms
of chemistry and mineralogy, as when we say that the ordinary meaning
of the English word salt is ‘sodium chloride (NaCl)’ . . .
Bloomfield (1933: 139)

On the other hand, according to Bloomfield, ‘we have no precise way of

defining words like love and hate’ (ibid.). On this understanding, therefore,
linguistics should appeal to technical scientific disciplines in formulating
definitions; the true meaning of a natural language word, according to
Bloomfield, is to be identified with the scientific ‘definition’ – or best pos-
sible theory – of its denotation. As a result, whenever a scientifically estab-
lished definition of a denotation is missing, there is, simply, nothing that
linguistics can say with any certainty about the word’s meaning. (One
problem with this is that scientific conceptions of the nature of objects
are continually changing: just think of the current best theory of space,
mass, light, or matter in the world view of modern physics, compared to
the same notions just a hundred and fifty years ago, before the advent of
relativity and quantum mechanics. These scientific developments radi-
cally changed our picture of space, mass and so on, but surely didn’t have
any effect on our everyday meanings.)
64 MEANING AND DEFINITION

Bloomfield’s view is a serious obstacle to a comprehensive account of

meaning, for it is not just ‘abstract’ nouns like love and hate which lack a
scientific definition, but the vast majority of the vocabulary of any natural
language. There are two reasons for this. The first is that, as we saw in
Chapter 1, words like unicorn, time machine and light sabre lack any denota-
tion in the real world but nevertheless have a meaning. Secondly, most of
the vocabulary of a language has only a small amount of overlap with
terms of the sort which interest empirical science: most of the vocabulary
consists of words for a huge variety of objects, processes, relations and
states which have no simple analogue in the scientific picture of reality
(think of reportage, postpone, ready).
There is another reason, however, to reject Bloomfield’s approach to
definition: even in the case of terms like salt which can be associated with
a scientific definition, we do not want to say that the scientific definition
(‘NaCl’) has anything to do with most speakers’ understanding or use of
the word. While this definition might perhaps be satisfactory as a real
definition of actual salt, it is certainly unsatisfactory as a psychologically
realistic one. Thus, people use and understand the word salt even without
specialized scientific knowledge; indeed, English speakers’ first exposure
to this word will come at an age when the technical scientific knowledge
that supposedly defines it is entirely inaccessible. Speakers with training
in chemistry may eventually come to understand salt in this way; but this
can only happen after they have already acquired the everyday, nontechni-
cal meaning of the word. For these reasons, we will reject Bloomfield’s
approach to definition: linguistic semantics aims to define the meaning(s)
of a word, not the underlying essence of the object it refers to. It is thus
concerned with nominal, not real definition.
Before proceeding further, we need to distinguish two different func-
tions which a nominal definition may fulfil: fixing the meaning of a
word so that there can be no ambiguity about its denotation, and bring-
ing about an understanding of the meaning of a word in someone who
does not already understand it, typically in order to enable the word to
be correctly used. Many actual definitions aspire to fulfil both these
functions simultaneously. The two functions are, however, rather differ-
ent, and they should be kept apart. In order to differentiate between
them, let us call the first type of definition extensional definition, and
the second type cognitive definition (Figure 2.2). Thus, the definition
‘featherless biped’ is an extensional definition of the noun human, since
it accurately identifies all and only the members of the class of humans.

FIGURE 2.2 DEFINITION

Types of definition.

Real Nominal

Extensional Cognitive
 2.3 Different ways of defining meanings 65

It is not, however, necessarily a very good cognitive definition, since

human is not typically conceived of in terms of bipedality or absence of
feathers: when we reflect on our concept HUMAN, we are likely to think
of many different characteristics – a certain physical form and range of
behaviours – before these ones.

2.3.2 Definition by ostension

As we saw in Chapter 1, the most obvious way to define many words is,
simply, by ostension, or by pointing out the objects which they denote. In
spite of the apparent obviousness of this method, it is beset by difficulties.
Firstly, as we saw in Chapter 1, verbs, adjectives and prepositions are not
open to this definitional method, to name only the lexical categories most
familiar from English: if you point at a black cat running along a wall, you
are pointing at a cat, not at ‘black’, ‘running’ or ‘along’. Secondly, even in
the case of objects, ostensive definition is extremely problematic. To illus-
trate this, imagine the following situation. You are in an optometrist’s
shop in France, trying to buy a new pair of sunglasses. You speak a little
French, but are confused by the fact that the shop assistant continually
refers to something called a [VεR]. You ask what this word means, and in
reply, the shop assistant taps several times with his index finger on the
lens of the pair of sunglasses he is holding. This is a canonical instance of
ostensive definition: the meaning of a word has been defined by indicat-
ing the object to which it refers. But exactly what part of the pair of
glasses is being indicated? Is it the whole thing? In that case [VεR] must
mean ‘glasses’. Or is it just the lens as distinct from the frame, in which
case [VεR] will mean ‘lens’? If so, does it mean ‘glasses lens’ and ‘camera
lens’ and ‘contact lens’, or only the first? But perhaps [VεR] only refers to
the particular type of tinted, nonreflective sunglasses lens which the shop assis-
tant is holding: perhaps other lenses, with different shapes, compositions
or functions, have different names. Or does [VεR] refer to neither the lens
nor the frame proper, but simply to the front, most visible part of the
glasses, the lenses and those parts of the frame which are in contact with
the front of the face?

QUESTION Would it be possible to eliminate these uncertainties purely

ostensively? If so, how? If not, why not?

None of these questions can, in fact, be settled by ostensive definition:

every attempt to make the definition more precise ostensively would give
rise to a new set of questions. Although it is an appealing idea that mean-
ings can be defined simply by pointing at objects in the world, in practice
this definitional method would seem to give rise to too many ambiguities
to be viable.
The only way to overcome the problems of ostensive definition would
seem to be to use language itself as the medium in which definitions can
be phrased: only this way, apparently, can we get the level of definitional
precision we need. There are several ways in which this can be done. We
will discuss definition by synonymy, by context and typical exemplar,
and by genus and differentia.
66 MEANING AND DEFINITION

2.3.3 Definition by synonymy

We might try, for example, to define words by providing synonyms, in
either the same language as the word being defined or in a different one.
Thus, one could give mad and furious as English definitions of angry, and
kulu as a Warlpiri one. The problem with this strategy is that it is usually
possible to challenge the identity between the definiens (the metalan-
guage word proposed as the definition; Latin ‘defining’) and the definien-
dum (the object language word for which a definition is required; Latin
‘needing to be defined’). Thus, one could object that neither mad nor furious
is really synonymous with angry, since mad also means ‘insane’, which
angry does not, and since furious actually means something like ‘very
angry’ (similar problems arise for other proposed synonyms, such as cross,
livid, irate, enraged, etc.). Similarly, although Warlpiri kulu does often trans-
late English angry, it has a whole range of other meanings, including
‘mean’ and ‘fight’, which do not correspond to those of angry:

(23) Wati-lpa kulu-wita-wangu nyina-ja.

man-then mean-excessively be-PST
There was a man who was very mean. (WlpD: kulu)

(24) Kalaka-rna nyampu-ju ngawu nyina kulu-jangka paka-rninja-warnu.

AUX.ADMON-1S this-1O sick be fight-EL hit-INF-ASSOC
I might be sick like this from being hit in a fight. (WlpD: langa
nyiinpurupuru)

And as (24) exemplifies, Warlpiri does not share the same system of lexical
categories as English, having a single category ‘nominal’ which contains
words translated into English as both nouns and adjectives. Consequently,
many instances of kulu will be translated into English as nouns: as a result,
the synonymy with the adjective angry is destroyed. Thus, the provision of
synonymy fails both as an extensional and as a cognitive definitional strat-
egy. We will return to the question of synonymy in Section 5.1.5.
QUESTION What types of words are most easily defined through syn-
onymy? For what words is synonymy least satisfactory as a definitional
method?

2.3.4 Definition by context or typical exemplar

Another way to define a word is to situate it in a system of wider relations
through which the specificity of the definiendum can be seen. This defini-
tional strategy differs from the synonymy strategy in simply showing the
position of a definiendum with respect to other related notions which are
not themselves identical to it, as alleged synonyms are. A possible defini-
tion of the verb scratch, for example, would be ‘the type of thing you do
when you are itchy’. This is an example of definition by context: the defi-
nition identifies the event of scratching by placing it in relation to another
event, being itchy, whose meaning is assumed to be already known, and
 2.3 Different ways of defining meanings 67

which is taken as a typical context for the definiendum. This definition

only works if the definition’s addressee correctly infers the intended
meaning on the basis of the cue given. Thus, if, when itchy, I am in the
habit of lightly striking my head against the wall, and if I believe that oth-
ers do the same, then the definition will not be effective. Definition by
typical exemplar is another example of this relational strategy: here, the
definition is a list of typical examples or instances of the definiendum. If,
given the German definiendum Vogel, I supply a list like ‘swans, robins,
geese, hens, magpies, etc.’ and add that bats, butterflies and aeroplanes
are excluded, you could correctly conclude that Vogel means ‘bird’. And if
I give jars and conserve pots as examples of the French noun bocal, and
exclude wine bottles, you will be in a good position to infer that it means
something like ‘wide-necked glass container’.
QUESTION Can definition by context or typical example be applied to
lexical categories other than nouns?
QUESTION Definition by context or by typical example are both subject
to similar difficulties. What might these be?

2.3.5 Definition by genus and differentia

The two preceding types of definition are essentially relational, defining a
word’s meaning through its connections with other words. They may often
be workable as cognitive definitional strategies, but they are unlikely to be
successful as extensional definitions. This is because they leave the essen-
tial nature of the definiendum’s meaning to be worked out by the defini-
tion’s addressee, and as a result carry the risk that the wrong meaning may
be inferred: in the case of bocal, for example, what is it that jars and con-
serve pots have in common, that makes them a bocal? Smallness? A wide
opening? Function? The only way to convey this essential nature, appar-
ently, is the strategy of definition by genus and differentia, henceforth GD
definition, the theory of which was developed by Aristotle in the Posterior
Analytics (Tredennick 1960: XIII.96a ff.). According to Aristotle, definition
involves specifying the broader class to which the definiendum belongs
(often called the definiendum’s genus), and then showing the distinguish-
ing feature of the definiendum (the differentia) which distinguishes it
from the other members of this broader class. A classic example of GD
definition is the definition of man (in the sense of ‘human being’) as ‘ratio-
nal animal’. This definition names the broader class of entities to which
man belongs – animals – and specifies the distinguishing feature which
picks man out from the other members of the class of animals – rational-
ity. Needless to say, many aspects of this definition might well be contested.
Nevertheless, its status as an example of definition by genus and differen-
tia should be clear.
For many definienda, GD definition seems to be almost inevitable. Inherent
in the idea of saying what something is seems to be the idea of saying what
sort of thing it is, and what makes it different from other examples of the
same sort. Often, GD definition is a useful strategy of cognitive definition.
68 MEANING AND DEFINITION

Thus, many definitions in dictionaries explicitly or implicitly exemplify this

strategy. An example is the Concise Oxford’s (2004) definition of the noun keg as
‘small barrel’: the definition shows the larger class to which the definiendum
belongs (barrel), and specifies that it is distinguished from other members of
this class by the quality of smallness. Similarly, the definition of the verb pay
as ‘give a person what is due for services done’ contains the information that
paying is a type of transfer (‘give’), with the specification that it is transfer of
something that ‘is due for services done’.

QUESTION Which of the following definitions contain an implicit or

explicit genus-differentia structure? For those which do not, would it be
possible to formulate one?

eerie: gloomy and strange; weird, frightening

balance: bring into or keep in equilibrium
shirty: angry, annoyed
shine: emit or reflect light; be bright; glow
round: shaped like or approximately like a circle, sphere, or cylinder;
having a convex or circular outline or surface; curved, not angular
under: in or to a position lower than; below; beneath
wet: soaked, covered, or dampened with water or other liquid
when: at the or any time that; as soon as

There are many problem cases, however, where GD definition may be

either ineffective or, simply, impossible. This is particularly so if the GD
definition is intended as a cognitive definition. The reason for this is as
follows. GD definition presupposes a system of categories or genera
according to which definienda can be classed: defining man as ‘rational
animal’ presupposes that the addressee already knows the meanings of
those two terms. But there is not a large number of genera and differen-
tiae to work with: for many words, the relevant genus will not be famil-
iar to the definition’s addressee, and hence GD definition won’t be an
effective strategy for a cognitive definition. Consider for example a defi-
nition of give as ‘transfer the possession of freely’ (Concise Oxford). The
category of transfer, arguably, is too abstract and ambiguous to serve as
an illuminating genus for give, and, as a result, its use in a definition of
give may not be cognitively successful. For what is it to transfer some-
thing? One possible answer is that transferring something is sending it:
if I transfer some money to you, I send you some money. Thus, if the
definition’s addressee interprets the idea of transfer as ‘sending’, then
give will be defined as ‘send the possession of freely’, a formulation
which does not necessarily make any sense. On the other hand, transfer
might be interpreted as ‘moving’: if I transfer books from one room to
another, I am moving them. On this interpretation, give will mean some-
thing like ‘move the possession of freely’, a definition which is also
unsatisfactory.
These problems are less serious for extensional GD definitions, which
are not concerned with ease of understandability. Consider, for example,
the following definition of feather:
 2.4 Definition and substitutability 69

one of the light horny epidermal outgrowths that form the external
covering of the body of birds and that consist of a shaft bearing on
each side a series of barbs which bear barbules which in turn bear
barbicels commonly ending in hooked hamuli and interlocking with
the barbules of an adjacent barb to link the barbs in a continuous vane
(Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary: feather; quoted in Landau 1984:
134–135)
This situates feather within the larger class of horny epidermal outgrowth,
but the terms in which this and the differentiae are couched makes them
inaccessible to anyone who lacks specialist ornithological knowledge:
given this definition, it is not at all obvious that an English speaker would
realize that feather is the word being defined.
A different kind of problem affects cognitive and extensional GD defini-
tions equally, in those cases where it is not clear that the definiendum does
belong to any broader class. Self and time are two possible examples.
QUESTION Try and formulate a GD definition of these words. How do
you define the genera you have used?
QUESTION Can you think of other words for which a GD definition
seems difficult? What causes the difficulty?

2.4 Definition and substitutability

How can the accuracy of a definition be checked? For most semantic theo-
ries, a minimum requirement on a term’s definition is the following:

• substitution of the definiens for the definiendum should be truth

preserving in all contexts.

For example, ‘keep in equilibrium’ can be accepted as the definition of

balance if it is possible to substitute this phrase for balance in all the con-
texts in which balance occurs without rendering any of them false. All the
sentences in (25), for example, remain true if ‘keep in equilibrium’ is sub-
stituted:

(25) I balanced the plank on my head.

She balanced the ball on the end of the bat.
Now, children, you have to balance the egg on the spoon.
I’ve never managed to balance the demands of work and play.

Substituting ‘keep in equilibrium’ into these sentences will change their

register, and the resulting utterances will often sound considerably less
idiomatic and more technical (e.g. Now, children, you have to keep the egg in
equilibrium on the spoon). Nevertheless, the fact that the sentences remain
true is taken to be a sign of the adequacy of the definition. The rationale of
this requirement is the principle of identity under substitution articulated
by the seventeenth-century German philosopher Leibniz: eadem sunt, quae
70 MEANING AND DEFINITION

sibi mutuo substitui possunt, salva veritate (Latin for ‘things are the same which
can be substituted one for the other with truth intact’). If a definiens can be
substituted for a definiendum salva veritate, i.e. with the sentence in which
the terms occur remaining true, then the definiendum and the definiens
should be considered identical in meaning.
Preservation of truth is not the only possible criterion for the regulation
of definitions. Instead, the criterion of preservation of meaning (in an infor-
mal sense of this term) is also conceivable. On this view, a definition is
accepted if it can be substituted for the definiendum ‘with sense intact’ (salvo
sensu): if, that is, it involves neither addition nor loss of meaning with respect
to the meaning of the definiendum. This suggestion raises an important
problem, however: since it is the definition itself that is supposed to reveal
an expression’s meaning, the best way to determine that two words have the
same meaning is to compare their definitions. Preservation of meaning as a
criterion of definitional adequacy is therefore circular.

2.5 Semantic primitives

Considered as a cognitive definition, the definition of balance as ‘keep in
equilibrium’ poses an obvious problem: if someone does not know the
meaning of balance, they are unlikely to know the meaning of equilibrium.
And the most obvious way to define equilibrium would seem, in fact, to be
by way of the term balance: to keep something in equilibrium is, quite sim-
ply, to balance it. Defining keep in equilibrium by balance, and balance by keep
in equilibrium is a simple example of definitional circularity, which was
introduced in Chapter 1. As discussed there, it is impossible to give a defini-
tion of every word in a language using other words of the same language:
at some point the chain of definition must come to an end. Since the
vocabulary of any language is limited, the metalanguage will eventually
have to include object language definienda, thereby leaving some of the
latter without independent definition. This is a problem for any attempt,
such as that made in linguistic semantic theories, to specify the meaning
of every lexeme in a language. Leibniz likened this problem to the situation
of someone who is promised money and continually strung along from
one alleged payer to the next, without ever actually receiving anything:
I give you a hundred crowns, to be received from Titus; Titus will send
you to Caius, Caius to Maevius; but if you are perpetually sent on in this
way you will never be said to have received anything.
(Parkinson (ed.) 1973: 1–2)
In the same way, a metalanguage which incorporates elements of the
object language can also be said to ‘defer full payment’. Only a metalan-
guage which is completely independent of the object language is in a
position to offer a complete, non-circular explanation in which every
definiendum receives its own semantic analysis independently of the
analysis of the others. Without such a metalanguage, there will always be
a residue of unexplained terms which escape definition.
 2.5 Semantic primitives 71

In Chapter 1 we saw some proposals about how to escape from this

chain of definitional circularity by grounding the study of meaning in
various extra-linguistic realities. One of these was the conceptual theory
of meaning, which identified meanings with concepts. Given such an
identification, we can imagine several different possibilities for the rela-
tion between lexemes and concepts. One is that each lexeme corresponds
to an entirely different concept. Thus, the English lexemes cup and mug
would each correspond to the separate concepts CUP and MUG, each of
which is unitary and undecomposable. The fact that cup and mug seem to
share certain properties – they both refer to drinking vessels usually
reserved for hot liquids – is not reflected on the conceptual level by any
shared conceptual content. The two concepts are, that is, semantic
primitives: in spite of appearances, they cannot be completely broken
down into anything conceptually simpler. Something approaching this
view has been advocated by Fodor, who argues for a lexicon where each
lexical item is a semantic primitive or atom with no internal definitional
structure:

. . . I take semantic facts with full ontological seriousness, and I can’t think
of a better way to say what ‘keep’ means than to say that it means keep.
If, as I suppose, the concept KEEP is an atom, it’s hardly surprising that
there’s no better way to say what ‘keep’ means than to say it means keep.
I know of no reason, empirical or a priori, to suppose that the expressive
power of English can be captured in a language whose stock of morphologi-
cally primitive expressions is interestingly smaller than the lexicon of English.
(Fodor 1998: 55)

Typically, however, proponents of the conceptual theory of meaning in

linguistics believe that most word meanings are not themselves primitive,
but are composites of a finite stock of primitive concepts. These semantic
primitives are the basic building blocks of meaning out of which all other
meanings can be constructed (see Chapter 8).
The belief that responsible semantic analysis must be grounded in a
level of elementary, primitive units is implicitly or explicitly held by many
semanticists (Fillmore 1971, Jackendoff 1983, Allan 2001: 281; for some
criticisms of primitives see Aitchison 1994). The most thorough-going
example of a theory of semantic primitives in modern linguistics is the
Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) theory of Wierzbicka and Goddard.
Painstaking cross-linguistic research in this framework has led to the
development of the following list of semantic primitives which the NSM
approach uses for the definition of meaning:

I, you, someone, people, something/thing, body; this, the same, other;

one, two, some, all, much/many; good, bad; big, small; think, know, want,
feel, see, hear; say, words, true; do, happen, move; there is, have; live, die;
when/time, now, before, after a long time, a short time, for some time;
where/place, here, above, below, far, near, side, inside; not, maybe, can,
because, if; very, more; kind of, part of; like.
(Goddard 2002: 14)
72 MEANING AND DEFINITION

These 58 elements represent the ‘atoms of meaning’ which are claimed to

be impossible to define in a non-circular manner, and which can be used
to fashion definitions for a large range of words.
A definition in NSM is a reductive paraphrase of the definiendum’s
meaning. Reductive, in that it reduces this meaning into a set of primitive
components, and a paraphrase in that it consists of a textual explanation
of the meaning, which is not simply a list of synonyms or a GD definition
(although it may contain this structure) but a collection of natural lan-
guage sentences in which the meaning is expressed. Among the many
definitions proposed in NSM are those of sun and watch:
sun
something
people can often see this something in the sky
when this something is in the sky
people can see other things because of this
when this something is in the sky
people often feel something because of this (Wierzbicka 1996: 220)
X was watching Y =
for some time X was doing something
because X thought:
when something happens in this place
I want to see it
because X was doing this, X could see Y during this time. (Goddard
2002: 7; cf Wierzbicka 1996: 251)
(Note that sky is not a semantic primitive, but a ‘semantic molecule’ which
can be independently defined with the 58 primitives, perhaps as ‘a place
above all other places’, and which is used here as shorthand for pure
space-saving reasons.)
QUESTION Are these definitions accurate? What is their structure?
But while the semantic primitives can be used to define other members of
the vocabulary of a language, the primitives themselves are impossible to
define in terms of anything simpler.
Semantic analysis in NSM thus consists in explaining a definiendum in
simpler and more comprehensible terms than the definiendum itself. The
58 semantic primitives are supposed to represent the simplest possible
explanatory terms, which cannot themselves be explained by anything
simpler. It is not, for NSM, simply a matter of chance that it is these par-
ticular terms, and not some others, that represent the simplest metalin-
guistic definientia. NSM theory claims that the indefinable nature of its
primitives derives from their status as conceptual primitives: the primitives
are hypothesized, in other words, to express the set of ‘fundamental
human concepts’ (Wierzbicka 1996: 13), considered to be both innate and
universal. What this means is that every natural language possesses an
identical semantic core of primitive concepts from which all the other
lexicalized concepts of the language can be built up. Since this common
core is absolutely universal, it can be stated in any language, and NSM
 2.5 Semantic primitives 73

scholars have devoted considerable energy to testing the list of primitives

reproduced above in order to confirm that every language does, indeed,
have an ‘exponent’ of each suggested primitive.
This commitment to the universality of the metalanguage has involved
NSM theory in more cross-linguistic investigation than is common in
many semantic theories, which still largely focus on familiar Indo-
European languages as the empirical base for the assessment of theoreti-
cal semantic adequacy. This rigorous cross-linguistic orientation is one of
the main advantages of the NSM approach to meaning. Not least among
its benefits is NSM’s utility as a practical tool. Because only defining terms
have been chosen for which well-established cross-linguistic equivalents
exist, the NSM set of primitives provides a convenient tool for cross-
linguistic explanation, and NSM scholars have been able to define a sur-
prising range of vocabulary, including words from domains in which
strikingly delicate and culture-dependent information is contained. An
example would be Wierzbicka’s preliminary definition of the Japanese
emotion term amae:

amae
(a) X thinks something like this:
(b) when Y thinks about me, Y feels something good
(c) Y wants to do good things for me
(d) Y can do good things for me
(e) when I am near Y nothing bad can happen to me
(f) I don’t have to do anything because of this
(g) I want to be near Y
(h) X feels something good because of this (Wierzbicka 1996: 239)

The reader of this definition is arguably in a better position to appreciate the

intricacies of the concept amae than is the reader of any of the numerous
other English explanations of this term which have been proposed in the
literature, and which include ‘lean on a person’s goodwill’, ‘depend on
another’s affection’, ‘act lovingly towards (as a much fondled child towards
its parents)’, ‘to presume upon’, ‘to take advantage of’, ‘be coquettish’, ‘coax’,
‘take advantage of’, and ‘play baby’! As a cognitive definition, in other words,
the NSM paraphrase may be an attractive way of conveying the meaning of
definienda.
In spite of the fact that some linguists find NSM a useful tool for the
analysis and representation of certain aspects of meaning, the method’s
theoretical soundness, as opposed to its practical utility, has been the
subject of considerable criticism (Riemer 2006). As for other definitional
theories of semantics, many of these critiques bear on the alleged inade-
quacy of NSM’s proposed definitions: we will look at this type of criticism
more generally in 2.6.
Aside from these more general problems, we may distinguish two
particular challenges faced by NSM, each of which tells us a lot about
the problems of cross-linguistic definition. The first concerns the uni-
versality of the NSM primitives. Some languages simply lack some of the
74 MEANING AND DEFINITION

allegedly universal primitive terms. As discussed by Bohnemeyer (1998,

2002, 2003), Yukatek Maya (Mayan, Mexico) lacks lexical exponents of
the primitives ‘after’ and ‘before’: the expression of these temporal rela-
tions is achieved primarily through particular combinations of aspec-
tual and/or modal information (Bohnemeyer 2003: 216). Another par-
ticularly common case is where languages merge putative primitives, as
when Japanese ba translates both the primitives ‘if’ and ‘when’
(Goddard 1998: 138), or when Pitjantjatjara (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
kulini has the meanings ‘think’ and ‘hear’ (Goddard 1996: 44). If each
primitive represents a genuinely distinct semantic atom, these mergers
should not be possible.
Even if a language does have unproblematic equivalents for all the NSM
primes, it is not necessarily the case that the types of paraphrase that can
be written in English using these primes will also be possible in other
languages. Diller (1994), for example, discusses some of the problems
raised by the attempt to write NSM definitions using a set of possible Thai
(Tai, Thailand) exponents of the primitives. Thai typically omits overt pro-
nominal reference forms – the equivalents of the primitives ‘I’ and ‘you’ –
unless speakers want to achieve specific communicative goals. When
explicit equivalents of the pronouns are present, Thai offers a number of
possible translations of ‘I’ and ‘You’, which differ in the sociolinguistic
roles (gender, politeness, formality, deference, urbanity) which they
impute to speaker and addressee, as the following list shows:

(26) ‘I’/‘You’ sociolinguistic register

ku:/mu’ng non-deferential, speaker either sex, considered
rude or insulting in educated urban speech; com-
mon in rural speech
kha‡:/e:ng non-deferential, speaker either sex, considered rus-
tic or coarse in urban speech; common in rural
speech
chan/thoe: non-deferential, speaker either sex
kan/kae: non-deferential, intimate, mainly male interlocu-
tors
dichan/khun non-intimate, non-deferential, female speaker
phom/khun deferential, male speaker;
krphom/thân very deferential; male speaker
khaphacaw/than impersonal, formal, speaker either sex
úa/lú’: non-deferential (Chinese associations). (Diller 1994:
167)

To illustrate the effect of these differing dynamics, consider a possible

Thai translation of the sentence ‘I want to go with you’, which only uses
primitives:

(27) chan yà:k pay kàp thoe:

1SG want go with 2
‘I want to go with you.’ (Diller 1994: 168)
 2.5 Semantic primitives 75

From a sociolinguistic point of view, English ‘I want to go with you’ is

relatively neutral, able to be uttered by a large range of speakers of differ-
ing genders, habitual politeness relations and social statuses. The Thai
equivalent in (27), however, is much more restricted: it is the type of sen-
tence which a mother might say to her daughter, but which a daughter
would never say to her mother. None of the possible translations into Thai
of ‘I’ and ‘You’, in fact, is sociolinguistically neutral, but carries with it
suggestions about the identities of the speakers and the relationships
between them. As a result, a semantic explication which uses any of them
will have nothing of the neutral force of the English NSM paraphrases
quoted above, but will carry with it all sorts of subtle indications about
sociolinguistic register – indications which could be misleading if they
are meant to embody entirely abstract, general statements about the
meanings of words throughout an entire language community.
An NSM supporter might reply that this is just a fact about the way these
forms are used, and not a fact about what they mean: we will discuss this
distinction in the next two chapters. But even if we decide that this type of
issue is not relevant to the analysis of the meaning of the forms, the bias
introduced by the particular meanings of the Thai pronouns looks like a
significant obstacle to the efficacy of NSM as a real tool of semantic analy-
sis. NSM was designed not primarily as a method of extensional definition,
but as a tool of cognitive definition. It is intended to make hard to under-
stand concepts in one language comprehensible by translating them into
primitive, allegedly universally understood terms. To the extent that the
sociolinguistic values of the Thai forms confuse this task, NSM’s claim to
furnish cognitive definitions must be considered as compromised.
The second problem with NSM is the fact that many – perhaps all – of
the English exponents of the NSM primes have several senses, with only
one of these senses being identified as universal. (This is not just a prob-
lem with the English exponents of the primitives; the same problem
would exist regardless of the language in which the primitives were
expressed.) For example, in testing for the presence of an exponent of a
primitive meaning in some language, it is not enough simply to ask
whether the language in question has words for ‘I, you, someone, etc.’;
instead, we have to distinguish the sense claimed as universal from the
others: is the primitive TRUE, for instance, better represented by the mean-
ing present in (28) or (29)?

(28) If you read it in a book it must be true.

(29) You must be true to yourself.

The most obvious way to distinguish the intended sense would be simply
to define it verbally. But since, ex hypothesi, the semantic primitives are
indefinable, this option is unavailable. As a result, the project of testing
the primitives cross-linguistically is seriously compromised, since you can
never be sure that a claimed exponent of a primitive in a given language
does in fact correspond to the required primitive meaning. (See Goddard
(2002) for some suggested solutions to this problem.)
76 MEANING AND DEFINITION

These problems disappear if NSM’s claim to universality is abandoned,

since only universal theories of semantic primitives are open to the sorts of
criticism just advanced. If your theory only commits you to the existence
of indefinable primitives within a single language, problems about cross-
linguistic equivalence do not arise. This is the approach of, for example,
Apresjan (2000: 228), for whom ‘[s]emantic primitiveness is determined . . .
by the structure of the lexicon of the language being described: lexeme L
is considered a primitive if the given language has no L1, L2 . . . Ln via which
it might be explicated’. In the next section, however, we will see that even
this type of practice is threatened by quite general problems with the
notion of definition.

2.6 Problems with definitions

So far we have been assuming that it is actually possible to formulate suc-
cessful definitions for words in a significant number of cases. We should
not take this for granted, however. One of the most frequent criticisms of
definitional theories of semantics (as opposed, for example, to referential/
denotational ones: see 1.6.1) is that no satisfying definition of a word has
ever actually been formulated. The scepticism about the existence of defi-
nitions is so widespread, in fact, that many researchers in disciplines
closely related to linguistics, such as cognitive science and artificial intel-
ligence, have completely abandoned the idea that definitions even exist
(see Fodor 1998 for details): the emphasis on definition in linguistics
strikes many from these other disciplines as misguided. The overall rejec-
tion of definition outside linguistics as a defensible mode of meaning
analysis has various motivations. Many of them derive from the problems
involved in a psychologistic interpretation of definitions as concepts, in
which the structure of a definition reflects the structure of the underlying
concept (so that, for example, the concept BACHELOR could be said to be the
combination of the concepts UNMARRIED and MAN in just the same way as
the definition of bachelor might be thought to be ‘unmarried man’).
Linguistics, however, is not necessarily committed to a conceptualist
interpretation of definitions. As our initial typology of definition sug-
gested, a definition can serve many purposes, of which revealing the puta-
tive underlying conceptual structure of a unit of language is only one.
Nevertheless, the extreme difficulty of phrasing accurate definitions
should be an embarrassment to any theory in which definitions are a
privileged mode of semantic analysis.
A classic case of definitional inadequacy is the proposed ‘definition’ we
have just mentioned of bachelor as ‘unmarried man’; this is the type of
definition found in many popular dictionaries. One problem here is that
there are many types of unmarried male, such as widowers, the Pope and
Tarzan, whom we would not describe as bachelors. As a result, ‘unmarried
male’ is not substitutable for bachelor salva veritate, and the definition
therefore fails. There are many other examples like this. Even though we
typically think of many words as having concise definitions, and that
these definitions accurately convey the word’s meaning, more detailed
 2.6 Problems with definitions 77

investigation reveals that our intuitions on this are in fact mistaken:

when these definitions are subjected to scrutiny, it readily emerges that
they are not, in fact, successful (for more examples, see 7.1.2).
A possible response here would be to claim that it is only the extreme
brevity of the definition of bachelor which accounts for its inadequacy. If a
definer tries hard enough, satisfactory definitions can be achieved: it is
just that no one has yet taken the time to do so. This is exactly the point
made by Wierzbicka (1996). According to her, the true definitions of most
ordinary words are significantly longer than the brief statements we are
used to reading in dictionaries. Here, for example, is her ‘imperfect first
approximation’ definition of paint:

X painted Y with Z. =

(a) X did something to Y

(b) like people do
(c) when they want something to look good
(d) when X did it
(e) X put some stuff Z on all parts of Y that one could see
(f ) if someone looked at Z at that time
(g) this person could say what colour Z was
(h) at the same time, this person could think that part of Z was water
(i) X wanted Z to be like part of Y
( j) after X did it, Z was like part of Y. (Wierzbicka 1996: 254–255)

As Wierzbicka points out, this definition is both longer, and structurally

different from the types of definition familiar from dictionaries. It is
essentially a definition by context, specifying ‘a fairly complex scenario,
with a number of temporal and causal links between the components’
(Wierzbicka 1996: 255). Even in this complex, detailed form, however, the
definition’s accuracy can be challenged. If I have painted a car with red car
enamel, there are many visible parts of the car which are not painted –
the glass, the bumper bar, the headlights, the number plate, etc. Similar
remarks apply to the sentence She painted her face with rouge. This invali-
dates component (e) of the definition. Components (i) and ( j) are also
problematic: if I painted a box with red paint, do we really want to say that I
wanted the red paint to be like part of the box and that when I had finished the
red paint was like part of the box? Maybe we do, maybe we don’t: in any case,
it doesn’t seem clear enough to warrant inclusion in a definition.
Similarly, the whole definition is equally appropriate as a definition of the
word spray, as in the sentences I sprayed my arm with insect repellant or I
sprayed the flower with water. I did this in order for my arm/the flower to look
good (in the case of the arm, so that it would not be covered with ugly
bites (component (c)), anyone looking at the repellant or the spray at that
time, as at any other, could say what colour it was (component (g) – white,
or transparent), the spray is clearly water-like (h) and I wanted the spray to
become like part of the arm/the flower (components (i) and (j)). But since
spray and paint are intuitively not synonyms, the definition of paint should
exclude spray. (Note that spraying is also not a kind of painting; we cannot
78 MEANING AND DEFINITION

define spray simply by adding some extra components to the definition of

paint.) This objection is possible because of the definition’s description of
the physical action of painting as putting stuff on the visible parts of the
object. There are several ways of putting stuff on the visible parts of an
object which observe all the conditions in (a) to (j) but which are not paint-
ing: as well as spraying, the process of dipping comes to mind. Apparently,
then, increasing the length and detail of a definition does not necessarily
increase its accuracy. (See Geeraerts 1993 for more discussion.)
One typical response to criticisms of definitions has been to claim that
the definition captures the core, central, or prototypical part of the definien-
dum’s meaning, and that the respects in which the definition fails all
involve special or peripheral aspects (for a discussion of the notion of pro-
totype, see Chapter 7). Thus, Wierzbicka introduces components (b) and (c)
into the definition of paint in order to take account of cases like painting
something with a special solution in order to protect it against rust: this
is not strictly done in order to make something look good, but it is like
other acts of painting which do have this goal. Similarly, one could
respond to the above criticism of component (e) by saying that the usual
case when painting something is that the thing being painted be com-
pletely covered, and that other cases are somehow derived from this one.
And to return to our earlier examples, a linguist could claim that ‘unmar-
ried male’ is still a legitimate definition of bachelor in spite of the counter-
examples of widowers, etc., because it captures the core sense of bachelor.
These sorts of response are reasonable insofar as it does seem to be true
that many words have a central set of typical applications, and a set of less
typical ones. Bachelor, for instance, does indeed very often refer to unmar-
ried males, even if not all unmarried males can be described as bachelors.
We will consider this type of view of word meaning in Chapter 7. But with-
out a principled way of delimiting what does and does not count as a core
meaning or a prototypical instance of a word, it is too easy for the definer
to simply dismiss any counterexample to a definition as simply relating to
a ‘non-core’ aspect of the definiendum’s meaning. Fodor puts this option
with characteristic bluntness:
‘Core meaning’ and the like are not, however, notions for which much
precise explication gets provided in the lexical semantics literature. The
upshot, often enough, is that the definitions that are put on offer are
isolated, simply by stipulation, from prima facie counterexamples.
This strikes me as a mug’s game, and not one that I’m tempted to play.
I take the proper ground rule to be that one expression defines another
only if the two expressions are synonymous; and I take it to be a neces-
sary condition for their synonymy that whatever one expression applies
to, the other does too. (1998: 48)
Under this view, a definition has to be substitutable for the definiendum
in every single context. As we will see in the next chapter, given the infi-
nite variety of language use, it would seem that any word can be used in
any context (to see this, think of errors, joke contexts and fantasy): as a
result, a comprehensive definition would seem unattainable.
 2.7 Definition, understanding and use 79

Many linguists, however, would reject the argument that the heteroge-
neity of uses renders comprehensive definition impossible. For them, the
fact that any word can be used in any context is only true in a trivial sense:
there are clear differences between core and non-core uses, and defini-
tions are possible for the former.

2.7 Definition, understanding and use

What is the point of defining meaning? In some domains of human activ-
ity, definitions function as the guarantors of the consistency of language.
This is particularly so in science and technology. If metallurgists, for
example, did not have any fixed working definition of terms like iron or
copper, it would be impossible to check that two metallurgists talking
about iron, for example, were in fact talking about the same substance.
Needless to say, this need for checking does not usually arise in a domain
like metallurgy, where the definitions of terms are well established; in any
cases of doubt, however, it is precisely the existence of the definition that
provides the ultimate guarantee that language is being used in a consis-
tent way. The law is another obvious domain in which the role of defini-
tion is central. Juridical terms like murder, contract or fraud require clear
definitions which fix their denotation by designating exactly what does
and does not count as an example of each. The provision of these defini-
tions is a time-consuming and unending process, and there is often little
agreement as to what the ‘true’ definition of such terms actually is. But
whenever a legal argument is mounted about the appropriateness of a
certain legal term to a certain situation, it is, in effect, that term’s defini-
tion in that domain which is in question.
The case of ordinary uses of natural language is both similar and differ-
ent. Mostly, conversation and other examples of language proceed with-
out the need for explicit definition: this is only ever required to resolve
confusions. And when we do ask for clarification about the correct use of
a word, nominal definitions of words’ meanings are not usually either
solicited or provided. Thus, if I am unsure about the meaning of the word
dupe, I am more likely to ask the question ‘what’s a dupe?’ rather than the
question ‘what does dupe mean?’ Furthermore, the answer I receive will
usually not, as noted by Riegel (1990: 97–98), be of the form ‘the word dupe
means/signifies/designates a gullible person’, but rather of the form, ‘a
dupe is a gullible person’. Even when a genuine nominal definition is
offered, the gap between a cognitive and an extensional definition is very
great. Thus, I can define the meaning of water extensionally as H2O, but if
the addressee of the definition has no knowledge of chemistry this defini-
tion will not be effective in bringing about an understanding of the
word’s meaning.
But definitions do take on a central role in language use if we take con-
cepts to be essentially definitional in nature, and assume that concepts
are or enter into the meanings of words. If concepts correspond to word
meanings, and word meanings can be captured in definitions, then it is
the definition which is in some sense activated during language use. To
80 MEANING AND DEFINITION

claim that definitions are involved in language use in this way is not to
claim that they are so involved consciously. We may be quite able to use a
word appropriately, without being able to phrase a satisfactory definition
of it: the knowledge enabling correct use of the word is unconscious, and
in no way implies an ability to produce an explicit definition. To say, then,
that concepts are or function as definitions is certainly not to say that we
consciously carry around a dictionary-like list in our heads.

Summary Meaning, definition and the mental lexicon

The concept of a word’s meaning is closely linked to the concept of
definition. Many linguists identify the task of linguistic semantics with
the task of describing the entries stored in the mental lexicon, a stock
of words and meanings stored in long-term memory: the definition
of a word is part of its entry in the mental lexicon, and the process of
matching a meaning with a word-form is assumed to be analogous to
that involved in consulting a dictionary. In order to serve the purposes
of serious linguistic description, the definitions in the lexicon must be
much more detailed than is usual in ordinary dictionaries.

What units need to receive definition?

Any attempt to analyse the meanings of language must specify what
the meaning-bearing units are. Individual lexemes are the central
examples of units with individually describable meanings. Morphemes
also have meanings, as do phrasal verbs and compounds.
Ambiguities about the level of grammatical structure to which
meaning is correctly attributed are not infrequent: sound symbolism
and idioms exemplify cases where the correct level for the analysis of a
meaning may not be clear.

Real and nominal definition

We can distinguish two types of definition:

• definition of the essence of a thing (real definition), or

• definition of the meaning of a word (nominal definition).
Most linguists take nominal definition to be the type that is of interest
to linguistic semantic research.

Cognitive and extensional definition

A nominal definition may be of two types:

• cognitive (aimed to inculcate an understanding of the word’s cor-

rect use), or
• extensional (aimed at delimiting the denotation of the word).
 Further reading 81

Modes of definition
Cognitive nominal definition can take a number of forms. It may be

• definition by ostension,
• definition by synonymy,
• definition by context or typical exemplar, or
• definition by genus and differentia.
Often, definitions combine these means.
Definitions are typically required to be truth-preserving under sub-
stitution for their definiendum.

Semantic primitives
Certain theories of semantics try to restrict the language of defini-
tions to a set of universal or language-specific semantic primitives, but
these attempts are faced with many difficulties. Not least of these is
the extreme difficulty in accurately defining words: whether based on
semantic primitives or not, no fully accurate definition of a word has
ever been advanced in linguistics.
Mostly, conversation and other instances of language use proceed
without the need for explicit definition: this is only ever required to
resolve confusions. From this point of view, explicit definition plays a
rather insignificant role in language. But definitions take on a central
role in language use if we take concepts to be essentially definitional
in nature, and assume that concepts are or enter into the meanings of
words.

Further reading
On dictionaries and their histories, see Landau (1984), and, for readers of French, Collinot and Mazière
(1997) and Matoré (1968). Dixon and Aikhenvald (2002) is an up-to-date discussion of the problem of
wordhood in the languages of the world. On onomasiology and semasiology, see Baldinger (1980). Voeltz
and Kilian-Hatz (2001) is a volume of articles on sound symbolism. On English compounds, see Bauer
(1998). On theoretical lexicography, see Apresjan (2000). On contextual modulation, see Murphy (2002:
415–422). Robinson (1950) and Chapter 6 of Ogden and Richards (1949) are accessible (if somewhat old-
fashioned) introductions to issues in definition quite generally; Chaurand and Mazière (1990) is a useful col-
lection (in French) of short articles on historical and theoretical aspects of definition. For an influential discus-
sion of synonymy see Mates (1950). On semantic primitives, see Katz and Fodor (1963). Wierzbicka (1996)
is a comprehensive introduction to NSM. For discussion and criticism of the theory, see the special volume of
Theoretical Linguistics 29 (2003). Fodor (1998) contains a detailed critique of definitional attempts in lin-
guistic semantics. The International Journal of Lexicography publishes articles relevant to many of the themes
of this chapter.
82 MEANING AND DEFINITION

Exercises
Analytical questions
1. Use the internet to find as many examples as possible of sentences con-
taining one of the following words: hold, fluffy, horse, keep, early, finish,
problem and pernicious. Aim for at least fifty examples of each word
from as wide a range of contexts as possible, and formulate definitions of
them which fit all the examples.
2. Consult a German dictionary and try to find possible examples of sound
symbolism. Is it always clear whether a form should be considered ideo-
phonic? How might one decide? (Some suggestions: Glanz ‘gleam, shine,
sparkle’, gleißen ‘gleam, glisten’, glimmen ‘glow’, glitzern ‘glitter’, glühen
‘glow’, Glut ‘embers’, ‘glow’, glitschen ‘slip’, glitschig ‘slippery’, glatt
‘smooth’, Glatze ‘bald head’, gleiten ‘glide, slide, skid’.)
3. How compositional or idiomatic are the following verbs/verb phrases:
take pride in, cut short, see fit, put paid to, catch sight of, lose touch,
lose hope, make allowance for, pride oneself on, pay attention to, put
up with, look down on, break even, make do with, get rid of, get going,
play around, take off, touch down, bring up (children), turn on (a
light)?
4. Webster’s dictionary and the Concise Oxford relate the meaning of green
in green with envy to the ‘pale, sick, wan’ sense of green (e.g. She looks
quite green when she is seasick). COBUILD, however, lists it as a sepa-
rate sense, and OALD lists it as an idiom. What are the pros and cons of
these different arrangements? Is there any evidence one could bring to
bear to determine the best description?

Questions for discussion

5. Consider the following comment of Bloomfield’s: ‘In language teaching
the difficulty of describing meanings makes a great deal of trouble. By tra-
dition we assign a meaning, in the shape of a brief English definition, to
each foreign word; then, whenever the foreign language does not agree
with our grammatical rules and definitions, we say that it has an “idiom”’
(Quoted in Hockett 1970: 404). Bloomfield implies that the category of
idiom is only a result of the inadequacy of definition: given adequate
definitions, idioms disappear. Is this a reasonable view of the status of
idioms in the lexicon?
6. Consider the English form written ’ll (as in tomorrow I’ll be skiing).
Semantically, this form has the same meaning as the auxiliary verb will,
but its syntactic properties are very different: unlike will, ’ll may not
occur independently in English, but must always be suffixed to a pre-
ceding Noun Phrase (typically a pronoun). This is because ’ll violates
phonological minimality in English. What this means is that ’ll not
only is not, but cannot be an independent word in English, since every
independent English word must have at least one vowel (a ‘pure’ vowel
or a diphthong). Thus, while a fully fledged word like I [aI] or owe [ә ¨]
does not have any other segments than a single diphthong, anything
lacking a diphthong or vowel does not have word status in English. ’ll is
not thus a phonological word in English. Is it a grammatical word?
7. In 2.1.1 we discussed the Concise Oxford’s definition of pour. Compare the
definitions from the other dictionaries below, and describe them with respect
 Exercises 83

to their definitional technique (GD, synonymy, context, typical example).

What are the virtues and disadvantages of each? How accurate are they?
Webster’s Unabridged 2nd edn. (2001)

v.t. 1. to send (a liquid, fluid, or anything in loose particles) flowing or

falling, as from one container to another, or into, over, or on something:
to pour a glass of milk; to pour water on a plant. 2. to emit or propel,
esp. continuously or rapidly: The hunter poured bullets into the moving
object. 3. to produce or utter in or as in a stream or flood (often fol. by
out): to pour out one’s troubles to a friend. – v.i. 4. to issue, move or
proceed in great quantity or number: Crowds poured from the stadium
after the game. 5. to flow forth or along; stream: Floodwaters poured
over the embankments. 6. to rain heavily (often used impersonally with it
as subject): It was pouring, but fortunately we had umbrellas.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 6th edn. (2000)
1. [VN] [usually + adv./prep.] to make a liquid or other substance flow from
a container in a continuous stream, especially by holding the container at
an angle: Pour the sauce over the pasta. Although I poured it carefully, I
still managed to spill some.
2. [V + adv./prep.] (of liquid, smoke, light, etc.) to flow quickly in a continu-
ous stream. Tears poured down his cheeks. Thick black smoke was pour-
ing out the roof.
3. (sth) (out) to serve a drink by letting it flow from a container into a glass
or cup: [VN] Will you pour the coffee? I was in the kitchen, pouring out
drinks. [VN, VNN] I’ve poured a cup of tea for you. I’ve poured you a cup
of tea. Shall I pour?
4. [V] when rain pours down or when it’s pouring with rain, rain is falling
heavily: The rain continued to pour down. It’s pouring outside. It’s pour-
ing with rain.
5. [V + adv./prep.] to come or go somewhere continuously in large num-
bers. Letters of complaint continue to pour in. Commuters came pouring
out of the station.
PHR V pour sth into sth to provide a large amount of money for sth: The
government has poured millions into the education system. pour out when
feelings or someone’s words pour out, they are expressed, usually after they
have been kept hidden for some time: Wave after wave of pent up emotion
poured out. The whole story then came pouring out.
COBUILD English Learner’s Dictionary (1989)
1. If you pour a liquid or other substance, you make it flow steadily out of a
container by holding the container at an angle. Eg The waiter poured
the wine into her glass . . . . . .a machine that poured grain into sacks. =
decant
2. If you pour someone a drink, you fill a cup or glass with the drink so that
they can drink it. Eg He poured Ellen a glass of wine . . . . . .Lally poured
herself another cup of tea . . . She poured a drink for herself.
3. When a liquid or other substance pours somewhere, for example
through a hole, it flows there quickly and in large quantities. Eg The rain
poured through a hole in the roof . . . The sweat began to pour down his
face. = stream
84 MEANING AND DEFINITION

4. When it rains very heavily, you can say that it is pouring. Eg In London it
poured all the time . . . It was absolutely pouring with rain. = bucket
5. If people or animals pour into or out of a place, they go there quickly and in
large numbers. Eg Refugees are now pouring into this country. = stream
6. If information pours into or out of a place, a lot of it is obtained or given.
Eg Messages of encouragement poured in from people of all
kinds . . . . . . the lies that poured from headquarters. = flood, stream
7. If you pour money or energy into an activity or organization, you use a
lot of money or energy in order to do the activity or help the organiza-
tion. Eg The state is pouring money into further education . . . They
poured their energies into religious reform. = pump,
pour out
1. If you pour out a drink, you fill a cup or glass with it. Eg Castle poured out
two glasses of whisky. 2. If you pour out your thoughts, feelings or experi-
ences, you tell someone all about them. Eg I was on the verge of pouring
out all my feelings . . . He poured out a horrifying story. = reveal
8. Answer the same questions for the following definitions of ram:
OALD 6th edn. 2000.

vb. ‘1 [VN] (of a vehicle, ship, etc.) to drive into or hit another vehicle, ship,
etc. with force, sometimes deliberately: Two passengers were injured when
their taxi was rammed from behind by a bus. 2 [VN + adv./prep.] to push
smth with force: She rammed the key into the lock. (figurative) The spending
cuts had been rammed through Congress. IDM ram sth home (especially
BrE) to emphasize an idea argument, etc. very strongly to make sure people
listen to it. PHR V ram into sth, ram sth into sth to hit against sth or to make
sth hit against sth He rammed his truck into the back of the one in front.
Concise Oxford 9th edn. 1995
v.tr. 1 force or squeeze into place by pressure. 2 (usu. foll. by down,
in, into) beat down or drive in by heavy blows. 3 (of a ship, vehicle, etc)
strike violently, crash against 4 (foll. by against, at, on, into) dash or vio-
lently impel. ● ram home, stress forcefully (an argument, lesson, etc.)
Webster’s 2nd edn. 2001
v.t. 10 [entry numbers continuous with noun entries] to drive or force by
heavy blows. 11. to strike with great force, dash violently against: The car
went out of control and rammed the truck. 12. to cram; stuff: They rammed
the gag in his mouth. 13. To push firmly: to ram a bill through the Senate.
9. The Warlpiri verb pakarni has a multitude of possible English translations;
just some are ‘hit’, ‘strike’, ‘bump’, ‘crash into’, ‘slap’, ‘kick’, ‘knock’, ‘whip’, ‘run
into’, ‘beat’, ‘thrash’, ‘thresh’, ‘thresh out of’, ‘get by hitting’, ‘get by threshing’,
‘hunt’, ‘hunt and kill’, ‘chop’, ‘cut’, ‘fashion into’, ‘chop (into)’, ‘chop out of’,
‘pierce’, ‘dig in(to)’, ‘thrust into’, ‘stick into’, ‘paint’, ‘put on’, ‘apply to’, ‘smear
with’, ‘fill oneself with’, ‘stuff oneself with’, ‘have one’s fill of’, ‘gorge oneself’,
‘try to catch up with’, ‘dance’, ‘perform’, ‘initiate’, and ‘circumcise’.
The main Warlpiri dictionary arranges these glosses into the following
seven meaning groups (ERG stands for ergative case; the ‘double dative’
is a particular syntactic construction):
 Exercises 85

1. xERG produce concussion on surface of y, by some entity coming into

contact with y
hit, strike, bump, crash into, slap, kick, knock, whip, run into, beat,
thrash, thresh
Where y is a game animal:
hunt, hunt and kill.
xERG cause some entity to move towards yDAT [Double Dative], in
order to hit (pakarni) y
take a swing at, hit at, strike (out) at
2. xERG produce separation in y, by causing sharp edged instrument (typically
axe) to come into contact with y, by forcefully manipulating said instrument
chop, cut
3. xERG produce indentation in y (typically ground), by causing some sharp
pointed entity to come into contact with y, by forcefully manipulating said
entity
pierce, dig into, thrust into, stick into
4. xERG paint y
paint, put on, apply to, smear with
5. Idiom: xERG cause self to be excessively satiated, by ingesting large quan-
tity of food or drink
fill oneself with, stuff oneself with, have one’s fill of, gorge oneself
6. Idiom: xERG move along path towards y [Double Dative], in order to be
at same place as y
try to catch up with, try to reach
7. Idiom: xERG (typically man) performs y (= ceremony), by moving along a
path in a stylized manner usually involving a high stepping movement of
legs and forceful lowering of feet to the ground
dance, perform corroboree
8. Idiom: xERG (= initiated man) perform ceremonial actions for the benefit
of y (= male human previously uninitiated) at circumcision ceremony
initiate, circumcise, make man
9. xERG (= head cold/influenza) produce characteristic effect on y (= being)
have a cold, have the flu, have pneumonia, have bronchitis
Based simply on the meanings of the English glosses, what other arrange-
ments are conceivable? Can you see other ways of grouping the glosses
into broader definitional categories? What would one need to know about
Warlpiri in order to decide what the best arrangement is?
10. Words like good/bad and right/wrong seem particularly hard to define.
Why? Do they present any special problems for the belief that all words
have definitions?
 CHA PT E R

3 The scope of
meaning I:
external context

CHAPTER PREVIEW
Linguistic expressions can only occur in particular contexts; as a result, working
out what role context plays in the determination of meaning is an important part
of semantic analysis. This chapter considers one essential type of context: the
external or real-world context to which linguistic expressions refer.
We begin by discussing an important distinction: the distinction between what
a word inherently means, and what it can be used to mean in a particular con-
text, showing that this distinction is often not self-evident. We then distinguish
the different types of task a hearer must perform to correctly understand a lin-
guistic expression in its context (3.1).
In 3.2 we begin the treatment of external context by considering the relation
between sense and reference, discussing
◆ the origins of this distinction in Frege;
◆ its applications in linguistics; and
◆ the nature of deictic expressions, which can be seen as a bridge between
language and its surrounding external context.
In 3.3. we discuss, and reject, a possible distinction between knowledge of a
word’s inherent, linguistic meaning (dictionary knowledge) and knowledge of
facts about the word’s external context (encyclopaedic knowledge).
88 THE SCOPE OF MEANING I: EXTERNAL CONTEXT

3.1 Meaning and context

For the purposes of deciding what a piece of language means, no utter-
ance can be considered as a self-standing whole: words only exist within
particular contexts, and we will not be able to achieve an adequate
description of meaning if we don’t take these contexts into account.
Indeed, one of the main questions which any theory of meaning has to
answer concerns the scope of an expression’s meaning: how much of the
total effect of an expression is to be attributed to its meaning, and how
much to the context in which it occurs? For example, consider the mean-
ing of the English possessive morpheme (-s) in (1a) and (1b):

(1) a. Denise’s teacher got burnt.

b. Denise’s brioche got burnt.

The possessive morpheme expresses two quite different relationships in

each sentence: in (1a) it denotes a relationship like that of the verb teach
to its object: (1a) means ‘the person who teaches Denise got burnt’. In
(1b), on the other hand, it denotes a relation of ownership or possession:
Denise’s brioche got burnt means ‘the brioche belonging to Denise got
burnt’. But does this difference result from a difference in the meaning of
the possessive case, or is it a product of the context in which it is used?
To many linguists, it would seem wrong to claim that the English posses-
sive morpheme -s has two different meanings in (1a) and (1b). Instead,
these linguists would claim, we should analyse its meaning in abstract
terms, as denoting a quite general relation of dependence between two
nouns, and leave the details of this relation in a given context to be sup-
plied through the application of our real-world knowledge about the
things being referred to. We know that people’s relationships with teach-
ers are different from their relationships with food. As a result, the pos-
sessive case in the context of a word like teacher receives a quite different
interpretation from the one it has in the context of a word like brioche,
even though the general, abstract meaning of the possessive – marking
an (unspecified) dependence between the two nouns – is the same in each
case. The fact that the exact details of this general, unspecified meaning
may be vague, and in any case are open to various interpretations, does
not detract from the intuition that it is the same meaning present in both
cases.
In this chapter, we will consider the external or real-world context to
which linguistic expressions refer. Our understanding of expressions’
meaning is often closely related to our knowledge of this context. The
next chapter discusses the interpersonal context of linguistic action in
which any utterance is placed. In order to interpret an expression correctly,
it would seem that a hearer must perform a number of related tasks
which involve these two different types of context. For example, consider
someone interested in learning to play golf, who receives the advice All
golfers need to find some good clubs. In order to understand what the speaker
means, the hearer must:
 3.1 Meaning and context 89

1. Disambiguate the noun club, which can mean both ‘implement used
to hit golf ball’ and ‘association in charge of a golf course’. Given the
context, which interpretation is intended?
2. Assign referents to the noun phrases all golfers and good clubs: who
does the speaker mean by golfers? What, for them, is a good club?
3. Determine the quantity referred to by some: roughly how many clubs
does the speaker count as some, as opposed to lots?
4. Realize that the expression is intended as part of the context of
advice, and is an instruction to find good clubs, not an assertion about
a universal obligation falling on all golfers: this realization concerns
the illocutionary force of the utterance.
5. As a result of (4), extract the implication that since all golfers need to
find some good clubs, the hearer must also try to find some.

QUESTION Is there anything else which the hearer must realize in

order to interpret the statement properly? How separate are the tasks
in (1)–(5)?
In cases like this, the hearer makes the important interpretative decisions
quite automatically. In fact, it is rather artificial even to differentiate the
five different elements above: all that is required, you might think, is for
the hearer to realize how, holistically, to take the instruction. Nevertheless,
each item of the list expresses aspects of utterance interpretation which
can be observed separately. The question of the interrelations between
these different types of interpretative task will be important throughout
this and the next chapter.
QUESTION Describe the decisions the hearer has to make about the
interpretation of the following utterances in order to understand the
speaker’s likely meaning:
Customers are informed that the shop will be closing in fifteen minutes.
Could you pass the chilli sauce?
No one’s going to the bar tonight.
I’m sorry to bother you.
What are you doing here?
Will you ever grow up?
I can’t believe you called me that.
Semantics is not the only field interested in phenomena like these: the
subdiscipline of linguistics called pragmatics (Greek praxis, ‘action’),
which concerns the use of language in real contexts, also studies them.
Semantics and pragmatics are closely related. Pragmatics cannot study
language use without a prior conception of meaning: without knowing
what words mean, one cannot decide how speakers modify and manipu-
late these meanings in actual situations of language use. Similarly,
semantics cannot arrive at any description of what words mean without
looking at the ways they are used in different contexts. This interrelation
between meaning and use means that pragmatics and semantics exist in
a close symbiosis.
90 THE SCOPE OF MEANING I: EXTERNAL CONTEXT

3.2 External context: sense and reference

Perhaps the most basic type of context is the extralinguistic context of
reference, which concerns the entities which an expression is about.
(Following the Austrian philosopher Franz Brentano (1838–1917), the prop-
erty, shared by thoughts and meanings, of being about things other than
themselves – objects in the world, possible states of affairs, etc. – is known
as their intentionality.)
As discussed in Chapter 1, reference is one of the fundamental con-
cepts of the study of meaning. However, for a long time the distinction
was not explicitly drawn between an expression’s referent (the object to
which it refers) and its sense (its general meaning, abstracted from its use
to refer). It was the German logician and philosopher of mathematics
Gottlob Frege (1848–1925) who first saw the significance of this distinc-
tion. Frege’s primary concerns had little to do with language; for much
of his career, his main goal was to clarify the logical bases of arithmetic.
Between about 1891 and 1906, however, he became interested in ques-
tions of meaning, and elaborated the distinction between sense (Sinn) and
reference (Bedeutung) that subsequent philosophy and linguistics have
inherited.

3.2.1 The Fregean distinction

Frege had no single term for ‘meaning’, in the sense of the knowledge
needed to understand a word (Dummett 2001: 12). Instead, he distin-
guished three aspects of a word’s total semantic effect:

• its ‘force’, which covered whether it was a statement or a question (he

seems not to have considered other categories like commands);
• its ‘tone’ or ‘colouring’, which refers to differences of register and
connotation (such as the difference between the verbs die, be deceased,
and pass away: Dummett 2001);
• and its sense.
The notions of force and tone are reasonably self-explanatory. But
what is sense? In his famous 1892 essay ‘On sense and reference’
(sometimes translated ‘sense and nominatum’), Frege introduced the
distinction between sense and reference in order to explain a puzzle
about statements of identity like those in the (a) and (b) pairs of (2)–(7)
below:

(2) a. The morning star is the morning star.

b. The morning star is the evening star.

(3) a. Abou Ammar is Abou Ammar.

b. Abou Ammar is Yasser Arafat.

(4) a. Amber is amber.

b. Amber is fossilized tree resin.
 3.2 External context: sense and reference 91

(5) a. The president of the World Chess Federation is the President of the World
Chess Federation.
b. The president of the World Chess Federation is the president of the
Republic of Kalmykia.

(6) a. The founder of the FBI is the founder of the FBI.

b. The founder of the FBI is the grandson of the King of Westphalia.

(7) a. The Feast of Saint Sylvester is The Feast of Saint Sylvester.

b. The Feast of Saint Sylvester is New Year’s Eve.

If all there is to meaning is simply reference, there should be no differ-

ence between each pair of sentences (we are ignoring tone and force,
which are not relevant in these examples). This is because in each case
both noun phrases have the same referent: the planet Venus in (2), the
former president of the Palestinian Authority in (3), amber in (4), the
Kalmykian president Kirsan Nikolayevich Ilyumzhinov in (5), Charles
Joseph Bonaparte in (6), and December 31 in (7). There is, however, a clear
difference: while the (a) sentences are tautologies and uninformative –
they don’t give us any information – the (b) sentences clearly do tell us
something. But if a term’s reference is all there is to its meaning, how can
this be explained? If meaning is no more than what a term refers to, the
two pairs of sentences should not differ at all in their cognitive effect.
Frege’s solution to this puzzle was that an expression’s reference is not,
after all, the only part of its meaning: there is something else, which he
called its sense. An expression’s sense is the way in which we grasp or
understand its referent. It is sense which gives an expression its cognitive
value or significance. One way of thinking of an expression’s sense is as
the mode of presentation of its referent: the way in which the referent
is presented to our understanding. It is precisely because the noun phrases
in the (b) sentences above have different ways of presenting their referents
that the phrases are informative. The sense of ‘morning star’, which must
be something like ‘star visible in the morning’, is clearly apparent from
the elements of the expression itself; this is a different mode of presenta-
tion of the term’s referent, Venus, from the one we see in the ‘evening
star’.
In other cases, the exact nature of an expression’s sense – its mode of
presentation to our understanding – may be less obvious: what, for exam-
ple, is the sense of a proper name like Yasser Arafat or Abou Ammar? The
nature of sense is one of the central topics of the philosophy of language.
Philosophers like Frege and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) thought that the
sense of a proper name is some information which uniquely distinguishes
the referent. The other main theory about the reference of proper names
is a causal-historical one, according to which names are linked to their
referents by a chain of actual naming events: in the first instance, a refer-
ent is given a name, and the name is passed down through the speech
community: see Donnellan (1972) and Kripke (1980).
92 THE SCOPE OF MEANING I: EXTERNAL CONTEXT

Sense and reference are not on an equal footing in Frege’s theory of

meaning. For him, sense determines reference. It is the sense of an expression
which allows us to know what it refers to. For example, if I know what the
word amber can refer to, this is because I have a conception of its sense
which allows me to pick out real examples of amber when I am confronted
with them. If the sense of amber is ‘fossilized tree resin’, then whenever I
encounter a piece of fossilized tree resin, I can identify it as a referent of the
word amber and accordingly call it amber. Alternatively, if the sense of amber
is ‘golden-yellow semiprecious stone’, then every time I come across a
golden-yellow precious stone I can also identify it as amber. Thus, for Frege
it is not just an arbitrary fact that words have the denotations (classes of
referent) they do. A word only refers in virtue of its sense. Senses, not refer-
ents, form parts of our thoughts. The only access we have to actual referents
is via the senses of the words which refer to them, and these senses are the
forms (modes of presentation) in which they come before our understand-
ing. Actual amber obviously cannot be embodied physically in our thoughts;
instead, in order for us to think about it, it must be presented to our minds
in some particular way, and this particular ‘mode of presentation’ is the
sense of the word amber. It is consistent with this picture of the relation
between sense and reference that some expressions (square circle, six-foot high
midget, etc.) clearly have sense, but lack reference: sense, not reference, is
the essential part of meaning (see Chapter 1 for discussion).
It is not just individual expressions which have sense and reference,
according to Frege: entire sentences do as well. Sentences, for Frege, are
the expressions of thoughts, so the sense of a sentence is the thought it
expresses. This is reasonably straightforward. On the other hand, Frege’s
ideas about a sentence’s reference are at first sight fairly surprising: Frege
said that the reference of a sentence is the sentence’s status as true or
false: its truth-value. Thus, a true sentence refers to Truth, and a false
sentence refers to Falsity in the same way as proper names like Tom refer
to particular individuals.
The Fregean doctrine of the reference of sentences is likely to cause
considerable bewilderment. Naively, one might have thought either that
the notion of reference was simply not relevant to sentences, or that the
referent of a sentence would be some sort of situation (for a development
of this line of thinking, see Barwise and Perry 1983). In any case, it is not
easy to see how a sentence – or, for that matter, anything else – can be said
to refer to Truth. There is not enough space here to go into Frege’s motiva-
tion for his position (see Dummett 2001: 13–14). What it shows, though, is
the central place occupied for him by the notion of truth. Truth is the
basic notion in Frege’s semantic theory, through which both sense and
reference are to be explained. To know the sense of a sentence, or to have
the thought expressed by the sentence is, for Frege, to know how the sen-
tence could be assigned a value as true or false: to know what the condi-
tions are that would make it true or false. These conditions are known as
the sentence’s truth conditions. If I know the meaning of the sentence
Satie subsequently collapsed into a state of extreme introspection and alcoholism, I
know what state the referents of the sentence would have to be in for this
 3.2 External context: sense and reference 93

sentence to be true – I know, in other words, the statement’s truth condi-

tions, i.e. what the world would be like if this statement were true. And
knowing what the world would be like were the statement true then
allows me to determine, by looking at the words’ referents, whether the
world actually is this way, and whether or not the sentence is therefore
true. To take another example, knowing the sense of the sentence Your
father wants to recite a poem involves knowing what the conditions are that
would make this sentence true: thus, if you were told that Your father would
like to recite a poem you would be able to determine whether this was true
by finding your father and seeing whether he wanted to recite a poem. It
is the fact that you know how to go about determining the truth of a state-
ment that therefore constitutes your knowledge of the statement’s sense.
Why did Frege give truth such a central place in his conception of
semantics? Kamp and Reyle justify the centrality of truth as follows:
. . . truth is of the utmost importance to us. This is especially so in the con-
text of practical reasoning. When I reason my way towards a plan of action,
and then act according to that plan, my action will be prone to fail, or
even to lead to disaster, if the factual beliefs underlying my deliberation
are false – even if my deliberation cannot be faulted in any other way.
...
Since truth and falsity are of such paramount importance, and since it
is in virtue of their meaning that thoughts and utterances can be dis-
tinguished into those that are true and those that are false, it is natural
to see the world-directed, truth-value determining aspect of meaning as
central; and, consequently, to see it as one of the central obligations of a
theory of meaning to explain how meaning manifests itself in the deter-
mination of truth and falsity.
(Kamp and Reyle 1993: 11)
However, as pointed out by Lyons, there are many occasions in which it is
not the truth of a linguistic expression which seems to be the most impor-
tant factor governing its use:
. . . successful reference does not depend upon the truth of the descrip-
tion contained in the referring expression. The speaker (and perhaps also
the hearer) may mistakenly believe that some person is the postman,
when he is in fact the professor of linguistics, and incorrectly, though
successfully, refer to him by means of the expression ‘the postman’. It is
not even necessary that the speaker should believe that the description
is true of the referent. He may be ironically employing a description he
knows to be false, or diplomatically accepting as correct a false descrip-
tion which his hearer believes to be true of the referent; and there are
yet other possibilities.
(Lyons 1977: 181–182)
As we will see at various points in what follows, many linguists reject the
elevation of truth as the central notion in semantic analysis (for other
limits to the relevance of truth in semantics, see 4.3.1).
94 THE SCOPE OF MEANING I: EXTERNAL CONTEXT

Sense and psychology

Before leaving Frege, it is important to emphasize the theoretical
status of the concept of sense. Sense should not be identified simply
with the pretheoretical term meaning; rather, it is a quite specific
way of thinking about the cognitive effect of words, which contrasts
strongly in a number of ways with the term meaning. One aspect of
Fregean sense in particular may appear somewhat surprising for
people who, like most linguists, are accustomed to thinking about
meanings psychologically – as, in other words, private mental enti-
ties. One of the cornerstones of Frege’s whole approach to philosophy
was the rejection of the interpretation of the meaning of a linguistic
expression as a private psychological entity of any sort whatsoever.
In his philosophy of mathematics, he similarly rejected any attempt
to reduce the meaning of mathematical terms to mental entities.
Fregean sense is thus not to be confused with the subjective, indi-
vidual ideas or mental images which an earlier philosophical tradi-
tion derived from Aristotle and Locke, and many people today, think
of as constituting the meanings of lexical items. Even though senses
are things which we grasp mentally, they are not private ideas or
mental images. The sense of an expression is a part of a thought; and
thoughts, for Frege, are not subjective entities which vary from one
individual to another. Instead, thoughts are objective but intangible enti-
ties, and it is this objective character which guarantees that people
may talk about the same thing. Thus, while we often informally say
that two people have different concepts of something (honesty, a good
time, etc.), and are inclined to extend this way of thinking to word-
meanings, this sort of move is incompatible with the Fregean theory of
sense. Senses – objective, shared, non-private modes of presentation –
do not differ from one person to another.

3.2.2 The sense/reference distinction and

linguistic description
For the purposes of linguistic description, the Fregean theory of sense and
reference needs considerable development. There is not room here to dis-
cuss anywhere near the full range of questions necessarily raised in any
thorough exploration of the place of reference in language. Instead, we
can only indicate some of the most important.

3.2.2.1 Reference, speakers and hearers

Sense seems clearly to be a property of linguistic expressions: it is words
and sentences which have senses. Even though we grasp senses with our
minds, the question of what sense a given expression possesses is not, for
Frege, under the speaker’s control (see text box). Reference, however, is
quite different. Unlike sense, reference is under the speaker’s control. It is
not words which refer, but speakers. Searle (1969: 82) gives the following
two necessary conditions for accomplishing an act of reference:
 3.2 External context: sense and reference 95

1. There must exist one and only one object to which the speaker’s utter-
ance of the expression applies.
2. The hearer must be given sufficient means to identify the object from
the speaker’s utterance of the expression.

Clearly, since the hearer can be given any number of means to identify the
intended object, the reference of a term in a particular context depends
on the speaker (and also of course, if it is successful, on the hearer), not
on the term itself. Codes are perhaps the most obvious example of the fact
that it is the speaker, not the expression itself, which refers. A code is a
speech-style in which speaker and hearer have agreed to reassign conven-
tional referents (and senses). There are many others, however. In Warlpiri,
for example, a particular style of speech called Jiliwirri, used by men dur-
ing initiation ceremonies, replaces the conventional referents of words
with their antonyms (opposites) (Hale 1971). For example, to express the
idea ‘I am sitting on the ground’ in Jiliwirri, the Warlpiri sentence
‘Someone else is standing in the sky’ is used; similarly, the sentence ‘I am
short’ conveys in Jiliwirri the idea ‘you are tall’:

(8) kari ka nguru-ngka kari-mi

other AUX sky-LOC stand-NONPAST
‘Someone else is standing in the sky’ (ordinary Warlpiri)
‘I am sitting on the ground’ (Jiliwirri) (Hale 1971: 473 [reglossed])

(9) ngaju-rna rdangkarlpa

I-1S short
‘I am short’ (ordinary Warlpiri)
‘You are tall’ (Jiliwirri) (Hale 1971: 473 [reglossed])

One might, of course, say that in this sort of situation it is also the words’
senses which have changed. Under that description, Jiliwirri would consti-
tute a separate language with its own repertoire of senses: a language
which happened to have a very close relation to standard Warlpiri in pho-
nology, morpho syntax and in much of the vocabulary, but in which cer-
tain crucial semantic differences existed. Another example of the variabil-
ity of reference may often be found in people’s kitchens. Imagine a
kitchen in which rubbish was placed in a plastic bag hanging on hooks
behind the door of a cupboard under the sink. We can easily imagine that
this might be referred to as the bin, even though the sense of the noun bin
is in no way simply that of a plastic bag. (Of course, if the sense of bin is
‘receptacle of any kind for rubbish’, then bin will be being used here in a
way compatible with its sense.)
The variability of reference is even more deep-seated in language than
these examples suggest. If we reflect on real discourse, which along with
‘literal’ uses of languages also contains metaphors, ironical statements,
exaggerations and many other types of non-standard reference, to say noth-
ing of simple mistakes, it will soon become obvious that the referential
scope of words is extremely large – that, given the right conditions, any
word can be used to refer to any referent. This poses a considerable challenge
96 THE SCOPE OF MEANING I: EXTERNAL CONTEXT

to the theory of sense. For if a word’s reference is determined by its sense,

then the range of reference that any word may have is extremely wide – in
fact, indefinite. As a result, the characterization of sense will have to be
broad enough to accommodate all the referential possibilities.
If a given word can refer to any referent, we need to distinguish its typi-
cal, expected referents from its atypical, unexpected ones. We take this
problem up in Chapter 7. More importantly, we need to distinguish
between successful and correct acts of reference. If an act of reference is
successful, it succeeds in identifying the referent to the hearer. If it is cor-
rect, it refers to the referent in a way which conforms to an assumed
standard. Thus, to take up the example of the bin, if I say the bin is under
the sink, then I may well successfully refer to the rubbish-bag in which I
expect the hearer to put their rubbish; but I do not correctly refer to it, on
our usual understanding of the sense of the word bin.

3.2.2.2 The limits of sense and reference

A linguistic expression refers if it picks out an entity or set of entities in
some world – either the real world, or some possible or imagined world.
It will be obvious from this description that whether or not a linguistic
expression refers will depend on the context in which it is used. For exam-
ple, consider the sentence Marion is a professional harpist. The first noun
phrase, the name Marion, identifies a particular individual as the entity
about whom the information is a professional harpist is given. The second
noun phrase, however, a professional harpist, would usually be said not to
refer in this context. This is because it does not pick out a particular entity
or set of entities as its object in the same way as expressions like Marion.
Instead, a professional harpist has a predicative function: it is part of the
information given about Marion. Similarly, the phrases high in fibre, low in fat
and cholesterol free in (10) are predicative and thus non-referring:

(10) Like all dried fruit, apricots are high in fibre, low in fat and cholesterol free.

Apricots, by contrast, refers (to the class of apricots), and all dried fruit refers
to the class of dried fruit.
Many lexical categories are typically non-referential. Verbs, for example,
are typically predicative: the inherent role of a verb is to give information
about some already identified entity, rather than to refer to that entity
directly. Nevertheless, it will often be useful to think of verbs as referring
to actions, and of sentences as referring to situations, and this is a usage
we will often adopt in this book.
It is also important to note that reference is usually accomplished at the
phrasal, not the lexical, level. Thus, in English, it is noun phrases which
refer and not the individual nouns which make them up. In the sentence
An heir to a Danish steel fortune must leave behind his quiet life in Stockholm it is
the noun phrases – An heir to a Danish steel fortune, a Danish steel fortune, his
quiet life in Stockholm, and Stockholm – which accomplish the identification
of particular entities in the world. Since Stockholm, as a proper noun, is
analysed as a noun phrase in its own right, it is the only noun in the sen-
tence which does uniquely pick out or refer to a particular entity (the
 3.2 External context: sense and reference 97

capital of Sweden) – but it only does this as a noun phrase, not as an indi-
vidual noun. None of the other individual nouns in the sentence consti-
tutes a noun phrase, and as a result, none of them refers: heir, fortune, and
life do not in themselves identify any single entities about which informa-
tion could be given. However, in other contexts, they can certainly refer.
For example, life in the sentence life is uneventful is part of a noun phrase
referring to an entity, life.

QUESTION Which of the following noun phrases are used referentially?

What problems are there in deciding?

The winner will receive this set of plastic-coated barbecue forks.

A woman came into the room.
No one wants a hole in the head.
Any novelist would want to win the Booker.
Some woman came into the room.
Every novelist would want to win the Booker.
Boeing is planning to build a new passenger jet.
Santa Claus was invented by the Coca Cola company; he doesn’t really exist.
The kangaroo is most active at night.
If you hear some news, let me know.
Is there any such thing as time travel?
There is no life in a fluorescent tube.
Make me a ham sandwich, would you?
The only thing left is broken.
The only thing to do is cancel.
Smith’s murderer is insane.
The ability to pour patterns into drinks will let your customers and friends
know that you are serious about espresso.

The importance of predication shows that reference is not always a rele-

vant aspect of the meaning of a linguistic term. Furthermore, the differ-
ence between referring and non-referring uses of lexemes is often not
marked by any overt grammatical means: languages, in other words, often
don’t seem to care whether an expression refers or not. As a result, the
question of whether a given noun phrase refers may sometimes be ambig-
uous. While some expressions clearly refer and others clearly don’t, there
is a range of intermediate cases in which an expression may or may not be
referring. These possibilities are reflected in the following sentences, from
Givón (1984: 389):

(11) a. If you see the man with the green hat, tell him . . .
b. If you see a man with a green hat, tell him . . .
(i) Referential: I have such a man in mind, and if you see him
(ii) Non-referential: I don’t have any particular man in mind, so if
you see one . . .
c. If you see someone with a green hat there, tell him/them . . .
d. If you see anybody with a green hat there, tell them . . .
98 THE SCOPE OF MEANING I: EXTERNAL CONTEXT

(11a) is clearly referential, (11b) may or may not be, (11c) is probably non-
referential, but still might be intended to pick out a specific individual,
whereas (11d) is least likely to refer to a specific person.
QUESTION What factors apart from the existence or non-existence of
a specific referent might determine the speaker’s choice between (11)
a–d?

3.2.3 Deixis
Certain types of expression, called deictic or indexical expressions (or
simply deictics or indexicals), are defined as those which make reference
to some aspect of the context of utterance as an essential part of their
meaning. Examples would be the English words here and there and their
equivalents in other languages, such as Chinese zhe and na, or Hungarian
ez and az (‘this’, ‘that’). Deictic expressions have the peculiarity that their
reference is relative to the situation in which they are used. They lack any
independently paraphraseable sense: what they mean cannot be given
any general description other than describing a procedure for isolating
the intended referent. The meaning of this in (12), for example, cannot be
described except by saying that it refers to some entity in the speaker’s
context of utterance – probably a person, but also perhaps an electronic
chess board, a computer, or an introductory book about chess:

(12) This is my old chess coach.

The speaker of (12) might well accompany their utterance with a gesture
pointing to, or otherwise indicating, the object they have in mind. In the
absence of such a gesture, the listener has to infer what the intended
referent is. This they will partly be able to do as a result of the deictic
system available in the language. The hearer of (12), for instance, would
be justified in assuming that the speaker is referring to something
nearby: if this were not the case, the deictic that would have been used
instead (for example if the speaker and hearer had passed someone on
the street and a few moments later, when they had disappeared from
sight, the speaker exclaimed That was my old chess coach!). The meaning or
sense of this, therefore, could be described as an instruction to the
hearer to identify some likely referent in their near proximity, and the
meaning of that as the instruction to identify some likely referent fur-
ther away.
There is not nearly enough space here for a full discussion of the seman-
tics of deictics in the languages of the world. Different sorts of deixis, or
reference to elements of the context, have been observed cross-linguistically.
These include the following:

• person deixis, by which speaker (I), hearer (you) and other entities rele-
vant to the discourse (he/she/it/they) are referred to;
• temporal deixis (now, then, tomorrow); and
• discourse deixis, which refers to other elements of the discourse in
which the deictic expression occurs (A: You stole the cash. B: That’s a lie).
 3.2 External context: sense and reference 99

Here, we will confine ourselves to a discussion, closely based on Diessel

(1999), of spatial deixis as it is manifested in demonstratives, of which
English this and that are cardinal examples.
All languages have at least two deictically contrastive demonstratives:
the this demonstrative is usually called a proximal, the that demonstrative
is called a distal. Sometimes these demonstratives are uninflected parti-
cles; in other languages, demonstratives are marked for gender, number
and/or case and may combine with derivational affixes or with other free
forms (Diessel 1999: 13). The demonstrative systems of some languages
may be dizzyingly complex: Inuktitut (Eskimo-Aleut, Canada), for exam-
ple, shows 686 forms in the demonstrative system (Denny 1982: 372).
Deictic systems which, unlike English, involve more than two deictic
terms are of two basic sorts: distance-oriented systems, where the deictic
centre (usually but not necessarily the speaker) is the only point of refer-
ence for the location of the referent, and person-oriented systems, where
the hearer serves as another reference point (Diessel 1999: 50). Yimas
(Sepik-Ramu, Papua New Guinea; Diessel 1999: 39) is an example of a dis-
tance-oriented deictic system, with the singular deictics p-k ‘proximal’,
m-n ‘medial’, p-n ‘distal’. The proximal and distal forms could be trans-
lated as ‘this here’ and ‘that over there’ respectively; the medial term
means something like ‘that just over there’. Pangasinan (Austronesian,
Philippines; Diessel 1999: 39) is an example of a person-oriented system,
with the singular forms (i)yá ‘this near the speaker’, (i)tán ‘that near the
hearer’ and (i)mán ‘that away from both speaker and hearer’.
Distance is not the only feature expressed by demonstratives: they may
also indicate such variables as whether the referent is in or out of sight, at a
higher or lower elevation, up- or downstream, moving towards or away from
the deictic centre, and others (Diessel 1999: 50). The deictic system of Khasi
(Mon-Khmer, India; Diessel 1999: 42) combines a number of these categories,
indicating, as well as the gender or plurality of the referent, its distance with
respect to speaker and hearer, its elevation, or its visibility (see Table 3.1):

Table 3.1. Khasi demonstratives (Diessel 1999: 42).

MASC.SG. FEM.SG. PL

PROXIMAL u-ne ka-ne ki-ne

MEDIAL (NEAR H) u-to ka-to ki-to

DISTAL u-tay ka-tay ki-tay

UP u-tey ka-tey ki-tey

DOWN u-thie ka-thire ki-thie

INVISIBLE u-ta ka-ta ki-ta

Demonstratives usually also provide some qualitative information about

the referent: ‘they may indicate whether the referent is a location, object or
person, whether it is animate or inanimate, human or non-human, female
or male, a single entity or a set, or conceptualized as a restricted or extended
entity’ (Diessel 1999: 50). In Apalai (Carib, Brazil), for instance, there are two
100 THE SCOPE OF MEANING I: EXTERNAL CONTEXT

deictic series, one for animate, the other for inanimate referents, and each
series distinguishes collective from non-collective referents:

Table 3.2. Apalai demonstratives (Diessel 1999: 48).

ANIMATE INANIMATE
NON-COLL COLL NON-COLL COLL

PROXIMAL mose moxiamo seny senohne

MEDIAL mokyro mokaro moro morohne

DISTAL moky mokamo mony monohne

3.3 Dictionary and encyclopaedia

Since reference is an important part of the meaning of many words, many
linguists have wanted to distinguish knowledge we have of a word’s mean-
ing (sense) from knowledge we might have about its denotation – the set
of things it refers to. Some sort of distinction like this seems to be required
for a number of reasons. The most powerful is that it is firmly present in
our pretheoretical intuitions. For example, all of us know many things
about frogs, but something seems wrong about regarding all this informa-
tion as part of the meaning of frog. Examples of information about frogs
that it would seem absurd to claim as part of the meaning of frog include
the facts that there is a famous fairy story in which a frog is an enchanted
prince waiting to be released by the kiss of a princess, that frogs are often
(and somewhat offensively) associated by English speakers with French
people, or that the Australian water-holding frog burrows underground
and surrounds itself in a transparent cocoon made of its own shed skin.
There are many English speakers who do not know these things about
frogs, but who can correctly refer to frogs. This contrasts with speakers of
other languages, or with learners of English who have not yet learned the
word frog, who may know these things about frogs, but do not yet know
what the English word frog means. It would seem, then, that there is a
firm line between knowledge of a word’s meaning and knowledge of fac-
tual information about the word’s denotation.

3.3.1 Knowledge of meaning and knowledge of facts

In Chapter 2 we mentioned the contrast between dictionary and thesaurus
models of semantic organization (see the text box in 2.1.1). The sort of consid-
erations we have just mentioned give rise to another contrast, that between
dictionary and encyclopaedia aspects of meaning. This is the distinction
between knowledge of a word’s meaning (dictionary knowledge), which
would be conceived of as something fairly concise, perhaps like a dictionary
definition, and encyclopaedic knowledge of facts about the objects to which
the word refers. Dictionary knowledge is knowledge of the essential meaning
of a word that all speakers must possess, and which dictionaries must accu-
rately represent in order to allow the meaning to be acquired for the first
time. Encyclopaedic knowledge, by contrast, is not essential to the meaning
 3.3 Dictionary and encyclopaedia 101

of the word and will vary significantly from speaker to speaker. Encyclopaedic
knowledge is not linguistic in nature: that is, it does not determine any of a
word’s linguistic behaviour. The question of which elements of the encyclo-
paedic information associated with a given word are relevant in any one situ-
ation is decided by general pragmatic principles, which have been described
in a number of different ways (see Chapter 4).
The motivation for the distinction between dictionary and encyclopae-
dia is the fact that encyclopaedic knowledge seems to be quite independ-
ent of dictionary knowledge: thus, I need not know anything about fairy
tales or the Australian water-holding frog in order to be able to use the
word frog. Furthermore, it has been assumed that some such distinction
must be psychologically realistic. If all of the encyclopaedic information
associated with a word were part of its meaning, this would surely be too
much for the brain to process. If, on the other hand, all that language-
processing involves is the retrieval of the concise dictionary-style repre-
sentation associated with each word, then it appears as a much more
streamlined and efficient process, much easier for the brain to accomplish
– and much easier also for the computers on which we try to model the
brain-processes involved in language (see Chapter 8).
The distinction between dictionary and encyclopaedia is not limited to
referring expressions like frog. It also applies to predicating ones, like
English verbs and adjectives. If we accept the distinction, it becomes
important to be able to say exactly which pieces of information about a
lexeme belong to the dictionary and which to the encyclopaedia. This is a
particularly acute problem where it is necessary for practical reasons (for
example lexicographical ones) to arrive at some precise description of a
lexeme’s semantic content. In order to appreciate the descriptive issues
involved here, we can consider the Warlpiri verb pinyi, usually glossed
‘hit’, which is often ambiguous between the meanings ‘hit’ and ‘kill’:

(13) yapa kapu-rna pinyi.

person AUX.FUT-1S hit/kill
‘I’ll hit that person’/‘I’ll kill that person’.

There are at least two possible ways of analysing this ambiguity. The first
is that pinyi has two meanings, ‘hit’ and ‘kill’, which, in certain contexts,
may be simultaneously present. The second is that there is one single,
underspecified meaning, which we can only describe in English as ‘hit/
kill’. On this theory, it is the context which determines whether pinyi
describes an act of hitting or of killing, just as context determined the
reading of the English possessive morpheme in (1) above. This second solu-
tion would be favoured by many scholars. Whenever we are faced, says
Levinson (2000: 20), ‘with a linguistic expression that is apparently system-
atically ambiguous, we should entertain the possibility that the correct
analysis is in fact a simple, univocal, semantically broad sense with a
defeasible set of generalized pragmatic restrictions’. (Defeasible means that
the restrictions can be overcome by adding elements to the sentence
which enforce one reading at the expense of the other. In (13), we could
102 THE SCOPE OF MEANING I: EXTERNAL CONTEXT

add an expression meaning ‘dead’ to the sentence which would eliminate

the ambiguity.)
What would the details of this underspecified solution be? How does con-
text contribute to the contextual interpretation of pinyi? The English transla-
tions usually offered of sentences like (14) and (15) suggest that typically
domestic animals like dogs usually provoke the ‘hit’ interpretation of pinyi,
whereas typically wild, edible ones like kangaroos are associated with ‘kill’:

(14) maliki pi-nyi

dog hit/kill-NPST
‘hitting the dog’

(15) marlu pi-nyi

roo hit/kill-NPST
‘killing the kangaroo’

In contexts like (15), the ‘kill’ reading is quite strongly entrenched: as

noted by the exclamation mark, the following statements appear bizarre
to Warlpiri speakers:

(16) !wati-ngki marlu pu-ngu kala kula marlu-ju

man-ERG roo hit/kill-PST but NEG roo-TOP
pali-ja.
die-PST
‘The man pinyi the kangaroo but the kangaroo did not die.’

(17) !wati-ngki ka marlu pi-nyi marlu-ju

man-ERG AUX roo hit/kill-NPST roo-TOP
wankaru juku.
alive still
‘The man pinyi the kangaroo but the kangaroo is still alive.’

On an underspecified view of the meaning of pinyi, it is the encyclopaedic

knowledge which Warlpiri speakers have about their world which allows
them to correctly understand what is meant in the sentences above. In
contexts such as (13), where the object is equally likely to be hit or killed,
there is no way of telling which interpretation is appropriate without fur-
ther specification: the underspecification of the verb leaves no way of
deciding. Further support for the underspecified solution comes from sen-
tence (18):

(18) cat pi-nyi

cat hit/kill-NPST
‘hit a cat’/‘kill a cat’

Cats are neither traditional domestic nor wild animals for Warlpiri people;
as a result (18) constitutes a ‘neutral’ context without established encyclo-
paedic expectations, where the verb may convey either sense. But once the
 3.3 Dictionary and encyclopaedia 103

verb is inserted into a grammatical context which specifies the object,

encyclopaedic facts come into play to determine the intended reading.
Distinguishing between lexical dictionary knowledge and factual encyclo-
paedic knowledge thus enables an economical description of meaning. The
lexical entry for pinyi does not need to detail the different contexts in which the
two readings occur: this is not part of our knowledge of the meaning
of the verb. Instead, the lexical entry simply contains the meaning ‘hit/kill’, and
the choice of reading in any one context is reached on encyclopaedic grounds.
The details of Warlpiri speakers’ representation of their encyclopaedic
knowledge, and its interaction with linguistic structures, can then be legiti-
mately neglected by linguists, as part of the explanatory job of psychology.

3.3.2 Problems with the dictionary–

encyclopaedia distinction
In spite of its obvious labour-saving advantages in semantic description, the
dictionary–encyclopaedia distinction is not accepted by many linguists.
This is largely because the boundary between the two seems to be highly
permeable, even non-existent. As any comparison of dictionaries will reveal,
it is very hard to determine where information stops being part of a word’s
dictionary meaning and becomes part of the encyclopaedic knowledge we
have of its denotation. Which of the following pieces of information, for
example, should be considered dictionary information about the meaning
of the word cow, and which as facts about cows which form part of the ency-
clopaedic knowledge we have about them?

• they are mammals

• they moo
• they eat grass
• they are four-legged
• they have large eyes
• they live in fields and dairies
• they sometimes wear cow-bells
• they are often farmed for their milk
• they have several stomachs
• their young are called calves in English
• they incubate Mad Cow Disease for three to five years if infected
• they chew their food slowly
The difficulty of resolving this kind of question stems from the fact that,
depending on the context, it would seem that any part of the supposedly
encyclopaedic information associated with a word may become linguisti-
cally significant (see Katz and Fodor 1963: 178–179 for discussion). To
return to the example of frog, note that I can use this in contexts where
the dictionary meaning is not even present, and two pieces of encyclopae-
dic information are invoked. In the context of a discussion about a French
person who is unlucky in love, for example, I might utter (19):

(19) He may be a Frog, but no princess is kissing him.

104 THE SCOPE OF MEANING I: EXTERNAL CONTEXT

Someone would be able to understand this sentence without ever learning

the dictionary meaning of the word frog, as long as they could make the
connections with ‘French person’ and ‘enchanted prince’.
It might be argued that this sort of context simply shows that
‘Frenchman’ and ‘sleeping prince’ are, in fact, part of the dictionary entry
for frog after all, and not just encyclopaedic facts about frogs. But this
acknowledgment undermines the very reasons for drawing the dictionary–
encyclopaedia distinction in the first place. If we simply reassign a piece
of previously encyclopaedic knowledge to the dictionary every time it
becomes relevant to the linguistic behaviour of a word, the dictionary
starts getting a lot bigger, and looking more and more like an encyclopae-
dia. The supposed processing benefits of concision in lexical representa-
tion thus disappear. Furthermore, we can assign an innovative piece of
encyclopaedic knowledge to a word, which can then usurp the word’s
former dictionary meaning. For example, some people do not know that
tomatoes are, strictly speaking, fruit and not vegetables. This allows some-
one who has just been made aware of this to pedantically use sentences
like (20):

(20) Get me some tomatoes and other fruit.

Here, a newly acquired piece of encyclopaedic knowledge has affected the

co-occurrence possibilities of a lexical item: whereas tomato would typi-
cally be categorized as a vegetable, here it belongs to the incompatible
category fruit. This sort of phenomenon suggests that there is no possible
boundary between knowledge of the meaning of a word, and knowledge
about the objects the word denotes. We know a variety of things about
words and their denotation, and the greater the likelihood that a particu-
lar piece of this knowledge is shared between speaker and hearer, the
greater the likelihood that it will determine the word’s linguistic proper-
ties. Sentence (20), for example, would be perfectly natural in the mouth
of a botany student who was about to do an experiment on seeded fruit.
Langacker (1987: 159) sums up the case for the abandonment of any
strict division between the dictionary and the encyclopaedia:
I do not specifically claim that all facets of our knowledge of an entity
have equal status, linguistically or otherwise – quite the contrary. The
multitude of specifications that figure in our encyclopedic conception of
an entity clearly form a gradation in terms of their centrality. Some are
so central that they can hardly be omitted from even the sketchiest char-
acterization, whereas others are so peripheral that they hold little sig-
nificance even for the most exhaustive description. Distinctions of this
kind can perfectly well be made within the encyclopaedic approach. The
thrust of this view is simply that no specific point along the gradation of
centrality can be chosen nonarbitrarily to serve as a demarcation, such
that all specifications on one side can uniformly be attributed linguistic
significance and all those on the other side are linguistically irrelevant.
This sort of position has some significant methodological and theoretical
consequences. Most importantly, it problematizes the notion of the meaning
 Summary 105

of a word. Since any fact known about a referent may become linguisti-
cally significant, the traditional linguistic semantic project of describing
the lexical entry associated with each lexeme becomes an unending task,
each lexical entry being, in principle, infinite.
QUESTION Consider the Arrernte (Pama-Nyungan, Central Australia)
verb lyelye-ipeme, whose meaning is described as follows by Henderson
and Dobson (1994: lyelye-ipeme): ‘push a stick or crowbar into creek sand,
moving it around to make the hole bigger so as to force the stick further
down. This is done to see if there is enough water there to dig out into
a soakage.’ How might one go about deciding which parts of this defini-
tion were dictionary knowledge, and which were encyclopaedic? Are
there any general criteria for deciding this question?

Summary The basic question: meaning and context

One of the main questions to be answered by any theory of meaning
concerns the scope of an expression’s meaning: how much of the total
effect of an expression is to be attributed to its meaning, and how
much to the context in which it occurs?
We can distinguish two essential types of context:

• the external or real-world context to which linguistic expressions

refer, and
• the interpersonal context of linguistic action in which any utter-
ance is placed.

External context: sense and reference

Frege distinguished an expression’s reference, which concerns the
entities which the expression is about, from its sense, which is the way
in which we grasp or understand its referent. In the Fregean view, two
crucial features of sense are as follows:

• sense is what our minds ‘grasp’ when we understand the meaning

of a word;
• sense determines reference; words’ referents are identified through
their senses.
Truth has a central place in Frege’s semantics. To know the sense of a
sentence is, for Frege, to know how the sentence could be assigned a
value as true or false: to know what the conditions are that would make
it true or false. Knowledge of a sentence’s truth conditions allows us to
determine, by looking at the sentence’s referents, whether the world
actually is the way the sentence represents it, and thus whether or not
the sentence is therefore true.

Predication and deixis

As well as referring, linguistic expressions can often be used to predi-
cate (attribute properties). Verbs, for example, are characteristically
106 THE SCOPE OF MEANING I: EXTERNAL CONTEXT

limited to this function. Deictic expressions (otherwise known as deic-

tics or indexicals) are defined as those which make reference to some
aspect of the context of utterance as an essential part of their mean-
ing. Examples of deictics in English include the words I, you and here.
The languages of the world show a large variety of deictic systems.

Knowledge of meaning and knowledge of facts

Since reference is an important part of the meaning of many words,
many linguists have wanted to distinguish knowledge we have of a
word’s meaning (sense) from knowledge we might have about its refer-
ent. This is the distinction between lexical (‘dictionary’) knowledge
and factual (‘encyclopaedic’) knowledge.
The distinction enables an economical description of word mean-
ings, but is often criticized: the boundary between dictionary and
encyclopaedia seems to be so highly permeable as to be non-existent.

Further reading
In twentieth-century linguistics, the importance of context has been particularly stressed in the philosophical
(Bar-Hillel 1954, Austin 1962, Searle 1969) and social-functional (Halliday 1978, Halliday and Hasan 1985)
traditions. For an introduction to approaches to sense and reference in the philosophy of language, see the
second part of Devitt and Sterelny (1999). On reference specifically, see Allan (1986: 142–160) and Lyons
(1977: 174–196). Lambrecht (1994) looks at reference in discourse. Kripke (1980) and Donnellan (1972),
both of which presuppose a certain philosophical literacy, promote an alternative philosophical treatment of
sense and reference, opposed to Frege. Readers of French will find short descriptions of numerous deictic
systems in Morel and Danon-Boileau (1992). On the dictionary/encyclopaedia distinction see Haiman (1980),
Langacker (1987:154–166) and Jackendoff (2002: 281–293).

Exercises
Questions for discussion
1. Illustrate and discuss the following quotation (Haiman 1980: 347):

‘Obviously, the classical idea of meaningfulness, like that of grammati-

cality, makes a silent appeal to the idea of “normal circumstances”.’
How does it relate to the question of the distinction between dictionary
and encyclopaedia in semantics?
2. Characterize the non-truth-conditional differences between the following
statements:

Well, there wasn’t a fight on Saturday.

Still, there wasn’t a fight on Saturday.
After all, there wasn’t a fight on Saturday.
Therefore, there wasn’t a fight on Saturday.
Alas, there wasn’t a fight on Saturday.

1. Read Section 2.2.4 of the previous chapter. Can the contextual modula-
tion of the meanings of cut be described in terms of a dictionary/encyclo-
paedia distinction? How?
 CHA PT E R

4 The scope of
meaning II:
interpersonal
context

CHAPTER PREVIEW
Following the treatment of external context in the previous chapter, this chapter
considers the interpersonal context of linguistic action in which any utterance is
placed.
Section 4.1 introduces the notion of illocutionary force, which refers to the
different interpersonal functions or speech acts which a linguistic expression
may be made to perform (stating, questioning, ordering, requesting, advising,
warning, promising, etc.).
Section 4.2 considers the role of speaker’s intention and hearer’s inference
in meaning: in general, the meaning of an expression can often be described as
whatever it was that the speaker intended the hearer to understand in using the
expression; the hearer’s task, on this picture, is to make inferences about what
this intention was.
In 4.3 we discuss the Gricean theory of implicature, which is the theory of
how meanings may be implied rather than explicitly stated. In 4.4 and 4.5 we
turn to an exploration of the principles which have been proposed as governing
the operation of implicature in conversation. Section 4.6 considers an important
alternative tradition in the analysis of interpersonal context, Relevance Theory,
and 4.7 discusses, in general terms, the interrelation between semantics and
pragmatics, the branch of linguistics in which the relations between language
and context are specifically studied.
108 THE SCOPE OF MEANING II: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

4.1 Interpersonal context: illocutionary force

and speech acts
The relations between language and context are not limited to those in
which a linguistic expression simply names or describes an already existing
referent or state of affairs. The assertion of facts about the world is just one
of the acts which we can use language to perform: we also ask questions,
issue orders, and make requests, to mention only the three most obvious
types of other act for which language is used. For much of the history of
reflection on language (principally in philosophy), it was the asserting func-
tion that was seen as the most basic and important. Language was seen
essentially as a means of describing (asserting facts about) reality, and its
importance as an instrument which could perform a whole variety of dif-
ferent functions was not fully appreciated.
As it happens, there is good reason to see description or fact-assertion
as a particularly basic function of language. As noted by Givón (1984: 248),
the fundamental role of assertion in language can be seen as a conse-
quence of four large-scale features of human social organization and the
types of talk-exchange it engenders:

• communicative topics are often outside the immediate, perceptually

available range;
• much pertinent information is not held in common by the partici-
pants in the communicative exchange;
• the rapidity of change in the human environment necessitates periodic
updating of the body of shared background knowledge;
• the participants are often strangers.
Givón continues (1984: 248):
Under such conditions, even granted that the ultimate purpose of the
communicative transaction is indeed to manipulate the other toward some
target action, the interlocutors must first – and in fact constantly – create,
recreate and repair the body of shared knowledge which is the absolute
prerequisite for the ultimate communicative transaction.
Nevertheless, assertion is not the only kind of function which language
may be used to perform. We do not just use language to talk about or
describe the world; we do things with language in order to manipulate and
induce transformations in it. One way to think about how we use language
to provoke transformations in the external world is in terms of the idea of
force. As we saw in 3.2.1, Frege had already distinguished the force of a
linguistic expression from its sense. The conception of force in Frege is still
rather sketchy: the only types of force he considers seem to be statements
and questions. In a famous series of lectures delivered in the early 1950s,
the British philosopher John L. Austin, one of Frege’s translators, extended
the Fregean notion of force. Austin’s pupil, John R. Searle, developed these
ideas into a comprehensive philosophy of language, the theory of speech
acts. We will explore this tradition in the present section.
 4.1 Illocutionary force and speech acts 109

4.1.1 Locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts

In his investigation of the force of linguistic expressions, Austin distin-
guished between three types of act present in every utterance, the locu-
tionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. He defined them as fol-
lows:

• locutionary act: the act of saying something;

• illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; and
• perlocutionary act: the act performed by saying something.
What do these definitions mean? The locutionary act – the act of saying
something – is the act of expressing the basic, literal meanings of the
words chosen. For example, in uttering the words You will get your hands
blown off, a speaker performs the locutionary act of stating that the hearer
will get their hands blown off. The illocutionary act is the act that the
speaker performs in saying something. In many contexts, utterance of the
statement You will get your hands blown off is intended, and understood, as
an act of warning: the utterance thus has the illocutionary force of a
warning. Thanking, congratulating, and advising are all acts which differ
in their illocutionary force; in all of them, the speaker does more than
describe or assert facts about some situation. As Austin puts it, the speaker
of this type of act does not simply say something, instead, (s)he does some-
thing (thank, congratulate, or advise) by engaging in a certain convention-
alized form of verbal behaviour. Illocutionary acts are also referred to as
speech acts. Lastly, the perlocutionary act is the act of producing an
effect in the hearer by means of the utterance. Depending on the circum-
stances, the perlocutionary act involved in saying You will get your hands
blown off might be to dissuade the hearer from playing with a lighter and a
stick of dynamite, to frighten the hearer, to encourage them to go on pro-
vocatively waving a naked flame in front of a bag of fireworks, etc.
The linguistic expressions which figure in illocutionary acts do not
simply have the function of describing or stating facts about a situation
(this Austin called the constative function). When we say something like
You will get your hands blown off, we are not only stating something: we are
also performing an action, the action of warning. If it was not obvious
that the words You will get your hands blown off were intended to consti-
tute a warning, the speaker could explicitly say I’m warning you, you’ll get
your hands blown off. In using the verb warn, the speaker makes the force
of their utterance as a warning explicit; there is, indeed, no other way
to explicitly warn someone other than to use the words ‘I’m warning
you’, ‘I warn you that’, or synonymous constructions. Austin called this
type of utterance an explicit performative utterance: when I say I warn
you that . . . I am not describing or stating the existence of any indepen-
dent fact; I am, instead, performing an act (the act of warning) which
cannot be explicitly performed in any other way. (By contrast, the basic
utterance you will get your hands blown off may well have the illocutionary
force of a warning, but it is not an explicit performative; we will call it
an implicit performative.)
110 THE SCOPE OF MEANING II: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

It would be impossible to provide a full catalogue of all the illocution-

ary (or speech) acts which may be performed in English. As well as asserting,
questioning and ordering, a very modest list would include promising,
thanking, requesting, congratulating, greeting, advising, naming, swear-
ing, scolding, apologizing, guaranteeing and warning. All these are par-
ticular conventionalized ways of using language which we recognize as
associated with a particular repertoire of conditions and responses. In
order for a speaker S to request a hearer H to perform an act A, for exam-
ple, a particular set of social conditions needs to be fulfilled. Searle’s sum-
mary of these conditions appears in (1):

(1) (i) A must be in the future, not in the past;

(ii) H must be capable of A;
(iii) it must be obvious to S and H that H will not do A anyway, in
the normal course of events,
(iv) S must want H to do A, etc. (see Searle 1969: 57–61).

QUESTION Consider the following sentences, and label them as always

performative (P), possibly performative (PP), or never performative (NP).
For the first two categories, state whether they are explicitly performa-
tive or not:
I resign.
I’m resigning.
A poet is chairman of the Australian Tax Research Foundation.
Bali is not the same place as Mali.
I resigned ten minutes ago.
I’m telling you not to try sour herring.
You’re not allowed to smoke here.
We had a lovely time.
The storeroom is out of bounds.
There’s nothing more I can do to help you.
I don’t accept that argument.
Bingo!
The audience are asked to turn off their mobile phones.
I believe it’s important to be ethical.
I believe in Hinduism.
I guarantee you’re going to love this!
Can I help you?
For an introduction to Relevance Theory, Blakemore (1992) can be
recommended.

QUESTION Consider the following sentences. What illocutionary acts

could they realize?

I’m glad you’re here. Take your time. I’m allergic to milk. Was that the doorbell?
Don’t worry about putting out the rubbish.
 4.1 Illocutionary force and speech acts 111

4.1.2 Consequences of the illocutionary perspective

Focusing on the illocutionary aspects of utterances has two important
consequences for linguistic theory. The first concerns the centrality of
truth and falsity to meaning. We saw in 3.2.1 that Frege had made truth
the central notion of his semantic theory. However, considerations of truth
and falsity are simply irrelevant for many types of illocutionary act. This is
particularly so for performatives, such as the sentences in (2):

(2) I apologize for the mess I’ve made.

I bet you as much as you like that it’ll rain for the party.
I forbid you to touch that diamond.
I promise that I’ll never give you such a fright again.

As Austin points out, it does not make sense to ask whether it is true that
‘I apologize for the mess I’ve made’: the very act of saying the words I
apologize constitutes the apology. Instead of being assessed as true or false,
the sentences in (2) must conform to certain conditions, just like the con-
ditions governing the act of requesting described above. Austin called
these conditions felicity conditions.

QUESTION What might the felicity conditions be for each of the speech
acts mentioned above? What problems are there in deciding?

The second break with traditional theories of language brought about by

a focus on speech acts concerns the question of the basic object of seman-
tic analysis. Austin was struck by the fact that it seems impossible to
specify any list of criteria which might distinguish expressions which can
function as performatives from those which cannot. Any expression, for
Austin, can carry any illocutionary force. There is no single way, in any
language, of performing a given illocutionary act: the illocutionary force
of an utterance is in principle unpredictable from its overt syntactic or
lexical form. Speakers often perform speech acts whose communicative
purpose (utterance meaning) does not correspond to their obvious sen-
tence meaning. For instance, to get someone to close the door, I may well
not choose an imperatival construction (close the door, please), but may opt
instead for either a question (could I get you to close the door?) or a statement
(it’s suddenly got draughty in here). Speech acts like this, whose illocutionary
force does not correspond to the most obvious illocutionary force of their
sentence type, are known as indirect speech acts.
Because of the frequency of indirect speech acts, any proposed conven-
tion linking a given communicative purpose with a given illocutionary
form will thus have to reckon with the fact that the same form may also
be used to achieve quite different purposes. French, for example, uses a
variety of linguistic mechanisms to express commands. As well as the
expected imperative form (tais-toi ‘be quiet’), these include verbs in the
infinitive mood (ne pas ouvrir ‘do not open’), and in the indicative (vous dresserez
une liste des consonnes sourdes, ‘write a list of voiceless consonants’) – even, in
some conventional cases, noun phrases (ta gueule ‘shut up!’, literally ‘your
112 THE SCOPE OF MEANING II: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

mouth’). Furthermore, even explicit performative expressions may be used

in ways which do not correspond to their conventional meanings. The
phrase ‘I guarantee there are no slackers in this company’, for example, has
the apparent illocutionary force of a guarantee, but could function as a
warning, a threat, a promise, and so on. As Davidson (1979: 73) says, the fact
that a single linguistic structure may serve an unlimited number of contex-
tual communicative ends points up a fundamental feature of human lan-
guage that he calls the autonomy of linguistic meaning:

Once a feature of language has been given conventional expression, it

can be used to serve many extra-linguistic ends; symbolic representation
necessarily breaks any close tie with extra-linguistic purpose. Applied
to the present case, this means that there cannot be a form of speech
which, solely by dint of its conventional meaning, can only be used for a
given purpose, such as making an assertion or asking a question.

The impossibility of discerning fixed characteristics of illocutionary force

bearing expressions imposes a major reorientation on one’s perspective
on meaning. If, given the right context, any expression can be used to cre-
ate any contextual effect, then
[t]he unit of linguistic communication is not, as has generally been sup-
posed, the symbol, word or sentence, or even the token of the symbol,
word or sentence, but rather the production or issuance of the symbol or
word or sentence in the performance of the speech act.
(Searle 1969: 16)
Under this perspective, the meaningful nature of human communication
cannot simply be attributed to the semantic properties of words: meaning-
fulness is not a property of language on its own, but of language use as
part of an interpersonal context, as part of a network of shared social
practices. This insight extends even to the assertive, referential use of
language. As noted by Recanati (1987: 128), ‘It is not the sentence “It will
rain,” but rather the fact of its being uttered by Jules, that “expresses” or con-
veys pragmatically Jules’ belief that it will rain.’ As Austin himself pointed
out, the use of language to describe aspects of reality needs itself to be seen
as just one other speech act among many – it is, in other words, an activity
subject to a set of conventions entirely equivalent to the conventions gov-
erning obvious speech acts like promising, thanking or congratulating.
The conventions governing constative utterances (statements) – let us
say the statement that p – include the following (Searle 1969: 66; cf. Austin
1962: 136–147):

(3) i. S has evidence for the truth of p

ii. It is not obvious to both S and H that H knows (does not need to
be reminded of, etc.) p
iii. S believes p

QUESTION Do all statements conform to these conventions? If not, can

you reformulate them to remove the problems?
 4.2 Speaker’s intention and hearer’s inference 113

The utterance of a statement, just like the performance of an illocution-

ary act like promising, thus involves both speaker and hearer in a network
of commitments and consequences which imply certain things about
their current states and beliefs, and commit them to certain future
actions. If, for example, I utter the words Rat soup and leather belts were eaten
on the Long March, then, in many types of situation, I will be understood to
have made a factual statement which I have some evidence or justification
for making, and to which I can be expected to be held. The uttering of this
statement commits me, as a matter of convention, to certain other propo-
sitions, the statement’s entailments and presuppositions (see Chapter 6),
such as the proposition that the Long March took place, that leather belts
were available, and that there were rats in China at the time. If I subse-
quently denied any one of these propositions, or the original statement
itself, I could incur sanctions from the other members of the exchange: I
could be accused, for example, of inconsistency. These sorts of conditions
and commitments can be seen as essentially of the same order as those
involved in other types of utterance, such as promises. Just as the act of
making a statement suggests I have evidence or justification for what I say,
the act of making a promise suggests I have the intention to fulfil what I
say I will do. And just as the statement commits me to assent to its entail-
ments and presuppositions, a promise commits me to follow through on
the promised act. In both cases, then, the utterance of a linguistic expres-
sion can be seen as occupying a place in a structure of past and future
actions and mental states, maintained and enforced by social conven-
tion.
The use of language is thus not the disembodied exercise of human
reason asserting neutral facts about the world. It is a situated, contextual
act in a network of social roles and responsibilities. This is always the case,
regardless of whether the utterance in question seems essentially constat-
ive (factual) or performative. As Austin says (1962: 145–147), the difference
between constatives and performatives can be seen principally as one of
emphasis. Thus, constative utterances (statements, descriptions) abstract
away from the illocutionary aspects of the utterance act in order to focus
on its locutionary aspects, and the extent to which the utterance corre-
sponds with facts. Performative utterances, contrastingly, focus on the
illocutionary aspects, abstracting away from the locutionary dimension.

4.2 Interpersonal context: speaker’s intention

and hearer’s inference
As we have seen, Austin did not believe that illocutionary acts were accom-
panied by any predictable grammatical or lexical markers. Both he and
Searle did, however, believe that the making and understanding of speech
acts is governed by social conventions like the ones for statements and
requests discussed above. However, the idea that conventions underlie the
illocutionary force of utterances has been much criticized. The central
problem with such a theory is that it proves to be exceedingly difficult to
114 THE SCOPE OF MEANING II: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

state what the convention behind any given speech act might be. Thus,
the conventions governing statements mentioned above seem inadequate:
we often state things for which we do not have evidence (e.g. You’re not
going to go bald), which it is obvious that the hearer knows already (You have
lost a bit of hair, though), and which we do not believe anyway (But it’s nothing
to worry about). Similarly, the putative conventions governing the making
of requests may also be violated, without detracting from the nature of
the utterance as a request. For example, imagine that S feels obliged to
invite H to dinner, but does not want her to come. S may thus invite H to
come at a time at which they know H is unavailable. In a case like this, the
request Do come and have dinner with us tomorrow is made with S not want-
ing H to come (condition (iv) in (1) above), and knowing that H is unable
to do so (condition (ii)). The utterance is none the less, however, a request
(see Strawson 1971: 153–154 for further examples).
The general problem with convention-based approaches to illocution-
ary force is that they ignore the role of the appreciation of speakers’ inten-
tions in our understanding of meaning. The importance of intention in
meaning was first emphasized by the British philosopher H. P. Grice, a col-
laborator of Austin’s in the 1940s and 1950s. For Grice, ‘the meaning (in
general) of a sign needs to be explained in terms of what the users of the
sign do (or should) mean by it on particular occasions’ (1989: 217). If I
understand that a certain utterance is a statement, a request, or a warn-
ing, on Grice’s theory, it is because I attribute to the speaker a certain type
of intention: the intention to state, to request, or to warn. It is because I
attribute these intentions to the speaker that I am able to interpret the
utterance in the right way; if I had credited the speaker with a different
intention, I would have taken the utterance differently.
The importance of speaker’s intention applies to both the illocutionary
and the locutionary aspects of utterances. On the illocutionary side, the
hearer’s interpretation of the speech act performed by the speaker will
depend, as we have just seen, on their interpretation of S’s intentions. S’s
utterance of the words It’s easy to fall over in the dark may function as a
request for H to turn on the lights, a warning to H to be careful, or a
metaphorical observation about the dangers of ignorance, uttered with-
out the intention of provoking any particular immediate action on the
part of H. In reacting to the utterance, H has to infer which of these pos-
sibilities was the one S intended. This is not to say, of course, that S
intended only a single one of them: it is quite possible that S had several
intentions in uttering those words. Perhaps, indeed, S didn’t even know
what their intention was; they just uttered the words. Nevertheless the
hearer is obliged to make inferences about S’s overall intentions in order
to respond appropriately.
On the locutionary side, it is by making inferences about the speaker’s
intentions that the hearer selects the relevant aspects of the encyclopae-
dic knowledge called up by a linguistic expression: the encyclopaedic
information relevant to the interpretation of an utterance is the informa-
tion which the speaker intended to convey, and the hearer must decide
which of the potentially infinite elements of encyclopaedic knowledge the
 4.2 Speaker’s intention and hearer’s inference 115

speaker had in mind. Thus, if I use the word frog in reference to a French
person in the phrase He may be a Frog, but no princess is kissing him (see (19)
in the previous chapter), it is because I am considering certain facts and
not others as relevant in this context: the fact that there is a fairy story in
which a princess kisses a frog, and the fact that French people may be
referred to as frogs. In order to understand (19) correctly, any hearer will
have to appreciate my intent to convey this information. But the role of
intentions is not limited to the selection of the appropriate encyclopaedic
facts about a word. We also need to understand the speaker’s intention in
order to disambiguate words and assign referents, both basic aspects of
the determination of the locutionary act of what is actually said. If I hear
the sentence There was a mouse here this morning, my choice between the
interpretations there was a small rodent in the house this morning and there was
a computer accessory on this table this morning will be made on the basis of my
beliefs about the speaker’s intentions: did the speaker intend me to under-
stand her to be making a comment about the presence of wildlife some-
where in the house or about a computer part that should have been on the
table?
So inferring the speaker’s intention is, on this view, a fundamental
aspect of the process of meaning-creation and understanding in language.
Linguistic communication is an intentional-inferential process, in which
hearers try to infer speakers’ intentions on the basis of the ‘clues’ pro-
vided by language. It is, as described by Sperber and Wilson (2002: 3),
‘essentially an exercise in metapsychology, in which the hearer infers the
speaker’s intended meaning from evidence she has provided for this pur-
pose’. The viability of an analysis of meaning in terms of intentions has
not infrequently been called into question by philosophers of language,
and it does indeed seem, for reasons that there is not space to go into
here, as though the details of this analysis are rather problematic (see e.g.
Schiffer 1987: 242–249). Nevertheless, Grice’s programme of intentional-
inferential semantics is assumed by many linguists and has proven to be
a fruitful way of understanding language use.
Grice called the type of intention-dependent meaning characteristic of
human language non-natural meaning (meaningNN). The label ‘non-natural’
is intended to contrast with natural types of meaningfulness which are
not mediated by a speaker’s intentions, such as when we say those spots
mean measles: here, the link between the spots and their ‘meaning’ (mea-
sles) is causal, direct and independent of any human agency, whereas the
meaning of an utterance in human language depends on the intention of
the utterer. In general, for Grice, the notion of what a word means is only
explicable in terms of what speakers mean by using the word. What is
important in communicating is thus what speakers intend by their use of
language, what speakers use words to mean, and it is only derivatively, in
light of these intentions, that we may speak of words themselves meaning
anything (Grice 1989: 214–221).

QUESTION Consider involuntary exclamations of pain like ouch or ow.

Are these instances of meaningNN? If so, why? If not, why not?
116 THE SCOPE OF MEANING II: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

4.3 Interpersonal context: implicature

We observed at the start of the discussion of meaning and context in the
previous chapter (3.1) that one of the crucial tasks of a semantic theory
must be to characterize the scope of an expression’s meaning. Given that
all utterances occur in some context, it is necessary to separate off those
aspects of an utterance’s effect which may be due to its use in a particular
context from those created by the meanings of its constituent elements.
So far, we have distinguished two particular ways in which context may be
manifested linguistically: reference, discussed in the previous chapter,
and illocutionary force. Both, we have claimed, need to be distinguished
from linguistic meaning (sense): neither the object to which an expression
refers, nor the speech act of which it is a part, need necessarily to be con-
sidered to constitute part of that expression’s meaning (sense).
Within the intentional-inferential framework initiated by Grice, one of
the principal ways of thinking of the interrelations between meaning and
context has been in terms of the notion of conversational implicature.
The theory of conversational implicature was developed by Grice in a
famous series of lectures delivered in 1967, and has been extremely influ-
ential in subsequent philosophy, linguistics and cognitive science. Grice’s
primary interest was in precisely the question of the scope of meaning:
how can the boundary between what an expression means and the use it
is given in a particular context be satisfactorily drawn (1989: 4)? How, in
other words, does sentence meaning relate to utterance meaning (see
1.4.4)? In particular, his project was to develop a way of thinking about
language which insulates our conception of an expression’s meaning
from the purely accidental facts about the ways in which it happens to be
used. Not all of the features of an utterance in a particular context, Grice
claimed, are directly dependent on the meanings of its constituents.
Meaning does not determine use directly, and the apparent features of the
overall effect of an expression in a certain context may be due not to the
expression’s meaning as such, but to the interrelation between that inher-
ent meaning and the way in which the expression is being used in that
context: in a different context, the same expression, with the same inher-
ent meanings, could have quite different features.

4.3.1 Discrepancies between truth-functional

meaning and utterance meaning
Grice was committed to a truth-conditional or truth-functional view of
meaning, which can be described as the view that knowing the meaning
of an expression consists in knowing the conditions under which it is true
(see 3.2.1 for discussion). It was from this point of view that he was struck
by a disparity between the (truth-conditionally conceived) sentence mean-
ing of certain fundamental linguistic expressions and the utterance
meanings they seem to have in actual language use. Grice’s main example
is provided by logical operators like and. Grice takes the sense of and to
be the function it has in logic, where it simply denotes the union of two
 4.3 Interpersonal context: implicature 117

entities or propositions – apples and oranges, seeing and believing, Toni

and Amitavo (see Chapter 6 for explanation). It may not at first sight be
obvious why one should take the logical function of and to be primary in
natural language. The essential reason is that, for many philosophers, the
principles of logic are universal and underlie the operation of all human
conceptual activity, including language: to study logic is thus to study the
fundamental bases of rational human thought. As a result, words like and,
or and not, which have analogues in the ‘language’ of logic, are naturally
thought of as basically expressing the same ideas as their strict logical
counterparts. In light of this basic function of and, consider (4):

(4) He got into bed and took off his shoes.

Grice notes the obvious fact that it would not be appropriate to utter (4)
about someone who first took off his shoes and then got into bed. One
might claim, therefore, that there is an element of temporal succession to
the meaning of and which is not reflected in its logical, truth-functional
meaning. Grice does not want to say, however, that the meaning of and in
(4) is any different from its basic meaning as a logical connective. This is
for two reasons. Firstly, he is committed to a truth-functional approach to
meaning in which the sense of logical operators like and simply is their
role as a logical connector. This means that he needs a way of dealing with
instances like (4) which seem to show that ordinary language does not
obey truth-functional principles. Second, he believes that most people
would say that although (4) is a misleading description of the situation in
question, it is nevertheless true: strictly speaking, there is nothing false in
(4) as a description of the situation in which someone took off his shoes
and then got into bed, although it is an unusual and confusing way to
describe this situation.
Another example of a discrepancy between truth-conditional (logical)
and conventional meaning would be the meaning of some in the following
sentence:

(5) Tuptim has finished some of her homework.

Under normal circumstances, the speaker of (5) would be taken to mean

that Tuptim hasn’t finished all her homework. From a strictly logical
point of view, however, (5) is just as true if Tuptim has finished all her
homework as it is if she has just finished some of it: if she has finished all
her homework (say her history, geometry and German homework), it fol-
lows logically that she has also finished some of it (say her history and
geometry homework). This would, however, be a misleading way of
describing the situation, since in real conversation some typically gives
rise to the interpretation ‘not all’: if I say that I have read some of the book,
I imply that I have not read all of it. (This is called a scalar implicature; see
Horn 1984.)
A final example of the same sort is the conjunction but. Strictly, but has
exactly the same truth-conditions as and: there is no logical distinction
between them (see 6.2). As a result, the following pairs of sentences have
identical truth-conditional meanings:
118 THE SCOPE OF MEANING II: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

(6) a. He’s rich and he’s unhappy.

b. Hilda took a cab and Dirk took the bus.

(7) a. He’s rich but he’s unhappy.

b. Hilda took a cab but Dirk took the bus.

From the truth-conditional point of view, there is no difference between

the sentences in (6) and (7): they are true in exactly the same conditions.
There is, however, a clear non-truth-conditional difference between (6) and
(7): (7) has an implication of contrast entirely missing in (6).

4.3.2 Conventional and conversational implicature

How should we think about these discrepancies between logical and con-
ventional meaning? Grice introduced the term implicature in order to
talk about these different facets of what we might call (informally) the
meaning of an expression. The introduction of this term is a way of gen-
eralizing over the different types of communicative intention which hearers
attribute to speakers: the implicatures of an utterance are what it is neces-
sary to believe the speaker is thinking, and intending the hearer to think, in
order to account for what they are saying. Some of these implicatures, like
the implicature of contrast carried by but, are conventional implicatures:
they are part of the typical force of the word, whether or not they conform
to its strict, truth-conditional (logically defined) meaning. Conventional
implicatures are what we might otherwise refer to as the standard or typical
meanings of linguistic expressions. Other implicatures are conversational.
Conversational implicatures are those that arise in particular contexts of
use, without forming part of the word’s characteristic or conventional force:
the choice of the term ‘conversational’ is explained by the fact that Grice’s
examples are mostly taken from imagined conversations.
Here are some examples of exchanges involving conversational implica-
tures; in all of them, the sentence meaning of B’s reply has no direct con-
nection to A’s question: it is the implicated utterance meaning which
contains the answer:
(8) A: Have you read Sebald?
B: I haven’t read the back of the cereal packet.

(9) A: Do you know how to get to rue du Pasteur Wagner?

B: I’ve got a map in my bag.

(10) A: Do you like anchovies?

B: Does a hippo like mud?

In (8) B implicates that he hasn’t read anything by Sebald, since he hasn’t

even read the back of the cereal packet. In (9) B implicates that he does not
know how to get to the rue du Pasteur Wagner, but that he is prepared to
consult his map for directions. In (10) B implicates that since the answer to
his question is ‘yes’, then the answer to A’s question is also ‘yes’ and that, as
a result, he does indeed like anchovies. In all these cases, what is implied
goes beyond the conventional meanings of the words used. The sentence I
 4.4 Gricean maxims and the Cooperative Principle 119

haven’t read the back of the cereal packet is not usually able to convey the infor-
mation ‘I haven’t read Sebald’; in the context of this conversation, however,
this is precisely the information which it does convey. In order to under-
stand the use of language in real communicative exchanges, therefore, it is
essential to develop some analysis of the ways in which implicatures like
these arise.

4.4 Gricean maxims and the

Cooperative Principle
Within an inferential-intentional approach to meaning, Grice claimed
that implicatures like those in (8)–(10) arise as the result of the infringe-
ment of certain principles or ‘maxims’ of rational conversational behav-
iour which, he claimed, govern speech exchanges. Grice claimed that
conversation is (and should be) governed by the Cooperative Principle, a
general condition on the way rational conversation is conducted. The
Cooperative Principle is essentially the principle that the participants in
a conversation work together in order to ‘manage’ their speech exchange
in the most efficient way possible:
Our talk exchanges do not normally consist of a succession of discon-
nected remarks, and would not be rational if they did. They are charac-
teristically, to some degree at least, cooperative efforts; and each partici-
pant recognizes in them, to some extent, a common purpose or set of
purposes, or at least a mutually accepted direction.
(Grice 1989: 26)
This direction, Grice noted, may well change continually in the course of
the conversation.
But at each stage, some possible conversational moves would be excluded
as conversationally unsuitable. We might then formulate a rough
general principle which participants will be expected (ceteris paribus)
to observe, namely: Make your conversational contribution such as is
required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or
direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. One might
label this the Cooperative Principle.
(Grice 1989: 26)
Grice distinguished four general maxims, itemized below, which he claimed
that speakers mainly observe, and expect others to observe, in conversation:

The maxim of Quality

Try to make your contribution one that is true, specifically:
(i) do not say what you believe to be false
(ii) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
The maxim of Quantity
(i) make your contribution as informative as is required for the
current purposes of the exchange
(ii) do not make your contribution more informative than is required
120 THE SCOPE OF MEANING II: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

The maxim of Relevance

Make your contributions relevant
The maxim of Manner
Be perspicuous, and specifically:
avoid obscurity
avoid ambiguity
be brief
be orderly
(Grice 1989: 26–27)

Not all the maxims have equal importance (Grice 1989: 27). The brevity
clause of the Manner maxim, for example, is frequently disobeyed.
Furthermore, Grice notes (1989: 28) that there are also ‘all sorts of other
maxims (aesthetic, social, or moral in character), such as “Be polite,” that
are also normally observed by participants in talk exchanges’; the ones he
has identified, however, have a special connection with what he takes to
be the primary purpose of conversation: a maximally effective exchange
of information (Grice 1989). He acknowledges, however, that conversation
serves many other purposes and that, as a result, the maxims will need to
be modified in order to take account of these other purposes.
QUESTION What other purposes than the exchange of information does
conversation serve? Is it possible to formulate different maxims in order
to reflect the nature of these other types of purpose?

4.4.1 Infringing the maxims

Obviously, these maxims are frequently not observed. Grice considers four
ways in which a speaker may fail to observe a maxim. First, a maxim may
be violated, as for example when one deliberately sets out to mislead (in
violation of the first maxim of Quality), to confuse or to bore (violation of
various Manner maxims). Second, one may simply opt out of the Cooperative
Principle, for example by saying ‘I can’t say more, my lips are sealed’, in
order to avoid divulging a secret. Thirdly, one may be faced by a clash, for
example if it was impossible to fulfil the informativity maxim without
infringing the evidentiary one (see (11) below).
The last, and most important category of non-observance of the maxims
is maxim-flouting. This is where the speaker exploits an obvious infringe-
ment of one of the maxims in order to generate an implicature. Flouting
is the origin of the implicated meanings conveyed in (8)–(10) above. In all
these sentences, the maxim of Relevance is obviously flouted to varying
degrees: most flagrantly in (8) and (10); less so in (9). These infringements
of the maxim are meaningful: it is by assuming that the speaker is still
adhering to the Cooperative Principle on a higher level in (8)–(10) that the
hearer is able to extract the implications intended by the speaker. For exam-
ple, B’s reply in (8) concerns a completely different topic to that of A’s ques-
tion. In replying with information about reading cereal packets, B seems
clearly to be disobeying the maxim of Relevance. How does A interpret this?
Grice articulates A’s dilemma as follows:
 4.4 Gricean maxims and the Cooperative Principle 121

On the assumption that the speaker is able to fulfill the maxim and to
do so without violating another maxim (because of a clash), is not opt-
ing out, and is not, in view of the blatancy of his performance, trying to
mislead, the hearer is faced with a minor problem: How can his saying
what he did say be reconciled with the Cooperative Principle?
(Grice 1989: 30)
The solution to this ‘minor problem’ is to assume that B is implying the
answer to the question rather than saying it outright. Assuming that he is
still adhering to the Cooperative Principle, A can make B’s remark rele-
vant by inferring the answer to the question from it by appeal to general
principles of world-knowledge: if B hasn’t even read the back of the cereal
packet, it is hardly likely that he would have read Sebald; therefore, B may
reasonably be taken to be implicating that the answer to the question is
‘no’. B is therefore exploiting the maxim of Relevance in order to generate
the implication which answers A’s question.
QUESTION Sentences (9) and (10) also involve infringements of the
maxim of Relevance. Describe the steps A could apply in reasoning in
order to extract the correct implication.
Another case of maxim-flouting is the following (Grice 1989: 154–155). A is
planning a trip with B to southern France. Both know that A wants to see
his friend C, as long as doing so wouldn’t involve too great a detour from
their original itinerary. This is the context for the following exchange:

(11) A: Where does C live?

B: Somewhere in the South of France.

Grice glosses this (ibid.) by noting that there is no reason to suppose that
B is opting out of the conversation: the Cooperative Principle, in other
words, should still be assumed to be active. However, his answer is, as he
well knows, less informative than A needs. The first maxim of Quantity
(‘make your contribution as informative as is required for the current
purposes of the exchange’) has therefore been infringed. But A can
explain this infringement by supposing that B is simply avoiding an
infringement of a different maxim, the second maxim of Quality, ‘do not
say that for which you lack adequate evidence’. In this situation, B has
chosen the reply which gives the most information of which he is capa-
ble, and A can extract the implication that B is unaware of C’s exact
address.
QUESTION Consider each of the Gricean maxims, and describe ways in
which their infringement could generate implicatures. Are some max-
ims more likely to be infringed meaningfully than others?

4.4.2 Questions about implicatures

According to Grice, much of the contextual force of an utterance is
derived by the hearer through a rational process of inference based on gen-
eral assumptions in the framework of a cooperative speech exchange – and
122 THE SCOPE OF MEANING II: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

not, as for Austin or Searle, through the observance of any specific conven-
tions governing different speech acts. For scholars sympathetic to the
Gricean approach, this is a theoretically significant discovery about the
nature of meaning in general (see Levinson 2000 for a development of
Grice’s ideas). Three observations, however, are relevant. The first is that
whole conversations can often proceed without any implicatures of the
sort Grice discusses: we often talk in a much more literal way than Grice’s
treatment suggests. The second is that not all language occurs in the con-
text of cooperative talk exchanges. Instances of language use do, certainly,
often presuppose an addressee (cf. Bakhtin 1986), but this is not the same
as being part of a cooperative exchange. Sometimes our conversational con-
tributions are quite the opposite of cooperative: our remarks may be dis-
jointed or contradictory; we often make assertions for which we lack evi-
dence, which we know not to be true, and which, in fact, we do not even
expect to be understood. Language use is, in short, often not the stream-
lined, collaborative, rational enterprise which Grice suggests.
QUESTION Give other examples of language use which do not seem to
presuppose a cooperative background like the one Grice assumes. A
Gricean might defend the validity of the Cooperative Principle by saying
that even where a speaker’s intention is to mislead, confuse, etc., this
intention can only be accomplished if the hearer succeeds in under-
standing the meaning of the speaker’s words – and for this to happen,
there must be a principle of cooperation at work on some level. Would
this defence be justified?
The third point about Grice’s examples is that the analysis always depends
on it being possible to say (i) that an implicature is clearly being conveyed,
and (ii) more or less what this implicature is. But how realistic is this?
Sometimes (often?) it is entirely unclear whether the speaker is implying
anything beyond what they are saying, and, if so, what. And in cases where
the presence of an implicature is possible, it is not the case that a hearer
will proceed (at least consciously) in a linear Gricean manner, in which an
infringement of one of the maxims is noted, and the appropriate implica-
tion computed on the basis of rational considerations of what the speaker
could be intending. The course of real conversations, in other words, often
seems much more chaotic and irrational than Grice’s analysis suggests.

4.5 Are the maxims universal?

If it is accepted that maxims like those formulated by Grice underlie many
types of conversation in English, it is obviously an important question
whether the same is true for other languages. The universality of the
Gricean maxims has been strongly questioned by Keenan (1976). Keenan
says that we can readily imagine situations even in our own society which
do not observe the first maxim of Quantity, which stipulates that hearers
are to make their contributions ‘as informative as is required for the cur-
rent purposes of the exchange’. As she points out, there are many situations
where it would be indiscreet, impolite or unethical to be informative.
 4.5 Are the maxims universal? 123

Situations of professional confidence like those involving lawyers, doctors,

spokespeople, accountants, etc. are only the most obvious examples where
‘be discreet’ seems a more appropriate description of the maxims govern-
ing conversation than ‘be informative’.
Having demonstrated the lack of applicability of Quantity (i) in certain
types of familiar Western context, Keenan goes on to claim that societies
exist where, in general, the maxim ‘be informative’ does not hold at all.
One such society, Keenan claims, is Madagascar, where ‘the expectation
that speakers will satisfy informational needs is not a basic norm’ (Keenan
1976: 218). Information in traditional Malagasy society is, according to
Keenan, characteristically withheld – especially if the information in ques-
tion is important. Keenan derives this tendency not to inform from cer-
tain large-scale features of traditional Malagasy social organization:
New information is a rare commodity. Villages are composed of groups
of kinsmen whose genealogical backgrounds and family lives are public
knowledge. Their day-to-day activities are shaped to a large extent by the
yearly agricultural cycle. Almost every activity of a personal nature (bath-
ing, play, courtship, etc.) takes place under public gaze. Information that
is not already available to the public is highly sought after. If one gains
access to new information, one is reluctant to reveal it. As long as it is
known that one has that information and others do not, one has some
prestige over them.
(Keenan 1976: 218)
Keenan claims that this unwillingness to inform fits into a wider pattern in
Madagascar, which includes a general reluctance both to identify individu-
als explicitly, and to make explicit statements about either present or
future. ‘It would be misleading’, she continues, ‘to conclude that the
maxim “Be informative” does not operate at all in a Malagasy community’:

We would not be justified in proposing the contrary maxim ‘Be unin-

formative’ as a local axiom. Members of this speech community do not
regularly expect that interlocutors will withhold necessary information.
Rather, it is simply that they do not have the contrary expectation that
in general interlocutors will satisfy one another’s informational needs.
(Keenan 1976: 224)
The Gricean maxims must not, therefore, be seen as universal principles
governing the entire range of human conversational behaviour: conversa-
tional maxims seem to vary situationally and cross-culturally, and the set
of maxims operative in any given culture is a matter for empirical investi-
gation.
Many scholars working in the tradition of Gricean analysis are commit-
ted to the universality of the maxims and therefore need to reply to this
attempted relativization of them. Kasher (1982), for example, has claimed
that Keenan’s observation of apparent violations of the Quantity maxim
isn’t a violation at all: Keenan has not, according to Kasher, taken into
account the role of cost in the Malagasy speaker’s avoidance of informa-
tiveness. In developments of Gricean theory, Kasher states,
124 THE SCOPE OF MEANING II: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

a rational speaker opts for a speech act which not only attains his purpose
most effectively but also does so at least cost, ceteris paribus. Now, it is up to
the speaker himself to determine what counts as a cost and what may be
disregarded . . . For Malagasy speakers, commitments should be spared . . .
(Kasher 1982: 207)
For Kasher, then, Keenan’s apparent counter-example is nothing of the
sort. Malagasy speakers attach high value to the possession of information
which their interlocutors do not have. Given these values, the social cost
of disclosing information counteracts the maxim of informativeness, and
there is no reason to doubt that ‘Be informative’ really is a maxim adhered
to – according to their own broader conventions – by Malagasy people.
Keenan might well reply, however, that the reformulation of the maxim
in order to take cost into account means that the maxim can never, in fact,
be infringed. Grice’s definition of the maxim – ‘make your contribution as
informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange’ and ‘do
not make your contribution more informative than is required’ – allows any
possible counter-example like Keenan’s to be dismissed by varying the
parameter of the requirements of the exchange. Thus, if we include as one
of the ‘requirements of the exchange’ the speaker’s desire to avoid cost by
not releasing information, the maxim survives intact. Whatever the rights
and wrongs of the Keenan/Kasher debate, the issues involved illustrate the
difficulty of applying Gricean insights, which are derived from idealized
reflection on conversation, to real linguistic description.
QUESTION Are Keenan’s Malagasy examples conclusive evidence that the
maxims are not universal, or is Kasher’s defence justified? Discuss the
issues involved.

4.6 Relevance theory

Relevance is a crucial notion in the Gricean programme, and Grice had
called (1989: 86) for it to be clarified. Working in a tradition inspired by
Grice, Sperber and Wilson (1987, 1995, 2002) have developed an important
theory of pragmatics in which a notion of relevance supplants all the
other factors Grice considered. We noted in 4.2 that Grice’s theory
depends on an intentional-inferential view of communication. For Sperber
and Wilson, in contrast, language-use is an ostensive-inferential process:
the speaker ostensively provides the hearer with evidence of their mean-
ing in the form of words and, combined with the context, this linguistic
evidence enables the hearer to infer the speaker’s meaning. But the hearer
does not do this by entertaining assumptions about the speaker’s inten-
tions and using them to explain infringements of a set of conversational
maxims, as in Gricean approaches. Sperber and Wilson argue against any
account of utterance interpretation which assumes that hearers decide
what meaning or implication the speaker could have intended their
words to have and assume that it was this meaning that the speaker
intended to achieve. The range of possible meanings that a speaker may
 4.6 Relevance theory 125

intend to convey is, they say, far too great to make this sort of procedure
possible (2002: 10–11): the speaker could conceivably have been intending
to communicate anything. Furthermore, they complain that Grice’s con-
versational maxims do not sufficiently narrow down the range of possible
interpretations a hearer may reach for an utterance:
There may be a whole variety of interpretations that would meet whatev-
er standards of truthfulness, informativeness, relevance and clarity that
have been proposed or envisaged so far. The theory needs improving at a
fundamental level before it can be fruitfully applied to particular cases.
(Sperber and Wilson 1995: 37)
Rather, Sperber and Wilson claim that there is a single overarching cogni-
tive principle, the Principle of Relevance, which determines the way in
which hearers interpret – and speakers intend – utterances.
Relevance, in Sperber and Wilson’s definition (see e.g. 2002: 14), is a
potential property of utterances and other phenomena (external events,
thoughts, memories) which provide input to cognitive processes:
The relevance of an input for an individual at a given time is a positive
function of the cognitive benefits he would gain from processing it, and a
negative function of the processing effort needed to achieve these benefits.
(Sperber and Wilson 2002: 14)

We can think of relevance as a kind of ‘cognitive nutrition’ (Breheny 2002:

181): a maximally relevant utterance is one that provides the desired infor-
mation (for instance by answering a question, confirming a hypothesis, or
correcting a mistake: Sperber and Noveck 2004: 5), and which does this in
the way easiest to understand. Thus, if you ask me what my first name is
and I reply ‘Nick’, my answer is maximally relevant: there is no other way
I could have conveyed this information more efficiently. If, on the other
hand, I reply ‘My first name is an abbreviation of the name derived from
the Greek expression “victory of the people”’, then my answer will be
considerably less relevant (though still true) because it will cost you con-
siderable effort to interpret.
Every utterance, for Sperber and Wilson, ‘communicates a presumption
of its own optimal relevance’ (1995: 158). This is the communicative prin-
ciple of relevance. What it means is that a speaker implies the relevance
of their words by the very act of speaking: in saying something to a hearer,
a speaker implies that the utterance is the most relevant that they could
have produced under the circumstances, and that it is at least relevant
enough to warrant the hearer’s attention. Sperber and Wilson posit that
there is a universal cognitive tendency to maximize relevance: human
beings seek information from which they will benefit, and this tendency
makes it possible, at least to some extent, to predict and manipulate the
mental states of others, including those that result in the production of
utterances. Thus, speakers will try to produce optimally relevant utter-
ances, in the knowledge that this is what will be most useful for hearers,
and hearers assume that the speaker’s utterance is the most relevant pos-
sible, given the speaker’s circumstances.
126 THE SCOPE OF MEANING II: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

The principles which govern hearers’ interpretations of utterances are

described by a two step comprehension procedure (Sperber and Wilson
2002: 18):

(a) Follow a path of least effort in computing cognitive effects. In partic-

ular, test interpretative hypotheses (disambiguations, reference reso-
lutions, implicatures, etc.) in order of accessibility.
(b) Stop when your expectations of relevance are satisfied.

The most relevant utterance is the easiest to understand. Since the speaker
is expected to make her utterance as relevant as possible, the hearer is
justified in following the path of least effort by considering the most acces-
sible (obvious) interpretation of the speaker’s words first. ‘The hearer is also
justified’, Sperber and Wilson continue, ‘in stopping at the first interpreta-
tion that satisfies his expectations of relevance because, if the speaker has
succeeded in producing an utterance that satisfies the presumption of
relevance it conveys, there should never be more than one such interpreta-
tion’ (Sperber and Wilson 2002: 19). Let’s see an example of how the com-
prehension procedure accounts for the contextual interpretation of an
utterance. Consider the following dialogue (taken from Sperber and Wilson
2002: 19):

(12) Peter: Can we trust John to do as we tell him and defend the interests
of the Linguistics Department in the University Council?
Mary: John is a soldier!

Sperber and Wilson’s explanation of the processing steps involved here is

worth quoting in full:
Peter’s mentally represented concept of a soldier includes many attri-
butes (e.g. patriotism, sense of duty, discipline) which are all activated to
some extent by Mary’s use of the word ‘soldier’. However, they are not all
activated to the same degree. Certain attributes also receive some activa-
tion from the context (and in particular from Peter’s immediately pre-
ceding allusions to trust, doing as one is told, and defending interests),
and these become the most accessible ones. These differences in the
accessibility of the various attributes of ‘soldier’ create corresponding
differences in the accessibility of various possible implications of Mary’s
utterance, as shown in (4):

(4) a. John is devoted to his duty.

b. John willingly follows orders.
c. John does not question authority.
d. John identifies with the goals of his team.
e. John is a patriot.
f. John earns a soldier’s pay.
g. John is a member of the military.

Following the relevance-theoretic comprehension procedure, Peter consid-

ers these implications in order of accessibility, arrives at an interpretation
 4.6 Relevance theory 127

which satisfies his expectations of relevance at (4d), and stops there. He

does not even consider further possible implications such as (4e)–(4g), let
alone evaluate and reject them.
(Sperber and Wilson 2002: 19–20)

Whereas on a Gricean account – as for many other pragmatic accounts –

recognition of the literal meaning of the utterance is the basis of its sub-
sequent interpretation, for Sperber and Wilson this literal meaning is not
even considered: Peter simply considers what are, for him at the time, the
most relevant possible meanings of Mary’s statement, among which the
literal one does not even figure. It is the Principle of Relevance which
therefore allows the appropriate piece of factual (encyclopaedic) informa-
tion about the concept SOLDIER to be selected as the relevant meaning of
soldier in this instance.
Note that Sperber and Wilson’s argument depends on the implications
of John is a soldier being ranked in the way shown in (4). Their justification
for this ranking is that (4a)–(4d) are more accessible than (4e)–(4g) since
they are already activated by the preceding context. They acknowledge,
however, that the question of which implications are more accessible in a
given context is an empirical one, and that their account must be tested
experimentally. As they put it (1995: 138–139), ‘it is not enough to point
out that information may be carried over from one conceptual process to
the next; one would like to know which information is kept in a short-
term memory store, which is transferred to encyclopaedic memory, which
is simply erased’, adding that ‘[h]ere we have neither formal arguments
nor empirical evidence for any particular set of hypotheses’. On a tradi-
tional picture of linguistic meaning, the literal meaning is always the basis
of interpretation: soldier means (something like) ‘member of the military’,
and any account of its actual use must take this original meaning into
account. We might, for example, see this as an example of a metaphor:
the utterance of soldier immediately evokes the literal meaning ‘member
of the military’, and the real-world knowledge that members of the mili-
tary are associated with patriotism, team spirit, sense of duty and disci-
pline is what allows Peter to recover Mary’s metaphorically intended
meaning. The confirmation of the relevance theory account therefore
depends on an independently confirmed ranking of the accessibility of
the different pieces of information associated with an expression.
There is, however, some experimental evidence consistent with Sperber
and Wilson’s claim that the ‘literal’ meaning of soldier may not be opera-
tive here: Gibbs (2002), for example, surveys a certain amount of evidence
in favour of the ‘direct access’ view of interpretation. On this view, speak-
ers go directly to the intended meaning without the literal meaning func-
tioning as a preliminary step (for more discussion and supporting conclu-
sions, see Glucksberg 2004). This evidence has considerable implications
for our whole view of literal and non-literal meanings. For the moment,
we can simply summarize Sperber and Wilson’s theory by observing that
the postulation of a single cognitive principle – Relevance – as the central
consideration in utterance interpretation is simultaneously a more
128 THE SCOPE OF MEANING II: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

comprehensive and a less verifiable theory of communicative behaviour

than the Gricean approach which it is intended to supersede. As we have
seen, Grice’s rather detailed list of maxims allows for the possibility of
specific empirical disconfirmation of individual maxims (barring method-
ological problems like those discussed in 4.5 above). But Sperber and
Wilson’s single generalized principle of relevance is much harder to pin
down in the details of the empirical description of language use, whether
cross-linguistic or psycho-linguistic. If relevance is assessed against consid-
erations of cognitive effort and gain, how can we measure these without
some specific insight into the details of cognitive functioning? How,
equally, can we rank the possible interpretations of an utterance with
respect to their abstract accessibility without direct investigation of the
psychology of the speaker concerned?
Sperber and Wilson are far from the only theorists whose work raises
this kind of question, and the newly emerging field of Experimental
Pragmatics (Noveck and Sperber 2004) promises to supply at least some
answers. In particular, experiments reported in Van der Henst and Sperber
(2004) lend support to the idea that principles of relevance are, in fact,
operative in certain domains of psychology. There is still a long way to go,
however. As Van der Henst and Sperber themselves put it (2004: 169), ‘it
would take many more successful experiments involving a variety of
aspects of cognition and communication to come anywhere near a com-
pelling experimental corroboration of relevance theory itself’.
On a more general level, the basic presuppositions of theories of mean-
ing like those discussed in this chapter have been the subject of consider-
able critique. Mey, for example, criticizes Relevance Theory for its treat-
ment of speaker and hearer as ‘spontaneous individual[s] consciously
working on unique problems, rather than . . . social agent[s] working
within preexisting conventions with resources available to [them] of
which [they] cannot be aware’ (1988: 294). This criticism could equally well
be advanced against any of the approaches to communication in the tradi-
tion of Grice. In their focus on rational interactions between autonomous
individuals, such theories can be charged with ignoring both the subcon-
scious and the social determinants of linguistic behaviour. These tradi-
tions largely ignore the ways in which what we say and what we take
others to mean are constrained by a whole range of factors well beyond
the horizon of our individual conscious intentions, including social
expectations and unconscious motivations, to name only the two most
important. Do we, in fact, always speak with an intention? Could we
always say what it is? Do we always react to others’ utterances by trying to
determine either their intention, or the specific proposition that is most
relevant? On the conscious level, the answer to these questions is clearly
‘no’. On the subconscious one, the answer is much less clear. Many lin-
guists, however, would feel that in spite of these concerns, the inferential
picture of communication is the best approach we currently have to the
question of the relation between meaning and use. In spite of the prob-
lems confronting Gricean and related approaches, something like their
view is assumed by most investigators of natural language.
 4.7 Semantics and pragmatics 129

4.7 Semantics and pragmatics

The study of pragmatics has only arisen fairly recently in linguistics.
Investigation of meaning, by contrast, without which the study of gram-
mar is impossible, has always been considered as a central part of the
study of language, even before its constitution as a separate subdiscipline
round the time of Bréal (see Chapter 1). The focus in pragmatics on lan-
guage as it is actually used in context poses a significant challenge to lin-
guistic semantics. If, as an empirical discipline with ‘scientific’ aspira-
tions, linguistics doesn’t set out to study language as it is actually used,
then what is it supposed to study? If semantics focuses on the abstracted,
idealized, context-free meanings of linguistic expressions, what genuine
evidence is there for these meanings other than the ways words are used
in actual discourse? And if the very hypothesis of meaning is supposed to
explain how words are used, couldn’t the kind of gaps between meaning
and use studied in pragmatics suggest that there’s something wrong with
the very postulation of abstracted, idealized, context-free meanings in the
first place?
Considerations like these lead many pragmatists to see pragmatic ques-
tions, not semantic ones, as the central ones in any study of meaning. One
of the first to realize the importance of pragmatic questions was the phi-
losopher Rudolph Carnap. For Carnap, pragmatic facts are especially cen-
tral since they are discovered before any possible semantic ones in empirical
investigation of unknown languages:

Suppose we wish to study the semantical and syntactical properties of

a certain Eskimo language not previously investigated. Obviously, there
is no other way than first to observe the speaking habits of the people
who use it. Only after finding by observation the pragmatical fact that
those people have the habit of using the word ‘igloo’ when they intend
to refer to a house are we in a position to make the semantical state-
ment ‘“igloo” means (designates) house’ and the syntactical statement
‘“igloo” is a predicate.’ In this way all knowledge in the field of descrip-
tive semantics and descriptive syntax is based upon previous knowl-
edge in pragmatics. . . . pragmatics is the basis for all of linguistics.
(Carnap 1942: 21; italics original)

As we have observed at several points, pragmatic considerations like

reference assignment, scope interpretation and implicatures like the
temporal subsequency reading of and may enter into the truth-conditions
of an utterance. Even on the strictest truth-conditional approach to
meaning, then, the boundary between semantics and pragmatics is
porous: acts considered as prototypically part of the domain of pragmatics
are necessary to the very calculation of truth-conditional meaning. The
interpenetration of semantics and pragmatics also applies in the domain
of speech acts. As noted by Strawson (1971: 150), in performative utter-
ances like I apologize, meaning and illocutionary force are co-extensive:
the meaning of I apologize is that the speaker is performing the speech act
130 THE SCOPE OF MEANING II: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

of apologizing. In lexical semantics, also, rejection of the dictionary–

encyclopaedia distinction amounts to a rejection of any split between
semantics and pragmatics. If any piece of encyclopaedic knowledge may
become linguistically relevant, there would seem to be little reason to
view some as part of dictionary knowledge of meaning, governed by
semantic processes, and others as part of encyclopaedic knowledge, gov-
erned by pragmatic ones.
This interpenetration between semantics and pragmatics has led some
scholars, such as Sperber and Wilson, to reconceive of the nature of lin-
guistic communication in general. On the traditional view, language
consists in the communication of a definite content: a certain proposi-
tion either is or is not communicated by a given utterance; other propo-
sitions, in turn, may or may not be implied by it, but, if they are implied
by it, this means that they are not specifically communicated. Grice had
already questioned this view: it is probably not possible, according to
him, to

devise a decisive test to settle the question whether a conversational impli-

cature is present or not – a test, that is to say, to decide whether a given
proposition p, which is normally part of the total signification of the utter-
ance of a certain sentence, is on such occasions a conversational (or more
generally a nonconventional) implicatum of that utterance or is, rather, an
element in the conventional meaning of the sentence in question.
(Grice 1989: 42–43)

While we seem to be able to react to implications in the course of normal

discourse, it does not seem to be possible for us to formulate any absolute
test to distinguish between what an expression means and what it merely
implicates: the boundary between semantics and pragmatics, therefore, is
entirely fluid.
Sperber and Wilson share Grice’s view. For them, communication is a
matter of degree. Each utterance draws a certain set of propositions to the
attention of the hearer, weakly activating a vast number of pieces of ency-
clopaedic knowledge, and the hearer will apply the comprehension proce-
dure in order to determine which is the one the speaker probably intends.
It does not make sense, on this picture, to speak of a single proposition
which is uniquely conveyed by an utterance: an utterance’s meaning is
always the product of a choice from among a set of options, and the fac-
tors leading to the choice of one interpretation can only be understood
against the background of the other interpretations which the hearer
considered and rejected. Adopting this picture allows us to avoid the fal-
lacy that communication is always what Sperber and Wilson call strong
communication (Sperber and Wilson 1995: 58–60): communication, that is,
in which a single, definite content is uniquely conveyed. There is much
more vagueness and indeterminacy in real language than this idealized
picture suggests, and to suggest otherwise is to endow communication
with spurious precision.
 Summary 131

Summary Interpersonal context

The relations between language and context are not limited to those
in which a linguistic expression describes a preexisting world. The
assertion of facts about the world is just one of the acts which we can
use language to perform: we also ask questions, issue orders and make
requests. In these types of speech act, truth is not a relevant parameter
in the appreciation of meaning.

Austin and Searle on speech acts

Austin’s theory of speech acts distinguished three types of act we per-
form in any utterance:

• the locutionary act is the act of saying something, i.e. the act of
expressing the basic, literal meanings of the words chosen
• the illocutionary act is the act performed in saying something, i.e.
the act of using words to achieve such goals as warning, promising,
guaranteeing, etc.
• the perlocutionary act is the act performed by saying something,
i.e. the act of producing an effect in the hearer by means of the
utterance.

Considerations of truth and falsity are simply irrelevant for many types
of illocutionary act. Austin distinguished constative utterances like
snow is white, which have the illocutionary force of simply stating some-
thing, from performative utterances like I apologize, which themselves
bring about the state of affairs they mention. Fregean truth conditions
are relevant to constatives but not to performatives. Instead of truth
conditions, performative utterances have felicity conditions. Typical
felicity conditions for many types of constative and performative utter-
ance were described by Searle.

Grice on implicature
Grice recast the study of the relations between language and con-
text by highlighting the central role of intention to meaning, and
developed a theory of implicature and conversational maxims which
described the relation between sentence and utterance (speaker) mean-
ing. Grice’s main contribution is the four conversational maxims of
Quality, Quantity, Manner and Relevance. Many implied meanings
result from speakers’ deliberate infringement of these maxims.

Relevance theory
Relevance Theory, finally, represents a third tradition which chal-
lenges some of the central presuppositions of the study of meaning.
According to Relevance Theorists, the production and understanding
of utterances is explained as the result of a universal comprehension
132 THE SCOPE OF MEANING II: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

procedure which consists in selecting the most relevant aspects of a

word’s meaning in a given situation. There is no distinction between
literal and non-literal meaning, and what meanings are activated by
a word is highly dependent on the particular context in which it is
uttered.

Further reading
Tsohatzidis (1994) contains discussion of various aspects of speech-act theory; for an ethnographically based
critique, see Rosaldo (1980), discussed in Duranti (1997: chapter 7). Levinson (2000) and Horn (1984) are
good examples of modern pragmatic work in a neo-Gricean tradition. For a clear introduction to Relevance
Theory, Blakemore (1992) can be recommended; see May (1988) and Mey and Talbot (1988) for a critique
of the theory. Noveck and Sperber (2004) reports on more recent experimental work. Kasher (1998) is a
comprehensive anthology of key writings in pragmatics; Levinson (1983), Verschueren (1999) and Mey
(2001) are standard introductions to the field. Ariel (2008) is a recent introduction to pragmatics and gram-
mar. For discussion of current issues in pragmatics, start with the journals Journal of Pragmatics and
Pragmatics and Cognition.

Exercises
Questions for discussion
1. Give some examples, from English and other languages you know, of
indirect speech acts, i.e. situations where a particular grammatical struc-
ture (question, command, statement, etc.) is used with an illocutionary
force different from the one it is typically assumed to express. What con-
siderations might lie behind a speaker’s choice of an indirect speech act
to achieve their intended illocutionary effects?
2. As pointed out by Carston (1988), there are in fact cases where a tem-
poral subsequency reading of and does form part of the utterance’s
truth-conditions. The following sentences thus all depend on a reading
of and in which the conjunct (the phrase after the and) is interpreted as
later in time:

He didn’t steal some money and go to the bank; he went to the bank
and stole some money.
It’s better to meet the love of your life and get married than to get
married and meet the love of your life.
Either she became an alcoholic and her husband left her or he left her
and she became an alcoholic; I’m not sure which.

Is this a problem for Grice’s theory?

3. Relevance theory assumes that speakers, as well as hearers, maximize
relevance. When asked to give answers involving times, people often give
rounded answers. For example, when asked for the time, a speaker is
more likely to give an answer of the form 3.30, not 3.32. Can this be
accounted for in terms of relevance theory? How would the speaker’s cir-
cumstances (e.g. whether they were wearing a watch, if so, whether it
was digital or analogue, etc.) affect their calculation of relevance? How
 Exercises 133

would considerations of relevance differ if the question was ‘My watch

isn’t working properly. Do you have the time please?’ or ‘Do you know
the time of the next train to X’?
4. Choose a sixty-line excerpt from one of the conversations in the Saarland
corpus of spoken English, viewable online at www.uni-saarland.de/fak4/
norrick/scose.html. For each conversational turn, describe:

(i) What, if any, speech act it exemplifies;

(ii) If it does not obviously exemplify a speech act, what its role in the
conversation is;
(iii) Whether the contribution observes or infringes any of the Gricean
maxims;
(iv) Whether there are any implicatures and, if so, how these arise.

In general, how useful are (a) Gricean and (b) Searlian categories in the
analysis of the excerpt?
5. As we discussed, one of the classic problems of speech act theory is the
problem of indirect speech acts: the problem of why speakers often fail
to choose the standard grammatical form for their obvious communica-
tive purpose (e.g. uttering the statement it’s cold in here in order to
request someone to open the door). Mey (2002: 116) comments on
this as follows:

A possible solution to the problem capitalizes on the observation that

these so-called ‘indirect’ speech acts derive their force not so much from
their lexico-semantic build-up, as from the situation in which they are
appropriately uttered. It is the situation which makes the speech act pos-
sible, and intelligible to the hearer.

But he then says (2002: 117) that if this is true for some speech acts,
it’s true for all of them – not just indirect ones.

In such a ‘radically pragmatic view’ . . . , the indirect speech act dilemma is

resolved by moving the focus of attention from the words being said to
the things being done in the situation. Since all speech acting, for its
meaning, depends on the situation, while the indirectness of a speech
act derives from the situation, no speech act, in and by itself, makes
sense; alternatively, every speech act is to some degree indirect.
Consequently there are, strictly speaking, no such ‘things’ as speech acts,
but only what I will call the language users’ situated acts, or pragmatic
acts. (italics original)

He continues (2002: 117):

But if there are no objects called ‘speech acts’, then it is a mistake to

believe (as most philosophers and linguists do) that one can isolate, and
explain, our use of words by referring to certain individual speech acts,
having well-defined properties (such as illocutionary force), to be
assigned strictly in accordance with philosophical and linguistic criteria
(semantic, syntactic, perhaps even phonological). It further implies that all
efforts by the linguists to break out of this linguistic and philosophical
134 THE SCOPE OF MEANING II: INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

straightjacket . . . in the end must be frustrated, since no single theory of

language or of the mind will ever be able to explain the activities of the
human language user in the concrete situation of use. Such a situation
depends neither on the mind nor on language exclusively, hence cannot
be expressed in terms intended to specifically operate within, and
describe, the mental or linguistic.

Discuss these claims. Are they justified? What are their implications for
the investigation of language?
6. As described by Grice, the examples of implicature like those in (8)–(10)
in 4.3.2 are all cases in which sentence and utterance meaning do not
correspond. Why should speakers opt for such a lack of correspondence?
7. Consider the following observation: if I say X went into a house yesterday
and found a tortoise inside the front door, the implication is that the house
is not my own; the same implication arises for analogous sentences involv-
ing the expressions a garden, a car, a college, and so on. Sometimes,
however, there normally would be no such implicature (I have been
sitting in a car all morning), and sometimes the opposite one (I broke
a finger yesterday). Account for these facts in terms of encyclopaedic
knowledge and Gricean principles.
8. Grice notes the following paradox in the investigation of implicatures:

If nonconventional implicature is built on what is said, if what is said is

closely related to the conventional force of the words used, and if the
presence of the implicature depends on the intentions of the speaker, or
at least on his assumptions, with regard to the possibility of the nature of
the implicature being worked out, then it would appear that the speaker
must (in some sense or other of the word know) know what is the con-
ventional force of the words which he is using. This indeed seems to
lead to a sort of paradox: If we, as speakers, have the requisite knowl-
edge of the conventional meaning of sentences we employ to impli-
cate, when uttering them, something the implication of which depends
on the conventional meaning in question, how can we, as theorists,
have difficulty with respect to just those cases in deciding where conven-
tional meaning ends and implicature begins?
Grice (1989: 49)

Can you suggest any answers?

 CHA PT E R

5 Analysing and
distinguishing
meanings

CHAPTER PREVIEW
The different sections of this chapter follow three logical steps in meaning analy-
sis. In 5.1, some of the different possible semantic relations among words are
exemplified and discussed. We concentrate on those relations which are of most
use for semantic description:
◆ antonymy (oppositeness; 5.1.1),
◆ meronymy ( part of-ness; 5.1.2),
◆ the class-inclusion relations of hyponymy and taxonomy (kind of-ness;
5.1.3–4) and
◆ synonymy (5.1.5).
These meaning relations can be seen as reflecting the presence of various isolable
components in the meanings of the related words; accordingly, Section 5.2 intro-
duces the possibility of analysing senses as composed of bundles of semantic
components, and considers the wider applicability of componential analysis as
well as the problems it faces. The third section (5.3) discusses the necessity for a
theory of meaning to specify the number of senses associated with a lexeme in a
rigorous way. In 5.3.1 we distinguish the case where a single lexeme possesses
several related meanings (polysemy) from two other cases: the case where it
possesses only a single meaning (monosemy) and the case where it possesses
two unrelated meanings (homonymy). Section 5.3.2 then shows that any
attempt to make these definitions rigorous confronts serious problems, the
implications of which are discussed in 5.3.3.
136 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

5.1 Lexical relations

Knowing an expression’s meaning does not simply involve knowing its defi-
nition or inherent semantic content. As well as knowing a word’s defini-
tional meaning, a competent speaker knows how it relates to other words
of the language: which words are synonyms? Which are antonyms? Which
are meronyms, linked by the relation of a part to a whole? And which are
hyponyms, linked by the relation kind of ? Describing and accounting for
these relationships has often been taken as one of the principal tasks of
lexical semantics. Relationships like synonymy, antonymy, meronymy and
so on all concern the paradigmatic relations of an expression: the relations
which determine the choice of one lexical item over another. In the con-
struction of any utterance, the speaker is typically confronted with a choice
between various lexical items. Thus, the highlighted expressions of (1a)
stand in various types of paradigmatic relation to those of (1b): kitchen is a
meronym of restaurant; often is the antonym of rarely, many is (in this con-
text) a synonym of numerous, and sushi is a hyponym of Japanese food.

(1) a. The restaurants often have a sort of pan-Asian flair and there are
many sushi bars.
b. The kitchens rarely have any sort of pan-Asian flair and there are
numerous Japanese food bars.

The choices between different antonyms, meronyms and hyponyms will

be made on the basis of the different meanings which they convey: if the
speaker utters (1b) instead of (1a), it is because the different paradigmatic
choices result in different propositions being expressed. (The choice of
one synonym over another cannot be made on the basis of meaning, syn-
onyms being words which have the same meaning: we will consider some
of the factors behind synonym choice in 5.1.5.) Antonyms, meronyms,
hyponyms and synonyms are only the most important of the lexical rela-
tions it is possible to identify within the vocabulary of a language. Their
study is important since, as noted by Nyckees (1998: 178), they play a deter-
mining role in linguistic intercomprehension:

It would seem that the members of a linguistic community must be able

to construct relations between different expressions in order to under-
stand each other. Being genuinely able to speak a language involves
understanding the equivalence or the differences between different
phrases, in other words, mastering the relations of synonymy and para-
phrase; it involves the ability to draw out the consequences of a given
utterance, and the ability to sequence utterances in a reasonably coher-
ent, intelligible way; the ability to reformulate one’s own messages in
different ways, make one’s expression tighter or looser according to the
demands of the situation . . .

We will exemplify the four most important types of semantic relation in

5.1.1–5.1.5.
 5.1 Lexical relations 137

5.1.1 Antonymy
Speakers of English can readily agree that words like good-bad, love-hate and
in-out are opposites or antonyms. The notion of oppositeness involved here
seems to cover several different types of relation; in general, however,
antonymy may be characterized as a relationship of incompatibility
between two terms with respect to some given dimension of contrast.
Some words seem to have more than one antonym, depending on the
dimension of contrast involved (girl has both boy and woman, depending
on whether the dimension of contrast is sex or age; sweet has both bitter
and sour: see Murphy 2003: 173).
Not every word has an obvious antonym: library, of, and corresponding are
three cases for which there is no obvious relevant dimension of contrast
and for which antonyms are consequently hard to identify. And even
where an obvious dimension of contrast does exist, antonyms are not
always available: angry, for instance, does not have any obvious antonym
in English even though we can easily conceive of the scale of arousal and
calmness to which it belongs.
QUESTION Name ten other lexical items which do not seem to have obvi-
ous antonyms. Can you construct contexts in which antonyms become
available?
Nevertheless, antonymy is an important relation within the vocabulary of
a language. We discuss in Chapter 3 how Warlpiri specifically exploits
antonymy in the special Jiliwirri speech style (3.2.2.1). Another mark of
the significance of antonymy is the fact that many languages can create
antonyms morphologically. English does this productively with the prefix
un-. In Ancient Greek, antonyms were created through the addition of the
prefix a(n)-, as in an-eleutheros ‘unfree’ (eleutheros ‘free’), an-omoios ‘unlike’
(omoios ‘like’) and an-artios ‘uneven’ (artios ‘even’).
When discussing antonymy, the principal distinction we have to make
is between gradable and non-gradable antonyms. Non-gradable antonyms
are antonyms which do not admit a midpoint, such as male-female or pass-
fail. Assertion of one of these typically entails the denial of the other.
Thus, if someone is female, they are necessarily not male, and someone
who has failed an exam has necessarily not passed it. Gradable antonyms,
however, like hot-cold or good-bad, seem to be more common than non-
gradable ones. A gradable pair of antonyms names points on a scale which
contains a midpoint: thus, hot and cold are two points towards different
ends of a scale which has a midpoint, lexicalized by adjectives like tepid,
which is used to refer to the temperature of liquids which are neither hot
nor cold, but somewhere in between. A consequence of the fact that grad-
able antonyms occur on a scale is the fact that they are open to compari-
son. Thus, we may say that one drink is hotter than another, or that some
water is less cold than another.
QUESTION List fifteen gradable and fifteen non-gradable antonym pairs.
Gradable antonyms have a number of subtle characteristics. For example,
one of the members of an adjectival antonym pair often behaves ‘neutrally’
138 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

in questions and comparative constructions, in that it simply serves to

invoke the dimension of contrast as a whole, without attributing either of
the opposed properties to the object it qualifies. In the pair of gradable
antonyms good and bad, for instance, good is the neutral or uncommitted
member. Thus, (2) and (3) do not imply that the film is actually good (it
might just be average, or even bad):

(2) How good is that film?

(3) The film is better than the TV series.

The fact that good does not commit the speaker here is shown by the
following examples:

(2´) A: How good is that film?

B: Really bad.

(3´) The film is better than the TV series, but it’s still really bad.

Contrastingly, bad and its comparative worse do commit the speaker to the
badness of the film, as shown by B’s denial of this implication in (4), and
the oddness of (5)

(4) A: How bad is that film?

B: It’s not bad, it’s good!
?
(5) The film is worse than the TV series, but they’re both really good.

Not all gradable antonyms show these imbalances, however. Some ant-
onyms, like those in (6), are equipollent, in other words symmetrical in
their distribution and interpretation, with neither member of the pair
having an uncommitted (‘neutral’) use. Thus, both members of the follow-
ing pair imply an assertion of the mentioned property:

(6) a. How hot is the saucepan? [implies that it is hot]

b. How cold is the saucepan? [implies that it is cold]

However, such properties seem quite context-dependent. In (7), for exam-

ple, hot functions as the uncommitted member of the pair:

(7) a. How hot was it last summer? [doesn’t imply that it was necessarily hot]
b. How cold was it last summer? [implies that it was cold]

Uncommitted antonym pairs, which are in the minority in English, typi-

cally name objectively measurable qualities like size, age and weight
(Lehrer 2002: 498). Very little research has been conducted into commit-
tedness cross-linguistically. Cruse (1992) investigated antonyms meaning
long-short, good-bad and hot-cold in English, French, Turkish (Altaic, Turkey),
Macedonian (Indo-European, Macedonia), Arabic and Chinese. For the
 5.1 Lexical relations 139

adjectives meaning ‘longer’, ‘shorter’ and ‘better’ all languages allow an

impartial or uncommitted use, suggesting that antonym behaviour may
show some cross-linguistic uniformity. Phenomena like (7), however, sug-
gest that such cross-linguistic findings should be approached with cau-
tion. Indeed, one of the main results which cross-linguistic research into
antonymy could bring is an appreciation of just how context-dependent
committedness is cross-linguistically.
Languages with many adjectives are the most likely to have gradable
antonyms. However, languages without adjectives can convey similar con-
trasts. In Chinese, for example, the same gradable contrasts are repre-
sented through static verbs such as gāo ‘be tall’ and hăo ‘be good’ (Murphy
2003: 190). Similarly, the English verbs love-hate show comparable behav-
iour to many gradable adjectives (Murphy 2003: 190). Thus, they establish
points on a scale which admit differing degrees (8a, b), and assertion of
one necessitates the denial of the other:

(8) a. I love/hate him a lot.

b. I love/hate him more than you do.
c. I love him entails I don’t hate him

QUESTION Consider the noun pairs hero/coward, genius/dolt, giant/shrimp.

Are these gradable antonyms?

A certain number of words in English which have more than one meaning
can be given descriptions which make them seem autoantonymous, i.e.
their own opposites (Murphy 2003: 173). Thus, temper means both ‘to
harden’ and ‘to soften’; cleave means both ‘stick together’ and ‘force apart’
and sanction means both ‘to approve’ and ‘to censure’. Furthermore, there
are many denominal verbs for putting in or taking out things which show
similar autoantonymy, (e.g. to string a bean vs. to string a violin, Clark and
Clark 1979). Murphy points out (2003: 173) that contextual factors limit
the risk of confusion in many of these cases: if you temper your comments
you are softening them, not making them harder, whereas tempering metal
can only refer to hardening it.
There are many other types of relation which are commonly thought of
as exemplifying antonymy. Examples include what Lyons (1977) calls converse
opposition, exemplified by relations like parent-child, buy-sell, give-receive, above-
below; directional opposition such as north-south, and come-go; and reversive
opposition like do-undo, colour-bleach, build-demolish. Still other pairs which
could be described as antonyms, but do not fall under any of these catego-
ries, are nut-bolt and hand-glove (Murphy 2003: 199). Our initial description of
antonymy as incompatibility with respect to a given dimension will cover
these examples. Thus, a nut and a bolt are complementary tools which do
not fulfil the same function and are therefore incompatible (a nut cannot
be used instead of a bolt), and hand and glove show similar complementar-
ity: the visible end of an arm is either a (gloveless) hand or a glove.
A general problem with subtypes of antonymy is that of determining
their boundaries. Is sell-refund a converse, a reversive, or neither? Cruse
140 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

(2002b: 507) defines reversives as a class of verb opposites which ‘denote

either changes in opposite directions between two terminal states . . . or
the causation of such changes’. He notes that ‘a test which permits the
delimitation (for English) of a fairly coherent set of reversible verbs (that
is, verbs which are potential members of reversive oppositions) is the
again-test. This depends on the possibility of using unstressed again with-
out the process denoted by the verb having happened before.’ Thus, the
following sentences are taken as evidence that enter and leave are a rever-
sive pair:

(9) a. The spacecraft left the earth’s atmosphere.

b. Five days later, the spacecraft entered the atmosphere again.
c. The alien spacecraft entered the earth’s atmosphere.
d. Five days later, the spacecraft left the atmosphere again.

QUESTION Which of the following verbs is unstressed again possible

with: screw-unscrew, do-undo, colour-bleach, build-demolish, fill-empty, clean-
dirty, fold-unfold, stand up-sit down, rehearse-perform, plant-harvest? Can you
think of any similar tests for conversives and directionals?
As pointed out by Murphy (2003: 10), the amount of certainty we have in
acknowledging a pair of words as antonyms seems to have an important
cultural component. Some antonyms, like hot-cold or big-small, seem well
established culturally, whereas others, like sweltering-frigid or gigantic-tiny,
which seem to convey equally ‘opposite’ notions, have less of an antonymic
ring. This leads Murphy to conclude that a speaker’s knowledge of the
relation of antonymy (as, in fact, of all lexical relations) is metalexical: the
fact that two words are antonyms (synonyms, etc.) is not, in other words,
part of our dictionary knowledge of the word’s meaning, but part of our
encyclopaedic knowledge about the word’s meaning.

5.1.2 Meronymy
Meronymy (Greek meros: ‘part’) is the relation of part to whole: hand is a
meronym of arm, seed is a meronym of fruit, blade is a meronym of knife
(conversely, arm is the holonym of hand, fruit is the holonym of seed, etc.).
Surprisingly, not all languages seem to have an unambiguous means of
translating the phrase ‘part of’ (Brown 2002: 482; Wierzbicka 1994: 488–
492 disagrees), but meronymy is nevertheless often at the origin of various
polysemy patterns (where a single word has more than one meaning; see
5.3 below), and an important lexical relation for that reason. Thus, accord-
ing to the figures given by Brown and Witkowski, roughly one in five of the
world’s languages use the same term to designate the eye (meronym) and
the face (holonym) (Brown and Witkowski 1983). Similarly, slightly fewer
than half of the world’s languages polysemously relate ‘hand’ and ‘arm’ as
separate meanings of the same word, and 39 per cent ‘foot’ and ‘leg’ (Witkowski
and Brown 1985). These figures are only estimations, but polysemy patterns
based on meronymy are certainly frequent cross-linguistically. (See 11.4.1
on the semantics of body-parts in the world’s languages.)
 5.1 Lexical relations 141

The definition of meronymy as based on the ‘part of’ relation is not

without problems. Typically, meronymy is taken to be transitive: if A is a
meronym of B, and B is a meronym of C, then A is also a meronym of C.
This follows what seems to be the logical structure of the part-whole rela-
tion: if A is a part of B, which is in turn a part of C, then it seems to be
necessarily true that A is also part of C. The use of part of in English is
often consistent with the transitivity of the meronymic relation. Thus,
sequences of embedded parts and wholes, such as seed-fruit-plant, yield
perfectly natural-sounding sentences highlighting the part of relation:

(10) a. A seed is part of a fruit.

b. A fruit is part of a plant.
c. A seed is part of a plant.

The transitivity of meronymy also applies for the triple cuff-sleeve-coat: a cuff
is part of a sleeve, a sleeve is part of a coat, and a cuff is also part of a coat.
But the use of part of in natural language does not always respect the
logically transitive nature of meronymy. Consider the relation handle-door-
house. While clearly we can naturally say a handle is part of a door and a door
is part of a house, it seems unnatural to say that a handle is part of a house.
The chain of meronymies in (11), moreover, is not only unnatural, but also
false:

(11) a. Simpson’s finger is part of Simpson.

b. Simpson is part of the Philosophy Department.
c. *Simpson’s finger is part of the Philosophy Department. (Winston,
Chaffin and Herrmann 1987: 431)

These facts suggest that the linguistic category part of does not have the
same properties as its logical counterpart. Lyons (1977: 312) suggested that
there are in fact several different types of meronymy in language. Acting
on this suggestion, Iris, Litowitz and Evens (1988) isolate four different
types of meronymy in English: the relation of the functional component
to its whole, such as the relation between heart and body or engine and car;
the relation of a segment to a preexisting whole (slice-cake); the relation of
a member to a collection or an element to a set (sheep-flock); and the rela-
tion they call subset-set (fruit-food; this would normally be considered an
example of hyponymy, which we discuss below). Transitivity holds for the
subset and segmented wholes types of meronymy, but not for the func-
tional part or collection-element types.
For their part, Winston, Chaffin and Herrmann (1987) propose a six-way
typology, according to which part of has six possible different meanings:
component-integral object meronymy (pedal-bike), member-collection (ship-
fleet), portion-mass (slice-pie), stuff-object (steel-car), feature-activity (paying-shop-
ping) and place-area (Everglades-Florida). They claim that meronymy is transi-
tive when the same type of meronymic relation is involved in all parts of the
chain, as in (12), which contains the component-object type of meronymy:
142 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

(12) Simpson’s finger is part of Simpson’s hand.

Simpson’s hand is part of Simpson’s body.
Simpson’s finger is part of Simpson’s body.
(Winston, Chaffin and Herrmann 1987: 431)

Contrastingly, (11) above involves component-object meronymy in (a) and

member-collection meronymy in (b); hence, transitivity fails.

5.1.3 Hyponymy
Hyponymy (Greek hypo- ‘under’) is the lexical relation described in English
by the phrase kind/type/sort of. A chain of hyponyms defines a hierarchy of
elements: sports car is a hyponym of car since a sports car is a kind of car,
and car, in turn, is a hyponym of vehicle since a car is a kind of vehicle.
Other examples of hyponym hierarchies include

• blues – jazz – music,

• ski-parka – parka – jacket,
• commando – soldier – member of armed forces,
• martini – cocktail – drink and
• paperback – book.
A standard identification procedure for hyponymy is based on the notion
of class-inclusion: A is a hyponym of B if every A is necessarily a B, but not
every B is necessarily an A. For example, every car is a vehicle, but not
every vehicle is a car, since there are also buses, motorbikes and trucks.
Hence, car is a hyponym of vehicle. Furthermore, hyponymy is usually
taken to be transitive: if A is a hyponym of B, and B of C, then A is a (more
remote) hyponym of C.
As we will see, hyponymy is a major semantic relation in the grammar
of many languages. Furthermore, a particular type of hyponymy, taxon-
omy, discussed in the next section, is an important aspect of the way we
talk about the natural world.
Hyponymy also has a crucial communicative function. It often happens
that we are unable to retrieve the most accurate, precise term for the ref-
erent we have in mind. At other times, mention of the most precise term
would be needlessly informative and thus violate one of the pragmatic
constraints which often seem to be operative in communication (see 4.4).
In cases like these, the existence of a term (referred to as a hyperonym)
further up the hyponymic hierarchy allows reference to be accomplished.
Thus, wanting to mention the fact that my brother has started learning to
play the sackbut, but momentarily unsure of the name of this instrument
(or worried that my interlocutor will not know what I’m talking about), I
can simply say my brother is learning a weird musical instrument, using the
hyperonym musical instrument to refer to its hyponym sackbut. The possibil-
ity of referring at a number of different hierarchical levels is also crucial
for cross-cultural communication. At specific levels of categorization, lan-
guages often lack exactly corresponding terms: Japanese wasabi, for
example, isn’t accurately translated into English by any of the choices
 5.1 Lexical relations 143

mustard, chutney, vinaigrette, etc. But in order to explain what it is, a combi-
nation of modifier and hyperonym can always be found: thus, wasabi can
be referred to as a horseradish condiment. Similarly, the names of the vari-
ous female outer garments often worn in Muslim countries lack precise
English equivalents. But by adding modifying adjectives to appropriate
superordinate terms, translations can be given: khimar ‘long veil’, chador
‘full-body cloak’.
The concept of hyponymy can be made intuitively clear on the basis of
examples like those given above, and hyponyms in other languages are
often easy to identify: in Tzeltal (Mayan, Mexico), for example, chenek’
‘beans’, ixim ‘corn’, ti’bal ‘meat’ and wale’ ‘sugarcane’ are among the obvi-
ous hyponyms of we’lil uch’balil ‘food’ (Berlin 1992: 186). But as soon as one
tries to make the notion of hyponymy explicit various problems are
encountered. The definition of hyponymy as class-inclusion, for example,
seems to be too powerful, since there are many cases which fit the class-
inclusion definition which could not be described with the formula kind/
type/sort (Cruse 1986). For example, as noted by Wierzbicka (1984), every
(male) policeman is necessarily someone’s son, and not every member of
the category ‘someone’s son’ is a policeman, but this doesn’t mean that a
male policeman is a ‘kind of son’, and we would not want to describe
the relation between male policeman and someone’s son as an example of
hyponymy.
Even the linguistic definition of hyponymy as the kind/sort/type relation
admits instances which seem remote from the standard exemplars of
hyponymy because they do not define a hierarchy. In English, for instance,
one might very well utter the sentences in (13), for example in the context
of an explanation to someone unfamiliar with the word involved:

(13) A zebra is a kind of horse

A DVD is a kind of video
A hang-glider is a kind of kite
A koala is a kind of bear
Writing is a kind of drawing
A watch is a kind of clock

In none of these cases, however, would we wish to claim that the nouns
related by the phrase a kind of are hyponyms. Kind of, in other words, seems
to have a variety of values in English, not all of which correspond to the
strict class-inclusion model: in (13), kind of serves to establish a comparison
between two terms without introducing any claim of class-inclusion of
the sort which could define a hierarchy. This isn’t such a problem for
determining hyponymy in our native language, but it poses a particular
challenge when the lexical structure of an unfamiliar language is under
investigation. If English kind of seems ambiguous between a ‘strict hypon-
ymy’ reading and a looser, comparison reading, how can we decide
whether the equivalent of kind of in an unfamiliar language is being used
in a strict or a loose sense? In Tok Pisin (English-based Creole; Papua New
144 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

Guinea), for example, we find the translation equivalent of kind of, kain,
used in the following definitions:

(14) a. haus kunai

wanpela kain haus ol i wokim long kunai antap long ruf bilong en na
bai i stap 4 yia samting. ‘A kind of house which has been made
with a grass roof and which will last about four years.’

b. haus pisin
wanpela liklik kain haus ol pisin i wokimm long diwai stik o lip samting. ‘A
small kind of house which is built by birds out of sticks or leaves.’
c. haus sel
wanpela kain haus ol i putim na rausim kwiktaim long wokim long
laplap samting. ‘A kind of house which can be put up or taken
down quickly which is made of canvas-like material.’ <www.sil.
org/silewp/1998/002/SILEWP1998–002.html#Greenberg1963>

Judging from the translated definitions, the words concerned are the Tok
Pisin translations of ‘grass hut’, ‘nest’ and ‘tent’. Are they, however, hyp-
onyms of TP haus? Without an appreciation of the range of uses of kain in
TP, we are unable to tell. (The mere fact that the TP definienda contain the
word haus is no evidence: in English, a publishing house, a doll’s house and a
Royal house are not kinds of houses: the first is a kind of company, the sec-
ond a kind of toy, the third a kind of family.)
Hyponymy is often exploited by languages with classifier systems (Allan
1977; Aikhenvald 2000). In noun-classifying languages, the noun phrase
obligatorily contains a morphological element (the classifier) whose choice
is determined by semantic features of the referent of the head noun. Often,
the semantic basis of this classification is implicitly hyponymic, with a
given classifier naming a superordinate class of which the head noun is a
particular kind. Thus, noun phrases in Jacaltec (Mayan; central America:
Aikhenvald 2000: 285) contain a classifier morpheme which assimilates the
noun to a broader set of superordinate kinds or classes. For instance, the
person ‘John’ and the animal ‘snake’ are implicitly represented in (15) as
hyponyms of the classes ‘person’ and ‘animal’ through the use of the clas-
sifiers naj, which classifies the noun as a human, and no7, which classifies
it as an animal (Aikhenvald 2000: 82):

(15) xil naj xuwan no7 lab’a

saw CL:MAN John CL:ANIMAL snake
‘(man) John saw the (animal) snake.’

The number of classifiers may often be quite high: a non-human noun, for
example, will be accompanied by one of the eleven following classifiers
(Aikhenvald 2000: 285), depending on the semantic kind of which it is a
hyponym:

(16) no7 animal

metx’ dog
 5.1 Lexical relations 145

te7 plant
ixim corn
tx’al thread
tx’añ twine
k’ap cloth
tx’otx’ soil/dirt
ch’en rock
atz’am salt
ha7 water
k’a7 fire

In Burmese (Tibeto-Burman, Myanmar), classifiers are based on the func-

tion which the noun fulfils:

(17) hte clothing for the body (not headgear or footwear)

sin cutting tools
si vehicles
saun written materials
le’ hand implements (also eyeglasses)
koun loop-shaped objects that are worn: garlands, necklaces
hsaun houses, monasteries, royal buildings (Aikhenvald 2000: 291)

Sometimes it is the verb which takes the classifier. This is the case in
Ojibway and Cree (Algonquian, Canada), for instance, where verb classifi-
ers categorize the referent of the verbal argument in terms of its shape,
rigidity, size, structure, position and animacy, as in (18):

(18) a. kinw-a:pe:k-an
long-one.dimensional.and.flexible-it.is
‘it is long’ (e.g. rope)

b. kinw-e:k-an
long-two.dimensional-it.is
‘it is long’ (e.g. cloth)

c. napak-a:pi:k-at
flat-one.dimensional.and.flexible.-it.is
‘it is flat’ (e.g. ribbon)

d. napak-(i)minak-isi
flat-three.dimensional-it.is
‘it is a flat “roundish” thing’

e. w:awi:-(y)e:k-an
round-two.dimensional-it.is
‘it is round’ (e.g. cloth) (Aikhenvald 2000: 297)

This classification relies on implicit hierarchies of long, one-dimensional

and flexible things, flat and round things, etc. Implicit hyponymic struc-
ture is therefore an important principle in the grammatical structure of
146 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

classifier languages. Elsewhere, however, it may be the case that hyp-

onymic structure is minimal or even absent for certain lexemes. As
Jackendoff (2002: 345) points out, the hierarchical connections of junk and
puddle would not seem to be an important part of their meaning.

5.1.4 Taxonomy
As we saw in the last section, one of the problems in making the notion
of hyponymy explicit derives from the equivocal nature of the predicate
kind of. This seems to denote both the ‘strict’ hierarchy-defining, class-
inclusion relation of the kind sports car–car–vehicle, and the ‘looser’ com-
parison relation of the sort exemplified in (13). The ‘strict’ reading of kind
of is best demonstrated by taxonomies, hyponymic hierarchies of names
for plants and animals. An English example of a taxonomy, accompanied
by various labels discussed below, appears as Figure 5.1.
This taxonomy shows five ranks, each of which includes all those below
it: all swamp white oaks are white oaks, all white oaks are oaks, all oaks are trees,
and all trees are plants. Each rank in the hierarchy is thus one particular
kind of the rank above it. A comparison with the examples in (13) will
immediately reveal that the notion of kind of found here is clearly different
from the one involved in phrases like a koala is a kind of bear. Even though
we might utter sentences like these for comparative or explanatory pur-
poses, to modern Westerners familiar with scientific classification there is
an obvious sense in which a koala is not a kind of bear: a koala is a kind of
marsupial. The strict notion of kind of operative in taxonomies and the
class-inclusion categories it defines seem particularly stable: it is in general
hard for us to revise the taxonomies of natural kinds which we have learnt
as part of the process of acquiring our native language. We will not, in
general, be able to reclassify an oak as a pine, or a lizard as a mammal: the
categories in our natural-kind taxonomies are quite rigid and distinct. The
arrangement of a language’s natural kind terms into taxonomies like this
allows speakers to draw important inferences about the distribution of
the properties which characterize different features of the natural world.
Consider for example the partial taxonomy animal – mammal – cow. ‘Learning
that one cow is susceptible to mad cow disease, one might reasonably
infer that all cows may be susceptible to the disease but not that all mam-
mals or animals are’ (Atran 1999: 121).
How are taxonomies distinguished from non-taxonomic hyponymies?
In non-taxonomic hyponymies, a hyponym (e.g. mare) can be replaced by a
complex label consisting of a superordinate term and a modifier (e.g.

Unique beginner plant Level 0

Life-form tree (other life-forms) Level 1

Generic oak (other generics) Level 2

FIGURE 5.1 Specific white oak (other specifics) Level 3

Five-level taxonomy
(Brown 1986: 2). Varietal swamp white oak (other varietals) Level 4
 5.1 Lexical relations 147

female horse; see Cruse 1986: 137–145). Similarly, gelding, another non-
taxonomic hyponym of horse, can be replaced, without any loss of mean-
ing, by neutered horse. This possibility does not exist throughout a taxonomy.
There are no modifiers that can be added to the superordinate bird in
order to distinguish the subordinates robin, eagle or hawk. Similarly, the
non-taxonomic nature of the category weed is revealed by its paraphrase as
unwanted plant, and that of vegetable by edible plant.
QUESTION Can you think of any exceptions to this generalization?
When you have thought about this, go on to read about the distinction
between primary and secondary lexemes a few paragraphs below (after
example (19)).
The cross-linguistic construction of taxonomies has been extensively
investigated, especially by anthropologists working in the tradition of
Berlin (Berlin 1972, 1992; Berlin, Breedlove and Raven 1973). Berlin pro-
posed, mainly on the basis of name-elicitation interviews and grouping
tasks with native-speaker informants, that there is a universal taxonomic
structure of a maximum of five basic ranks, as shown, arranged into lev-
els, in Figure 5.1. This structure is common to all ethnobiological classifi-
cations, and is assumed to reflect universal cognitive patterns. For any
given plant or animal in a language, the ranks of the taxonomy to which
it belongs need not all necessarily have distinct names; the structure
shown in Figure 5.1 illustrates the basic template on which plant and
animal taxonomies seem to be patterned cross-linguistically. The most
inclusive level of the taxonomy is the unique beginner or kingdom rank, of
which the English categories plant and animal are examples. This rank is
numbered as level 0 in Berlin’s system since it is commonly not lexicalized
in taxonomies: many languages do not have general words corresponding
to English animal and plant. In Itza (Mayan, Northern Guatemala), for
example, there is no single word for plant: however, the cognitive reality
of this level is suggested by the fact that the numeral classifier -teek is used
with all and only plants (Atran 1999).
The next level, level 1, is the level of life-forms, e.g. categories like tree,
grass, vine or bird, fish, snake in English. The number of different catego-
ries recognized at this level tends to be fairly small. In Hanunóo
(Austronesian; Philippines), for example, plants are categorized as kayu
‘wood’, ?ilamnun ‘herb’ or wakat ‘vine’. The first category includes all
plants with typically woody stems, the second all non-woody or very
small plants, the third all plants with twining, vinelike stems (Conklin
1954: 92–93, quoted in Berlin 1992: 164). Tobelo people (West Papuan,
Indonesia) recognize five animal life-forms: o totaleo ‘bird’, o dodihna
‘snake’, o nawoko ‘fish’, o bianga ‘mollusc’ and a fifth unnamed category
including all other animals (Berlin 1992: 165). In Itzaj (Mayan, Guatemala;
Atran 1999: 123), plants generally fall under one of four mutually exclu-
sive life forms: che’ (trees), pok~che’ (herbs, shrubs, undergrowth), ak’
(vines), and su’uk (grasses). The animal life-forms of Rofaifo (Papua New
Guinea) number five; their membership may be surprising to someone
used to standard Western classifications:
148 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

(19) hefa eel, cassowary, larger species of monotreme, marsupial

and rodent plus pig, dog, and the larger mammalian spe-
cies introduced by Europeans
hunembe smaller species of marsupial and rodent
nema bats and all birds except cassowaries
hoifa lizards, snakes, fish other than eels, molluscs, earth-
worms, leeches, planaria, centipedes, millipedes . . .
hera frogs other than those of the genera Asterophrys,
Xenobatrachus, and Barygenys. (Dwyer 1984: 323, quoted in
Berlin 1992: 166)

Below the life-form level is the generic level (Level 2): as well as oak, English
has elm, gum, maple, poplar, and many others. Generics may or may not
have further levels below them: for some taxonomies this is the last level.
The unique beginner, life form and generic level lexemes are usually
labelled by what Brown (2002: 474) calls primary lexemes, i.e. ‘simple uni-
tary words such as plant, tree, oak, bird and robin’. On lower levels of the
taxonomy, one typically finds secondary lexemes, which consist of the term
for the immediately superordinate class, accompanied by a modifier (e.g.
white oak, a kind of oak (Level 3) and swamp white oak (Level 4)). Secondary
lexemes are also known as binomial labels. Level 4, varietal classes, are rare
cross-linguistically, most taxonomies only extending to the third level.
Intensively studied systems of ethnobiological classification usually also
reveal an intermediate rank, located between the life-forms of Level 1 and
the generics of Level 2. An English intermediate rank would be evergreen
(tree), which includes generic classes like pine, fir and cedar, and is included
in the life-form category tree. Intermediate ranks distinguishing different
categories of the life-form bird have been noted in Kalam (Trans-New Guinea,
Papua New Guinea), Wayampi (Tupi, Brazil) and Huambisa (Jivaroan, Peru).
Thus, the Kalam life-form category yakt ‘birds and flying things’ is super-
ordinate to an intermediate category pow, grouping together two types of
nightjar (Berlin 1992: 139–140).
It would appear that taxonomy-like structures exist in all of the world’s
languages. Like Berlin, Atran (1990) argues that multi-level taxonomic
structuring like that shown in Figure 5.1 is universal, and he grounds this
claim in certain alleged features of human cognition. Human beings, he
claims, are cognitively predisposed to believe that each type of living
thing has a particular inner nature or essence. For people raised in
English-speaking cultures, for example, the oak is inherently seen as hav-
ing an essence or nature which places it in the class of trees and distin-
guishes it from the pine; this belief in the inherent essences of living
things allows their insertion into taxonomic hierarchies on the basis of
their inherent properties. Taxonomic organization like that exemplified
in Figure 5.1 is thus an innate mental pattern shared by all human
beings:

Meaning for living-kind terms can thus be analyzed in a fundamentally

distinct way from the semantics of other object domains, such as the
 5.1 Lexical relations 149

domain of artifacts and perhaps that of chemical and physical sub-

stances as well. All and only living kinds are conceived as physical sorts
whose intrinsic ‘natures’ are presumed, even if unknown.
(Atran 1990: 6)
Speculations like those of Berlin and Atran on the universal principles of
taxonomic structure, however, have been extensively criticized by those
who see the naming practices of different languages as arising out of
practical, culture-specific forces, rather than putatively universal structur-
ing principles of human cognition (Hunn 1982, Ellen 1993). Researchers
working in the tradition of Berlin have been accused of ‘attempting to
impose a form of taxonomic rigidity on a cultural apparatus the general
characteristics of which are quite antithetical: namely fluidity, flexibility
and elasticity’ (Ellen 1993: 220). The universality – and hence the cognitive
basis – of the taxonomic structure shown in Figure 5.1 has frequently been
called into question: Malapandaram classifications, for example (Dravidian,
India; Ellen 1979: 19), appear highly individualistic, limited in scope, and
relatively unconcerned with systematization, and the Malapandaram
seem to lack any ‘systematic knowledge of their natural environment
clearly expressed in formal taxonomies’ (Ellen 1979: 19). Discussing Bunaq
(Trans-New Guinea, East Timor) classification, Friedberg (1979: 85) states
that ‘plants appear to be organized more according to a complex web of
resemblances and affinities in which individual plants can belong to sev-
eral categories, rather than according to a tree-like system of hierarchical
categories’ like the one assumed in Berlin’s model.
This controversy over the universality of taxonomic principles is exem-
plary of the issues and questions raised by any exploration of cross-linguistic
semantic universals (see Chapter 11). The fact that, like ‘part of’, the basic
hyponymic/taxonomic notion ‘kind of’ does not seem to have reliable
equivalents in all languages may be a problem for proponents of the uni-
versal structure of taxonomies. Ellen (1993: 61), for example, notes that
there is no exact term in Nuaulu (Austronesian; Indonesia) for ‘kind of’.
Furthermore, many of the facts about Nuaulu ethno-classification suggest
that neat taxonomies of the sort illustrated in Figure 5.1 are simply irrel-
evant to the way Nuaulu people actually think and talk about the biologi-
cal world.

For example, . . . the question ‘what is asu (dog, Canis familiaris) a kind
of ?’ is culturally inappropriate because it is never, ordinarily, thought of
as a ‘kind of’ anything, except perhaps ‘animal’. Yet again, the question
‘what is asuwan (cassowary, Casuarius casuarius) a kind of ?’ can generate a
whole range of possible answers, no one of which is more ‘correct’ than
any other . . . Similarly, to ask an informant how many types of an ani-
mal there are is likely to invite an answer where (in a strict taxonomic
sense) none is possible. An informant, out of simple courtesy, because
the situation demands it and through the creative use of dualism as a
linguistic feature, may provide the name of the most closely related ani-
mals he or she can think of, and in this circumstance relationship can be
described in morphological or ecological terms. In one elicitory context
150 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

a monitor lizard might appear as ‘a type of crocodile’, and an earth-

worm ‘a type of snake’.
Ellen (1993: 25–26)
Where class-inclusion arrangements can be discerned, these not infre-
quently violate taxonomic principles. On Berlin’s original approach, for
instance, categories of the same taxonomic rank must be mutually exclu-
sive and contrasting: a given tree, for example, must either be an oak, elm,
ash, pine, gum, etc., but may not be more than one of these; without this
constraint, the very notion of a taxonomy breaks down (Berlin 1992: 15).
Ellen (1993: 86) found, however, that category boundaries in Nuaulu are
not discrete in this way. Thus, the same animal might be classed as either
an imanoma (‘rat’) or as a mnaha (‘mouse’) depending on the context, even
though these two are recognized as separate categories. According to Ellen
(1993: 123), this is because Nuaulu actually has no permanent classifica-
tory principles: animals are simply classified ‘according to criteria that
seem relevant at the time’. Similarly, ethnobiological terminology often
seems to straddle hierarchical levels in a way which runs counter to the
presuppositions of Berlin’s model. In Yurok (Algic, USA; Bright and Bright
1965, discussed in Berlin 1992: 39–40), for example, the one term tepo:
means both ‘fir tree’ (generic level), and ‘tree’ (life-form level), a circum-
stance which would seem to provide evidence against Berlin’s observation
(1992: 31) that the ranks are ‘mutually exclusive’.
It would not be appropriate here to talk of either the Ellen or the Berlin
approach being proven or disproven by this sort of evidence. Berlin can
always make specific adjustments to his model to incorporate phenomena
which seem to run against it. It is rather a question of which model seems
to square more with the facts, and the answer to this will vary from one
researcher to another. For many linguists and anthropologists, however, the
concentration on putative cognitive universals of taxonomic structure is a
distraction from the real business of cross-linguistic research, which should
concentrate on the details of how animal and plant terms are actually used,
rather than construct abstract taxonomies using formal methods designed
to contribute to ‘comparative and evolutionary speculation about general
mental principles of classification or cognition’ (Ellen 1993: 3). We take up
the question of cross-linguistic semantic typology again in 11.4.
QUESTION Could artificial objects like clarinet, beanbag or wheelchair be
considered to belong to taxonomies like those of natural kinds? Read
Atran (1990: 475–476) when you have thought about the answer.

5.1.5 Synonymy
In discussing synonymy, the relation of meaning identity, an initial dis-
tinction needs to be drawn between lexical synonymy (synonymy between
individual lexemes) and phrasal synonymy (synonymy between expres-
sions consisting of more than one lexeme). We will only be concerned here
with lexical synonymy, assuming that phrasal synonymy can mostly be
derived from the synonymy of the phrases’ component lexemes (consid-
ered in their associated grammatical structures).
 5.1 Lexical relations 151

Meaning identity (synonymy) is a part of the metalinguistic stock-in-

trade of ordinary speakers of English: we often refer to words as ‘having
the same meaning’. However, we usually restrict our statement of the
synonymy of two words (or phrases) to the utterance level:

When questions of sameness of meaning arise for unsophisticated speak-

ers, no appeal is made to an abstract entity of ‘meaning’: a given word
or phrase is accepted as having the same meaning as another word or
phrase if its substitution for the other in the given context yields an
utterance which they will accept as having the same meaning as the first
utterance.
(Lyons 1968: 75)

Speakers do not, that is, characteristically seem to base their judgements

of synonymy on a ‘bottom-up’ analysis of the meaning of each of the
words involved, concluding that words are synonymous if their separately
established meanings are identical. Instead, a top-down procedure often
seems to be at work: the fact that two expressions have the same contex-
tual effect is what justifies labelling the substituted words as synonyms in
that context.
Lexical synonymy has been variously defined in the semantics litera-
ture. The general definition of ‘identity of meaning’ is mostly accepted
(Cruse 2002a: 486 however defines it as ‘identity/similarity’ of meaning),
and it is the one we adopt here. Within this definition, however, there are
a number of different terminological conventions. Of course, what is
important in such cases is not to decide which of the different possible
uses of a technical term like ‘synonym’ is better (or, even less, correct), but
simply to define what is meant by the label in question and to use it con-
sistently and without ambiguity.
For some authors synonymy is a context-bound phenomenon, two
words being synonyms in a certain given context, whereas for others it is
context-free: if two words are synonymous they are identical in meaning
in all contexts. The question of synonymy and grammatical context is
another on which disagreements exist. Thus, two words are synonymous
for some authors if, like likely and probable in (20), they have the same
meaning, even if they show a different set of grammatical cooccurrence
possibilities – here, the possibility of raising the subject of the comple-
ment clause in (20a) to the subject of the main clause in (20b), which
exists for likely but not for probable:

(20) a. It’s likely/probable that he’ll be late.

b. He is likely/*probable to be late.

For other authors, however, both identity of meaning and identity of

grammatical properties are required (see Hudson et al. 1996 for many
other examples).
Another important distinction is between synonymy of words and syn-
onymy of senses. Sense-synonymy is the synonymy of some, but not all, the
152 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

senses of a word. Thus, pupil is arguably synonymous with student with

respect to one of its senses (‘person being instructed by a teacher’); but
with respect to the sense ‘centre of the eye’ the two words are, of course,
non-synonymous. Pupil and student are thus not lexical synonyms, but they
are synonymous with respect to one of their senses. Similarly, Murphy
(2003: 30) demonstrates that the pair baggage/luggage are synonymous
with respect to the sense ‘bags’ but not with respect to the metaphorical
sense ‘emotional encumbrances’:

(21) a. Check your baggage/luggage with the gate agent.

b. I won’t date guys with baggage/*luggage from their divorces.

Recognizing sense-synonymy as a category implies viewing meaning iden-

tity not as a binary property of two words, but as a graded one: the more
senses two words share, the more synonymous they are.
The limiting case of sense-synonymy is word-synonymy, which is the situ-
ation in which two words share all their senses. Typically, lexical synonyms
are taken to be mutually intersubstitutable in every environment, with
each synonym being equally normal in each environment (Cruse 2002a:
488; see box). The clearest examples of word synonymy are trivial ones,
where there are alternative pronunciations for what is, in fact, intuitively a
single lexeme, such as (n)either (pronounced ['(n)i:ðә] or ['(n)aiðә]) and eco-
nomics (pronounced [i:kә'nÅmiks] or [εkә'nÅmiks]). In both these cases the
same meaning is indisputably involved, but it is not clear that two words
should be recognized. Some more interesting possible examples would be
the pairs Islamic and Muslim, Peking and Beijing or Bombay and Mumbai.

QUESTION Do these examples survive the test of mutual intersubstitut-

ability?

Ullmann (1972: 141–142) points out that one of the few places where full
word synonymy seems reasonably common is technical vocabulary, giving
as example the fact that in medicine inflammation of the blind gut can be
synonymously referred to as either caecitis or typhlitis.
However, as Ullmann also notes (1972: 142), word-synonymy ‘runs coun-
ter to our whole way of looking at language. When we see different words
we instinctively assume that there must also be some difference in mean-
ing.’ Consistently with Ullmann’s point, genuine lexical synonyms which
are not, unlike the examples just given, proper nouns or adjectives prove
extremely hard to find. Once their combinatorial environments have been
fully explored, proposed lexical synonyms often prove not to be such. For
example, Bolinger (1976, discussed by Murphy 2003: 164) showed that
everybody and everyone are not lexical synonyms since they are not mutu-
ally substitutable in every context:

(22) a. She vowed that it was a delightful ball; that there was everybody that
everyone knew . . .
b. !She vowed that it was a delightful ball; that there was everyone that
everybody knew . . .
 5.1 Lexical relations 153

Similarly, almost and nearly fail the test, as demonstrated by (23):

(23) I very nearly/*almost forgot my appointment (Hudson, Rosta, Holmes and

Gisborne 1996: 444).

QUESTION Can you find any lexical synonyms in any language you know?
Are they really substitutable for each other in every environment?
Very often, the difference between lexical synonyms is not one of denota-
tion but of connotation: the associations and emotional values of a word
(see 1.4.2). Thus, the lexemes doctor and quack both arguably share the
definition ‘medical practitioner’, and would be substitutable in every con-
text but for the fact that they differ in the neutral and pejorative connota-
tions attaching to each respectively. Other examples would be lunch and
luncheon and fag and cigarette.
QUESTION Consider the pairs of nouns prize/award, couch/sofa, and coro-
nary/heart-attack. Are any of these synonyms? If so, what kind?

Synonymy and ‘opaque’ contexts

We noted above that lexical synonyms are usually taken to be mutually
intersubstitutable in every environment, with each synonym being
equally normal in each environment. Note that this does not extend
to so-called opaque or de dicto (Latin: ‘concerning what is said’) con-
texts, i.e. contexts which refer to the content of a proposition (which
may be the object of a belief, thought or utterance), rather than sim-
ply directly referring to their referent. Thus, Mumbai is not necessarily
a synonym of Bombay in the opaque context ‘John thinks the biggest
city in India is Bombay’, since John may not know that Mumbai and
Bombay are the same place. If we took opaque contexts into account
in testing for synonymy, there would be no true lexical synonyms.

So far, we have concentrated on the place of synonymy within the para-

digmatic language system and largely ignored its place in language use. An
initial observation on this subject is that, at least in many varieties of edu-
cated English written discourse, it is considered good style to avoid the
repetition of identical words in nearby contexts. As a result, near-synonyms
are often enlisted as equivalents, without any semantic difference between
the equivalent terms being intended. The surrounding context thus
endows the equivalent words with the temporary status of synonyms, a
status which is in no way permanent, and which may be subsequently
revoked so that the formerly equivalent terms can be brought into a rela-
tion of contrast. Lyons (1968: 80) generalizes this conclusion to all lexical
relations: ‘any meaning relations that are established are established for
particular contexts or sets of contexts, and not for the totality of the lan-
guage’. Thus, red has different possible antonyms depending on whether
154 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

the context is wine (where the antonym is white), traffic lights (green), or
accounts (black).
Second, and lastly, we’ll turn to a particularly interesting case of absolute
lexical synonymy which has been observed widely in the Aboriginal societ-
ies of Australia (Alpher and Nash 1999). In most of these societies, an indi-
vidual’s name would not be used after their death. Furthermore, in many
of them, words which sounded similar to that individual’s name were also
prohibited. This practice would clearly present many inconveniences if
there were not some way of replacing the banned vocabulary. The usual
practice, resting on the widespread multilingualism that was a standard
feature of traditional Aboriginal society in Australia, was to adopt the trans-
lational equivalent of the prohibited word from a neighbouring language,
and to use it until the old word became reusable (an interval of time which
differed according to a number of variables). This process of temporary
lexical replacement has resulted in Aboriginal languages possessing a wide
range of absolute lexical synonyms. In Warlpiri, for example, a particularly
well studied Australian language for which a large corpus of citations exists,
facilitating semantic and lexical study, we could give perhaps hundreds of
examples of absolute synonyms which appear to be completely equivalent
and interchangeable in all contexts. The noun karnta ‘woman’, for instance,
has at least the nouns mardukuja and rduju as absolute synonyms; ‘dog’ is
translated synonymously by jarntu and maliki; waku ‘arm’ has the absolute
synonym nginyanyka; and marlu ‘red kangaroo’ has jurrkapanji, wawirri and
yawarrangi. Not all of these cases of synonymy are necessarily due to bereave-
ment-induced borrowing: there may be a higher general tolerance of syn-
onyms in Warlpiri than in familiar European languages. While it is possible
that the synonymy of some of these examples may not survive the scrutiny
of deeper lexicographical investigation, the number of candidates for syn-
onymy in Warlpiri constitutes a striking exception to the pattern observed
widely in European languages, which is that a loan-word synonym of an
indigenous expression typically develops some semantic difference from
the native word. This was the case with the words beef, veal and mutton, all
borrowed into English from French, originally synonyms of cow, calf and
sheep, but subsequently specialized to refer simply to the edible flesh of
these animals.
QUESTION English has many pairs of near synonyms consisting of a
native (Germanic) form and later Latin one. The verbs begin-commence and
end-terminate are good examples. How many more can you find? How syn-
onymous are they?

5.2 Componential analysis

The fact that semantic relations reveal aspects of meaning is one of the
motivations for a componential approach to semantic analysis. Consider
a series of hyponyms like piece of furniture – chair – armchair. It is easy to see
that each successive level in such a hyponymy simply adds a further
semantic specification (or component) to the previous one. Thus, the level
 5.2 Componential analysis 155

Table 5.1. Componential analysis of English furniture terms.

for a single
with back with legs person for sitting with arms rigid

chair + + + + – +

armchair + + + + + +

stool – + + + – +

sofa + + – + + +

beanbag – – + + – –

chair adds a specification which we could describe as ‘for one person to sit
on’ to piece of furniture, and armchair adds ‘with arms’ to chair. Similarly, we
could describe the difference between chair and sofa through a contrast
between the feature ‘for one person to sit on’ (chair) and ‘for more than
one person to sit on’ (sofa). Continuing in this way, we could envisage an
entire description of the semantic field of words for furniture items based
on the presence or absence of a finite number of features, conceived as the
‘conceptual units out of which the meanings of linguistic utterances are
built’ (Goodenough 1956: 196). This is illustrated in Table 5.1.
The information contained in componential analyses like this is essen-
tially similar to the information contained in a definition; in principle,
anything that can form part of a definition can also be rephrased in
terms of semantic components. Its embodiment in binary features (i.e.
features with only two possible values, + or −) represents a translation
into semantics of the principles of structuralist phonological analysis,
which used binary phonological features like [± voiced], [± labial] [± nasal],
etc. to differentiate the phonemes of a language. The use of a restricted
number of binary features was one of the most successful innovations of
the structuralist programme of linguistic analysis developed in the wake
of Saussure by early Prague Schools phonologists like Trubetzkoy and
Jakobson, and continued in America in the generative tradition by
Chomsky and Halle. The componential analysis of meaning like the one
sketched in Table 5.1 is precisely analogous to the feature specifications
of phonemes advanced in the structuralist tradition. Thus, just as
sofa can be described through the use of binary semantic components
like [+ with back], [+ with legs], [− for a single person], [+ for sitting],
[+ with arms], [+ rigid], so the phoneme /d/ of English would be described
(in the system of Chomsky and Halle 1968) as a constellation of the fol-
lowing distinctive features:

(24) /d/ [+ consonantal, − nasal, − sonorant, + anterior, + coronal, + voiced . . . ]

These distinctive features serve to differentiate /d/ from the other pho-
nemes of the English consonant inventory; /t/, for instance, shares all the
feature specifications of /d/, except that it is [− voiced]:

(25) /t/ [+ consonantal, − nasal, − sonorant, + anterior, + coronal, − voiced . . . ]

156 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

The use of distinctive binary features as an instrument of phonological

analysis proved extremely fruitful and permitted a degree of formaliza-
tion that many linguists took as a model of successful linguistic theoriz-
ing, and it was soon extended to the analysis of morphology (see
Lounsbury 1956: 159–162 for details). From this, application of features to
semantics was a natural development.
Whereas a standard dictionary represents the contrast between chair
and sofa through differing definitions, as in (26), the componential analy-
sis represents the same difference in meaning simply through the pres-
ence or absence of a single feature, [for a single person], an analysis which
struck many linguists as superior in terms of its concision.

(26) chair ‘a separate seat for one person, of various forms, usually
having a back and four legs’
sofa ‘a long upholstered seat with a back and arms for two or more
people’ (Concise Oxford 1995)

Some componential analyses went beyond strict feature binarity to

include a third value, 0, which indicated that a word was unspecified for
a particular feature. Thus, in the analysis of German nouns for sounds
given in Table 5.2 (Baldinger 1984: 85–87), a certain word may neither pos-
sess nor lack a certain feature, but may simply be unspecified for it. For
instance, the superordinate term Schall ‘sound’ neither possesses nor lacks
the feature ‘self-produced’: sometimes the sound referred to by Schall is
self-produced (in the case of someone shouting, for instance), sometimes
it is not (as in the sound of bells). ‘Self-produced’ is thus irrelevant to
Schall; describing it as unspecified with respect to this feature allows it to
be analysed using the same features as the other terms.
The description in Table 5.2 may ‘certainly seem debatable from the
point of view of contemporary German’ (Coseriu 1971: 181). What is
important for our purpose is not whether the analysis is accurate, but the
conceptual framework to which it belongs.
Componential analysis was not simply an innovation with respect to
preceding modes of semantic analysis. It also crystallized a number of the
implicit characteristics of ordinary lexicographical description, particu-
larly the idea (typical of a diverse range of thinkers like Leibniz or the

Table 5.2. Componential analysis of German sound terms.

audible self-produced propagated echoing homogeneous

Schall + 0 0 0 0

Laut + + 0 0 0

Hall + – + 0 0

Widerhall + – + + 0

Klang + – – 0 +

Geräusch + – – 0 –
 5.2 Componential analysis 157

Port-Royal grammarians in France) that the definitional metalanguage

used to describe meanings should ideally be constituted by a fixed num-
ber of elementary terms which, in order to avoid circularity, would not
themselves be open to further analysis. It is only a small step from such a
conception of definition to the formalizations of componential analyses
with their fixed repertoire of features, taken to represent the elementary
building blocks of meaning.
Despite the popularity it enjoyed for a time, especially in structuralist
circles, componential analysis is confronted with a number of serious
problems. One important problem is the rigidity of the binary feature
system, according to which the only possible value of a specified semantic
feature is + or − (or unspecified). This aspect of the analysis came to be
seen as increasingly unsatisfactory from the 1970s onward, largely in light
of psychological evidence about human categorization which we will dis-
cuss in Chapter 7. This was not the only problem, however. Another seri-
ous problem was the fact that it seemed simply not to apply to many areas
of the vocabulary. Componential analysis is particularly suited to restricted
semantic fields from which intuitively obvious semantic distinctions can
easily be abstracted. The most obvious types of lexeme to which it can be
applied are nouns with obvious properties available for conversion into
features (‘with legs’, ‘to sit on’, ‘for one person’, etc.). Elsewhere, however,
the utility of features is much less clear. Thus, whereas componential
analyses were advanced of words for furniture (Pottier 1964, 1965), of
dimension words like tall, short, long, thick (Greimas 2002) and, especially,
of kinship terms (an area where the binarity of features such as [± female]
[± same generation] is particularly justifiable; cf. Goodenough 1956,
Lounsbury 1956), not many other areas of the vocabulary proved open to
convincing analysis in this method. As a species of definitional analysis,
componential analysis inherited the failings of traditional definitions,
and words which are hard to produce definitions for are also hard to anal-
yse componentially. The domain of colour terminology is exemplary in
this respect, since it does not seem possible to distinguish any inherent
components within the meanings of the different colour adjectives, any
more than it is to propose definitions of them. What features, for exam-
ple, could we plausibly advance in order to distinguish yellow from red? We
could always advance the features [± red] and [± yellow], but this sort of
move was not considered legitimate: the features were supposed to analyse
the meanings concerned, not simply treat them as unitary elements (see
2.5 for discussion). Certainly these words do not have any obviously avail-
able conceptual components of the sort we could discern in the tables
above.
Furthermore, many relational ideas which can easily be expressed in the
propositional format of ordinary language definitions are hard to couch in
sets of plausible-sounding binary features. The meanings of the verbs buy,
swap, sell, steal, for example, do not seem to easily submit to description in
terms of any distinctive features – or not, at least, to any distinctive features
that would be significantly different from a definition. One could always,
of course, develop a description through features like [± exchange] [± price]
158 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

Table 5.3. Componential analysis of English transfer verbs.

transfer of voluntary
possession transfer exchange price subject receives

buy + + + + +

sell + + + + –

steal + – – – +

give + + – – –

swap + + + – +

Note that these features are meant to apply to transitive, active forms of the verbs: otherwise, the
feature [subject receives] will not be an accurate description of the difference between the verbs.

[± transfer of possession] and similar, but the resulting feature decomposi-

tions, sketched in Table 5.3, do not seem to gain any explanatory advantage
over verbal definitions – in fact, they seem rather less effective in their
inability to incorporate the relational ideas which sentential definitions
can easily accommodate. For example, the feature [subject receives] seems a
clumsy way of capturing the difference between buy and sell, a distinction
which emerges quite naturally from the definitions ‘exchange for goods or
services’, and ‘exchange goods or services for money’.
QUESTION Can you formulate a better set of features to describe the
meaning of these verbs? What, if any, extra features need to be added in
order to account for the verbs transfer, take, barter, lend and hire?
Another problem with componential analysis as a semantic method can
be illustrated by a comparison with phonology, the domain in which the
technique was first developed. In phonology, features like [± voice], [± coro-
nal], etc. generally have clear physical definitions: a segment is [+ voice] if
the vocal folds are vibrating during its production, and [− voice] other-
wise. Whether a segment should be classified as [+ voice] or as [− voice] can
therefore, at least in principle, be reasonably unambiguously established.
In contrast, the definition of semantic features is much less clear. Consider
as an example the case of [+ with legs] in the analysis of the noun chair.
Many modern types of chair are supported by continuous metal runners
which fulfil the same function as traditional legs. Does this type of chair
count as [+ with legs] or not? We could, of course, simply stipulate, as a
matter of definition, that the feature [+ with legs] applies to this type of
chair as well, but if this type of stipulation is necessary too often there is
a risk that the features used become arbitrary. Since there are no clear
physical or psychological correlates of the semantic features, as there are
for the phonological ones, which we could determine experimentally, it is
often not obvious how a principled decision is to be reached: we cannot,
after all, open up our heads and look inside in order to discover the ‘real’
nature of the concept involved, in the same way that we can determine
observationally whether the vocal folds are usually in operation in utter-
ances of a given segment.
 5.2 Componential analysis 159

In spite of these problems, the use of distinctive features in componential

analysis had some subtle consequences for many linguists’ conception of
semantics, by making meaning seem something much more concrete and
uniform than it had appeared in traditional dictionary definitions. If the
definition of chair as ‘a separate seat for one person, of various forms, usually
having a back and four legs’ provides an intuitively clear pointer to the
word’s denotation, it is still thoroughly informal, and open to a large num-
ber of different, and equally effective, phrasings. This did not seem to be the
case with a componential analysis in terms of features like [+ with back], [+ with
legs], [+ for a single person], [+ for sitting], [– with arms], [+ rigid], which
brought two important innovations. The first was to suggest that semantic
features, like phonological ones, have a higher degree of abstraction and
technicality than informal dictionary definitions. Phonological features like
[± nasal] or [± coronal] refer to postulated abstract properties of segments
which do not have any independent existence: the feature [± nasal], for
instance, never exists on its own, but is only found together with other fea-
tures such as [+ consonant], and is abstracted as the common element from
a whole range of sounds like [m], [n] and [ŋ]. Similarly, the adoption of com-
ponential analysis encouraged a view of semantic components as abstract,
underlying elements of meaning. Given widespread conceptualist assump-
tions about meanings, it was easy to identify these abstract elements with
the conceptual constituents of language (see Lounsbury 1956: 163).
Second, in spite of the fairly small number of words for which successful
componential analyses were proposed, componential analysis encouraged
the assumption that the same distinctive semantic features would recur
again and again in the analysis of a vocabulary; assuming, for example, a
feature [± edible] that distinguishes the nouns beef and cow, one could then
use the same feature to distinguish plant and vegetable. As a result, the
underlying semantic content of language was made to seem highly uni-
form, with word meanings all cut from the same cloth, and it became pos-
sible to identify the underlying conceptual content of a language’s vocabu-
lary with the finite list of distinctive semantic features required for its
componential analysis, in the same way that the set of phonological distinc-
tive features constituted the raw material out of which individual lan-
guages constructed their phonemic systems. And just as, in phonology, this
repertoire of distinctive features was assumed to be universal, it was easy to
assume that all human languages shared the same set of underlying seman-
tic features – even though this was strenuously denied by certain propo-
nents of the method (Coseriu 2001: 360–361).
QUESTION Propose a componential analysis of nouns indicating means
of transport (some suggestions: bike, car, train, pram, skateboard, roller-
blades, plane, helicopter, boat, dinghy, ferry, truck). What are the advantages
and disadvantages of this type of analysis?
QUESTION As noted above, certain words do not seem obviously ame-
nable to analysis in terms of semantic components. Can you advance
componential analyses of special, fluffy, few and Russian? For each word,
what other words can be analysed using the same features?
160 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

5.3 Polysemy and meaning division

A number of the analyses presented so far in this chapter necessitate the
associated claim that the word under analysis is polysemous (Greek ‘many
meanings’), i.e. that it possesses several distinct senses (as discussed in 10.3,
constructions, as well as words, can be polysemous, but we will not pursue
this possibility here). To give just one out of several possible examples, the
componential analysis of the English furniture terms in Table 5.1 can only be
considered valid if certain additional senses of words like chair are first
excluded from consideration. For example, as well as the meaning in which
it refers to an item of furniture, chair may also mean ‘professorship’ and ‘head
of a committee’, meanings to which features like [+ for sitting on] clearly do
not apply. A similar point could be made about the description of the transfer
verbs buy and give. These verbs show a constellation of ‘metaphorical’ uses like
those in (27) which contradict the feature assignments in Table 5.3, since
there is no price involved in (27a), and no change of possession in (27b):

(27) a. It’s a crazy theory, but I’ll buy it.

b. He gave them one last chance.

These discrepancies are naturally explained by the contention that chair,

buy and give have several distinct polysemous senses, and that the compo-
nential analysis does not apply to all of them.
QUESTION Do any other analyses in the preceding parts of this chapter
implicitly require the postulation of polysemy? Which?
This example of the necessity to postulate polysemy is quite typical of
semantic analysis. In fact, for many semanticists it is a basic requirement
on semantic theory to show how many senses are polysemously associated
with a single lexeme: if a lexeme is thought of as the union of a particular
phonological form with a particular meaning or meanings, then it is
clearly essential for the analysis to specify, for any given word, what it is
for a word to have one meaning, and what it is to have several meanings.
If a theory of semantics cannot do this, it will be open to the charge that
its conception of one of its basic terms is intolerably vague. As Kilgarriff
(1993: 379) puts it, ‘without identity conditions for word senses the con-
cept remains hazardously ill-defined’.
But polysemy is not required simply for the purposes of technical lin-
guistic theorizing. The informal description of meaning in ordinary lan-
guage would also be impossible without the recognition of separate
senses within the same word. Consider for example the French noun pièce.
This has at least five separate senses, as illustrated in (28):

(28) a. ‘piece, bit’: les pièces d’un jeu d’échecs ‘the pieces of a chess set’
b. ‘coin’: pièce de deux euros ‘two euro coin’
c. ‘document’: pièce d’identité ‘identity document’
d. ‘play’: pièce en trois actes ‘three act play’
e. ‘room’: appartement de deux pièces ‘two room flat’
 5.3 Polysemy and meaning division 161

It would seem impossible to give any accurate definition of pièce that did
not separate out these five meanings. This is because any definition
which tried to cover all the meanings simultaneously would be exces-
sively broad, and would apply to many referents for which pièce itself is
not used. Virtually the only definition that will embrace the notions of a
piece, a coin, a document, a play and a room is ‘thing’, but this definition
will admit many referents to which pièce itself will not ordinarily apply,
such as aircraft, stationery items and meals, to name only three out of
the infinite number of possibilities. This excessive breadth disqualifies
‘thing’ as a possible definition of pièce, and imposes its division into a
number of different senses, each of which can then receive a separate
definition.

5.3.1 Polysemy, monosemy and homonymy

The different senses of pièce are not unrelated, as an examination of the
word’s history shows. Pièce comes from Mediaeval Latin petia, and the
meaning shown in (28a) is the oldest sense from which the others are
derived (Rey 1998: pièce). The other four meanings developed subsequently
through ordinary processes of semantic extension which we will discuss
in Chapter 11. The semantic links between many of these senses can still
be easily imagined: the meaning ‘coin’, for example, is derived from the
collocation pièce de monnaie ‘piece of money’, while ‘play’ is derived from
pièce de théâtre ‘piece of theatre’.
QUESTION Can you suggest how some of the other senses might be
related? What problems are there in deciding?
The term polysemy is usually reserved for words like pièce which show a
collection of semantically related senses. We can thus define polysemy as the
possession by a single phonological form of several conceptually related
meanings. We will return to this definition in a moment. The opposite of
polysemy is monosemy (Greek ‘single meaning’): a word is monosemous
if it contains only a single meaning. Many technical terms are monose-
mous: orrery, for example, has no other recorded meaning in English than
‘clockwork model of the solar system’, and appendectomy (or appendicec-
tomy) means only ‘excision of the appendix’. Monosemous words may
often be general over a variety of distinct readings. The English noun
cousin, for example, is general over the readings ‘son of father’s sister’,
‘daughter of mother’s brother’, ‘son of father’s brother’, etc., but is usu-
ally considered as having only the single meaning ‘offspring of parent’s
sibling’.
Polysemy also contrasts with homonymy (Greek ‘same name’), the situa-
tion where a single phonological form possesses unrelated meanings. A
good example of a homonym is provided by the English verb pronounced
[WeIV], and spelt wave or waive, depending on the meaning. The different
spellings of this word are a clue to the fact that we are dealing with two
historically different verbs whose pronunciations happen to have con-
verged. Thus, wave derives from Old English wafian, whereas waive was bor-
rowed into English, ultimately from Old French gaiver. These two words
162 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

originally had different pronunciations, which intervening sound changes

have removed. In a situation like this it would make no sense to talk of
polysemy. We do not, in English, posit the existence of a single lexeme
pronounced [WeIV], polysemous between the meanings ‘make a sign with
the hand’ (they waved goodbye) and ‘forgo’ (they waived the fee). As well as the
absence of any historical relation, the two meanings are unrelated: it is
hard to imagine how they could plausibly be conceptually linked.
Not all homonyms are conveniently distinguished by spelling. The French
verb louer ‘hire’, for example, is a homonym of louer ‘praise’, but these two
meanings were originally expressed by historically unrelated verbs: ‘hire’
comes from Latin locare, ‘praise’ from Latin laudare. A second example is also
a French word starting with l, livre, which means both ‘pound’ and ‘book’.
Again, these meanings are originally completely unconnected, ‘pound’
being derived from Latin libra, ‘book’ from Latin liber.

5.3.2 Tests for polysemy

The idea of ‘conceptual relation’ (or ‘semantic relation’) featuring in the
definition of polysemy discussed above is notoriously unconstrained. If
polysemy is defined as ‘the possession of conceptually related senses by a
single word’, the fact that we can conceive of a conceptual relation
between any two meanings means that we need never diagnose homon-
ymy. The meanings ‘pound’ and ‘book’, for instance, might be conceptu-
ally related in that books were typically quite heavy objects, weighing
several pounds. To give another example, the French noun pic means both
‘woodpecker’ and ‘peak’. These are not, however, historically related: the
‘woodpecker’ sense comes from popular Latin *piccus, the ‘peak’ meaning
from Spanish pico, each of which took on the same pronunciation after it
entered French (Rey 1998: pic). However, in order to motivate an analysis of
pic as polysemous we could posit a conceptual link between the shape of
a woodpecker’s beak and a steep mountain-top: the only reason that mod-
ern French dictionaries do not do this is the separate origin of the two
words. Even so, it might be objected, who is to say that contemporary
French speakers do not relate the two meanings in just this way? Ordinary
speakers have no access to the etymological history of their own language;
when acquiring French, native speakers would have heard simply the sin-
gle form [pi:k], which they would have learnt to associate with two mean-
ings. Might not they think about the two meanings as related by shape?
In languages whose histories are not well known, cases like this pose a
considerable problem, and the uncertainty is aggravated when we have no
clear sense of the plausibility of a conceptual relation between the mean-
ings involved. In Warlpiri, for example, the verb parntarni means both ‘hit
on the head’ and ‘name, call’. Without a thorough appreciation of the
cultural context, it is entirely unclear whether it would be possible to
propose a plausible conceptual link between these two ideas. And even if
we did have a detailed knowledge of the cultural context, it’s not obvious
what would constitute adequate evidence that the two meanings were
‘conceptually related’. Clearly, then, the idea of ‘conceptual relation’ will
not allow us to decide conclusively between cases of polysemy, monosemy
 5.3 Polysemy and meaning division 163

and homonymy. What is needed is a more precise criterion which will

discriminate the three cases unambiguously. Linguists have devised a
number of polysemy tests, of which we will discuss the most important.
The oldest type of polysemy test, the definitional test, due originally to
Aristotle (Posterior Analytics II.13; Geeraerts 1993: 230), identifies the number of
senses of a word with the number of separate definitions needed to convey its
meaning accurately. A word has more than one meaning if there is no single
definition which can be applied to all of its uses, and it has no more meanings
than the number of maximally general definitions necessary to define its
complete denotation. This was the criterion we applied in (28) above in order
to delimit the five separate senses of French pièce, and it corresponds to the
common-sense idea that a word has as many senses as it requires separate
semantic descriptions. Thus, the definitional criterion demonstrates the non-
monosemy of the noun quarry, since there would seem to be no definition
which could simultaneously cover the meanings ‘site dedicated to the open-
air excavation of stone’ and ‘object of a search or hunt’. Similarly, there seems
to be no single definition capable of describing the meanings ‘palace’ and
‘palate’ of the French noun palais. (Note that the definitional criterion will not
of itself distinguish polysemy and homonymy.)
Definitional tests for polysemy are widely rejected (Geeraerts 1993;
Schütze 1997: 69; Fodor 1998; Dunbar 2001). The most significant problem
with them is that, contrary to the beliefs of their proponents, they in fact
presuppose that the number of meanings to be defined is already known
(Geeraerts 1993: 236). Ironically, therefore, far from being a test of poly-
semy, they actually require that the question of the number of senses held
by a lexical item is already resolved. To see this, let us once again take an
example from French and consider the adjective drôle, which can be
defined in two different ways, shown in (29) a and b.

(29) a. drôle: (1) amusing, humorous

(2) peculiar

b. drôle: (1) funny

Is drôle polysemous or not? The definitional criterion will not help us to

decide, since two definitional strategies, each of which gives a different
answer, are equally possible and there is not any obvious way to distin-
guish between them. On strategy (a), drôle has two distinct meanings and
is therefore polysemous; on strategy (b) it is monosemous. It might be
thought that (29b) is a rather unsatisfactory definition, only possible
because of the convenient presence in English of a word which covers the
same semantic territory as drôle in French; funny in English clearly covers
two distinct notions which a definition should distinguish. We can, how-
ever, easily answer this objection by rephrasing (29b) as (30):

(30) drôle: provoking amusement or puzzlement

This definition combines the two cases in (29a) into a single disjunctive defi-
nition (one that contains two clauses linked by ‘or’), thereby preserving the
164 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

semantic analysis of drôle while abandoning its distinction into two meaning
components. On purely formal grounds, there is nothing to distinguish these
definitions of drôle: they are all equally accurate, in the sense that they may
all be truthfully substituted for the definiendum (see 2.4). Yet they do not
resolve the question of the monosemy or polysemy of the adjective.
Another serious problem with the definitional test is that the number
of senses it diagnoses for the definiendum will vary according to the meta-
language in which the definitions are couched. The Kukatja (Pama-
Nyungan, Australia; Valiquette 1993) verb yungkala is defined in English as
meaning either ‘throw and pelt’ or ‘grind’ (it also has other senses which
do not concern us here). On the definitional criterion, therefore, it is
shown to be polysemous. But if we change the defining metalanguage to
Walmajarri (Pama-Nyungan, Australia), a related Australian language, we
could simply propose the single definition luwarnu, a verb which is also
defined in English as ‘pelt, grind’. With Walmajarri as the defining meta-
language, then, yungkala turns out to be monosemous. On the basis of this
type of example, we can conclude that definitions should not be appealed
to as evidence for the polysemy or monosemy of a lexical item.
Another frequently suggested test for polysemy is the logical test (first
advanced by Quine 1960). A word (or phrase) is polysemous on this test if
it can be simultaneously true and false of the same referent. The reason-
ing behind this test is that a word could only be simultaneously affirmed
and denied if the affirmation and the denial applied to different mean-
ings; otherwise, language would be self-contradictory. Examples of simul-
taneous affirmation and denial of the same word are given in (31), with
the particular sense in question mentioned in brackets:

(31) a. Bread is a staple (‘basic foodstuff’), not a staple (‘stationery item’).

b. This man is a minister (‘priest’), not a minister (‘politician’).
c. The exam paper was hard (‘difficult’), not hard (‘firm to the touch’).

The adoption of this test, however, would require us to diagnose polysemy

(ambiguity) in many cases where we would not, in fact, want to recognize
any more than a single meaning for the word in question:

(32) a. Said of a non-openable window:

It’s a window (‘transparent glass fitting’) but it’s not a window
(‘openable transparent glass fitting’).

b. Said of someone making a half-hearted attempt:

He’s trying (‘going through the motions’) but he’s not trying
(‘making a genuine effort’).

c. Said of a sixteen year old:

He’s an adult (‘mature’) but not an adult (‘legally adult’).

d. Said of a lane:
It’s a street (‘thoroughfare taking traffic’) but not a street
(‘sizeable thoroughfare’).
 5.3 Polysemy and meaning division 165

Instead of demonstrating polysemy, what seems to be happening in these

utterances is that the speaker is simultaneously entertaining two differ-
ent points of view, under only one of which the description applies. From
one point of view, for example – that according to which windows can be
opened – the referent of (32a) qualifies as a window; from the opposite
point of view, it does not. To diagnose polysemy, however, in every lexical
item that was amenable to this sort of perspectivization would leave virtu-
ally no monosemous words in the lexicon.

QUESTION Devise some other examples like those in (32) involving the
simultaneous affirmation and denial of different aspects of a word’s
meaning. In which cases would you want to say that the word was poly-
semous? What are your motivations?

A particularly common variety of test used to distinguish between poly-

semy (ambiguity) and monosemy (vagueness) are the so-called linguistic
tests, which involve constructions which predicate the same information
of two different subjects. In order not to sound bizarre, punning or just
awkward, these constructions require that the same information be
predicated of both subjects. For example, the and so construction in (33a)
would not be appropriate if the quartet are playing a Schoenberg string
quartet and Real Madrid (a football team) are playing sport; rather, it is
only appropriate if the two types of playing are the same, as in (33b):

(33) a. The quartet are playing, and so are Real Madrid.

b. The quartet are playing, and so is the trio.

Examples of constructions which, like (33a), are bizarre, punning or awk-

ward, are referred to as crossed or zeugmatic (Greek zeugma ‘yoke’), since
they cross or ‘yoke together’ notions which do not belong together. As a
result of the contrast between (33a) and (33b), some linguists (Lakoff 1970,
Zwicky and Sadock 1975) have suggested that constructions like and so can
be used to differentiate between polysemous and monosemous expres-
sions. Thus, (33a) demonstrates that play is polysemous between the sense
‘perform a musical piece’ and ‘engage in a sporting activity’. Similarly, the
fact that (34) is not appropriate when intended with the bracketed senses
testifies to the polysemy of mad:

(34) Sarah is mad (‘insane’), and so is Roger (‘angry’).

Constructions using and so are far from being the only ones to require this
sort of identity between the two parts of the predication. Thus, the pronoun
it in (35) has to be understood as coreferential (anaphoric) with its anteced-
ent, time. But since two different senses of time are intended in (35), the
resulting sentence takes on a ‘punning’ quality, which has been taken as
evidence of the polysemy of time with respect to the bracketed senses:

(35) The drummer is doing time (‘penal servitude’), but he can’t beat it (‘rhythm’)
(anaphoric pronoun identity).
166 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

One major problem with the linguistic test is that whether or not a
sentence seems punning, bizarre or awkward is open to significant varia-
tion between subjects. Indeed, even the reactions of a single subject to the
same sentence may differ at different times. For the present author, for
example, the following sentences (Riemer 2005: 141) have in the past
seemed both awkward and normal:

(36) a. The Michelin restaurant judges are eating, and so are the sausage dogs.
b. He lacks taste and company.
c. The fleet reached Samos and an end to the months of waiting.

Because of this shifting status, the linguistic test would not seem to offer
the stable results required for judgements of semantic structure.
Furthermore, as pointed out by Geeraerts (1993: 238), the linguistic test
cannot be relied on to give correct results where the polysemy of the word
in question is not in doubt. Consider for example (37):

(37) The newspaper has decided to reduce its size.

There is nothing awkward or peculiar about this sentence used in the

context of a paper deciding to change its format from a broadsheet to a
tabloid. Yet newspaper initially refers to the management in charge of pub-
lishing the physical newspaper, whereas it, which should be coreferential
with this, refers to the physical object itself. Pretheoretically, we clearly
recognize two distinct meanings of newspaper, the ‘management/board of
directors’ sense and the ‘material object’ sense. Yet these different mean-
ings do not show up on the linguistic test.

QUESTION A possible response to this objection would be that our pre-

theoretical ideas about the polysemy of newspaper are simply wrong. Is
this reasonable?

Another problem with the linguistic test is that it ignores the difference
between the sense and reference of the lexemes in question. As pointed
out by Tuggy (1993), the linguistic test is sensitive to the referents of the
terms involved. For example, sentences on the pattern of (38) have been
used to demonstrate polysemy, in this case polysemy of the verb court:

(38) Hank is courting Tina and a disaster.

The zeugmatic character of this sentence justifies the postulation of two

separate meanings of the verb court: ‘woo’, which is associated with the
object Tina, and ‘knowingly risk’, associated with the object disaster. It is
the fact that each object corresponds to a different sense of court that gives
(38) its zeugmatic quality. We can, however, imagine two different contexts
in which (38) might be uttered (Riemer 2005: 141). In the first, the speaker
means that in courting Tina, Hank is courting a disaster. In this case, Tina
and disaster ultimately both refer to the individual Tina. The second con-
text is one in which Tina and disaster are in no way coreferential: where, for
 5.3 Polysemy and meaning division 167

example, at the same time as ‘courting’ Tina, Hank is also, unrelatedly,

contemplating a disastrous career-change. This suggests that it is the refer-
ent, not the sense, of the lexeme to which the linguistic test is sensitive.
Questions of polysemy and monosemy, which concern sense, not reference,
cannot therefore be illuminated by these phenomena.

5.3.3 Polysemy and monosemy as a cline

The fact that none of the proposed tests of polysemy seems to deliver reli-
able results has led many linguists to dismiss the polysemy/monosemy
contrast as a false dichotomy. One of the earliest to do so was Geeraerts,
who rejects the idea that we should think of meanings as ‘things, prepack-
aged chunks of information that are contained in and carried about by
word bags’ (Geeraerts 1993: 259; see also Tuggy 1993, Allwood 2003). This
idea is compatible with the ‘conduit metaphor’ discussed in 1.6.2, and
once we abandon it, it is no longer important to know whether a word
carries around one prepackaged information chunk (monosemy) or sev-
eral (polysemy).
One possible alternative to the view of words having a determinate and
finite number of senses would be to think of a word’s meaning as a con-
tinuum of increasingly fine distinctions open to access at different levels
of abstraction (cf. Taylor 2003: Chapter 8). Depending on the level of
abstraction at which a word’s meaning is considered, different elements
of its meaning may appear as distinct or not, with the word consequently
appearing variously polysemous or monosemous on the different poly-
semy tests. For example, consider the dialogue in (39), adapted from Tuggy
(1993):

(39) A: What have you two been doing all afternoon?

B: I’ve been painting and so has Jane.

If Jane has been painting a portrait and B has been painting stripes on the
road, this answer will be misleading since it suggests that they have been
engaged in the same type of painting; as a result, B’s reply could only be
uttered facetiously, punningly, or with the intention to mislead. On the
linguistic criterion discussed above, paint would thus be polysemous
between two senses which we could provisionally gloss as ‘engage in artis-
tic activity involving the application of paint’ and ‘engage in a non-artistic
activity involving application of paint’. In other contexts, however, the
linguistic test does not point to different senses of paint, suggesting that
it is in fact monosemous (general) between the portrait and road stripe-
painting senses. Thus, imagine in (40) that Franz is painting a portrait,
and that the speaker is painting stripes on the road:

(40) When I’m painting I try to get the colour on evenly and so does Franz.

How can this clash between the test results be resolved? One answer
would seem to be that (39) and (40) invoke differing levels of abstraction
of the concept of painting. The verb paint can be used to refer to a broad
168 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

continuum of different activities (as well as road and portrait painting,

there is face-painting, painting of walls, rust-proofing, nail-painting, etc.).
Strictly speaking, none of these individual instances of painting is abso-
lutely identical to any other: two acts of wall-painting, for example, will
differ in the details of their physical and temporal locations. The function
of the verb paint is thus to categorize all of these different referents
together (Taylor 2003; see 7.1 for further discussion). The relative impor-
tance of individual instances of painting is not, however, stable. When, as
in (39), an accurate description of the type of activity being undertaken is
called for, then painting a portrait and painting stripes on the road will
be seen as fundamentally different activities: one is an artistic pursuit
often associated with the leisure activities of amateurs, while the other
takes place in the context of professional employment. Given the differing
values of the two types of painting in our society, their common descrip-
tion by the same verb would be misleading. In (40), however, painting is
considered not in terms of its wider socio-cultural import, but in terms of
its actual mechanics. In this context, the differences between road-stripe
painting and portrait painting disappear, since even application of colour
is equally relevant to both; consequently, the verb paint may be used to
refer to both types of situation without any punning, awkwardness or risk
of misinformation. It is as though paint comprehends a variety of related
notions, such as portrait painting, painting road-stripes, painting walls,
painting the face, etc., which may be ‘zoomed’ in on and out from. When
what is required is a fine-grained description of the type of activity in
question, a ‘close-up’ view of the notions covered by paint makes each one
stand out as a distinct unit, in the same way that a photographic close-up
will reveal the detailed structure of an object. But when the focus is wider,
the differences between the internal constituents become blurred and
lose their distinctness. Accordingly, paint will appear monosemous or
polysemous as a result of the level of abstraction or resolution at which its
meanings are accessed. To think of a lexical item like paint as either
monosemous or polysemous is therefore to ignore the fact that meanings
can be accessed at a variety of levels. Rather than being absolute alterna-
tives, monosemy and polysemy name the end points of a cline of semantic
separateness.
This type of answer has found a number of recent adherents in discus-
sions of polysemy (see for instance Taylor 2003: Chapter 8). In one sense,
however, it does not resolve the problem, and for a similar reason to the
one for which we rejected the linguistic test of polysemy: it ignores the
distinction between the sense and the reference of paint. The cases dis-
cussed in (39) and (40) constitute different situations to which paint refers.
But how do we know when a different situation corresponds to a different
sense of the verb? Might not all the occurrences of paint we have discussed
be examples of a single, schematic sense along the lines of ‘apply paint to
a surface’ (which will cover both the portrait and the road-painting cases),
even at the most fine-grained level of resolution? Difference of reference
does not automatically entail difference of sense; if it did, the very distinc-
tion between sense and reference would lose its point. As a result, the
 Summary 169

mere fact that paint can be used to refer to a variety of different situations
tells us nothing about the number of senses involved.
By now it will be obvious that this issue involves a number of complex
questions. For some investigators, the phenomena discussed in this sec-
tion problematize the very objectivity of meaning as a linguistic phenom-
enon (Geeraerts 1993; Riemer 2005).

Summary As well as knowing a word’s definitional meaning, a competent speaker

knows how it relates to other words of the language. Five important
types of lexical relation have been identified.

Antonymy
Antonymy (oppositeness) may be characterized as a relationship of
incompatibility between two terms with respect to some given dimen-
sion of contrast. The principal distinction to be made in discussion of
antonymy is between gradable (e.g. hot–cold) and non-gradable (e.g.
married–unmarried) antonyms, i.e. antonyms which do and do not admit
a midpoint.

Meronymy
Meronymy is the relation of part to whole: hand is a meronym of arm,
seed is a meronym of fruit, blade is a meronym of knife. Not all languages
seem to have an unambiguous means of lexicalizing the concept PART
OF, but meronymy is often at the origin of various polysemy patterns in
languages.

Hyponymy and taxonomy

Hyponymy and taxonomy (kind of-ness) define different types of class-
inclusion hierarchies; hyponymy is an important structural principle
in many languages with classifiers, while taxonomy has been argued to
be basic to the classification and naming of biological species.

Synonymy
Synonymy is frequently claimed to exist between different expressions
of the same language, but genuine lexical synonyms prove extremely
hard to find: once their combinatorial environments have been fully
explored, proposed lexical synonyms often prove not to be such.

Componential analysis
The importance of appreciating a lexeme’s semantic relations in order
to understand its meaning is one of the motivations for a componen-
tial approach to semantic analysis. Componential analysis analyses
meaning in terms of binary features (i.e. features with only two pos-
sible values, + or –), and represents a translation into semantics of the
principles of structuralist phonological analysis. As a type of defini-
tional analysis, componential analysis inherits the failings of traditional
170 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

definitions, and words for which it proves hard to couch definitions

are also hard to analyse componentially.

Polysemy and monosemy

Theoretical and ordinary description of meaning would both be impos-
sible without the recognition of separate senses within the same
word. Words with several related senses are described as polysemous.
Polysemy contrasts simultaneously with monosemy, the case where
a word has a single meaning, and homonymy, the case where two
unrelated words happen to share the same phonological form. In
spite of the intuitive obviousness of these distinctions, there are many
instances where it is not clear whether a word should be analysed as
polysemous or monosemous, and no absolute criteria have ever been
proposed which will successfully discriminate them.

Further reading
Cruse (1986) is a standard discussion of lexical relations in general; see Murphy (2003) for another, more
theoretical treatment. Jones (2002) is a recent detailed study of antonymy. For two radically different
approaches to taxonomy, contrast Berlin (1992) and Ellen (1993). Note however that both these works are
primarily aimed at anthropologists, in spite of the importance of linguistic evidence to both. Chapters 2 and 3
of Quine (1961) contain discussion of synonymy from the point of view of a philosopher. Gross and Miller
(1990) discuss English antonymy from a computational perspective. On the development of the componen-
tial analysis of kin terms, see the opening chapters of D’Andrade (1995). For readers of French, Rastier
(1987) and Coseriu (2001 [1983]) contain useful discussions of the status of componential analysis in lin-
guistics. On monosemy, see especially Ruhl (1989), a detailed theoretical and empirical treatment. Polysemy
has recently spawned a vast literature, especially in cognitive linguistics. In addition to the sources quoted in
the text, see Ravin and Leacock (2002), Nerlich et al. (2003), Cuyckens, Dirven and Taylor (2003) and
Riemer (2005) for a selection of different views.

Exercises
Questions for discussion
1. Consider the following statements from Lehrer (2002: 504) on the use
of morphology to create antonyms in English:

Although un- is the most productive of these affixes and has been dis-
placing in-. . . , there are interesting restrictions on its application. First, it
does not attach to simple words that have negative connotations. Words
like *uncruel, *unsick, and *unstupid are rejected, whereas unkind, unwell
and unintelligent are normal. Secondly, un- does not attach to many
common positive and neutral adjectives, either, so that words like
*ungood, *unnice, *unrich and *untall are also unacceptable.

Are Lehrer’s generalizations accurate? Can you develop any theory of

which adjectives are compatible with un-?
 Exercises 171

2. In certain contexts, non-gradable antonyms also seem open to

comparison. For example, we might say of John that he is more male
than Hamish, or of Beethoven that he is more dead than Kurt Cobain.
How could these exceptions be explained? Are male/female and
dead/alive accurately described as non-gradable in spite of these
examples?
3. Consider the following sentences (from Murphy 2003: 39):

(1) a. I’d like a {large/!big/small/!little} amount of cash.

b. Here comes a {large/big/small/little} dog.
c. The dog let out a {!large/big/?small/little} yelp.
d. They made a {?large/big/small/little} mistake.
e. What a cute {!large/big/!small/little} doggie!
f. The twins are {!large/big/small/?little} for their age.

Large and big and small and little are characteristically taken as synony-
mous. The quoted sentences demonstrate, however, that their possibili-
ties of substitution are not equivalent. What factors (semantic or prag-
matic) might be proposed to account for the facts in (1)?
4. (For native speakers of languages other than English). Assemble a list of
antonyms from your native language and investigate their committed-
ness. Do they conform to the generalizations identified in 5.1.1?
5. Consider verbs of liquid motion such as splash, trickle, spurt, drip, spray,
run, spill, flow, leak, stream, etc. Is it possible to arrange these into a hyp-
onymic hierarchy like those that might be proposed for nouns? What are
the problems of doing so?
6. Answer the same question for the verbs look, stare, watch, see, observe,
contemplate, spy on, glimpse.
7. Murphy 2003: 126: ‘In common examples of the hyponymy relation, we
also find examples that are not transitive, as in (19), again contradicting
the logical definition of hyponymy (Cruse 1994: 174).

(19) a. A hang-glider is a glider.

b. A glider is an airplane.
c. ?A hang-glider is an airplane.’

Are there many examples like this? Can any general principles be discov-
ered which govern the presence of transitivity in hyponymy chains like
those of (19)?
8. Construct a componential analysis for the following verbs: catch, grab,
fumble, take, hold, pick up, put down, throw away, release, drop. Can
the meaning of each verb be adequately captured in such an analysis?
What has to be left out? What are the advantages and disadvantages of
this analysis in comparison to a definitional description of each verb?
9. Consider the following quotations from Lyons:

As far as the empirical investigation of the structure of language is con-

cerned, the sense of a lexical item may be defined to be, not only
dependent on, but identical with, the set of relations which hold between
the item in question and the other items in the same lexical system.
(Lyons 1968: 443, quoted by Murphy 2003: 67)
172 ANALYSING AND DISTINGUISHING MEANINGS

I consider that the theory of meaning will be more solidly based if the
meaning of a given linguistic unit is defined to be the set of (paradigmatic)
relations that the unit in question contracts with other units of the lan-
guage (in the context or contexts in which it occurs), without any attempt
being made to set up ‘contents’ for these units. (1963: 59)

Discuss Lyons’ identification between sense and meaning relations.

Would it be empirically possible to describe the vocabulary of a language
simply in terms of relations, without proposing contents for each lexeme?
What problems (practical and principled) would such an account face?
What are its advantages? Is it possible to conceive of two expressions
which are ‘“merely” different in meaning but not bound by any of the
meaning-relations that it is proposed to recognize in the definition of
semantic structure’? (Lyons 1968: 60).
10. Section 5.3.2 discussed problems with the definitional criterion of polyse-
my. The examples given there concern extensional definitions (Chapter 2).
Are the issues the same or different for cognitive definitions?
11. At a number of points in this chapter we have found ourselves faced with
a clash between our intuitive conception of a theoretical linguistic category
and the definition being proposed of it. For example, we noted in 5.1.3
that neither the formal class-inclusion definition of hyponymy nor the met-
alinguistic definition through kind of seems to adequately capture the con-
ception of hyponymy we want to advance, which includes car as a hyp-
onym of vehicle but excludes policeman as a hyponym of someone’s son.
Similarly, one of the main problems we encountered with the various pol-
ysemy tests discussed in 5.3.2 was the fact that they often diagnose the
presence of polysemy in cases which do not correspond to our pretheo-
retical notion of what polysemy is. In cases like this, it is often assumed
that it is OK to apply labels like ‘hyponym’ and ‘polysemy’ in a purely intui-
tive way, as long as we do so unambiguously. On this view, tests for hom-
onymy and polysemy are unneeded, since we have an intuitive sense of
the categories; as a result, the fact that the tests don’t work doesn’t matter.
Is this view satisfactory? Should we be able to provide absolute definitions
of theoretical terms, or hard and fast criteria showing where they are appli-
cable?
 CHA PT E R

6 Logic as a
representation
of meaning

CHAPTER PREVIEW
Logic is the study of the nature of valid inferences and reasoning. The logical tradition
constitutes one of the major strands in the study of meaning, and some knowledge of its
background is indispensable in linguistic semantics. In this chapter we will study some
basic logical tools and concepts. Our aim is twofold:
◆ first, to understand the ways in which some types of meaning can be represented in
logical symbolism
◆ second, to appreciate the advantages and disadvantages of this type of representation.
We begin by introducing the ideas of validity, soundness and logical form (6.1): these
define the context and aims of a logical approach to language. In 6.2 we present an expo-
sition of the basic principles of propositional logic, the logic of basic sentences, includ-
ing a treatment of the principal logical operators: and, not, or and if . . . then. In 6.3 we
discuss the extent to which these logical concepts overlap with the meanings of their ordi-
nary language equivalents. Section 6.4 introduces predicate logic, the logic of expres-
sions like some and all. In 6.5 we discuss the ways in which the concept of a model
allows us to describe reference using logical techniques. Section 6.6 contains a discussion
of the sentence relations of entailment, presupposition and contradiction. This leads to
a discussion of meaning postulates in Section 6.7, which use the sentence relations
introduced in 6.6 as part of a non-decompositional approach to meaning. In 6.8 Russell’s
theory of descriptions is discussed. This is a proposal for the analysis of noun phrases
containing the definite article, and provides an instructive example of the advantages and
problems of applying logical tools to the analysis of natural language.
We end the chapter in 6.9 with a short discussion of the controversies surrounding the
use of logic as an aid in the analysis of natural language.
174 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

6.1 Validity, soundness and logical form

Logic may be defined as the study of valid reasoning and inference. On
this definition, logic investigates the properties of valid chains of reason-
ing, and specifies the conditions which these chains must meet in order
to be valid, in order to work as arguments. Consider the following
exchange:

(1) A: Koko is a primate, so she likes daytime television.

B: What? I don’t get it.
A: All primates like daytime television

Initially, B is unable to follow A’s line of thought, and as a result A is

forced to state the general principle on which her conclusion rests. This
allows us to reconstruct A’s original train of thought as the following
argument or syllogism:

(2) 1. All primates like daytime television.

2. Koko is a primate.
therefore
3. Koko likes daytime television.

Argument (2) thus reveals the explicit logical structure of A’s comment in
(1). As Kneale and Kneale explain (1962: 12), the ‘first tentative steps
towards logical thinking are taken when men try to generalize about valid
arguments and to extract from some particular valid argument a form or
principle which is common to a whole class of valid arguments’. Given the
meanings of the words all, like and is, the conclusion Koko likes daytime tel-
evision just has to be true as long as we accept the truth of the proposition
All primates like daytime television. It seems likely that it was in domains like
mathematics, especially geometry, that the need to make the principles of
valid reasoning explicit first arose (Kneale and Kneale 1962: 2); in modern
times, the study of logic has been particularly undertaken in the attempt
to symbolize the types of reasoning that underlie mathematical argu-
ments.
Logic is important to linguistics for at least three reasons. First, the
study of logic is one of the oldest comprehensive treatments of questions
of meaning. When people first began to think systematically about the
meanings of language and the relations between these meanings, it was
logical concepts to which they often appealed for explanations. As a
result, the tradition of logical analysis, which we can trace as far back as
Aristotle, provides a rich body of reflection on meaning, and most schol-
ars who have studied meaning in the Western tradition have had at least
some knowledge of logical principles. The relevance of logic to linguistics
is far from simply historical, however. Logical concepts inform a wide
range of modern formal theories of semantics, and are also crucial in
research in computational theories of language and meaning. We will not
be exploring formal theories in themselves here, but our exposition of
 6.1 Validity, soundness and logical form 175

some fundamental logical ideas will provide some background for those
wanting to do so. Lastly, logical concepts provide an enlightening point of
contrast with natural language. The basic logical concepts are accessible
to practically anyone; indeed, many philosophers have seen in logical
principles the universal ‘laws of thought’ which constitute the basic
grounds of human rationality: for Immanuel Kant, for example, ‘logic is
the science that exhaustively presents and strictly proves nothing but the
formal rules of all thinking’ (1998 [1787]: 106). Yet, as we will see, logical
meanings often differ strikingly from the types of meaning found in natu-
ral language. Studying logic therefore provides a window onto a body of
apparently universal concepts with strikingly different behaviour from natu-
ral language, which provide a rigorous and enlightening way of disambigu-
ating certain types of natural language expression.

Formal theories
A formal theory is one which offers an analysis of meaning in a tech-
nical, usually symbolic, metalanguage, according to principles which
can be expressed in mathematical terms. A formal representation of
meaning avoids the ambiguities contained in natural language by
enforcing a strict correspondence between symbols and meanings:
whereas natural languages always contain ambiguous or polysemous
terms, in which a single form stands for several meanings (think of
English step, match or get), a formal language has a strictly one-to-one
relation with its meanings, so that each symbol of the formalism has
one and only one interpretation.

As the above quotation from Kant suggests, the principles of valid argu-
ment have typically been taken, in the logical tradition, as the very prin-
ciples governing rational human thought. Logic can be seen, from this
perspective, as the science of the laws of rational thought. On this view,
logic is the science which tries to specify all the conclusions that can val-
idly be reached from a given set of propositions. It is logical principles
which thus describe the process of valid reasoning.
The first two propositions in (2) are called the premises. An argument’s
premise may be defined as its starting-point, one of the propositions from
which the conclusion follows. In (2), the last proposition is the conclu-
sion. Note that the validity of arguments or of chains of reasoning has a
special relationship to the words in which the premises and conclusion
may be stated: substitute different words, and the argument may not be
valid. None of the following arguments, for instance, is valid:

(3) a. Most primates like daytime television.

Koko is a primate.
therefore
Koko likes daytime television.
176 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

b. All primates may like daytime television.

Koko is a primate.
therefore
Koko likes daytime television.

c. All primates used to like daytime television.

Koko is a primate.
therefore
Koko likes daytime television.

d. Some primates like daytime television.

Koko is a primate.
therefore
Koko likes daytime television.

e. All primates like daytime television.

Koko wants to be a primate.
therefore
Koko likes daytime television.

QUESTION For each of these arguments, explain why it is not valid.

We may therefore say that the validity of this argument type is a function of
the meaning of the terms in the syllogism, in particular the meanings of the
determiner all, and of the verbs like and is. In (4), if we retain the ‘logical’ words
all and are, but substitute words whose meaning is unknown, the resulting
argument is still valid: if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true:

(4) All sclaps are hillories

Steven is a sclap,
therefore
Steven is a hillory.

Any argument which conforms to the pattern of (4) will be valid. All the
arguments below contain the same pattern of reasoning as (4):

(5) a. All primates like daytime television.

Humans are primates.
therefore
Humans like daytime television.

b. All computers will break down.

Laptops are computers.
therefore
Laptops will break down.

c. All gladiators feared defeat.

The Thracian was a gladiator.
therefore
The Thracian feared defeat.

This allows us to see that the pattern of valid inference exemplified in (4)
and (5) is systematic and does not depend on the details of the material
 6.1 Validity, soundness and logical form 177

inserted into the logical formula. The validity of these arguments is a

function purely of the meaning of the predicates and of the term all and of
the argument’s logical form, its underlying logical structure.
The fact, however, that an argument conforms to the pattern of (4) may
make it valid, but this does not make its conclusion true. Logical validity
and truth are quite different properties: validity is a property of argu-
ments, truth a property of sentences. The following argument is valid in
logic, but its first premise is not true.

(6) All people born on a Tuesday are unhappy.

Bogomil was born on a Tuesday.
therefore
Bogomil is unhappy.

This means that (6) is valid in logic, but it is not true. Valid arguments
whose premises are true are referred to as sound. Arguments like (6)
which are valid, but which do not have true premises, are thus unsound.
We can tell that (6) is valid, since if the first premise were true, then the
conclusion would also necessarily be true. (Note that whether Bogomil is,
as a matter of fact, unhappy, has nothing to do with the soundness of (6).
Bogomil may well actually be unhappy, but this is not proven by the argu-
ment in (6).)
QUESTION Assess the following arguments, stating whether they are
valid and sound, valid but unsound, or invalid.

1. All people need oxygen.

Harry is a person.
therefore
Harry needs oxygen.
(Assume that Harry is a parrot.)

2. Brazil is a country.
All countries belong to the UN.
therefore
Brazil belongs to the UN.

3. Henry has fallen in the pool.

If someone has fallen in the pool, then they are wet.
therefore
Henry is wet.
(Assume that the first premise is true.)
4. Gin and tonic is a popular drink.
Popular drinks are cheap.
therefore
Water is cheap.
5. Mirrors reflect things.
This glass reflects things.
therefore
This glass is a mirror.
178 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

6. Koko is hairy.
All primates are hairy.
therefore
Koko is a primate.
As we have observed, the properties of sentences which make them true
are linguistic properties. This suggests that logic and semantics are closely
related. Some scholars, indeed, such as McCawley (1981: 2), have assumed
that logic and semantics share an identical subject matter: the meanings
of natural language sentences. As we will see, not everyone would agree
with this: the degree of correspondence between logic and natural lan-
guage has often been questioned, and with good reason. Nevertheless, as
McCawley (1981: 2) notes, logic requires semantic analysis: the meanings
of sentences must be identified before their logical properties can be dis-
cussed. If we do not know the meanings of are and all in (4) we are not in
a position to determine the validity of the arguments involving them.
The link between logic and semantics is further revealed by the fact
that it is meanings, not sentences, that function as the premises and con-
clusions of arguments. Thus, assuming (perhaps wrongly) that unhappy
and discontented are synonyms, we can substitute any of the synonymous
expressions in (7) for the premise of (6), and the synonymous expression
in (8) for the conclusion of (6):

(7) All humans born on a Tuesday are unhappy.

All people born on a Tuesday are discontented.
All people who were, are or will be born on a Tuesday are unhappy.

(8) Bogomil is discontented.

These variations do not affect the underlying logical form of the argument.

6.2 Propositional logic

Having introduced the basic notions of validity, soundness and logical
form, we will begin our exploration of logic by considering the topic of
propositional logic, the branch of logic which deals with relations between
propositions. A proposition is something which serves as the premise or
conclusion of an argument. In (2) above, Koko is a primate, All primates like
daytime television, and Koko likes daytime television are all propositions.
Propositions are either true or false. In English, we may think of proposi-
tions as roughly like positive or negative factual sentences. The parallel
between sentences and propositions is not absolute, however. A sentence
like (9) expresses an infinite number of different propositions, depending
on the values of the deictic expressions I (my), you (your) and this afternoon:

(9) I want you to know that your behaviour this afternoon had nothing to do
with my decision to drop out.

For each assignment of referents to the deictic expressions, a different

proposition results. Similarly, ‘Koko likes daytime television’ can only be
 6.2 Propositional logic 179

considered a proposition as long as the referent of the noun ‘Koko’ has

been fixed. Only if we know who ‘Koko’ refers to can we know whether a
proposition in which she is mentioned is true or not.
Strictly, the notion of a proposition belongs to logic. We can, however,
see it in mental terms. A series of experiments by psychologists has shown
that people are very bad at remembering the actual words of utterances.
About twenty seconds after hearing or reading an utterance, all people
remember is its content or gist: the actual words used usually can’t be
remembered accurately. Given this, the propositions discussed here would
be one possible representation of this remembered content or gist (see
Barsalou et al. 1993 for discussion).
Natural language is not a collection of brute propositional statements
without any mutual interrelations: a single statement like (10a) or (10b)
can serve as the basis for a whole series of additional statements, depend-
ing on the additional linguistic elements added to it. Some examples of
these additional statements are given in (10c–h):

(10) a. Daryl Tarte grew up to publish a raunchy family saga in 1988.

b. Patsy Page is telling the truth.
c. Someone suspects that Daryl Tarte grew up to publish a raunchy
family saga in 1988.
d. It is probable that Daryl Tarte grew up to publish a raunchy family
saga in 1988.
e. Daryl Tarte did not grow up to publish a raunchy family saga in
1988.
f. Daryl Tarte grew up to publish a raunchy family saga in 1988, and
Patsy Page is telling the truth.
g. Either Daryl Tarte grew up to publish a raunchy family saga in
1988, or Patsy Page is telling the truth.
h. If Daryl Tarte grew up to publish a raunchy family saga in 1988,
then Patsy Page is telling the truth.

It is the italicized elements in (10c–h) which chiefly serve to insert the

original propositions (10a–b) into a new, longer one. Among these ele-
ments, propositional logic attaches special importance to the four found
in (10 e–h). In English, these four elements are expressed by the words and,
or, not and if . . . then. We will refer to these as the propositional connec-
tives or logical operators (already mentioned in 4.3.1). These four differ
from others, such as those in (10c–d), in that they are truth-functional.
This means that whether the larger propositions they are part of are true
or not depends solely on the truth of the original basic propositions to
which they have been added: the logical operators do not add anything
true or false to the basic propositions themselves; all they do is generate
additional propositions from the basic ones.
Let’s demonstrate truth-functionality by considering the operator not.
Let’s grant that (10a) ‘Daryl Tarte grew up to publish a raunchy family saga
in 1988’ is true. Then, (10e) ‘Daryl Tarte did not grow up to publish a raunchy
family saga in 1988’ cannot be true: the two propositions are contradictory,
180 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

and we cannot imagine a world in which they could be simultaneously

possible. Conversely, if (10e) is true, then (10a) must be false. We can deduce
the truth or falsity of one proposition from the other: if one is true, the
other can only be false. Similarly, if (10a–b) are true, then (10f) must also be
true. But if one or both of (10a–b) are false, then (10f) as a whole must
likewise be false.
As we will see, the other two connectives are also truth-functional.
Before showing this, however, we need to abstract away from the English
words which express them. Observe that (10e) is not the only way in which
negation is expressed in English. The following sentences all involve nega-
tions or denials, but unlike (10e), they do not use the grammatical means
of do/did  not to express this:

(11) a.Neither the newspaper nor the radio gave more details.
b.She has not been an opera enthusiast all her life.
c.The Post Office had taken no notice of her death.
d.He was unable to tell the difference between Schumann and
Schubert.
e. He failed the driving test for the third time.

Intuitively, however, it seems obvious that all these sentences contain a

denial or a negation, but under different grammatical guises. Examples
like these show that language makes differing means available to express
what is, intuitively, a single logical operation, negation. Let’s further
assume that propositions like those in (11a–e) can be expressed in every
language. Let’s assume, in other words, that there is no reason that the
propositions have to be stated in English: speakers of any language can
negate propositions in a way that is semantically identical to the English
negations in (11a–e).
QUESTION What are some alternative ways in which the other operators
could be expressed in English?
Considerations like these mean that we need to find some other way of
symbolizing the operators which abstracts away from their translations
into any single natural language. To do this, we will adopt a set of sym-
bols for negation and the other operators. Negation, for example, will
be symbolized with the symbol ¬. We will introduce the other symbols
in the rest of this section. Note that the symbols apply uniquely to
entire propositions. If the small letters p, q, r. . . stand for given proposi-
tions, ¬p, ¬q and ¬r stand for their negations. We cannot use ¬ to sym-
bolize negations of non-propositional elements like not tomorrow, not
again, etc.
The values or meanings of the operators can be specified in the form of
diagrams called truth tables. Truth tables display the way in which logical
operators affect the truth of the propositions to which they are added.
(The use of truth tables is a fairly recent innovation in logic: they are
implicitly present in Frege, but first overtly used by Wittgenstein.) The
truth table for ¬ is very simple, and is given in Table 6.1:
 6.2 Propositional logic 181

Table 6.1. Truth table for ¬.

p ¬p

T F

F T

All this says, reading left to right and top to bottom, is that if p is true,
¬p (‘not p’) is false, and that if p is false, ¬p is true. Let’s say that p is the
proposition ‘Marie Bashir is governor of New South Wales’. If this is true,
then ¬p, ‘Marie Bashir is not governor of NSW’ must be false; conversely, if
it is false, then ¬p must be true. The truth table can be read in either direc-
tion. It is equally true, then, that if ¬p is false, then p is true, and if ¬p is
true, then p is false.
The next logical operator is conjunction. As its name implies, this denotes
the conjunction or union of two propositions. The conjoined propositions
are called conjuncts. The symbol for conjunction is the ampersand, &. The
lexical realizations of conjunction are quite various. In particular, the logi-
cal operator translates English and and but, as well as other contrastive
conjunctions like in spite of and although. If p stands for the proposition ‘The
Emperor has no money’ and q for ‘he has 400 000 soldiers’, then p & q can
stand for any one of the following complex propositions:

(12) The Emperor has no money, and he has 400 000 soldiers.
The Emperor has no money, he has 400 000 soldiers.
The Emperor has no money, but he has 400 000 soldiers.
The Emperor has no money, although he has 400 000 soldiers.
The Emperor has no money even though he has 400 000 soldiers.
The Emperor has no money, in spite of which he has 400 000 soldiers.

The truth-table for & is given in Table 6.2:

Table 6.2. Truth table for &.

pq p&q

a. TT T

b. TF F

c. FT F

d. FF F

If two propositions are both true, then their conjunction is also true (case
(a) in Table 6.2). If the proposition apricots are fruit and the proposition beans
are vegetables are both true (as, indeed, they are), then the compound
proposition apricots are fruit and beans are vegetables must also be true. But if
one of the conjoined propositions (conjuncts) is false, then the entire con-
junction is also false (cases (b) and (c)). For example, let’s take the two
propositions apricots are fruit (which is true) and beans are fruit (which is
182 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

false); their conjunction, apricots are fruit and beans are fruit, is false since the
second conjunct is false. The fact that one of the conjuncts is true makes no
difference: we could have a conjunction made up of ninety-nine true propo-
sitions and a single false proposition, but as a whole the conjunction would
be false (apricots are fruit, and peaches are fruit, and apples are fruit, and pome-
granates are fruit, and tamarinds are fruit . . . and beans are fruit). Finally, if both
conjuncts are false then the conjunction is clearly also false. If apricots are
vegetables and beans are fruit are individually false, their conjunction apricots
are vegetables and beans are fruit can only be false.
Note that ordinary language and does not always correspond to logical
&. As we have seen, & serves purely to join propositions. In natural lan-
guage, however, and frequently links nominals:
(13) Barb and Philippe had a baby.
This is not equivalent to (14), in which and does correspond to &:
(14) Barb had a baby and Philippe had a baby.
Conjunction joins two propositions together. Propositions may also, how-
ever, be dissociated. This is accomplished by the operation of disjunction.
The two propositions in a disjunction are called the disjuncts. There are
two types of disjunction. Exclusive disjunction says that just one of the
disjuncts applies, but not both. Exclusive disjunction is not usually given
a special symbol; we shall refer to it simply as ‘X-OR’. Its truth table is
shown in Table 6.3.
Only in cases (b) and (c) is the disjunction true.
In many respects, exclusive disjunction is like English either . . . or, but
with one important difference. In English, either . . . or can be used inclu-
sively, that is, even if both disjuncts are affirmed:

(15) He is either a coward, or he’s a liar, or he’s both.

This type of disjunction is known as inclusive disjunction. We will sym-

bolize it with the sign ⵪. Note that inclusive disjunction is an even more
likely interpretation of simple English or (without either), in contexts like
the following:
(16) People were wearing hats or they had put on sunscreen.
Clearly, (16) leaves open the possibility that some people were wearing
both hats and sunscreen: to enforce an exclusive reading, we would have
to add the phrase but not both.

Table 6.3. Truth table for X-OR.

pq p x-or q

a. TT F

b. TF T

c. FT T

d. FF F
 6.2 Propositional logic 183

As Table 6.4 shows, ⵪ is only false when both disjuncts are false:

Table 6.4. Truth table for ⵪.

pq p⵪q

a. TT T

b. TF T

c. FT T

d. FF F

QUESTION Using the abbreviations supplied, symbolize the following

propositions in logical notation. In (v), use brackets to enclose the last
two propositions.

c Chile produces wine s Scotland produces whisky

b Barbados grows cane f France produces exquisite cognac
k Kirsch contains cherries g German brandies are mediocre
(i) Either Barbados grows cane or France produces exquisite cognac.
(ii) German brandies are mediocre, but France produces exquisite cognac.
(iii) German brandies are mediocre, or they’re not.
(iv) Either Scotland does not produce whisky or Barbados grows cane.
(v) Kirsch does not contain cherries and either Chile produces wine or
Scotland produces whisky.

The last operator is also the most interesting. It is called the material
conditional, and it corresponds (roughly – but only roughly) to the mean-
ing of English if p . . . then q. It is symbolized by the operator ). The proposi-
tion to the left of ) is known as the antecedent; the one to the right is
called the consequent. Thus, in (17), the underlined clauses are the ante-
cedents, and the italicized ones the consequents::

(17) a. If you refuse to stop talking, then I’ll walk out.

b. If there’s no one at the counter then the museum is closed.
c. If we can’t agree then we have a problem.
d. If you are young, rich and educated, then you are unhappy, neurotic
and alone.

Let’s start our exploration of this operator by examining its truth table
(Table 6.5):

Table 6.5. Truth table for ).

pq p)q

a. TT T

b. TF F

c. FF T

d. FT T
184 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

Case (a) of the truth table says that if two propositions are true, then the
material conditional in which they are antecedent and consequent is also
true. Thus, since each antecedent and consequent in (18a–d) is true, the
material conditionals are also true:

(18) a. If snow is white, then pigs have curly tails.

b. If this is a semantics book, then everyone has a birthday.
c. If France has hosted the Winter Olympics, then there is no prime
number between 24 and 29.
d. If Christian Dior was born in 1905, then Sartre was born in 1905.

The propositions in (18) are, of course, somewhat odd, and we would not
normally express them in ordinary language. This is because the meanings
of antecedent and consequent are completely unrelated. The fact that
snow is white does not usually allow us to draw any conclusions about
whether pigs have tails, and whether or not this is a semantics book has
nothing to do with everyone’s having birthdays. Recall, however, that like
the other operators, ) is purely truth-functional: all that matters is
whether the antecedent and consequent it relates are true, and whether
they have anything to do with one another is completely irrelevant. Thus,
the fact that the sentences in (18 a–d) would not normally be uttered in
language is irrelevant to the calculation of truth-values for ): the truth or
falsity of the proposition is the only relevant consideration. And since the
antecedents and consequents in (18 a–d) are all true, the material condi-
tionals involving them are also true.
In real language, the material conditional is often found in an argu-
ment type traditionally known as modus ponens (Latin: ‘affirming
mode’). In this argument type, an antecedent is affirmed (i.e. said to be
true) and the truth of the consequent is deduced from it, as in (19):

(19) 1. If Newton formulated the law of gravitation, then he was hit by

an apple.
2. Newton formulated the law of gravitation.
therefore
3. He was hit by an apple.

Note that the order in which the first two propositions are stated makes
no difference to the logical form of the argument. Thus, (19) could just as
easily be stated as (20):

(20) 1. Newton formulated the law of gravitation.

2. If Newton formulated the law of gravitation, then he was hit by
an apple.
therefore
3. He was hit by an apple.

In case (b) of the truth table, where the antecedent is true and the conse-
quent is false, the conditional is also false. Here are some examples:
 6.2 Propositional logic 185

(21) a. If there is a recession, then interest rates have fallen.

b. If the 2008 Olympics were in Beijing, then the 2012 ones are in Paris.
c. If the moon orbits the earth, then k is a vowel.
d. If breakfast is a meal, then our intestinal flora are the reincarnated
souls of our dead ancestors.

In (21a), imagine that there is a recession, but that interest rates have not
fallen. The proposition as a whole is clearly false. The same is true for
(21b): France did not successfully bid for the 2012 Olympics, so (21b) as a
whole is false. (21c) and (d) remind us that all the logical operator cares
about are truth-values, and that antecedent and consequent do not have
to have anything to do with each other.
Let’s now consider case (c) of the truth table, in which antecedent and
consequent are false. In this case, we can see from the truth table that the
conditional proposition which links them is still true. This is exemplified
by the following conditionals.

(22) a. If Tolkien wrote War and Peace, then rain falls upwards.
b. If pigs eat rocks, then Trivial Pursuit is an Olympic sport.
c. If Christmas is in July, then Pavarotti was mute.

These conditionals are all true, even though antecedents and consequents
are false. We will explain the reasoning behind this after introducing the
last row of the truth table for the material conditional.
Case (d) of the truth table for the material conditional says that if the
antecedent is false and the consequent is true, the conditional is also true.
This means that the following statements must be true:

(23) a. If Tolkien wrote War and Peace, then rain falls downwards.
b. If pigs eat rocks, then Trivial Pursuit is a board game.
c. If Christmas is in July, then Pavarotti was a tenor.

There is something slightly peculiar about saying that cases like (23) are
true. The rationale for this, however, is that one is entitled to deduce any-
thing from a false premise: in case (c) of the truth table we deduced a false
consequent from a false premise; here, we deduce a true one. (The princi-
ple that anything follows from a false premise was first enunciated in the
Middle Ages.) If we start out with something that is false, we have a basis
for any conclusion, whether or not it is true. Given the premise ‘Tolkien
wrote War and Peace’, which is false, we can draw true and false conclu-
sions alike: since the initial premise is false, whether or not the conse-
quent is true is simply irrelevant.

QUESTION Consider the following sentences in light of the truth-table

for ). What are their truth-values? Which of these truth-values seem
intuitively ‘correct’?

a. If diamonds are valuable then water is a gas.

b. If horses are reptiles then the moon is a star.
186 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

c. If Australia is a continent then Tasmania is an island.

d. If horses are reptiles then the moon is not a star.
e. If plastic isn’t a mineral then phones are only ever made of clay.
f. If bridge is a board game then poker is not a card game.
Question Using the supplied abbreviations, translate the following
propositions into logical symbolism:
d Dante is the greatest poet m Marlowe died in a brawl
o O’Hara was run over by a dune- b The best poets die young
buggy
s Shakespeare is the greatest poet c Coleridge died happy

(i) If the best poets die young then Coleridge died happy.
(ii) If Dante is the greatest poet then Shakespeare isn’t.
(iii) If Marlowe didn’t die in a brawl then O’Hara was run over by a dune-
buggy.
(iv) If Coleridge didn’t die happy then either Shakespeare or Dante is
the greatest poet.
(v) If O’Hara wasn’t run over by a dune-buggy then either Dante is not
the greatest poet or if Marlowe died in a brawl then the best poets
die young.

6.3 Logic as representation and perfection

of meaning
Our exposition of the propositional connectives and, or, not and if . . . then has
revealed that their truth-functional definitions are quite often counter-
intuitive and unnatural, failing to correspond to the norms of ordinary
English. None of the operators corresponds perfectly with any English
equivalent (see Bach 2002 for further discussion). The discontinuity
between natural language and and & has already been discussed in
Chapter 4 (see 4.3.1); another example of the discontinuity between natu-
ral language and logical operators is provided by negation: given princi-
ples which we have not made fully explicit here but which are reasonably
obvious, two negatives cancel each other out, giving a positive statement.
Thus, the proposition ¬ ¬p is logically equivalent to p. This logical princi-
ple is well understood by educated speakers of English, who regularly
avoid the use of double negatives like those in (24):

(24) He didn’t say nothing.

Are you going to spend your whole life not trusting nobody?
Nobody here didn’t point no gun at nobody (Huddleston and Pullum
2002: 846, adapted)
It ain’t no way no girl can’t wear no platforms to no amusement park
(Baugh 1983: 83, cited in Martínez 2003: 480)

Constructions like this were once common in English; their decline only
started in the seventeenth century (Martínez 2003: 478). The prescriptive
 6.3 Logic as representation and perfection of meaning 187

grammatical tradition of English has proscribed the use of such double

negatives for hundreds of years; nevertheless, the double negative contin-
ues to thrive ‘as a regular and widespread feature of non-standard dialects
of English across the world’ (Huddleston and Pullum 2002: 847).
Furthermore, in many languages, such as Spanish (25a), Italian (25b),
Portuguese (25c) and Ancient Greek (25d), double negatives regularly per-
form a reinforcing, rather than a cancelling function:

(25) a. No vino nadie

not came no one
‘No one came’ (Martínez 2003: 477)

b. Giovanni non vide nessuno

Giovanni not saw no one
‘Giovanni didn’t see anyone’ (Martínez 2003: 477)

c. Nâo viste nada?

not saw nothing
‘Didn’t you see anything? (Martínez 2003: 477)

d. ouk ara . . . gignŌsketai tŌn eidŌn ouden

not then is known of the forms nothing
‘Of the forms then nothing is known’ (Plato, Parmenides 134b,
cited by Horrocks 1997: 274)

Another particularly flagrant example of discontinuity between the

operators and natural language is provided by the material conditional;
indeed, the correspondence between ) and ordinary language has been a
matter of philosophical controversy since the time of Stoic logicians in
antiquity. Case (d) of the truth table is the most problematic, since it
means that a statement is automatically true where the antecedent is
false and the consequent is true. But this seems to fly in the face of our
intuitions about ordinary language. To borrow Girle’s example (2002:
240), why should it be automatically true that If Henry VIII was a bachelor
then he was King of England? As Girle comments (2002: 240), many people
‘would want to say that it’s very difficult to say whether it’s true or false.
To say it’s automatically true is too much.’ The truth-functional definition
of ) therefore seems not at all accurate as a representation of the mean-
ing of English if . . . then. This is not a peculiarity of English: conditional
expressions in other languages seem to be like English, and unlike ), in
this respect.
We will see more examples of discrepancies between logic and ordinary
language later in the chapter, and logicians have expended considerable
effort to reconcile the two. The theory of conversational implicature devel-
oped by Grice, discussed in 4.3, is one such attempt. This theory leaves the
truth-functional definitions of the operators intact, but there have been
other attempts to amend the truth tables in order to bring the meanings
of the operators into line with their natural language equivalents. For rea-
sons that go beyond the scope of this chapter, however, no one satisfactory
188 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

way of doing this has ever gained wide acceptance: it would seem that we
are stuck with the operators in their current state.
The clash between the meanings of the logical operators and their ordi-
nary language equivalents reveals a contrast between two different inter-
pretations of the nature of logic: logic as a representation and logic as a
perfection of meaning. The two construals carry very different implica-
tions for the relevance of logic to linguistic semantics. According to the
first view of logic, the truth-functional definitions of logical operators like
¬, &, ⵪ and ) represent fundamental categories of human thought, and,
as such, underlie the meanings of natural language at a certain degree of
abstraction. Even though actual natural languages typically do not con-
tain words whose meanings correspond to those of the logical operators,
this does not mean that the logical operators are not representative of the
meanings relevant to the analysis of natural language, nor that logic as a
whole has nothing to do with the study of natural language. For McCawley
(1981), for example, there is no clash between logic and linguistics: the
two disciplines share a subject matter: meaning. Many linguists, indeed,
would maintain that discontinuities between natural language and logic
like those discussed in this section are to be explained by the fact that
natural languages possess a pragmatic dimension which prevents the
logical operators from finding exact equivalents in ordinary discourse.
The fact that logical notions like ¬, &, ⵪ and ) are not transparently
reflected in natural language is in itself no reason to doubt their impor-
tance as fundamental primitives of meaning, any more than the fact that
people cannot draw freehand circles means that we do not have a concept
CIRCLE. ‘Formal’ semantic theories in linguistics assume precisely that
the principles of logic form part of a viable model of natural language
meaning.
According to the second view of the relation of logic to natural lan-
guage, logic does not distil principles already present in natural language,
but transcends and perfects natural language. While logical principles
may reveal the fundamental workings of thought, their utility lies pre-
cisely in that they allow us to escape the inadequacies of ordinary lan-
guage. For Grice (1989), the fact that discrepancies exist between logical
operators and their natural language equivalents ‘is to be regarded as an
imperfection of natural languages’: the natural language expressions cor-
responding (imperfectly) to the logical operators ‘cannot be regarded as
finally acceptable, and may turn out to be, finally, not fully intelligible’
(1989: 23). Natural language is not, therefore, to be appealed to in logical
investigation, and the validity of logic has nothing to do with whether it
turns out to be useful as a representation of natural language meaning.
This second view is appealing to logicians who see the principal pur-
pose of logic as being to provide a solid basis for accurate reasoning of the
sort required by science. Wittgenstein sums up this point of view when he
says that ‘the crystalline purity of logic was of course not a result of inves-
tigation; it was a requirement’ (1953: §107): in other words, the value of
logic is precisely that it takes us beyond the imperfections of natural lan-
guage, allowing us to discern logical structures which the messiness of
 6.4 Predicate logic 189

natural language obscures. As Barwise and Perry comment (1983: 28), the
principal concern of the founders of modern logic – Frege, Russell and
Whitehead, Gödel, and Tarski – was to provide a sure footing for the study
of mathematics, and hence of science. This meant that logical investiga-
tion was in fact often oriented away from natural language, embodying
assumptions designed to put mathematical notions on a sound footing,
which have made it ‘increasingly difficult to adapt the ideas of standard
model theory to the semantics of natural languages’.
We will take up this question again at the end of the chapter.

6.4 Predicate logic

Consider the following argument:

(26) 1. All primates are hairy.

2. Koko is a primate.
therefore
3. Koko is hairy.

This argument is clearly valid. But notice that using the propositional
symbols we have introduced so far, we cannot demonstrate this validity.
The two premises and the conclusion of (26) each express different propo-
sitions. We have no way, in our existing symbolism, of showing that these
propositions involve the recurrent elements Koko, primate and hairy. As
things stand, we can only assign a different letter variable to each of the
propositions, giving us the following symbolism for the argument:

(27) 1. All primates are hairy. p

2. Koko is a primate. q
therefore
3. Koko is hairy. r

The logical form ‘p, q, therefore r’ is thus the only way we have in proposi-
tional logic to symbolize the structure of the argument. But, in itself, this
logical form is invalid. To see this, recall that p, q, and r can refer to any
proposition; thus (28) is equally an instance of an argument with the form
p, q, therefore r:

(28) 1. Henry Darger created a beautiful and violent fantasy world. p

2. India is smaller than Africa. q
therefore
3. Thinking is the soul’s conversation with itself. r

Clearly, wherever the validity of (27) comes from, it does not derive from its
conformity to the logical form p, q therefore r; as demonstrated by (28), not
all arguments of this form are valid. Instead, the validity of (27) springs
principally from the meaning of the term all. In order to symbolize (27) in a
190 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

way that makes its validity clear, we will need to go beyond a purely propo-
sitional notation so that the idea of ‘all’ can be captured in a logically
rigorous way.
Now consider the argument in (29):

(29) Some things can only be seen when they move;

therefore
if nothing moves, there are things which can’t be seen. (Ruyer 1998: 101)

Propositionally, this argument has the form p, therefore (q ) r): again, a

clearly invalid argument form. Yet (29) is obviously valid, and its validity
derives from the meaning of the term some. In order to symbolize the
validity of arguments like (29), we therefore also need some way of captur-
ing the idea of ‘some’.
‘Some’ and ‘all’ are the basic notions in the other branch of logic with
which we will be concerned in this chapter. This branch is predicate logic,
also known as quantificational or first-order logic. What exactly are
predicates? Let’s examine (27) again. From a logical point of view, (27)
contains three basic types of term: terms referring to individuals, such as
Koko, terms referring to quantities, like all, and general terms like primate
and hairy. Terms referring to individuals are called singular terms or
individual constants. We will symbolize them with lower case letters.
Koko, for instance, can be symbolized simply by k. Terms referring to quan-
tities like ‘all’ or ‘some’ are called quantifiers: we will introduce the sym-
bols for them presently.
‘Primate’ and ‘hairy’ in (27) are predicates. ‘Predicate’ has rather a dif-
ferent meaning in logic from the meaning it typically has in syntax. In
syntax, ‘predicate’ is often roughly synonymous with ‘verb’. In logic, how-
ever, predicates are terms which represent properties or relations: here,
the properties of ‘primateness’ and ‘hairiness’. A logical predicate could
thus be a general noun like primate, an adjective like hairy or a verb like
adore in Koko adores the news. Whereas singular terms refer to specific indi-
viduals, predicates refer to general terms, terms which are potentially
true of numerous individuals. Being a primate and being hairy are proper-
ties which any number of individuals can hold. By contrast, the term Koko
picks out just a single individual. The properties and relations expressed
by predicates can be quite complex and lengthy. For instance, as well as ‘is
hairy’ and ‘is a primate’, the expressions ‘is a good student’, ‘is taller than
the Eiffel tower’, ‘loves skiing’ and ‘bought a book on the giant sloth from
Amazon’ are all predicates. We will discuss these different types of predi-
cate below.
Predicates are typically symbolized by single capital letters. The predi-
cate ‘is a primate’, for example, could be symbolized P, and the predicate
‘is hairy’ by H. When expressions containing predicates and singular
terms are translated into logical notation, the capitalized predicate sym-
bol is written first, followed by the symbol for the singular term to which
the predicate applies. Thus, we can translate the expressions ‘Koko is a
primate’ and ‘Koko is hairy’ as follows:
 6.4 Predicate logic 191

(30) Koko is a primate Pk

Koko is hairy Hk

The individual a predicate applies to is called its argument: P and H in (30) each
have a single argument. But this notation will only get us a certain way.
Eventually, we want to be able to translate propositions like ‘All primates are
hairy’. To do this, we need to examine quantifiers. Quantifiers are the logical
expressions ‘some’ and ‘all’, symbolized by the operators  and  respectively.
Inferences which, like (27) and (29), involve the notions of ‘some’ and
‘all’ are very common. Examine the following formula:

(31) (x) Px

(31) reads as ‘For every x, x is a primate’. What this says is that every indi-
vidual in the domain in question is a primate. (31) is thus the translation
of ‘Everything is a primate’ (an obviously false statement). Compare this to
(32):

(32) (x) Px

This reads as ‘there exists at least one x, such that x is a primate’. This says
that something (or someone) is a primate – an obviously true statement.
 is known as the universal quantifier. Universal quantification is the
logical operation which says that a predicate is true of every entity in the
domain under discussion. Including  in a formula thus applies the predi-
cate to every entity (argument) in the domain in question. In English, uni-
versal quantification can be expressed by the words all and every, and the
phrases each and every and everything.
 is known as the existential quantifier. Existential quantification is
the logical operation which says that a predicate is true of at least one
entity in the domain under discussion. Including  in a formula applies a
predicate to at least one entity (argument) in the domain in question. In
English, existential quantification can be expressed by the words some, at
least one, and something.
The quantifiers can be combined with the propositional operators.
Some examples of this are given below. In (33), the abbreviation S stands
for ‘is simple’, and F stands for ‘is fun’.

(33) (x) Sx & Fx at least one thing is simple and fun

(x) Sx X-OR Fx at least one thing is either simple or fun, but not
both
(x) ¬Fx something is not fun
(x) ¬Sx & ¬Fx something is not simple and not fun
¬(x) Fx it’s not the case that there is at least one thing that is fun
(i.e., nothing is fun)

(x) Sx & Fx everything is simple and fun

(x) Sx X-OR Fx everything is either simple or fun, but not both
(x) ¬Fx everything is not fun (i.e., nothing is fun)
(x) ¬Sx & ¬Fx everything is not simple and not fun
192 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

The most interesting combinations, however, result from the use of ).

Consider the following formula in conjunction with the explanations of
the symbols:

(34) P ‘is a primate’

H ‘is hairy’
(x) Px ) Hx

This says that for all x’s, if x is a primate then it is hairy. This allows us to
give the following translation of the argument in (27), with the justifica-
tion for the steps shown at the right (k = Koko)

(35) 1. (x) Px ) Hx premise

2. Pk premise
therefore
3. Hk by 1.

‘To be hairy’ and ‘to be a primate’ are one place predicates: this means
that they can only be associated with a single individual constant at a
time. (Recall that individual constants, or singular terms, are terms refer-
ring to a single individual. Individual constants are sometimes known as
variables.) For example, the sentence ‘Koko and Wilma are primates’ can
only be expressed logically as (36a), not as (36b).

(36) a. Pk & Pw.

b. P k, w

The formula in (36b) is ill-formed. Since the property of being a primate

only ever involves a single individual at a time, one of the constants in
(36b) is left ‘floating’: it is not attached to any predicate, and nothing
(even existence) is asserted of it.
Not all predicates are one-place predicates. The predicate ‘admire’, for
example, is a two-place predicate: if admiring is going on, then two par-
ticipants are necessarily involved, the admirer and the admiree. Using A
for ‘admire’, we can express the sentence ‘Dietmar admires Horst’ as (37)
and ‘Horst admires Dietmar’ as (38):

(37) Ad, h

(38) Ah, d

A two-place predicate can thus be interpreted as indicating a set of

ordered pairs of individuals: here, the pair Dietmar and Horst. It is a set
of ordered pairs precisely because the order in which the individuals occur
is crucial: the first individual is the one who admires, the second the one
who is admired.
There is no limit on the number of places a predicate may have. ‘Give’
is an example of a three-place predicate, as in G d, b, h ‘Dietmar gave the
book to Horst’.
We have been defining ‘predicate’ as a general term expressing a property
or a relation. But we may also think of predicates in terms of the individuals
to which they apply. Thus, a one-place predicate may be interpreted as a set
 6.4 Predicate logic 193

of individuals: those individuals to which the predicate applies (these are

sometimes referred to as the individuals that ‘satisfy’ the predicate). A
two-place predicate applies to an ordered pair of individuals, a three-place
predicate to an ordered triple of individuals, and so on. Accordingly, a
predicate can have as many places as the members of the ordered n-tuple
of individuals that satisfy it.
We are now in a position to be able to produce translations into logical
notation of some reasonably complex propositions. These examples
involve one- and two-place predicates, and show how the propositional
operators are used with them. We first give the logical formula, then a
translation into ‘logiceeze’, then a translation into idiomatic English.

(39) a. (x) Fx ) Sx (S = is simple; F = is fun)

For every x, if x is fun then x is simple
Everything fun is simple.

b. ¬(x) Sx & Fx (S = is simple; F = is fun)

It is not the case that there is at least one x such that x is simple
and x is fun.
Nothing is simple and fun.

c. (x) Tx, l ) Rx, x (T = trusts, R = respects; l = Lucy)

For every x, if x trusts Lucy then x respects x.
Everyone who trusts Lucy respects themselves.

d. (x) Fx ) Fl (F = is fun; l = linguistics)

For every x, if x is fun then linguistics is fun.
If anything is fun then linguistics is fun

e. (x) (Sx & ¬Bx) ) Hx (S = is a student; B = is bald; H = is hilarious)

For every x, if x is a student and x is not bald, then x is hilarious.
All students who are not bald are hilarious.

f. (x) Sx & (Bx ⵪ Lx) (S = is a student; B = is studying ballet; L =is

studying linguistics)
There is at least one x such that x is a student and x is studying
ballet or x is studying linguistics.
There is a student who is studying ballet or studying linguistics,
or both.
g. (x) (Vx & Ix) ) Ux (V = is a virtue; I = is interesting; U = is useful)
For every x, if x is a virtue and x is interesting, then x is useful
All interesting virtues are useful.

h. (x) (Lx & Sx) ) ¬Gx (L = is liquid; S = is a substance; G = is a gas)

For every x, if x is a liquid and x is a substance then x is not a gas
Liquid substances are not gases.
i. (x) Vx ) ¬(Ix ⵪ Ux) (V = is a virtue; I = is interesting; U = is useful)
For every x, if x is a virtue, then it is not the case that x is inter-
esting or x is useful.
No virtue is interesting or useful.
194 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

Note that the last example could also be translated as follows

(40) ¬(x) (Vx & (Ix ⵪ Ux))

It is not the case that there is at least one x, such that x is a virtue
and x is interesting or useful.
No virtue is interesting or useful.

The examples given so far involve only a single quantifier. But natural lan-
guage frequently expresses propositions involving multiple quantification,
i.e. expressions which refer to two or more quantities. A two-place predicate,
for example, may be quantified in various different ways, some of which we
will now illustrate with the two-place predicate R ‘remember’.
The simplest case of multiple quantification is where both variables
have the same quantifier:

(41) (x) (y) Rx, y (R = remembers)

For every x and for every y it is true that x remembers y.
Everyone remembers everyone.
(x) (y) Rx, y
There is at least one x and at least one y such that x remembers y.
Someone remembers someone.

Note that this formula would be valid in the case where someone remem-
bers themselves.
More complex are cases where one variable receives universal quantifi-
cation and the other existential. Consider the following example:

(42) (x) (y) Rx, y

There is at least one x such that for every y, x remembers y.
Someone remembers everyone.

Here we will say that y is in the scope of x. Let’s now consider what
happens if we swap the order of the individual variables:

(43) (y) (x) Rx, y

There is at least one y such that for every x, x remembers y.
Someone is remembered by everyone.

Here, x is in the scope of y. The contrast between (42) and (43) is the
difference between an active (42) and a passive (43) sentence. Importantly,
the order of the variables in (43) is crucial: (43) is not logically equivalent
to (44), which expresses a quite different proposition:

(44) (x) (y) Rx, y

For every x, there is at least one y such that x remembers y.
Everyone remembers someone.

The difference between (43) and (44) is subtle but real. (43) says that there
is at least one single individual whom everyone remembers. It is the same
 6.4 Predicate logic 195

individual who is remembered by everyone: in a universe consisting of

Nina, Andrew, Tom, Harry and Briony, Tom might be remembered by
Nina, Andrew, Harry and Briony. (44), by contrast, says that every person
remembers at least one person. This single person remembered by eve-
rybody may well differ from person to person: Briony may remember
Harry, Nina may remember Andrew, Andrew may remember Tom. In
(44), the existential quantifier is said to be in the scope of the universal
quantifier.
To take another example of scope differences, consider the two-place
predicate F ‘is the father of ’ in the following two propositions (see Allwood
et al. 1977: 67 for discussion):

(45) (y) (x) Fx, y

For every y, there is an x such that x is the father of y.
Everyone has a father.

(46) (x) (y) Fx, y.

There is at least one x, such that for every y, x is the father of y.
Someone is the father of everyone.

The first proposition, (45), is true, the second, (46), is not. Yet the differ-
ence between them consists solely in the order of the existential and
universal quantifier, and the consequent scope differences between the
two.
Predicate logic notation can be used to precisely represent ambiguities
in natural language. Sentence (47a), for example, has, among other read-
ings, (47b) and (47c):

(47) a. Everyone here works for two companies.

b. Everyone works for the same two companies.
c. Everyone works for two companies, which may or may not be the
same.

We can represent this difference concisely using the constant p for a per-
son and c for a pair of companies, and the predicate W ‘work for’:

(48) a. (c) (p) Wp, c

There is at least one pair of companies c, such that for every
person p, p works for c
Everyone works for the same two companies.

b. (p) (c) Wp, c

For every person p, there is at least one pair of companies c such
that p works for c. Everyone works for two companies (which
may or may not be the same).

QUESTION Using the abbreviations supplied, (i) translate the following

logical formulae into idiomatic English:
P is a poet N is a novelist
T is talented W is a prize winner
S is a simpleton
196 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

1. (x) Px & Tx
2. (x) Px ) Sx
3. (x)(Px & Wx) ) Tx
4. (x) Nx & Px
and (ii) translate the following propositions into logical symbolism:
a. No talented novelist is a simpleton.
b. At least one prize-winner is neither talented nor a simpleton.
c. Simpletons are not prize-winners.
d. No talented simpleton is a prize-winning poet.

6.5 Truth, models and extension

For logical approaches to semantics, reference and truth are the principal
semantic facts: the most important thing about the meaning of a word
is what it refers to, and the most important thing about a sentence is
whether or not it is true – whether or not things are as the sentence
says they are. Meaning for a logical approach to semantics is thus prin-
cipally truth-conditional (see 3.2.1). As discussed in Chapter 3, for a
truth-conditional theory of meaning, knowing the meaning of a factual
sentence is the same as knowing what the world would have to be like for
that sentence to be true. This does not mean that truth conditions are all
there is to meaning. It just means that, as Chierchia and McConnell-Ginet
(2000: 72) put it, ‘if we ignore the conditions under which S [a sentence] is
true, we cannot claim to know the meaning of S. Thus, knowing the truth
conditions for S is at least necessary for knowing the meaning of S.’
Logical approaches to semantics deal with the question of truth and
reference by providing a model for the sets of logical formulae used to
represent meaning. The model of a set of logical formulae is a description
of a possible world to which the formulae refer, a set of statements show-
ing what each individual constant and predicate refers to in some possible
world. The model relates the logical language to this world, by assigning
referents to each logical expression. The aim of this is ultimately to pro-
duce, for a given set of referents, a statement of the truth values of the
logical formulae in which they are included. In other words, the logical
formalism will tell us, given a particular world, which sentences describ-
ing this world are false and which are true. Given the assumption of the
centrality of truth to meaning, this is an important part of describing the
meanings of a language. If the logical formulae are identified with sen-
tences of natural language, we will have obtained a logical characteriza-
tion of the truth conditions of a subset of natural language. We will see a
simple example of such a truth-value assignment below.
The referent of a logical expression is called its extension. We will con-
sider the extension of both individual constants (singular terms) and of
predicates. The extension of an individual constant is simply the individ-
ual entity which the constant picks out or refers to in the world. In a
universe consisting simply of Tom, Dick, Harry and Jemima, the individ-
ual constants t, d, h and j have the following extensions:
 6.5 Truth, models and extension 197

(49) t  Tom
d  Dick
h  Harry
j  Jemima

What is the extension of a predicate? Predicates are interpreted as sets of

entities: a one-place predicate like ‘tall’ will have as its extension the entire
set of tall entities. Imagine that Tom, Dick and Jemima are all tall, but that
Harry isn’t. In this possible world the extension of ‘tall’ will be the set of
entities {Tom, Dick, Jemima}. The extension of a two-place predicate like
‘respect’ will be the set of all pairs of individuals such that the first respects
the second. Consider for example a universe where Jack respects Jill, Hank
respects Mark, Holly respects René, and Adrian respects money. The exten-
sion of the predicate ‘respect’ will thus be the following:

(50) {(Jack, Jill), (Hank, Mark), (Holly, René), (Adrian, money)}

The extension of a three-place predicate will be an ordered triple of entities.

The predicate ‘give’, for instance, might have the following extension:

(51) {(Don, wine, David), (Briony, present, Tom), (Judge Judy, fine, Selina)}

This extension describes a universe in which Don gives David wine, Briony
gives Tom a present, and Judge Judy gives Selina a fine.
In general, we can say that the extension of an n-place predicate is a set
of ordered n-tuples of entities. It’s important to realize how extensions
differ from senses. When describing the sense (meaning, definition) of a
verb like respect or give, we would not usually bother specifying the par-
ticipants involved in different giving or respecting events. Instead, we
would try to specify what seems to be essential to the event itself (for
respect, something like ‘esteem’, and for give something roughly like ‘freely
transfer to’). In logical approaches to semantics, this sort of definitional
information is called the intension of a predicate. Its extension, on the
other hand, is a purely external matter, the set of ordered n-tuples to
which the predicate applies. Consequently, it is possible for two predicates
to differ in intension but to have identical extensions. Say that in our
universe in (50) the things which are respected are also disliked: Jack
respects Jill but dislikes her, Hank respects Mark but dislikes him, and so
on. In this case, the predicates ‘respect’ and ‘dislike’ will have the same
extensions, while differing in intension or meaning. In a different uni-
verse, of course, there is no reason that the extensions of the two predi-
cates should be identical.
We can now sketch the way in which the truth values of the sentences
of the logical formula can be specified. Take a possible world with the fol-
lowing components:

(52) individual constants:

t ‘Tom’ j ‘Jemima’
d ‘Dick’ b ‘Briony’
198 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

h ‘Harry’ c ‘Cath’
e ‘Everest’ k ‘Kosciuszko’

one-place predicates:
S ‘is a ski-instructor’ M ‘is a mountain-climber’

two-place predicates:
T ‘is teaching’ C ‘is climbing’

We will now provide a model for these terms, in other words a statement
showing their extensions. The individual constants have the following
extensions:

(53) t = Tom j = Jemima

d = Dick b = Briony
h = Harry c = Cath
e = Everest k = Kosciuszko

(Note how (53) differs from (52): (52) shows how the single-letter constant
abbreviations are to be translated; (53) shows the actual individuals to
which they refer.)
The one-place predicates have the following extensions:

(54) S: {Tom, Briony, Harry}

M: {Dick, Jemima, Cath}

The extensions of the two-place predicates are as follows:

(55) T: {(Tom, Jemima), (Briony, Dick)}

C: {(Dick, Everest), (Cath, Kosciuszko)}

Together, these assignments of referents constitute the model of the lan-

guage in (52).
Our aim here will be to determine the truth or falsity of sentences
involving the constants and predicates we have just introduced. In order
to do this, we need a statement of what it is for a sentence to be true in a
given model. To accomplish this, let’s use the following definitions
(adapted from Allwood et al. 1977: 74):

(56) Truth for one-place predicates

A sentence Pt is true if and only if the object that is assigned to the
individual term t is a member of the set of objects assigned to P in
the model.

(57) Truth for two-place predicates

A sentence Pt1, t2 is true if and only if the ordered pair of the objects
assigned to the individual terms t1, t2 is a member of the set of
ordered pairs assigned to P in the model.
 6.5 Truth, models and extension 199

Let’s use (52) to construct some arbitrary sentences, which we will give
both in their logical formulation, and in English translation:

(58) a. T t, j Tom is teaching Jemima.

b. Sh Harry is a ski-instructor.
c. C d, e Dick is climbing Everest.
d. T c, j Cath is teaching Jemima.
e. Mb Briony is a mountain-climber.
f. C t, k Tom is climbing Kosciuszko.
g. T d, b Dick is teaching Briony.

The definitions in (54)–(55) give the following truth values:

(59) a. T t, j Tom is teaching Jemima. T

b. Sh Harry is a ski-instructor. T
c. C d, e Dick is climbing Everest. T
d. T c, j Cath is teaching Jemima. F
e. Mb Briony is a mountain-climber. F
f. C t, k Tom is climbing Kosciuszko. F
g. T d, b Dick is teaching Briony. F

Note especially (59 g). ‘Dick’ and ‘Briony’ do, it is true, individually figure
among the constants described by the predicate T ‘is teaching’. But the
ordered pair of constants which constitutes the extension of this predi-
cate in (55) is (b, d), not (d, b). Hence, the formula Td, b is false in this
model. Taking these truth assignments, we can now use the truth tables
given in 6.1 to read off the truth values of compound sentences. Let’s start
with (60):

(60) a. Tt, j & Cd, e Tom is teaching Jemima and Dick is climbing Everest.

We can symbolize this propositionally as p & q, where p stands for T t, j ‘Tom

is teaching Jemima’ and q for C d, e ‘Dick is climbing Everest’. The truth
table for & (Table 6.2) shows us that this compound proposition is true in
the current model: both its conjuncts are true.
Now consider (61) in light of the truth table for ⵪ (inclusive disjunction;
Table 6.4)

(61) Tt, j ⵪ Cd, e ‘Tom is teaching Jemima or Dick is climbing Everest’

T t, j and C d, e are both true. The truth-table for ⵪ tells us that complex
propositions involving ⵪ are true when both disjuncts are true. For this
reason, (61) is true in the current model.
In (62), the definitions in (54) tell us that the antecedent Mb is false and
the consequent Sh is true:

(62) Mb ) Sh ‘If Briony is a mountain-climber then Harry is a ski-

instructor’.
200 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

This corresponds to the fourth line of the truth-table in Table 6.5, and is
therefore true.
The truth tables allow us to work out the truth-values of some quite
complex sentences. Consider the following:

(63) (Tt, j ⵪ Ct, k) ) ¬Td, b ‘If Tom is teaching Jemima or (Tom is) climb-
ing Kosciuszko, then Dick is not teaching Briony.’

We can determine the truth-value of this proposition by starting from

its individual components and working upwards. We start by assigning
truth-values to the individual propositions in accordance with the
model:

(64) Tt, j T
Ct, k F
Td, b F

We then assign truth values to the complex propositions, i.e. the proposi-
tions obtained by combining the simple propositions into complex
propositions with the propositional operators. Let’s start with the propo-
sition ¬Td, b. We always start with the basic proposition without any
preceding operator: in this case, Td, b. Td, b is false. The truth-table tells
us that the negation of a false proposition is true. ¬T d, b is therefore true.
Now for T t, j ⵪ Ct, k. The first disjunct, Tt, j, is true, the second, Ct, k, is
false. According to the truth table for ⵪, a proposition with one true and
one false disjunct is true. This means that the disjunction Tt, j ⵪ C t, k as
a whole is true. For ease of memory, let’s label the truth values we have
determined so far:

(65) (Tt, j ⵪ Ct, k) ) ¬Td, b

T F F
T T

We have therefore reduced the entire complex proposition to a material

conditional in which the antecedent (T t, j ⵪ C t, k) and consequent ¬T d,
b are both true. The truth-table given in Table 6.5 tells us that a material
conditional is true when its antecedent and consequent are both true; as
a result, (63) as a whole is true.
In this way, it is possible to specify the truth-values for arbitrarily long
sentences, as long as a model is given showing the extensions of the basic
terms.

QUESTION Determine the truth or falsity of the following propositions

using the abbreviations and model given below.

Individual constants:
b the beer p the party
a Agatha j Jose
d the dip f the fridge
r Rita m Max
 6.6 Relations between propositions 201

One-place predicates:
F {p, d, r} ‘is a failure’ C {b, d} ‘is cold’
E {b} ‘is enjoyable’ T {a, j} ‘is tipsy’

Two-place predicates:
D {(m, a), (j, m)} ‘declares love to’ L {(r, p)} ‘leaves’
The first argument is the declarer of love, The first argument is the
the second the one to whom love leaver, the second the thing
is declared. left.

Three-place predicates:
W {(a, b, m), (j, d, r)} ‘throw’ G {(j, f, a)} ‘give’
The first argument is the thrower, The first argument is the giver,
the second the thing thrown, the second the thing given,
the third the target. the third the recipient.

a. If Agatha declares love to Jose then the party is a failure.

b. The party is enjoyable and Jose is tipsy.
c. Either Max throws the beer at Agatha or he throws the dip at Jose.
d. Max declares love to Jose.
e. Either Jose throws the dip at Max or the party is not enjoyable.
f. If the beer isn’t cold then the dip is a failure.
g. If the beer is enjoyable then either Max is tipsy or Agatha does not
leave the party.
h. Either Jose throws the dip at Rita or he gives the fridge to Max.

6.6 Relations between propositions

In 5.1 we discussed meaning relations between words. We can now discuss
relations between entire propositions. Recall that propositions differ from
sentences in that whereas sentences may have many different reference-
assignments, a single proposition only ever refers to a single defined state
of affairs.

6.6.1 Entailment
We will start with the relation of entailment. Entailment may be defined
in a number of equivalent ways. Here are three:

(66) p entails q
• whenever p is true, q must be true
• a situation describable by p must also be a situation describable by q
• p and not q is contradictory (can’t be true in any situation)
Take proposition (67). This entails all the propositions in (68):

(67) The constables drove the fast cars.

(68) The constables drove.

The constables drove something.
202 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

Some law enforcement officers drove the fast cars.

Someone drove fast cars.
Some fast cars were driven by someone.
The fast cars were driven by someone.
The constables existed.
The constables did something.
The constables drove automobiles.
Some police officers drove automobiles.
Some people did something to automobiles.

These sentences all meet the criteria in (66): they are true whenever ‘The
constables drove the fast cars’ is true; if we can describe a situation with (67),
we can also describe it with any of the sentences in (68) (although the inform-
ativeness of the different formulations is not equivalent); and the conjunc-
tion of (67) and the negation of any of the propositions in (68) is contradictory
(e.g. The constables drove fast cars and the constables did not drive). Note that entail-
ment has nothing to do with truth in a particular situation: whether or not
(67) is true in a given situation, it has the entailments listed in (68).
Sentence (67) does not entail any of the sentences in (69):

(69) Not everyone drove fast cars.

Some people drove slow cars.
The constables drove fast.
Fast cars are dangerous.
The constables wanted to drive fast cars.
The constables drove Ferraris.
The probationary constables drove fast cars.
The constables drove fast police cars.
The constables were in uniform.

Any of these additional statements might be true, but none of them is

entailed by (67): we could imagine a world where (67) was true but where
the sentences in (69) were not.
As demonstrated by (67) and (68), the range of a proposition’s entail-
ments is related to the lexical relations of the proposition’s elements.
Thus, we can substitute a hyperonym of constable (police officer, law
enforcement officer, person), but we cannot substitute a hyponym (proba-
tionary constable in (69)).

QUESTION Propose as many entailments as possible of the following sen-

tences.

a. Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.

b. Switzerland makes no great wines.
c. Grandpa finds love in all the wrong places and Loretta doesn’t deal
with it well.
d. Someone will be punished.
e. In Antarctica no one deserves to be unhappy.
f. A team of scientists search beneath the waves for shipwrecks.
 6.6 Relations between propositions 203

6.6.2 Presupposition
We have seen that a proposition p entails another proposition q if q must
be true whenever p is true. In this light, consider the following two propo-
sitions:

(70) The fortieth pope was a German (p)

(71) There was a fortieth pope (q)

(70) and (71) are p and q. On our definition of entailment, p certainly

entails q: if it’s true that the fortieth pope was German, it must be true
that there was a fortieth pope. But notice that q can still be true even if p
is negated. Thus, if the fortieth pope was actually Spanish, (71) is still true.
Rather than saying that (70) entails (71), we will say that it presupposes
(71), and that (71) is a presupposition of (70). A proposition p presupposes
another proposition q if both p and the negation of p entail q. (Another
way of thinking about presupposition is that a proposition’s presupposi-
tion is the precondition of its truth or falsity.)
For ease of reference, let’s call the proposition whose presuppositions
we’re interested in the trigger. Thus, (70) is the trigger for (71). Presuppositions
differ from entailments in that they are true under negation: a presupposi-
tion is true even when its trigger is false. Contrastingly, a trigger whose
presupposition is false is neither true nor false. An example would be
(72):

(72) The sixth Monday in September is a holiday.

This presupposes (incorrectly) that there is a sixth Monday in September;

accordingly, (72) is neither true nor false: if asked whether (72) was true or
false, the most natural answer would be that the question of truth simply
does not arise, since it presupposes a state of affairs that does not exist.
(Another possibility would be to answer that (72) is false, on the same
grounds.) The existence of presuppositions therefore leads us to posit a
third truth-value, neither true nor false, relevant in examples like (72).
Presuppositions arise because speakers assume certain propositions as
part of the background of what they are saying, rather than specifically
asserting them. Specifying a proposition’s presuppositions is thus like
specifying the background knowledge a speaker is drawing on, and which
the hearer will be expected to share.
As we will see, the existence of presuppositions was originally proposed
(by Strawson 1950) in order to deal with cases like (70) above containing a
definite description: a noun phrase introduced by the picking out a
unique individual (in (70), the fortieth pope; see 6.8 below). More recently,
however, the account of presupposition has been extended in order to
cover triggers like the following:

(73) Alma regretted that Karin lived on an island.

(74) Alma realized that Karin lived on an island.

204 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

Regret and realize are said to presuppose the propositions expressed as

their clausal object; here, the presupposition is (75).

(75) Karin lived on an island.

Consistent with the definition of presupposition we have given, (75) can

still be true when regret and realize are negated:

(76) Alma did not regret that Karin lived on an island.

(77) Alma did not realize that Karin lived on an island.

However, this need not be the case, as demonstrated by (78) and (79):

(78) Alma did not regret that Karin lived on an island – Karin didn’t live
on an island.

(79) Alma did not realize that Karin lived on an island –

Karin didn’t live on an island.

Examples (78) and (79) call the very existence of presupposition into ques-
tion. If presuppositions are defined as propositions which are entailed
(must be true) when their trigger is both asserted and negated, (78) and (79)
suggest that no such propositions may actually exist: alleged presupposi-
tions sometimes turn out to be true, sometimes false. In short, there may
be no consistent category of presupposition which can be given a definition
comparable to the definition of entailment proposed in (66). Instead, the
question of what propositions are assumed as the background of a given
trigger is purely a contextual matter determined by particular utterance
situations. The discussion here has done no more than outline the begin-
nings of this problem: the existence of presuppositions has been a topic of
lively and continuing debate in linguistics, and many researchers would by
no means accept that (78) and (79) are conclusive evidence that no category
of presupposition should be recognized in the study of relations between
propositions. See Kempson (1977: Chapter 9) for further discussion.
QUESTION Identify the presuppositions in the following sentences:
a. I recently stopped smoking.
b. Max finally managed to pick the lock.
c. Chirac was not reelected.
d. It was Columbus who discovered America.
e. The president has left the building.
f. She is glad she rejected the offer.
g. Maybe board games will be popular again.
h. Henry didn’t criticize every left-handed DJ.

6.6.3 Contradictories, contraries and subcontraries

A contradiction is a pair of propositions with opposite truth values. We
will distinguish three types of contradictions, contradictories, contraries
and subcontraries.
 6.6 Relations between propositions 205

The most basic type of contradiction is formed by a proposition and its

negation.

(80) a. The winner of the 1984 Nobel Peace Prize was Desmond Tutu.
b. The winner of the 1984 Nobel Peace Prize was not Desmond Tutu.

(80a) and (80b) are contradictories. It is impossible to conceive of a world

in which (80a) and (80b) are both true. Nor can we conceive of a world in
which they are both false: if one is true, the other must be false, and if one
is false, the other must be true.
Contradictory pairs of propositions do not always contain negations:

(81) a. Water freezes at exactly zero degrees.

b. Water freezes at temperatures either greater than zero degrees,
or less than zero degrees.

These propositions cannot both be simultaneously true or both simulta-

neously false: they always must have opposite truth-values. They are there-
fore contradictory, but they do not contain any negation.
QUESTION Think of ten pairs of propositions which are contradictories.
The contradiction of a proposition is, of course, a denial of that proposi-
tion. It is not the only type of denial, however. Some contradictions cannot
be simultaneously true, but can be simultaneously false. (82a) and (82b)
are cases in point:

(82) a. José Bové is happy.

b. José Bové is sad.

(82) (a) and (b) cannot be simultaneously true, but they can be simultane-
ously false. José Bové might be neither happy nor sad: he might, for exam-
ple, be neutral, or asleep. Pairs of propositions like this, which cannot
both be true but can both be false, are called contraries.
QUESTION Think of ten pairs of propositions which are contraries.

For completeness, let’s finally look at subcontraries, pairs of propositions

which cannot be simultaneously false, but can be simultaneously true:

(83) a. Some people are happy.

b. Some people are not happy.

(84) a. The Eiffel tower is over 150 metres high.

b. The Eiffel tower is less than 200 metres high.

These can be true at the same time: in (83), it is perfectly possible for some
people to be happy while others are not, while in (84), (a) and (b) are both
true if the Eiffel tower is 175 metres high. They cannot both, however, be
false, since the two propositions in each pair exhaust the possibilities. If
206 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

Affirmation Denial

contraries
A E

contradictories

FIGURE 6.1
I O
The square of opposition. subcontraries

(83a) is false, i.e. if some people are not happy, then (83b) must be true:
there is no other possibility. Hence, (83) (a) and (b) cannot be simultane-
ously false. As for (84), if (a) is false and the Eiffel tower is not over 150
metres high, then (b) must be true: the two propositions do not exclude
each other, but they exhaust all the possibilities.
QUESTION Think of five pairs of propositions which are subcontraries.
We can show the different relations of opposition between propositions
using the traditional square of opposition (Figure 6.1), which goes back
to Aristotle and the mediaeval logical tradition. This diagram allows a
concise representation of the relationships between the different quanti-
ficational operators (‘all’ and ‘some’) and negation.
The letters A E I and O are used to mark the four corners of the square
(they are taken from the vowels of the Latin verbs affirmo ‘I affirm’ and
nego ‘I deny’). They represent the fact that the left-hand propositions are
positive, and the right-hand ones negative. The square can be used to rep-
resent both propositional and quantificational operators, but here we will
only discuss the traditional quantificational version (see Girle 2002: 24 for
the propositional square of opposition), as shown in Figure 6.2.
Reading B as ‘book’ and W as ‘white’, the square represents the follow-
ing relationships:

• Every book is white and No book is white are contraries. Both cannot be
true, but both may be false: this would be the case if some books are
white and some are grey.
• Every book is white and Some book is not white are contradictories. They
always have the opposite truth value.
contraries
Every B is W No B is W

contradictories

FIGURE 6.2
The square of opposition Some B is Some B is
and quantification. W subcontraries not W
 6.6 Relations between propositions 207

• Some book is white and No book is white are also contradictories. They
always have the opposite truth value.
• Some book is white and Some book is not white are subcontraries. They can
both be true (as they are when some books are white and some are
grey), but cannot both be false.
QUESTION Give the contradictories of the following propositions:
a. No monarchy is democratic.
b. All horses detest cobblestones.
c. No Italian twilight is not beautiful.
d. All Italian twilights are not beautiful.
QUESTION Label the following pairs of propositions as contrary, contra-
dictory or subcontrary:
a. All magicians are ignorant.
Some magicians are not ignorant.
b. Some beavers don’t build dams.
Some beavers build dams.
c. Some painters are not surrealists.
Some painters are surrealists.
d. No mushrooms grow on mountains.
No mushrooms do not grow on mountains.

The organization of quantified expressions into the square of opposition

reveals some interesting facts about the way that natural languages
express quantification. English is entirely representative in this respect,
in that it has individually lexicalized words for the A, I and E squares, but
not for the O square, as shown in Figure 6.3:

A: all — E: no FIGURE 6.3

| | English quantifiers and
I: some — O: the square of opposition.

In order to express the O corner of the square, English, like many other
languages, must resort to the expression some. . . not or not all (these two are
logically equivalent, as can be seen by comparing the expressions Some
book is not white and Not all books are white). This is true of many unrelated
languages. Furthermore, the pattern extends to a whole range of related
negative notions, as shown in Table 6.6 (adapted from Horn 1989: 254):

Table 6.6. Quantification and lexical gaps in English.

Ordinary quantifiers Quantificational adverbs Binary quantifiers

A all [noun], everybody always both (of them)

I some [noun], somebody sometimes one (of them)

E no [noun], nobody never neither (of them)

(= all ¬ / ¬ some) (= always ¬) (= both ¬/¬ either)

O *nall [noun], *neverybody *nalways *noth (of them)

(= ¬ always) (¬ both)
208 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

Let’s examine each column in turn. The first column we have already
seen: English has pronouns and pronominal adjectives for each of the
quantifiers in the square of opposition except O. There is no hypothetical
pronoun neverybody with a use like that in (85):

(85) *Neverybody jumped overboard.

‘Some people didn’t jump overboard’/‘Not everybody jumped overboard’

Nor is there a pronominal adjective with an equivalent function:

(86) *Nall children had to jump overboard.

‘Some children didn’t have to jump overboard’/ ‘Not all children had
to jump overboard’

The second column concerns adverbs of time, which can be seen as quan-
tifying over the domain of time. The A corner is occupied by always, the I
corner by sometimes and the E corner by never. These represent universal,
existential and the negation of universal quantification respectively. But
the O corner, again, has no monolexemic expression in English: not always
has to be used instead.

(87) *The library nalways closes early.

‘The library does not always close early.’

Lastly, let’s turn our attention to the case of ‘binary quantifiers’, in other
words quantifiers which apply to pairs of objects. Once again, it is only the
O corner of the square of opposition which cannot be expressed by a sin-
gle word in English:

(88) *Noth of them jumped overboard.

‘It’s not the case that both of them jumped overboard.’

(Note that (88) would be true where only one, or neither of them, jumped
overboard.)
This generalization holds true in many languages. In Hungarian (Finno-
Ugric, Hungary), for instance, there is no monolexemic O quantifier. The
O corner of the square is expressed as in English by combining the words
for some and not:

FIGURE 6.4 A: mindan — E: nincs

Quantification and lexical | |
gaps in Hungarian. I: nemely — O: ____

This is exemplified by the following sentences:

(89) Minden könyv fehér.

every book white
‘All books are white’
 6.7 Meaning postulates 209

(90) Nincs fehér könyv.

there isn’t white book
‘No books are white’

(Nincs actually means ‘there isn’t’, but is used to translate ‘no’ in many
contexts.)

(91) Némely könyv fehér.

some book white
‘Some books are white’

(92) Némely könyv nem fehér.

some book not white
‘Some books are not white’

Why should this be the case? Horn (1989) offers the following explanation.
The subcontrary I tends to implicate the other subcontrary O: in other
words, the use of the I-subcontrary some in a sentence like some Xs are Y
invites the inference that the O subcontrary some . . . not also holds: some Xs
are not Y/not all Xs are Y. If I say (93a), you will conclude that (93b) is also
true.

(93) a. Some snow is white.

b. Some snow is not white.

The subcontrary quantifiers I and O are thus informationally equivalent.

As a result, Horn argues, languages do not need separate words for both
the I and the O quantifiers: given the informational equivalence between
them, just lexicalizing one is enough. (This does not explain why it is the
I corner and not the O corner that is lexicalized: for some discussion see
Horn 1989: 264.)

6.7 Meaning postulates

Since propositions correspond to sentences, the logical formalism we have
been developing has practically nothing to tell us about the meanings of
individual words. We can, it is true, say something about the meanings of
the quantifiers and of the operators ¬, &, ⵪ and ): the meanings of the
latter are given by their truth tables (Tables 6.1, 6.2, 6.4 and 6.5), and the
meanings of the universal and existential quantifiers can be explained as
a picking out of all, and at least one of, the entities in the domain of dis-
course in question, as explained in 6.4 above. Granting that English all,
some, not, and, or and if. . . then mean something similar to their logical coun-
terparts, we at least have a logical analysis of these six expressions. This is all,
however: taking the formula (x) Sx ) Wx, translated ‘all snow is white’, we
have no way of saying anything about the meanings of either snow or white.
210 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

Obviously, a theory of meaning that can only define the quantifiers and
propositional operators is woefully inadequate as a semantic theory of natu-
ral language.
The propositional and quantificational operators can, however, be used
to explore word meaning. These operators can be used to propose mean-
ing postulates, logical statements which specify the relations that obtain
between the different lexemes of a language. Originally advanced by
Carnap (1947), meaning postulates offer an alternative mode of meaning
representation to the approaches we have largely discussed until now.
Most of these approaches are decompositional: to specify the meaning of
a word, in other words, we decompose or break it down into its compo-
nent parts, envisaged as, for example, bundles of semantic features (see
5.2) or clauses in a paraphrase corresponding to conceptual universals
(2.5; for more on decomposition, see 8.1.1). The meaning postulates
approach, however, adopts exactly the opposite technique. It does not
attempt to break down word meanings into sets of components, but to
describe the relations which a word has with other members of the same vocabulary.
We can get an idea of what this involves by examining some examples of
meaning postulates adapted from Murphy (2003: 63). On this picture, the
grammar of English can be seen as containing the meaning postulates
(94)–(96):

(94) (x) (phone x ) telephone x)

For every x, if x is a phone then x is a telephone.
Phone and telephone are synonyms.

(95) (x) (hot x ) ¬cold x)

For every x, if x is hot then x is not cold.
Hot and cold are antonyms.

(96) (x) (apple x ) fruit x)

For every x, if x is an apple then x is fruit.
Apple is a hyponym of fruit.

Postulates (94)–(96) are all to be taken as rules which speakers of English

obey in their use of the words concerned. The import of each meaning
postulate is paraphrased in terms of the familiar lexical relations on the
last line of each example. The idea behind the meaning postulate
approach is that we should be able to specify constraints on the use of any
given item of the vocabulary which dictate what relations it may have
with other items. Words which are synonyms, for example, may not be
used in the following type of context:

(97) It’s a phone, but it’s not a telephone.

Antonyms, on the other hand, will be precluded from contexts like (98):

(98) It’s hot and it’s also cold.

 6.7 Meaning postulates 211

Specification of the entire set of meaning postulates governing the use of

a word is thus intended to define the possible range of the word’s cooc-
currence with other lexemes of the same language. Lyons (1963: 59) ech-
oes the type of thinking behind the meaning postulates approach when
he says that ‘the meaning of a given linguistic unit is defined to be the
set of (paradigmatic) relations that the unit in question contracts with
other units of the language (in the context or contexts in which it
occurs), without any attempt being made to set up “contents” for these
units’.
Meaning postulates are not just limited to the formalization of the spe-
cific lexical relations discussed in Chapter 5. They can also be used to
express more particular interrelations between particular words. For
instance, (99) says that if someone knows something, then that thing
must be true:

(99) (x) (y) (know (x, y) ) y)

Postulate (99) allows us to predict, correctly, that sentence (100) will be

semantically odd:

(100) !Jack knows that New York is the capital of the United States.

Similarly, the verb marry entails (except in exceptional cases which pose a
problem for any theory of meaning) that both its object and its subject be
alive: one cannot, for example, marry Cleopatra; no more, of course, can
Cleopatra marry anyone herself. We can represent this constraint on the
meaning of marry as, once again, a material conditional involving the
universal quantifier:

(101) (x) (y) (marry (x, y) ) (alive (x) & alive (y))

This formulation will predict the bizarreness of sentences like the following:

(102) Cleopatra married Mark Antony on January 1, 2006.

The relation between marry and alive does not form one of the standard
lexical relations to which marry would usually be considered to belong,
but it is very much part of the verb’s meaning, and we can represent this
fact by proposing a meaning postulate.
The meaning postulates approach treats words as semantically unanalys-
able. Facts about meaning are not facts about the internal semantic com-
position of words, but about the relations which words have among them-
selves. We cannot, on this picture, exhaustively break a word down into its
individual meaningful elements, but we can detail the various relations
which it contracts with other words of the language. Meaning postulates
thus have the advantage of avoiding the many problems confronted by
attempts to decompose a word into its constituent parts (see 2.6). But by
the same token, they can offer no explanation for the meaning relations
into which a word enters. A definition of marry would make clear, among
212 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

other things, that marrying is a particular type of activity found in

human societies. From this it would follow that only living people can be
married. For the meaning postulates approach, however, this is just an
arbitrary fact.
A more serious problem for the meaning postulates approach is that
relations between words are seldom able to be represented convincingly
in logical formalism. Most of the facts about the meaning of a word are
more variable and context-dependent, and less absolute, than the types
discussed in (94)–(102). For example, we might propose the following
meaning postulate to describe the verb love:

(103) (x) (y) (love (x, y) ) ¬hate (x, y))

For every x and for every y, if x loves y, then x does not hate y.

This reflects the idea that loving something is the opposite of hating it –
surely a valid description of the meaning of the verb. But it is often the
case that we might simultaneously love and hate something at the same
time, and sentences like (104) are entirely possible:

(104) I love and hate it.

This suggests that the postulate in (103) cannot be maintained. But what
other postulates could we advance? We could certainly advance postulates
showing that love, like hate, is a hyponym of experience an emotion, but this
is very far from giving us the detail we need in order to understand what
love actually means. It would seem that the verb love in itself carries a mean-
ing which does not necessarily impose any necessary set of cooccurrence
relations on it: love can be put into an unlimited number of novel con-
texts, with new meaning combinations thereby being generated:

(105) a. Computers really love me.

b. For a split second, he loved skiing – and then he broke his leg.

Sentence (105a) flies in the face of the usual expectation that the subject
of love is an animate entity; (105b) counters the expectation that love is an
ongoing state. It is, indeed, precisely because of this sort of flexibility that
language has the productivity it has: we use a finite set of lexical items to
create an infinite set of meanings, and one of the ways we do this is by
varying the relations into which we put the items of our vocabulary.
As we have seen, it is possible to formulate a definition of love which
allows for the fact that someone might simultaneously love and hate
something, but it is hard to see how this same information could be
couched as meaning postulates. The whole idea of the meaning postulate
approach is that it is possible to specify certain propositions which follow
necessarily from others. The proposition ‘I do not hate you’, for example,
should flow necessarily from ‘I love you’. Yet, in language, this is rarely the
case. Words can often be used in contexts where they lose many of their
expected meaningful properties. This circumstance creates problems for
any attempt to discern regularity in the lexicon, whether through defini-
tions, semantic features or meaning postulates. The meaning postulates
 6.8 Definite descriptions 213

approach, however, is especially vulnerable to it, since it is limited to a

logical formalism which seems ill-suited to the representation of the
messy, variable and context-dependent relations that words contract with
each other. The meaning postulate approach has not, indeed, ever resulted
in any comprehensive body of semantic description.
QUESTION Suggest possible meaning postulates that describe the rela-
tionship between the following terms:
Tuesday and weekday
couch and sofa
dead and alive
guess and not know
relative and cousin
reptile and mammal
What are some of the problems encountered in this attempt?

6.8 Definite descriptions

In this section we consider an important application of logical principles
to the analysis of natural language, the theory of definite descriptions
proposed by Bertrand Russell (1905), one of the originators of the logical
formalism introduced in this chapter. Definite descriptions are noun
phrases like those in (106):

(106) the President of Iraq

the greatest poet
the Chancellor of Germany

Definite descriptions are singular terms: they refer to a single, specific

individual. (In this they contrast to what Russell (1949: 214) called ambigu-
ous descriptions, which contain the indefinite article and do not refer to a
single specific individual: a President of Iraq, a Chancellor of Germany.) Since
Frege, the need for a formal logical analysis of definite descriptions had
been keenly felt. Frege himself treated definite descriptions as referring
expressions, and distinguished between the referent of a definite descrip-
tion and its sense (see Chapter 3). Thus, the definite descriptions in (107)
all have a sense, but they do not have any reference, since there is no indi-
vidual which they pick out:

(107) The first 12-year-old Prime Minister of Australia

The nation of Antarctica
The largest prime number

Russell proposed a different treatment. According to him, definite descrip-

tions like those in (106) and (107) are not actually understood as referring
expressions at all: in fact, their logical structure is quantificational. Russell
treated any sentence containing a definite description as equivalent to a
214 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

quantificational sentence. For example, the sentence The King of France is

bald is interpreted in the following way:

(108) The King of France is bald =

There is exactly one King of France,
and everything that is the King of France is bald.

This can be formalized as in (109):

(109) (x) (K(x) & (y) (K(y) ) y = x) & B(x))

(109) reads as follows: ‘there is an x, such that x is the King of France, and
for all ys, if y is the King of France, then y is x, and x is bald’. In the for-
mula, ‘(x) (K(x) . . . ’ asserts the existence of an individual, the King of
France. This is what we can call the existence clause. ‘(y) (K(y) ) y = x)’
says that every individual who is the King of France is x: in other words,
there is only one King of France; this is the uniqueness clause. The last
section, B(x), adds the information that the King of France is bald.
As another example, consider the representation of the proposition the
Chancellor of Germany is a woman:

(110) (x) (C(x) & (y) (C(y) ) y = x) & W(x))

Russell’s analysis explains how definite descriptions can be understood

even when we do not know the identity of their referent. As long as we
understand the meaning of the predicates involved, we can understand
the definite description, even if, as in (108), there is not, in fact, any indi-
vidual to whom the examples refer.

QUESTION Give equivalent analyses of the following expressions:

The emperor of China is a child.
The only house in Mosman is for sale.
The law is an ass.

Russell’s analysis of definite descriptions has been highly influential and

has stimulated wide debate. One of the most influential criticisms is due to
P. F. Strawson (1950), who argued against both the existence and uniqueness
clauses of Russell’s analysis. According to Strawson, a speaker’s use of a
definite description does not assert that anything exists, as it does in
Russell’s analysis; rather, it presupposes (Strawson actually uses the term
‘implies’) this existence. Thus, if I utter a statement like ‘The King of France
is angry’, I am not explicitly committing myself to the existence of an indi-
vidual, the King of France; I am simply taking his existence for granted, and
not putting it forward as a matter of discussion. Strawson also criticized the
uniqueness clause: to say ‘the table is covered with books’, for example, is
certainly not to claim that there is one and only one table. (Russell might
reply, of course, that the table is in fact unique within the universe of dis-
course in question: if uttered, for example, in a room with only one table; if
it were not, it would be necessary to specify which table was meant.)
 6.9 Logic and language 215

6.9 Logic and language

The preceding account is only the most modest sketch of the bases of a
logical approach to meaning. Before ending the chapter, we should reg-
ister some of the advantages and controversies surrounding the use of
logic as a tool for the analysis of natural language. As we have shown at
a number of points, there seem to be areas of clear incompatibility
between logical constructs and the natural language terms which
partly translate them. One such area of incompatibility has just been
noted in Strawson’s critique of Russell’s theory of definite descriptions.
A more serious incompatibility between logic and natural language,
however, is the one discussed in 6.3: it would seem that natural lan-
guage connectives frequently do not behave in anything like the same
way as their logical counterparts. This immediately problematizes any
attempt to advance logical constructs as somehow underlying or as
basic to natural language meanings. Another problem for the sugges-
tion that logical constructs are relevant to the understanding of natu-
ral language relates to the role of truth in the two systems. As discussed
in Chapter 3, there are many reasons to doubt the centrality of truth
to everyday language. As Halliday and Matthiessen (2004: 117) put it,
‘[s]emantics has nothing to do with truth; it is concerned with consensus
about validity, and consensus is negotiated in dialogue’. A factor which
deserves special emphasis in the context of logic is that truth can only be
a relevant consideration to factual sentences, i.e. to declarative state-
ments. Questions, requests, commands and apologies, to name only a few,
are neither true nor false, and as a result need a different logical formal-
ism from the one introduced here.
Even in the case of declarative sentences, the question of truth is far
from straightforward. As we have seen, logically oriented semanticists
would claim that knowing the truth conditions for a sentence is at least
necessary for knowing that sentence’s meaning. For example, the claim
would be that one cannot know the meaning of the sentence in (111)
unless one knows the kind of situation in which the sentence would be
true.

(111) The door is closed.

However, this claim seems questionable. One can perfectly well know
what (111) means without knowing whether it’s true in a certain case: the
notions of truth and falsity are immensely obscure and complex. For
example, is it true that the door is open if it is slightly ajar? What if the
door has been taken off its hinges and leant against the wall, in exactly
the same position it would be in if it had been opened normally? It would
seem, in other words, that there are more options than simply true or
false. We return to this point in Chapter 7. The incorporation of these
considerations into logical accounts of language is a lively area of ongoing
research, and a very necessary one for anyone committed to maintaining
the relevance of logic to language.
216 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

On the positive side, the study of linguistic meaning from a logical

point of view brings a number of important advantages. First, in its atten-
tion to declarative sentences it promises a formalization of a very impor-
tant subset of natural language sentences. Declarative sentences are cer-
tainly not the only sentence-type in language: far from it. But they are, by
any account, an important one (see Givón’s remarks in 4.1). In particular,
they are a crucial format for the presentation of many culturally impor-
tant types of knowledge in our society, such as scientific statements, and
fictional, journalistic and historical narrative. If a logical approach can
help to illuminate the underlying structure of this particular sentence
type, then it will have advanced our understanding of an important part
of language. Second, the logical approach permits a degree of rigour and
formalization which entirely outstrips that of the more descriptive
approaches to meaning discussed in most of the rest of this book. As a
result, it is eminently amenable to manipulation by computer, and logical
principles form the basis of computational approaches to language. As a
result, the development of programs that mimic human language behav-
iour have a vital reliance on logical ways of modelling language and
meaning (see 8.2 for discussion). Lastly, the focus of logical analysis on
propositions has been seen by some researchers as supported by psycho-
logical evidence. As noted in 6.2, experimental evidence suggests that
what people remember are not the actual words of utterances, but their
content or gist. Propositions can be taken as one way of representing this
remembered content (Barsalou et al. 1993). In other words, logical symbol-
ism may not always very accurately mirror the apparent use of words in
natural language, but it may well serve as a valuable way of capturing the
underlying structure of certain aspects of their meaning.

Summary The nature and importance of logic

Logic investigates the properties of valid arguments and chains of
reasoning, and specifies the conditions which arguments must meet
in order to be valid. It is important to linguists for three principal rea-
sons:

• it constitutes one of the oldest and most developed traditions of the

study of meaning
• it is at the heart of formal and computational theories of semantics
• certain logical concepts, like ¬ or ), provide an interesting point of
contrast with their natural language equivalents.

Logical form, validity and soundness

Logic analyses the underlying logical structure of arguments, known
as their logical form. This is independent of the way in which the
argument happens to be phrased in any given language.
 Summary 217

We distinguished between valid and sound arguments:

• Valid arguments are ones in which, if the premises are true, the
conclusion must also be true.
• Sound arguments are valid arguments which have true premises.
Propositional logic
Propositional logic is the branch of logic that studies relations
between propositions. A proposition is something which serves as the
premise or conclusion of an argument. In propositional logic, special
importance is given to the four propositional connectives or opera-
tors not, and, or and if . . . then. These connectives are truth-functional.
This means that whether the propositions to which they are added are
true or not depends solely on the truth of the original propositions.
The values or meanings of the operators can be specified in the form
of truth tables, which display the way in which logical connectives
affect the truth of the propositions in which they appear.

Logic as representation and as perfection of meaning

The truth-functional definitions of the propositional connectives are
quite often counter-intuitive and unnatural. None of the operators
corresponds perfectly with any English equivalent. The clash between
the meanings of the logical connectives and their ordinary language
equivalents reveals a contrast between two different interpretations
of the nature of logic: logic as a representation and as a perfection of
meaning.

Predicate logic
‘Some’ and ‘all’ are the basic notions of predicate logic. Predicate
logic studies the logical form of propositions involving three kinds of
expression:

• singular terms or individual constants, which refer to individuals

(whether things or people). Singular terms are symbolized by lower
case letters.
• predicates, which represent properties or relations, such as ‘primate’,
‘hairy’ or ‘adore’. Predicates are symbolized by upper case letters.
• quantifiers, like ‘some’ () and ‘all’ ().
Predicates have a certain number of arguments. An argument is the
individual or individuals to which the property or relation expressed by
the predicate is attributed.
 is called the existential quantifier. (x) is read as ‘there is at least
one x, such that’.  is called the universal quantifier. (x) is read ‘for
every x, it is the case that’. Quantification may be single or multiple. A
singly quantified proposition contains only a single quantifier. A mul-
tiply quantified proposition contains several. Propositions with both
218 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

the universal and the existential quantifiers allow for the disambigua-
tion of sentences like everyone loves someone.

Reference, truth and models

For logical approaches to semantics, reference and truth are the prin-
cipal semantic facts: the most important thing about the meaning of
a word is what it refers to, and the most important thing about a sen-
tence is whether or not it is true. The model of a set of logical formu-
lae is a set of statements showing what each expression of the formula
refers to in some possible world (6.5). The referent of a logical expres-
sion is called its extension:

• The extension of an individual constant (singular term) is simply

the individual entity which the constant picks out.
• The extension of a one-place predicate is the entire set of individu-
als to which the predicate applies. The predicate ‘tall’, for instance,
applies to all tall entities.
• The extension of a two-place predicate like ‘respect’ will be the set
of all pairs of individuals such that the first respects the second.

In general, we can say that the extension of an n-place predicate is an

ordered n-tuple of entities.

Relations between propositions

Entailment is the relation between propositions where the truth of the
first guarantees the truth of the second. Presupposition is the relation
between two propositions p and q, such that both p and ¬p entail q. A
contradictory is a pair of propositions which always have opposite truth
values. Pairs of propositions which cannot both be true but can both be
false are called contraries. Pairs of propositions which cannot be simul-
taneously false, but can be simultaneously true are called subcontraries.

Meaning postulates
The theory of meaning postulates uses logical notions to describe the
relations which a word has with other members of the same vocabu-
lary, and constitutes a possible alternative to the decompositional
modes of meaning analysis.

Russell on definite descriptions

Russell’s theory of definite descriptions offers an analysis in logical terms
of the meaning of propositions involving the English determiner the,
according to which such propositions contain disguised quantifications.

Is logic relevant to the semantics of natural language?

In the course of the chapter we saw a number of reasons to doubt that
logical tools provide an appropriate model of the meanings involved in
natural language. These include:
 Exercises 219

• the existence of incompatibilities between logical operators and

their natural language equivalents
• orientation of logic to reference and truth, which are only some
the
of the considerations relevant to natural language.

However, many linguists in favour of logical approaches to semantics

would claim that:

• in its attention to declarative sentences a logical approach promises a

formalization of an important subset of natural language sentences,
and that
• logical approach permits a degree of rigour and formalization
a
which entirely outstrips that of the more descriptive approaches to
meaning.

Further reading
Girle (2002) is an eminently readable introduction to logic, complete with many exercises. For a treatment of
logic specifically aimed at linguists, try Allwood, Andersson and Dahl (1977); for a more recent account,
Chierchia and McGonnell-Ginet (2000) is a very thorough introduction to the main issues. Bach (1989) is
short, untechnical and readable. The most comprehensive introductory work specifically for the linguist of
which I am aware is McCawley (1981): note however that this adopts a syntactic approach to proof which
has not been touched on here. Carpenter (1997) is an introduction to type-logical semantics, an important
approach. Seuren (2009) is a mammoth reconsideration of the place of logic-inspired techniques in lan-
guage research. For readers of French, Meyer (1982), directed specifically at linguists, contains a useful short
history of the modern contribution logic has made to the understanding of language. For the original defini-
tion of the syllogism, see Aristotle, Prior Analytics I.1 25b. On presupposition, see Chapter 9 of Kempson
(1977), Chapter 9 of McCawley (1981) and Strawson’s Introduction to Logical Theory (1960). Horn (1989:
252–267) is a detailed (and advanced) exploration of the relation between negation and the square of
opposition discussed in 6.6. Jackendoff (1990: 39) has some interesting criticism of a meaning-postulate
approach to semantics. Kahrel and van den Berg (1994) is a typological study of differences in the expres-
sion of negation in the languages of the world. For Russell’s theory of descriptions, see his ‘On denoting’
(1905); for the wider background, see Russell (1949) and Strawson’s initial critique, in Strawson (1950).

Exercises
Analytical questions
1. Use bracketing and logical notation to represent the different possible
meanings of the following sentences. Use the following abbreviations:
l Richard likes Gwynn
t Richard tolerates Gwynn
e Richard envies Gwynn
d Richard detests Gwynn
Richard likes Gwynn or he tolerates and envies him.
Richard likes and envies or tolerates Gwynn.
Richard likes, envies, and tolerates Gwynn.
Richard likes and envies or tolerates and detests Gwynn.
220 LOGIC AS A REPRESENTATION OF MEANING

2. In the following pairs of sentences, which are contradictories, which are

contraries and which are neither?

a. All magicians are deceitful.

No magicians are deceitful.
b. No magicians are deceitful.
Some magicians are deceitful.
c. All magicians are deceitful.
Some magicians are deceitful.
d. All magicians are deceitful.
There are no deceitful magicians.
e. No magicians are deceitful.
At least one magician is deceitful.
3. Is because a truth-functional connective? Justify your answer.
4. Translate the following sentences into logical notation, symbolizing each
verb, noun phrase and prepositional phrase with a memorable abbrevia-
tion.
Example: The mosquito stung the lion. Sm, l.
Either the lion or the wasp stung Androcles. Sl, a X-OR Sw, a
a. The lion was stung by the mosquito.
b. The lion was in the jungle.
c. The bite stung.
d. The mosquito, the wasp and the bee stung the lion, the farmer and
the apiarist respectively.
e. The lion told the lamb the truth.
f. The lion is Androcles’ friend.
g. Either the lion told Androcles the truth, or the mosquito stung
Androcles.
h. If the mosquito stung the lamb, the lion didn’t tell Androcles the truth.
5. Translate the following sentences into logical notation:
a. Every poet wrote at least one great poem.
b. All poets are meritorious.
c. There’s at least one poem about spaceships.
d. All poems about spaceships are unreadable.
e. There is at least one poet who wrote one great poem.
f. There’s at least one spaceship which has a poem written about it.

Questions for discussion

6. What aspects of meaning are not captured by a translation into logical
formalism? Do logical formalisms of the type discussed in this chapter
seem to miss out on more aspects of meaning than other formalisms,
e.g. those used in componential analysis?
7. Do you think it would be possible to specify all the presuppositions of a
proposition? If so, why? If not, why not?
8. Not just statements have presuppositions. Questions do as well. Identify
the presuppositions of the following questions, and any problems you
encounter in doing so.

a. Who killed Sylvia?

b. Where did you put the cheese?
 Exercises 221

c. Why is there sadness in the world?

d. Are you coming to the party?
e. Is your new horse better than your old one?

9. What are the arguments for and against the proposition that declarative
sentences are basic to natural languages?
10. Discuss Horn’s rationale for the lexical gaps discussed in 6.6.3. How plau-
sible is his argument? Are there any problems with it?
11. Pick a language you know other than English and discuss how the logical
connectives are represented in it.
12. Both these sentences receive the same logical representation (c), which
uses obvious abbreviations:

a. Anyone enrolled in the course will receive a personalized timetable.

b. Everyone enrolled in the course will receive a personalized timetable.
c. (x) (Ex ) Tx)
What, if any, are the differences in meaning between (a) and (b)? Is it
reasonable for them to be ignored in the logical representation?

13. What are the principal advantages and disadvantages of a logical analysis
of meaning? How suitable, in your judgement, are logical concepts as a
means of representing meaning?
14. Discuss the argument that logic is irrelevant to the study of linguistics,
since it concerns nothing but semantic principles, whereas language nec-
essarily involves at least semantic and grammatical ones.
15. Discuss the discrepancy between the truth-table of ) and the meaning of
English if . . . then. What, if anything, does this discrepancy tell us about the
place of logic in the semantic analysis of natural language?
 CHA PT E R

7 Meaning and
cognition I:
categorization and
cognitive semantics

CHAPTER PREVIEW
This chapter considers meaning from the perspective of the cognitive operations
which the mind can be hypothesized to perform in using language. We begin by
introducing the idea that words in natural language can be seen as categories,
and discuss two different models of the way categories work, the classical view
of categorization and the prototype view (7.1), exploring the advantages and
problems of each. We then discuss cognitive approaches to meaning, which
developed out of the prototypical model of categorization. These approaches
have introduced a rich model of the cognitive architecture underlying
language (7.2).
224 MEANING AND COGNITION I

7.1 The semantics of categorization

Categorization is an important topic in semantics because language can be
seen as means of categorizing experience. A word like flower, for example,
categorizes an indefinitely large number of different entities in the world as
all examples of a single kind of thing, the category FLOWER. The actual types
of flower vary widely – think of the difference between a tulip, a carnation
and a sunflower – but these differences in no way affect the categorization
of all types as flowers. The same is true of other lexical categories. The types
of action I might describe by saying I am writing, for example, cover a wide
range: filling in a form with a biro, typing on a keyboard, drawing letters in
freshly poured concrete with a stick, and sitting in front of a blank sheet of
paper with a pen, wondering how to begin a sentence. These outward differ-
ences are all glossed over by the verb write, which can be used for all of these
activities indifferently. For both linguists and psychologists it is a question of
considerable interest how such natural language categories arise. What prin-
ciples govern what may and may not be categorized under a single word like
flower or write? In this section, we explore an answer to this question from
the perspective of a conceptualist theory of meaning, which sees the origin
of linguistic categories in the nature of human psychology.

7.1.1 Classical categorization

Standard logical approaches to language, like the ones discussed in
Chapter 6, are two-valued approaches. This means that they only recog-
nize two truth values, true and false. On this approach, any proposition
must either be true or false. There is no room for the proposition to be
partly true and partly false, or true in some respects but false in others.
The two-valued approach goes hand in hand with the classical view of
definition (the one assumed throughout Chapter 2). The classical view was
summarized as follows by Frege in his 1903 work Foundations of Arithmetic:
A definition of a concept . . . must be complete; it must unambiguously
determine, as regards any object, whether or not it falls under the con-
cept . . . Thus there must not be any object as regards which the defini-
tion leaves in doubt whether it falls under the concept; though for us
men, with our defective knowledge, the question may not always be
decidable. We may express this metaphorically as follows: the concept
must have a sharp boundary.
(In Aarts et al. 2004: 33)
Another way of describing this view is the idea that definitions are lists of
necessary and sufficient conditions for particular meanings. Consider as
an example the definition of bird as a feathered, egg-laying, flying verte-
brate. This definition involves the four properties feathered, egg-laying,
flying and vertebrate, and on the classical view of definition those four
properties constitute necessary and sufficient conditions of birdhood:

• The conditions are necessary because something must meet all of

them if it is to count as a bird – if something only has some of the
 7.1 The semantics of categorization 225

four properties, for instance, it does not count as a bird. (This might
be the case with bats, which are flying and vertebrate, but which are
not feathered or egg-laying.)
• The conditions are sufficient because anything that has all four proper-
ties counts as a bird: no further conditions need to be met.

The classical view of definition is also a view of the nature of the catego-
ries to which the definition applies. To say that the definition of bird
consists of the four properties above is, quite clearly, the same thing as
saying that the category BIRD is also so constituted. Accordingly, this view
is often referred to as the classical view of categorization, or, because of
the figure credited with its proposal, the Aristotelian view of categoriza-
tion. Classical or Aristotelian categories have the following two important
characteristics:

• The conditions on their membership can be made explicit by specify-

ing lists of necessary and sufficient conditions.
• a result, their membership is determinate: whether or not some-
As
thing is a member of the category can easily be checked by seeing
whether it fulfils the conditions.
QUESTION Try to develop a list of necessary and sufficient conditions for
the following categories: sport, building, planet, book, animal, weapon and
bodypart. What problems do you encounter?

7.1.2 Problems with classical categories

The classical view of categorization is open to a number of criticisms.
First, there are remarkably few examples of adequate definitions in the
classical mould. In fact, as discussed in Chapter 2, some researchers doubt
that there are any. We noted in 2.6 that many definitions do not seem suc-
cessful in specifying necessary and sufficient conditions for membership
of a given category. This is certainly true of dictionary definitions, but the
same problem applies to more technical and detailed definitions like
those given in semantics. To pick an example almost at random, the
Concise Oxford’s definition of food, ‘substance(s) (to be) taken into the body
to maintain life and growth’ applies just as much to medicine as it does
to food like bread or apples, a circumstance which invalidates that par-
ticular definition. Similarly, the same dictionary’s definition of game as
‘contest played according to rules and decided by skill, strength or luck’
does not apply to card games like patience (solitaire), which involve a
single participant and are thus not contests, nor to a game in which a
child throws a ball against a wall. Further, it also applies to wars and
exams, which are decidedly not examples of games. As discussed in
Chapter 2, the history of semantics is full of examples of a proposal for the
correct definition of a term being shown to be inaccurate. A famous
example is the previously standard definition of kill as ‘cause to die’.
Imagine that someone has tampered with the sheriff’s gun in such a way
as to cause it not to fire in a shoot-out with an outlaw. As a result, the
outlaw is able to shoot the sheriff to death. In a case like this, we would
226 MEANING AND COGNITION I

say that the tamperer has caused the sheriff to die, but has not actually
killed the sheriff (for further problems with this case, see Fodor 1970).
Furthermore, even longer and more detailed definitions like those
advanced by Wierzbicka and her colleagues apparently do not resolve
these problems. Cases like this occur time and time again in the history
of definitional semantics. The problems of definition are discussed at
length in Chapter 2 (see especially 2.6).
Rosch and Mervis outline a more influential criticism of the classical
view of categorization (1975: 573–574):
As speakers of our language and members of our culture, we know that
a chair is a more reasonable exemplar of the category furniture than a
radio, and that some chairs fit our idea or image of a chair better than
others. However, when describing categories analytically, most traditions
of thought have treated category membership as a digital, all-or-none
phenomenon. That is, much work in philosophy, psychology, linguistics,
and anthropology assumes that categories are logical bounded entities,
membership in which is defined by an item’s possession of a simple set
of criterial features, in which all instances possessing the criterial attri-
butes have a full and equal degree of membership.
In other words, the classical interpretation of categories (and hence mean-
ings) as sets of necessary and sufficient conditions fails to do justice to the
fact that there seem to be different statuses of category membership:
some members of a category seem to be better examples of that category
than others.
We can illustrate this with an example which has played an important
role in critiques of classical categorization. Consider a colour category like
RED. We can think of many shades of red, including the red of a fire-engine,
the deep reds found on fruit like plums, which might also be described as
purple, and very pale reds which might also be described as pink. It seems
impossible to identify any single point along the scale of redness that con-
stitutes the boundary between red and other colours, and as a result it
seems clear that the category RED is not defined by any necessary and suf-
ficient conditions, or anything else that might provide a clear category
boundary for it. Yet there is a clear sense in which the red of a fire engine
seems a better example of red than the colour of a ripe plum. In order to
give an idea of the type of colour referred to by red, we would obviously do
much better pointing to a fire-engine or a standard red rose, than to a ripe
plum or the orangey-pink of a sunset, even though both of these might also
be described as ‘red’. RED, then, seems to be a category of which some mem-
bers are better examples than others.

QUESTION What are some other categories in which some members are
better examples of the category than others?

Colours are by no means the only example of categories with different

statuses of category membership. Consider Figure 7.1 below, a series of
representations of various cup- and mug-like objects, taken from an influ-
ential study by Labov (1973).
 7.1 The semantics of categorization 227

1 2 3 4

5 10 13

6 14
11

7
15
12

16 18

17
9 19
FIGURE 7.1
Series of cup- and mug-
like objects (Labov 1973:
354).

It seems obvious that some of these objects, like (1), are very good exam-
ples of cups, and that others, like (11), are very good examples of mugs.
There also seem to be several intermediate cases, like (7), in which it is not
clear whether cup or mug is the better description, as well as others, like (17)
and perhaps (4), where we might hesitate to apply either label. (If some of the
objects were represented with accompanying saucers this might reduce the
ambiguity, of course.) This is, in fact, exactly what Labov found when he
asked subjects to decide which was the appropriate label in each case.
We could make similar observations about many other categories in
natural language. The category CHAIR is a case in point (Figure 7.2). The chair
in the centre of the diagram seems a particularly good example of the cat-
egory, unlike the high chair on the middle left or the deck chair in the
bottom row. The arm chair and the rocking chair also seem clear examples
of the category, but somehow less obvious than the original ordinary four-
legged chair. That, indeed, is the only one of the pictured chairs which is
precisely that: an ordinary chair of the sort we might refer to through
expressions like a normal chair, an ordinary chair, a standard chair, and so on.
There are two important points to draw from these examples:

• There are categories in which some members are better exemplars of

the category than others.
• There are categories in which the boundaries of membership are not
clear-cut: it is not always possible to say whether or not something is
a member of the category.
228 MEANING AND COGNITION I

Wheelchair Folding chair

High chair Arm chair

FIGURE 7.2
Chairs and non-chairs. Swivel chair Rocking chair Deck chair

If categories are constituted by nothing other than sets of necessary and

sufficient conditions, neither of these points is expected. The second one
in particular is very unexpected: if there is a finite set of necessary and
sufficient conditions for a category, we should be able to state unambigu-
ously what a given category’s members are.
What conclusions can we draw about the nature of the categories? One
possible answer is that these categories are not structured in terms of
necessary and sufficient conditions, but that membership in them is
graded: a matter of degree.

7.1.3 Prototype categorization

The idea that category membership is graded is at the heart of the proto-
type theory of categorization, most strongly associated with the psycholo-
gist Eleanor Rosch and her colleagues (Rosch 1975, 1978; Rosch and Mervis
1975). Rosch was impressed by one of the many observations about meaning
 7.1 The semantics of categorization 229

made by the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein in his Philosophical Investiga-

tions (1953: §66):
Consider for example the proceedings that we call ‘games’. I mean board-
games, card-games, ball-games, . . . and so on. What is common to them
all? – Don’t say: There must be something common, or they would not be
called “games” – but look and see whether there is anything common to
all. – For if you look at them you will not see something that is common
to all, but similarities, relationships, and a whole series of them at that.
To repeat: don’t think, but look! – Look for example at board games, with
their multifarious relationships. Now pass to card games; here you find
many correspondences with the first group, but many common features
drop out, and others appear.
The result of comparison between different types of game, Wittgenstein
says, is that ‘we see a complicated network of similarities overlapping and
criss-crossing’ (1953: §66), and he compares the relationships between dif-
ferent games to the family resemblances that exist in the outward appear-
ances of members of the same family. Members of a single family might
be identifiable by certain characteristic features – prominent cheek
bones, a certain hair colour, a certain type of walk or laugh, and so on –
without any single member of the family necessarily having all of these
attributes. (In fact, it might even be the case that a particular member had
none of the characteristic attributes.) In the same way, Wittgenstein sug-
gests, members of the category ‘game’ might not be defined by any core
of shared attributes that we could capture by listing necessary and suffi-
cient conditions, but by a network of ‘family resemblances’: there is a
certain set of possible attributes which tie together the members of the
category GAME, but not every member of the set need possess every attri-
bute. This is displayed in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1. Family resemblances among attributes of the category ‘game’.

Cat’s bouncing Trivial flipping
Patience Hopscotch cradle Tennis a ball Pursuit a coin ‘I Spy’

mostly outdoor ⴛ ⴛ ⴛ

played with others ⴛ ⴛ ⴛ ⴛ ⴛ

has rules ⴛ ⴛ ⴛ ⴛ ⴛ ⴛ

clear winner ⴛ ⴛ

uses ball ⴛ ⴛ

uses string ⴛ

uses cards ⴛ

uses board ⴛ

luck mostly ⴛ
determines result
230 MEANING AND COGNITION I

Rosch generalized the family resemblance structure which Wittgenstein

saw in GAME to other categories. She and her colleagues conducted experi-
ments in which subjects were asked to consider examples of different
natural language categories like FRUIT, BIRD, VEHICLE, and CLOTHING, and rate
them on a scale of representativity for each category. These experiments
demonstrated convincingly the truth of the initial belief that some mem-
bers are better examples of their category than others. For the category
BIRD, for instance, subjects consistently rated robin and sparrow as better
examples than penguin or emu. Rosch described this situation as one in
which robin and sparrow are more prototypical examples of the category
BIRD than emu or penguin. Prototypicality judgements for this type of
category proved to be remarkably consistent across different speakers:
subjects consistently converged on the same members when asked to say
what the best examples of different categories were.
QUESTION Consider the categories PROFESSION, LADDER and PLANE. What
are the best examples of each? Why? What are some marginal examples?
The prototype of a category, for Rosch, is not any one of its members, no
matter how good an example of the category this might be. Rather than
one of the members, the prototype of a category can be thought of as the
central tendency of that category’s members (see Barsalou et al. 1993). Any
particular member of the category will be closer to or further from the
prototype. What are these degrees of prototypicality based on? According
to Rosch, prototypical category members are those which share the most
attributes with other members of their category, and the fewest with
members of other categories. BIRD, for instance, might be defined through
attributes such as ‘egg-laying’, ‘flying’, ‘small’, ‘vertebrate’, ‘pecks food’,
‘winged’, ‘high-pitched call’, ‘builds nests’ and so on. Not every member of
the category, however, has to possess all these attributes: emus, for instance,
are neither small nor flying, but they are still birds. But the more attri-
butes an example possesses the better an example of the category it
appears.
Categories are not structured, then, by a set of necessary and sufficient
conditions; instead, they consist of entities with various shared attributes.
We can illustrate this with the category COAT, whose members might
include trenchcoats, overcoats, raincoats, duffel coats, parkas, fur coats,
labcoats, topcoats and frockcoats. The attributes of this category presum-
ably include the following features:

(i) covers the body from the shoulders to the thigh/knee

(ii) worn on top of other clothing
(iii) has sleeves
(iv) for both sexes
(v) can be fastened closed
(vi) worn for protection from cold or rain

Certain examples of the category, like trenchcoats or overcoats, possess all

or most of these attributes: these are the most prototypical. Less prototypi-
cal examples have fewer: a labcoat, for example, is not worn for protection
 7.1 The semantics of categorization 231

from the weather, and a parka does not extend to the thigh. The more
attributes a member shares with other, different categories, the less typical
it is of its own category. Think of the difference between the categories
COAT and JACKET. These categories share a certain number of attributes,
such as being sleeved, being able to be fastened closed, and being worn on
top of other clothing. They are distinguished principally in terms of
length and purpose; coats extend below the waist and are principally
worn for protection from cold or wet weather, whereas jackets typically
end around waist level and are not principally worn for protection against
the elements. This distinction is clearly true of the most typical examples
of each category: for example, it is a correct description of the difference
between a woollen overcoat and a suit jacket. But when we consider less
representative examples of coats and jackets, we find that they are less
distinct. Parkas, for instance, which are less typical examples of coats,
have a jacket attribute: they do not extend below the waist. Similarly, a
light linen thigh-length jacket is not a typical example of a jacket, because
it does extend beyond the waist: this is, of course, a coat-attribute. So as
we move away from the central members, the differences between catego-
ries become less marked.
QUESTION Consider the following garments. How many superordinate
categories do they belong to? Describe as fully as possible the prototype
of each category.
dinner suit jacket
hospital gown
poncho
cape
academic gown
anorak
cardigan

QUESTION What are the attributes of the category BOAT? What attri-
butes might the prototype of the category possess? Rank the following
examples with respect to their closeness to the prototype. Are all of
them members of the category? If not, what other categories might they
belong to?
raft
sailboard
buoy
kayak
canoe
airboat
dragonboat
barge
catamaran
ferry
cutter
yacht
232 MEANING AND COGNITION I

dinghy
gondola
hydrofoil
submarine
ocean liner

Prototype theory was originally developed as a theory of how concrete,

visual objects, like furniture, colour or fish, are categorized. But several
studies have revealed prototype effects in domains involving activities.
Thus, Coleman and Kay (1981) discuss the nature of the prototype of the
category LIE. Pulman (1983: 113) analysed the members of the categories
KILL, SPEAK and WALK with respect to prototypicality (the leftmost verb is the
most prototypical member, the rightmost the least):
KILL:
murder, assassinate, execute, massacre, sacrifice, commit suicide
SPEAK: recite, mumble, shout, whisper, drone, stutter
WALK: stride, pace, saunter, march, stumble, limp

QUESTION Consider the structure of the category EAT. What verbs are its
members? Assume that the category is arranged around a prototype, and
try to specify the appropriate attributes.
The hypothesis that categories are structured in terms of prototypes is
consistent with a number of experimental results. In fact, Rosch says that
‘the prototypicality of items within a category can be shown to affect vir-
tually all of the major dependent variables used as measures in psycho-
logical research’ (1978: 38). For instance, Rosch and her colleagues per-
formed experiments in which subjects were asked to verify statements
about category membership of the form ‘An [exemplar] is a [category
name]’ (e.g. ‘a robin is a bird’) as quickly as they could. Response times
were shorter when the exemplar was a representative member of the cat-
egory; subjects took less time, in other words, to confirm that a robin is a
bird, than they did to confirm that an emu is. Prototype effects like these
are systematic and have been confirmed widely in the experimental lit-
erature (Mervis and Rosch 1981: 96). Second, Mervis and Rosch (1981:
96–97) report experiments by Battig and Montague (1969) in which sub-
jects were asked to list exemplars of each of 56 superordinate categories
such as furniture, fruit, weapons, sports or parts of the human body.
Prototypical members of the categories were found to be mentioned more
frequently than non-prototypical ones. Lastly, natural languages possess
mechanisms for expressing the extent to which an exemplar of a category
is typical. In English, for example, a sentence like A sparrow is a true bird is
perfectly normal, unlike A penguin is a true bird: sparrows, not penguins,
are prototypical exemplars of the category BIRD. Conversely, technically can
only be applied to non-prototypical category members: A penguin is techni-
cally a bird is acceptable, but A sparrow is technically a bird is not (Lakoff
1973).
Many linguists have seen the graded structure of categories discovered
by Rosch as an indication of the nature of the meanings of natural lan-
guage category terms. The idea that categories are structured by attributes
 7.1 The semantics of categorization 233

and degrees of membership solves some difficult problems in semantic

analysis. As commented by Lehrer (1990: 380), ‘When we look at some of
the detailed lexical descriptions that have been done, the data themselves
often have forced the investigator to posit fuzzy boundaries and partial
class inclusion, implicitly acknowledging something like prototype the-
ory.’ Consider the problems associated with the definition of game as
‘contest played according to rules and decided by skill, strength or luck’.
As noted earlier, this does not apply to card games like patience (solitaire),
which involve a single participant and are thus not contests, nor to a game
in which a child throws a ball against a wall. Problems like this might
constitute a reason to reject the definition as inaccurate, but a prototype
interpretation of category membership allows us to save it. On the proto-
type approach, the definition can be rephrased as an identification of the
most prototypical attributes of the category GAME: the most typical, best
examples of games are precisely those which can be defined as ‘contests
played according to rules and decided by skill, strength or luck’. This cov-
ers football, hide-and-seek and many other games: the fact that it does not
obviously apply to other activities like patience, etc., can be explained by
the fact that these are not central members of the category.

7.1.4 Problems with prototype categories

For all its attractions, prototype theory is open to a number of problems,
which we consider briefly in this section.

7.1.4.1 Problems identifying the attributes

The first type of problem concerns the nature of the semantic attributes
on which judgements of prototypicality are based. In our discussion of
categories we have simply isolated the attributes in an intuitive fashion,
an apparently unproblematic procedure. For instance, it doesn’t seem
unreasonable to suggest that people use the attribute ‘has a seat’ as part
of the decision about whether to classify a particular object as a CHAIR. But
Rosch herself acknowledges that the ease of identification for many attri-
butes is deceptive (1978: 42). There are essentially three problems, which
we deal with in turn:

• attributes can often only be identified after the category has been
identified
• attributes are highly context-dependent
• there are many different alternative descriptions of the attributes of a
given category

Attribute identification depends on category identification In the ‘has

a seat’ case, for example, the identification of this attribute seems to para-
doxically depend on a prior identification of the CHAIR category itself: how
do we know, for instance, that an armchair ‘has a seat’ unless we have
already categorized it as a chair? Why do we not treat the seat of the arm-
chair simply as a physical zone of the armchair without any particular func-
tional significance, in the same way we treat, for example, the separately
234 MEANING AND COGNITION I

stitched piece of material which covers the shoulder section in a shirt?

The answer seems to be that we can isolate the seat as a distinctive attri-
bute of an armchair only because we already know that the armchair is
designed to be sat on – that it is a chair. This is a paradox for the theory:
examples are supposed to be assigned to a category in virtue of their attri-
butes, but at least some attributes seem to depend for their identification
on a prior identification of the category in question.
Rosch also points out (1978: 42) that some attributes, like ‘large’ for the
category PIANO, depend on considerable background knowledge: pianos
are large for pieces of furniture, but small for buildings. It could therefore
be objected that attributes like this are not more basic cognitively than
the whole objects to which they belong, and that they cannot be consid-
ered the basis for the categorization. As Rosch puts it, ‘it appeared that
the analysis of objects into attributes was a rather sophisticated activity
that our subjects . . . might well be considered to be able to impose only
after the development of the category system’ (1978: 42; italics original).

Attributes vary with context In a similar spirit, Khalidi (1995: 404) notes
that
the kinds of features that subjects associate with certain concepts vary
widely and almost without limit when one varies the experimental
context in which they are tested. Rather than accessing a fixed set of fea-
tures in conjunction with each concept, there is apparently no limit to
the features that even a single subject associates with a certain concept
depending on the context in question.
For example, members of the category MEAL will have very different attri-
butes if the context is a hospital, a wedding banquet, a camping trip or the
family dinner table. What would be a good example in one of these con-
texts will not be a good example in another, and the attributes on which
prototypicality depends will vary similarly. The same remarks apply to the
category MUSICAL INSTRUMENT: a plastic recorder is a good example and a
bassoon a bad one if the context is an infants’ school music class, whereas
these values are reversed if the context is a symphony orchestra. Similarly,
the concept PIANO will be credited with different features depending on
whether the context is taken to be producing music or moving furniture
(Barclay et al. 1974, cited by Khalidi 1995: 405). Any attempt to specify the
prototypical features of a category or the attributes of one of its members
will therefore have to deal with the possibility that these features may
change significantly from one context to another.

Alternative descriptions of attributes Another question arises even if

we grant that a relatively fixed list of attributes could be constructed for
a category: how do we know which descriptions of the attributes are psy-
chologically real? For example, what are the attributes of the category
TREE? Langacker (1987: 374) suggests ‘tall plant’, ‘with leaves’, ‘with
branches’ and ‘with bark’. It is true that these attributes are among those
which distinguish trees as a matter of fact, but we may not be entitled to
 7.1 The semantics of categorization 235

assume that they enter into the conceptual representation of the catego-
ry. It may be, for example, that the relevant attributes of TREE are actually
best described as ‘made of wood’, ‘growing in ground’, ‘with long trunk’
and ‘sometimes covered in small green objects’. This description of the
attributes makes no difference to the rankings of exemplars of trees: an
oak will still be a prototypical tree, and a cactus will be an atypical one.
But the nature of the attributes on which the prototypicality judgements
are claimed to rest will reflect an entirely different understanding of the
underlying structure of the category. Indeed, the category TREE might not
depend on any underlying abstract features like ‘with bark’. Instead, it
could be based around a particular example of a tree as stored in long-term
memory. This, indeed, is precisely the hypothesis made in exemplar theo-
ries of categorization, which are alternatives to the prototype model in
psychology (see Storms et al. 2000).

7.1.4.2 Accounting for category boundaries

A second type of problem with the prototype theory of categorization is
that it fails to account for category boundaries. The very insight behind
prototype theory is that category boundaries are ‘fuzzy’. Membership is a
graded phenomenon defined through attribute-possession, and there is
no hard and fast division between members and non-members of a cate-
gory. For example, two important attributes of the category BIRD are ‘flies’
and ‘winged’. On the prototype model, anything that is winged and flies
fulfils two of the attributes of birdhood, and is thus a potential member
of the category. For instance, bats have partial membership in the cate-
gory BIRD on this model of categorization. Yet speakers have strong intu-
itions that many categories do have absolute, unfuzzy boundaries: bats
simply are not birds; they are not even atypical birds. These intuitions
suggest that there is something more to natural language categories than
closeness to a prototype (see Cruse 1990: 388–389 and Wierzbicka 1990:
350–351).

7.1.4.3 Scope of prototype categorization

A third type of question concerns the scope and applicability of prototype
theory as a general explanation of natural language semantics. Most of
the original work on prototypes concerned visible categories like BIRD or
FURNITURE. In spite of prototype theory accounts of categories like LIE, men-
tioned above, several scholars have questioned whether the theory is
equally justified when applied to abstract, non-visual categories. Since
there is not the same perceptual basis for the analysis of attributes, it may
be that the diagnosis of prototypes is more hazardous. Lehrer (1990) notes
that this question is especially acute for the highly abstract categories
expressed in language by prepositions and sentence connectives. Another
challenge to the scope of prototype categorization is Wierzbicka’s (1990)
critique of Rosch’s assimilation of taxonomic concepts like BIRD to what
Wierzbicka calls ‘collective’ concepts, such as KITCHENWARE or CLOTHING.
Taxonomic concepts, according to Wierzbicka, have clear boundaries
(recall the bat/bird contrast just discussed) and are not open to a prototype
236 MEANING AND COGNITION I

account. (On the other hand, collective concepts, which refer to things of
many different kinds, are fuzzy, and prototype approaches may well be
able to contribute to their analysis.)
In this context, it is worth noting a change in the way Rosch presented
the results of her research. Sometimes Rosch presents prototypes as a
theory of ‘the nature of the cognitive representation’ associated with cat-
egory terms (Rosch 1975: 192). Often, however, she stressed the opposite,
claiming that prototype theory is not a theory of how the mind actually
represents semantic content (Rosch 1978: 40–41; see also MacLaury 1991:
57). For example, she said that ‘facts about prototypes can only constrain,
but do not determine, models of representation’ (1978: 40). On this view,
prototype theory is a description of the structure of categories which
highlights a number of prototype effects – goodness of exemplar ratings,
response times, and so on. These effects are, in principle, compatible with
a number of different hypotheses on the mental representation of catego-
ries, and there is no reason to believe that all words in natural language
will correspond to concepts with a prototypical structure.

7.1.4.4 Prototypes and formulating definitions

Another objection concerns the effect of prototype theory in semantics.
Wierzbicka (1990), for example, complains that the idea that categories
have fuzzy boundaries has served as an excuse to avoid the painstaking
work of accurate definition. According to prototype theorists, she says,
. . . the actual usage of individual words is too messy, too unpredictable,
to be accounted for by definitions. But fortunately, semanticists don’t
have to worry about it any longer: they can now deploy the notion of
‘prototype’ . . . Semantic formulae SHOULD NOT ‘work’; that’s one thing
that ‘prototypes’ have taught us. (1990: 347)
This objection will only have any force if it turns out that traditional
definitions are in fact possible for natural language categories – a possi-
bility about which many researchers are sceptical, as discussed in
Chapter 2.

7.1.4.5 Prototype experiments and metalinguistic belief

A final objection concerns the contrast between the evidence for a prototype
model of semantics versus more traditional ones. At least some of the exper-
imental evidence that motivates the postulation of prototypes can be criti-
cized on the grounds that it is not evidence about how speakers actually use
words, but evidence about how they think words are used or should be used.
For instance, one of Rosch’s standard sets of instructions to the subjects of
her experiments makes it clear that subjects are being asked to assess how
far an example ‘represents what people mean’ when they use particular
category terms (1975: 198), and subjects in one of Rosch’s classic experiments
were asked how far certain words represented their ‘idea or image of what
the category is’ (Rosch and Mervis 1975: 588). The problem here is that the
results of these experiments are about subjects’ beliefs about language and
the categories referred to in it, not about their actual language use itself:
 7.1 The semantics of categorization 237

they are, in short, metalinguistic. As such, they may be the result of an

unpredictable range of prescriptive and other considerations which may not
be operative in ordinary language use. Just as subjects’ ideas about how to
define words are notoriously unreliable and unrepresentative of words’
actual use, so too their goodness of exemplar ratings may not tell us any-
thing about the underlying meanings of the words concerned. This criticism
is avoided to a certain extent by other experiments, such as the reaction time
experiments mentioned in the previous section, which show various ways in
which goodness of exemplar rating is correlated with actual processing
time. But even these apparently less metalinguistic experiments may not be
representative of people’s real-time categorizing behaviour in ordinary
unmonitored discourse. In one type of experiment, for instance, subjects
‘typically are required to respond true or false to statements of the form X
item is member of Y category’ (Rosch 1978: 38), with their speed in doing so
correlating to the prototypicality of the exemplar in question. This experi-
ment may reveal various psychological facts about categorization, but it
could not be taken to reveal anything about the meaning of the words
involved without the additional assumption that people’s natural language
use involves the same principles observed in experimental situations, where
subjects are consciously attending to issues of the truth and falsity of cate-
gory terms. Thus, while prototype theory may be well-founded as a theory of
categorization, we should not assume that its results can be transferred
immediately to the explanation of language use, since the naming options
which people exercise in actual discourse may be affected by many other
factors than the prototypicality of the referent.
This criticism does not have to apply to the necessary and sufficient
conditions view of categorization. When assembling a list of necessary
and sufficient conditions, an investigator can proceed simply by observing
how words are actually used, and hypothesizing necessary and sufficient
conditions to explain these uses; no-one has to be consulted in order to
discover their beliefs about what words mean, as in the prototype
approach. The centrality of subjects’ judgements about their own lan-
guage use in prototype theory is a potential problem if there is any chance
that subjects may simply be mistaken about the ways in which they use
words. I may well say, when asked or tested by a prototype researcher, that
tennis is a better example of a game than patience, but what if it turns out
that in spite of this judgement I typically refer to tennis as a sport in my
actual language use? The frequency of this sort of mismatch between sub-
jects’ self-reports and their actual behaviour is unknown; however, it is
clearly an important issue that needs to be settled.
In spite of these problems, prototype models of categorization have
been the source of a major reorientation in the practice of much semantic
description. In spite of Rosch’s unwillingness to elevate prototype theory
into a full-blown theory of mental representation, many semantic investi-
gators now take it for granted that the meaning of all or most lexical
items consists in a prototype structure. As a result, the semanticist’s role
is to characterize only the most prototypical aspects of that structure, and
a range of meanings outside it is only to be expected.
238 MEANING AND COGNITION I

7.2 Language and conceptualization:

cognitive approaches to semantics
As just noted, Rosch did not intend prototype theory as a comprehensive
theory of mental representation, the concepts with which we think (see
1.6.2). Many of the insights of prototype research, however, are accounted
for in cognitive approaches to semantics, which do set out to develop a
comprehensive theory of mental representation.

7.2.1 Commitments of cognitive semantics

The label cognitive semantics covers a variety of quite different approaches.
In general, however, these approaches are characterized by a holistic
vision of the place of language within cognition. For many investigators,
this involves the following commitments:

• a rejection of a modular approach to language

• an identification of meaning with ‘conceptual structure’
• a rejection of the syntax–semantics distinction
• a rejection of the semantics–pragmatics distinction
We will briefly outline each of these commitments in turn.

Rejection of modularity Many cognitivists share a commitment to

understanding language as governed by the same cognitive principles at
work in other psychological domains. This holistic approach to language
structure contrasts with the strongly modular approach promoted by
investigators in the tradition of Chomsky (1965) and Fodor (1983). Modular
research assumes that language is one of a number of independent mod-
ules or faculties within cognition, each of which has a structure and
principles independent of those at work in other cognitive domains. On a
modular vision of the mind, the principles of the language module will
be entirely distinct from those of the others, like vision, memory, reason-
ing or musical cognition. Cognitivists like Langacker (1987), Lakoff and
Johnson (1980), and Lakoff (1987) reject the modularist idea that language
constitutes an independent cognitive competence governed by its own
distinctive principles. Instead, cognitivist research pursues a holistic
understanding of language structure, in which linguistic data are
explained through psychological mechanisms known to operate else-
where in cognition.
For instance, Langacker proposes that the general psychological phe-
nomenon of attention, our ability to attend selectively to different aspects
of a scene, can be used to understand a wide range of linguistic and gram-
matical phenomena. One example would be the contrast in the meanings
of words like buy and sell. These words both evoke the same scene, that of a
transaction between two parties, but each of them directs attention to, or
profiles, different aspects of it: buy profiles (directs attention to, highlights)
the perspective of the buyer, sell that of the seller. This selective profiling is
interpreted by Langacker as the linguistic analogue of our ability to focus
 7.2 Language and conceptualization 239

our attention onto a narrow subset of the total visual or auditory stimuli
in our perceptual field, ignoring others, such as when we concentrate on
a single conversation in a loud restaurant, or follow the position of a ball
in a tennis match. The conceptualization underlying buy and sell, in other
words, differs only in what part is profiled.

Meaning as conceptual structure Most cognitivists share a rejection

of the dictionary–encyclopedia distinction (see 3.3): in the words of
Jackendoff (2002: 293), ‘we must consider the domain of linguistic
semantics to be continuous with human conceptualization as a whole’.
In other words, studying linguistic meaning is the same thing as study-
ing the nature of human conceptual structure – a cover-all term for our
‘thoughts, concepts, perceptions, images, and mental experience in
general’ (Langacker 1987: 98). The meaning of a word like house simply
is the concept we have of houses; as discussed in 3.3, any aspect of the
knowledge we have of houses can become linguistically relevant.
Cognitive approaches to semantics aim to describe the full knowledge
structures that are associated with the words of a language. As a result,
conceptualist descriptions of the meanings of words are considerably
more rich, complex and open-ended than in other varieties of semantic
analysis.

Rejection of the semantics–syntax distinction Just as language as a

whole is not seen as a distinct cognitive capacity in conceptualist frame-
works, so too the language-internal division between semantics and
syntax often recognized in linguistics is typically rejected. Evans and
Green (2006) identify a number of fundamental cognitive principles
which do not respect any division between these two domains: proto-
type effects, polysemy (4.3) and metaphor (see below), for example, seem
to exist not only in the domain of word meaning, but in morphology
and syntax as well. It has even sometimes been suggested that phono-
logical categories are prototypes. This is all taken as a reason not to
assume that syntax and semantics constitute different domains, and
that linguists will most fruitfully spend their time seeking explanatory
principles which apply across them all. (This problematization of the
syntax–semantics boundary is not unique to cognitive linguistics: it is
also characteristic of, for example, systemic functional grammar; see e.g.
Halliday and Matthiessen 2004.)

Rejection of the semantics–pragmatics distinction Cognitive linguis-

tics also typically rejects the distinction between a purely semantic level
of word meaning and a non-semantic level of language use. This means
that facts which in other frameworks might be attributed to inferences
based on literal meanings (see Chapter 4) are assumed to reflect aspects of
the actual, literal meaning of the words concerned. We will see in the sec-
tions that follow how this and the other related commitments of cogni-
tive semantics affect the analyses of semantic content proposed in these
frameworks.
240 MEANING AND COGNITION I

7.2.2 Idealized cognitive models

The conclusions of prototype research inspired much cognitivist reflec-
tion on meaning. Inspired by the work of Fillmore (1982), Lakoff (1987)
proposed that prototype effects are by-products of the fact that our knowl-
edge is organized into structures stored in long-term memory that he calls
idealized cognitive models (ICMs). The notion of ICM is meant to capture
the contribution of encyclopaedic knowledge to our understanding of
concepts. ICMs can be thought of as theories of particular subjects – the
implicit knowledge we have about the objects, relations and processes
named in language (Lakoff 1987: 45). Lakoff introduces the notion of ICMs
with the example of the English word Tuesday. The meaning of Tuesday, he
says, can only be represented by specifying the underlying knowledge
English speakers have of the organization of time into days and weeks,
and the place of Tuesday within this organization. This underlying knowl-
edge is the ICM evoked by Tuesday, and this ICM is what needs to be made
explicit in any explanation of the meaning of the word:

Tuesday can be defined only relative to an idealized cognitive model that

includes the natural cycle defined by the movement of the sun, the stan-
dard means of characterizing the end of one day and the beginning of
the next, and a larger seven-day calendric cycle – the week. In the ideal-
ized model, the week is a whole with seven parts organized in a linear
sequence; each part is called a day, and the third is Tuesday. Similarly,
the concept weekend requires a notion of a work week of five days fol-
lowed by a break of two days, superimposed on the seven-day calendar.
(Lakoff 1987: 68–69)

Lakoff refers to this underlying knowledge as ‘idealized’ since it is a

human construct: seven-day weeks are not objectively found in nature,
but are the product of human cultural organization. The idealized nature
of ICMs is what causes prototype effects. Consider the ICM behind the
word bachelor. Lakoff says that bachelor

is defined with respect to an ICM in which there is a human society with

(typically) monogamous marriage, and a typical marriageable age. The
idealized model says nothing about the existence of priests, ‘long-term
unmarried couplings’, homosexuality, Moslems who are permitted four
wives and only have three, etc. With respect to this idealized cognitive
model, a bachelor is simply an unmarried adult man. (1987: 70)

The ICM is out of step with the way the world actually is. As a result, some
‘unmarried men’ seem less good exemplars of the category BACHELOR than
others. But this isn’t because the category itself has a prototype structure.
It’s because the ICM clashes with the way the world actually is – the world
does contain priests, homosexuals, polygamists and so on. The cases which
we might describe as less prototypical bachelors are cases where there is
an incomplete correspondence between the world and the ICM.

The background conditions of the bachelor ICM rarely make a perfect

seamless fit with the world as we know it. Still we can apply the concept
 7.2 Language and conceptualization 241

with some degree of accuracy to situations where the background con-

ditions don’t quite mesh with our knowledge. And the worse the fit
between the background conditions of the ICM and our knowledge, the
less appropriate it is for us to apply the concept.
(Lakoff 1987: 71)
The result of this looks just like the cases of prototypicality described by
Rosch. But in this way of looking at things, categories are not defined in
terms of attributes or central tendencies. Categories are broad knowledge
structures, and words can be seen as points of access to them.

7.2.3 Embodiment and image schemas

Many cognitive semanticists stress the embodied nature of the concep-
tualizations underlying language. To say that a conceptualization is
embodied is to draw attention to its origin in basic physical experience.
Johnson (1987) pointed out that much language use reflects patterns in
our own bodily experience, particularly our perceptual interactions,
movements and manipulations of objects. Particularly basic patterns of
repeated experience give rise to the conceptual categories which
Johnson called image schemas, such as CONTAINMENT, SOURCE-PATH-GOAL,
FORCE, BALANCE and others. These ‘operate as organizing structures of our
experience and understanding at the level of bodily perception and
movement’ (Johnson 1987: 20), and thus also underlie the conceptual
categories deployed in language. For instance, from an early age we fre-
quently experience containment and boundedness, interacting with
containers of different sorts. The most important type of container with
which we interact is our own body, which functions as a container into
which we put things like food, water and air. We also experience physi-
cal containment in our surroundings, interacting with receptacles of
many sorts. These repeated patterns of spatial and temporal organiza-
tion give rise to the image schema of CONTAINMENT, which underlies the
linguistic representation of many scenes, and which Johnson diagrams,
very simply, as follows:

FIGURE 7.3
X The CONTAINMENT schema
(Johnson 1987: 23).

Our real-life experience of containers establishes the following pieces of

typical knowledge about containment:

• the experience of containment usually involves protection from or

resistance to external forces
• containment restricts the movement of whatever is in the container
• as a result, whatever is contained has a relatively fixed location – it is
in the container
242 MEANING AND COGNITION I

• the object in the container may be either visible or invisible to an

observer
• containment is transitive (see 5.1.2.). If A is in B, and C is in A, then C
is also in B.

Another important image schema is PATH:

FIGURE 7.4 A B
The PATH schema.

This image schema consists of a source point (A), an end point (B), and
a relation between them, which we can think of as a force moving from A
to B. Johnson claims that a structure like this underlies the understanding
of such diverse events as walking from one place to another, throwing a
ball to someone, hitting someone and giving someone a present. All these
situations are understood, he claims, as consisting of the same basic parts
and relations.
The CONTAINMENT and PATH schemas can be used to understand the
behaviour of prepositions like out. Typically, Johnson notes, out has been
taken to show a large variety of unrelated meanings, some of which are
exemplified in (1):

(1) a. John went out of the room.

b. Pump out the air.
c. Let out your anger.
d. Pick out the best theory.
e. Drown out the music.

(1a), for example, might be taken to exemplify a ‘physical motion’ sense,

(1b) and (1c) a literal and metaphorical ‘expulsion’ sense respectively, (1d)
a ‘choice’ sense, and (1e) a ‘removal from sensory field’ sense. However,
following Lindner (1983), Johnson claims that the meaning of out in all the
examples in (1) can be understood as relating to a combination of the path
and containment image schemas. Figure 7.5 is Johnson’s diagrammatic
representation of the meanings involved in (1):

LM
TR
FIGURE 7.5
Trajector-landmark struc-
ture for out1.

This scene involves an object labelled TR (trajector) moving along a path

from a position of containment within a bounded entity marked LM
(landmark). (‘Trajector’ and ‘landmark’ are alternative names for figure
 7.2 Language and conceptualization 243

and ground respectively; the trajector/figure is ‘a moving or conceptually

movable object whose path or site is at issue’; the landmark/ground is ‘a
reference-frame, or a reference-point stationary within a reference-frame,
with respect to which the Figure’s path or site is characterized’ (Talmy
1985: 61).) The claim is that this single structure underlies the diverse uses
of out in (1). The out of (1a), for example, obviously fits this diagram: in (1a),
John is the trajector, and the room is the landmark. But it can also,
Johnson claimed, be seen as underlying (1d) and (1e), apparently unrelated
usages. In (1d) the trajector is ‘the best theory’, and the landmark is the
set of theories from which it is being selected. Notice that this is not rep-
resented explicitly in the wording of (1d). But if we understand the mean-
ing of out in this context by reference to the image schema of contain-
ment, as diagrammed above, a landmark is revealed as an inherent aspect
of our understanding of the scene. Sentence (1d) thus represents a meta-
phorical application of the schemas, in which choice is assimilated to the
pattern of containment and motion. Sentence (1e) is also metaphorical,
and the landmark is once again implicit: here the trajector is the music,
which is made to leave an implicit region of audibility, the landmark.
Drowning the music out involves bringing it out of a position of audibility
into one of inaudibility.
The cases in (2) relate to the same image schemas of CONTAINMENT and
PATH, but are understood in a slightly different way, as diagrammed in
Figure 7.6:

LM
TR
FIGURE 7.6
Trajector-landmark struc-
ture for out2.

(2) a. Pour out the beans.

b. Roll out the red carpet.
c. Send out the troops.
d. Hand out the information.
e. Write out your ideas.

Here the path and containment schemas relate somewhat differently.

Instead of a single entity moving progressively further along a path from
a container towards an end point, we have an entity whose outside edge
progressively expands outwards from a position of containment. Unlike in
the previous case, the area between the container and the edge of the
trajector is taken up by a continuous quantity of the moving entity – think
of the beans being poured from a tin onto a plate. Once again, a variety of
apparently dissimilar forms is argued to correspond to a single image-
schematic structure.
244 MEANING AND COGNITION I

QUESTION Consider the following passage (Johnson 1987: 30–31).

You wake out of a deep sleep and peer out from beneath the covers into
your room. You gradually emerge out of your stupor, pull yourself out
from under the covers, climb into your robe, stretch out your limbs, and
walk in a daze out of the bedroom into the bathroom. You look in the
mirror and see your face staring out at you. You reach into the medicine
cabinet, take out the toothpaste, squeeze out some toothpaste, put the
toothbrush into your mouth, brush your teeth in a hurry, and rinse out
your mouth.
Can the uses of out here be described in the same way? How might we
describe the uses of in?
The type of diagrammatic representation seen in the discussion of out
has proved a popular means of indicating the different meanings of
prepositions. This means of representation was developed principally by
Langacker (1987) and Lakoff (1987). Here we will briefly give the flavour of
an influential analysis of the preposition over by Brugman and Lakoff, as
presented in Lakoff (1987: 416–461).
Lakoff distinguishes four basic senses of over, each of which receives a
diagrammatic representation. The first is the one found in clauses like the
plane is flying over the hill or the bullet passed over our heads, which Lakoff
represents as in Figure 7.7.

TR

FIGURE 7.7
Over: Schema 1. The LM
above-across sense.

The trajector (the plane/bullet) is conceived as on a path which

passes above and across the landmark (the hill/heads). The diagram
gives a concise abstract representation of the spatial configurations
involved.
The second sense of over is the stative above sense, as found in the helicop-
ter is hovering over the hill or the painting is over the fireplace. This is identical
to schema 1, except that it lacks the path component:

TR

FIGURE 7.8
Over: Schema 2. The LM
above sense.
 7.2 Language and conceptualization 245

A third sense of over is the covering sense, as in the blanket is over the bed.
Here the trajector is at least two-dimensional, and extends across the
edges of the landmark, as in Figure 7.9.

TR

FIGURE 7.9
Over: Schema 3. The
LM covering sense.

The final basic schema is the ‘reflexive’ schema, which occurs in such
uses as turn the paper over or roll the log over. Here we have the object moving
above and across itself, as illustrated in Figure 7.10.

TR = LM

FIGURE 7.10
Over: Schema 4. The
reflexive sense.

Each of these four basic senses can be specialized to cover a range of

subsenses. Consider the use of over in Sam walked over the hill. This is a spe-
cialization of schema 1, except that there is contact between the land-
mark (the hill) and the trajector (Sam). Similarly, Sam lives over the hill can
be treated as an instance of schema 1, but with the path as understood,
and a focus on the endpoint. Lakoff diagrams the image schema for this
as follows:

LM TR FIGURE 7.11
Variation on schema 1.

To say that Sam lives over the hill is to evoke the image of a trajector (Sam)
on one side of a landmark (the hill), and an imagined path which the
trajector has taken in order to arrive there. This representation accounts
for the fact that we use the same preposition for two quite different types
of situation, by associating both situations with fundamentally the same
trajector–landmark structure. Similarly, Lakoff proposes the image-
schema in Figure 7.12 to account for instances like I walked all over the hill:
246 MEANING AND COGNITION I

TR

FIGURE 7.12
Variation on schema 3. LM

This is a variation on the covering schema (Figure 7.9). Here, it is the path
taken by the trajector which ends up covering the landmark.
QUESTION What are some of the advantages and problems of diagram-
matic representations like these?
QUESTION Consider the following uses of over:

The ball landed over the wall.

The town is over the next hill.
Sam climbed over the wall.
Someone has stuck some cardboard over the hole in the ceiling.

Which image schematic sense of over do they belong to? How easy is it to
decide? Could any use ever belong to more than one sense?

7.2.4 Metaphor and metonymy

Some of the sentences discussed in the previous section involved meta-
phorical appearances of the image schemas of path and containment.
Metaphor is stressed in much cognitive semantics as ‘an inherent and
fundamental aspect of semantic and grammatical structure’ (Langacker
1987: 100). This contrasts with the more traditional view of metaphor as a
special, additional feature of particular utterances, associated with imagi-
native or artistic uses of language rather than with everyday speech. On
the traditional view of metaphor, metaphors are assumed not to reveal
anything fundamental about the nature of meaning. Metaphor was origi-
nally a category of literary and rhetorical analysis, not of linguistic
description (see e.g. Ricœur 1975). In contrast, a tradition of research inau-
gurated by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) has demonstrated the ubiquity of
metaphor in ordinary, everyday speech and claimed that it has a central
importance in language structure.
On the traditional view of metaphor, which goes right back to Aristotle,
metaphors are principally seen as a matter of (especially literary) usage.
On this understanding, metaphors assert a resemblance between two enti-
ties. Thus, the metaphor the holiday was a nightmare works because it
asserts a resemblance or similarity between the holiday and a nightmare.
Understanding the meaning of the metaphorical utterance involves iden-
tifying things which holidays and nightmares might hold in common,
such as being unpleasant. Metaphors like this are no more than isolated
usages which can only be discussed on a case-by-case basis: we should not
 7.2 Language and conceptualization 247

expect there to be any significant generalizations about metaphorical

usages.
Lakoff and Johnson (1980, Lakoff 1993) questioned this traditional view
on two grounds. First, they noticed that metaphor is much less excep-
tional and more widespread than is traditionally claimed. As an example
of the widespread nature of metaphor, consider some of the expressions
we use to talk about obligations:

(3) a. She’s loaded with responsibilities.

b. She shouldered the task with ease.
c. She’s weighed down with obligations.
d. She’s carrying a heavy load at work.
e. I have to get out from under my obligations.
f. I have a pressing obligation.
g. She bears the responsibility for the success of this mission.
h. We shouldn’t overload her.

Lakoff and Johnson noted that far from being unusual or atypical,
metaphorical utterances like those in (3) are actually the basic, ordinary
way in which obligations would be described in English. They also
observed that these expressions all express a common underlying idea,
which we could label OBLIGATIONS ARE PHYSICAL BURDENS. The sentences in
(3) all express this single underlying idea differently, but this diversity
should not obscure the fact that they all essentially make reference to
the same similarity between obligations and physical burdens. Lakoff
and Johnson observe that this systematicity is entirely characteristic of
metaphor crosslinguistically. We typically find a variety of ways in
which a single underlying metaphorical correspondence can be
expressed.
Second, Lakoff and Johnson propose that it is not simply a random lin-
guistic fact that English has so many expressions along the lines of (3).
There is a reason that obligations are described as though they were
physical burdens, and not in any other of the innumerable ways we could
dream up. This is that the very idea of obligation is conceptualized through
the idea of a physical burden: we actually think of, or conceptualize, obli-
gations, Lakoff and Johnson claim, through the idea of burdens. The con-
cept of assuming an obligation is structured on the analogy of the simpler
concept of carrying a physical burden. We explore this idea in the follow-
ing paragraphs.
The idea that some concepts can have metaphorical structure is referred
to by Lakoff and Johnson as the conceptual theory of metaphor. This
theory focuses on metaphor as a cognitive device which acts as a model to
express the nature of otherwise hard-to-conceptualize ideas. Lakoff and
Johnson’s claim rests on the idea that certain concepts lack independent
structure of their own. Obligations would be one example of this: on the
conceptual theory of metaphor, the concept of obligation inherits its
structure from the concept of physical burdens. There are three terms
which will help us to describe this process. The target concept – here,
248 MEANING AND COGNITION I

obligations – is the concept which is being understood metaphorically.

The vehicle concept – here, physical burdens – is the concept which
imposes its structure onto the target. On the conceptual metaphor theory,
we understand the target through the vehicle: the structure of the vehicle
concept shapes the structure of the target concept. This is usually
described by saying that the conceptual metaphor OBLIGATIONS ARE PHYSICAL
BURDENS maps our concept of obligation onto our concept of physical bur-
dens.
We can show the details of this mapping by lining vehicle and target up
as follows. The capitalized concepts in the target domain correspond to
those in the vehicle domain:

a. CARRYING PHYSICAL BURDENS requires the expenditure of energy and can

become tiring.
b. If the burden is too HEAVY, it is impossible to CARRY: if you do not
LOWER it, or DROP it, it will CAUSE YOU PHYSICAL DAMAGE.
c. DROPPING the physical burden may damage it.
d. The BURDEN may be TRANSFERRED to someone else.
e. In some cases its WEIGHT MAY BE LESSENED by removing some of its parts.

a. FULFILLING OBLIGATIONS requires the expenditure of energy and can

become tiring.
b. If the obligation is too ONEROUS it is impossible to FULFIL: if you do not FREE
YOURSELF OF IT, or RELINQUISH IT SUDDENLY, it will CAUSE YOU UNDUE STRESS.
c. SUDDENLY RELINQUISHING THE OBLIGATION may BE HARMFUL TO THOSE TO
WHOM THE OBLIGATION IS OWED.
d. The OBLIGATION may BE FULFILLED by someone else.
e. In some cases it may be made LESS ONEROUS by removing some of its
parts.

On the conceptual metaphor view, metaphor is a cognitive process

which helps us to conceptualize our experience by setting up correspon-
dences between easily understood things like burdens and hard to
understand things like obligations. A metaphorical mapping allows
knowledge about the metaphor’s vehicle domain to be applied to the
target in a way that fundamentally determines or influences the concep-
tualization of the target: metaphor is a cognitive operation first and
foremost.
To give another example, Lakoff identifies the connections between a
target concept, love, and the metaphorical vehicle used to conceptualize
it, the image of a journey. In the following paraphrase, the capitalized
concepts in the vehicle domain correspond to those in the target
domain:

Two TRAVELLERS are in a VEHICLE, TRAVELLING WITH COMMON DESTINATIONS.

The VEHICLE encounters some IMPEDIMENT and gets stuck, that is, becomes
nonfunctional. If the travellers do nothing, they will not REACH THEIR
DESTINATION.
 7.2 Language and conceptualization 249

Two LOVERS are in a LOVE RELATIONSHIP, PURSUING COMMON LIFE GOALS. The
RELATIONSHIP encounters some DIFFICULTY, which makes it nonfunctional. If
they do nothing, they will not be able to ACHIEVE THEIR LIFE GOALS.
(Lakoff 1993: 208)

In this instantiation, lovers correspond to travellers, the love relationship

corresponds to the vehicle, and the lovers’ common goals correspond to
their common destinations on the journey. The mapping is found in many
common English metaphors for love and the situation of lovers, especially
in times of difficulty: a relationship is stalled, lovers cannot keep going the
way they’ve been going, they must turn back. Alternatively, the participants in
the relationship may say look how far we’ve come, we can’t turn back now, we’re
at a cross-roads, or we may have to go our separate ways (Lakoff 1993: 206). Since
we actually use the concept of a journey in our reasoning about love, it is
not surprising that English has so many different expressions in which
journey-language is used to represent love. Treating metaphor as simply a
matter of linguistic usage misses this obvious generalization.

QUESTION What evidence might there be in English for the conceptual

metaphor TREATING AN ILLNESS IS FIGHTING A WAR?

On the conceptual theory of metaphor, metaphor is a deep-seated cogni-

tive process which can be used to understand the structural relations
between the meanings of lexical items. It is not the only such process,
however. Another important structural relation is the relation of meton-
ymy. In traditional rhetoric, metonymy is the figure of speech based on an
interrelation between closely associated terms – cause and effect, pos-
sessor and possessed, and a host of possible others. The common element
in metonymy is notion of contiguity: the things related by a metonymy
can be understood as contiguous to (neighbouring) each other, either
conceptually or in the real world. Here are some examples:

(4) a. Moscow has rejected the demands.

b. The kettle is boiling.
c. This cinema complex has seven screens.
d. I saw the doctor today.
e. My bags were destroyed by customs.

In (4a) we understand that Moscow refers to the Russian government. In

(4b) it isn’t the kettle itself, but the water inside it, which is boiling. In
(4c) the cinema is not claimed to just have seven screens: the speaker
means that it has seven separate auditoriums, each with its own screen.
In (4d) the speaker does not mean that they just saw the doctor: they mean
that they consulted the doctor. In (4e) it was not just the bags, but their
contents as well which were destroyed. In all these examples the high-
lighted word expresses something associated with its literal meaning: in
(a), a place stands for one of its salient institutions (the Russian govern-
ment), in (b) the container stands for the contents, in (e) the container
stands for the container and the contents, and in (c) an important part of
250 MEANING AND COGNITION I

the auditorium stands for the whole auditorium. Example (4d) is the ver-
bal equivalent of (4c): one event, seeing, stands for the wider event of which
it is part: having a medical appointment.
Notice the difference between metonymies and metaphors: in meta-
phor, there is a relation of mapping between two concepts, with the struc-
ture of one concept (JOURNEYS, PHYSICAL BURDENS) being imposed onto
another (LOVE, OBLIGATIONS). Metonymies do not serve to structure one con-
cept in terms of another: it is not possible to articulate the detailed map-
pings we established in the love and obligation cases. Instead, they draw
on the associations within a single conceptual ‘domain’, allowing one part
of a concept to convey another. We will see further examples of this in the
next section.

7.2.5 Radial categories in word meaning

Recall that cognitive semantics identifies meaning with conceptual
structure, the network of stored representations in our memory
involved in thought and language (see 1.6.2 for discussion). A word can
be seen as an entry point to a certain ‘region’ of our conceptual struc-
ture. Using the ideas discussed in the preceding sections, we can now
sketch the way in which cognitive semantics models the conceptual
knowledge structures underlying meaning. We will do this with the
English noun head.
The meaning of head depends on a specific aspect of our conceptual
structure: the underlying knowledge English speakers have about heads –
the ICM of head, in Lakoff’s terminology. This knowledge is, of course,
encyclopaedic, but this does not mean that everything we know about
heads is automatically evoked by every use of the noun head. Instead, an
occurrence of the word allows access to this idealized model, not all of
which will necessarily be relevant in any single context. What might
some of this knowledge be? Presumably, for most English speakers, the
ICM of head contains such information as the fact that the head is at the
top of the body, that it contains the brain, the fact that ears, eyes, mouth
and nose are located on it, the fact that it is mostly made of bone, that
thinking happens inside it, and so on (see 3.3 for a discussion of encyclo-
paedic information). Perhaps, as suggested by some investigators, one
aspect of the conceptualization associated with head (as with any other
non-abstract word) is a visual/spatial element, encoding such features as
the referent’s typical shape, colour and overall appearance ( Jackendoff
2002: 345–350).
The ICM of head determines the way in which ordinary sentences involv-
ing it are understood. For instance, we know that the expression shake
one’s head refers to a particular back and forth movement of the head,
rather than to an action in which one takes one’s head in one’s hands and
shakes it. Similarly, we know that if asked to turn one’s head we should turn
it horizontally from one side to another, not move it in a fixed circular
motion without allowing it to come to rest. Facts like these are part of our
understanding of head, and must therefore be represented in conceptual
structure.
 7.2 Language and conceptualization 251

Different aspects of this ICM may become relevant in different contexts.

For instance, the expressions in (5) call on the knowledge that the head is
where thinking occurs.

(5) to use one’s head

to lose one’s head
to be a hot head
to be off one’s head
to get one’s head around a problem/question/subject

Relatedly, (6) involves that part of the ICM which states that the head con-
tains ideas:

(6) He needs his head read.

Something has just popped into my head.
Calculus is over my head.
It’s amazing how you keep all those facts in your head.

The expressions in (7a) and (7b) highlight those parts of the head ICM
which represent the importance of the head in our understanding of ver-
tigo and alcohol consumption, respectively.

(7) a. a head for heights

b. a head for alcohol

That part of the head ICM specifying that the head consists of a hard layer
of skull enclosing the brains is relevant to the interpretation of (8):

(8) to have a thick head

Expression (9) appeals to our knowledge that the head is the location of
the main perceptual organs; if the head is buried, these obviously cannot
function:

(9) to bury one’s head in the sand

Expression (10) depends on the knowledge that the head is a highly salient
part of the body, and one which often serves to identify people:

(10) to keep one’s head down

Finally, our knowledge that a typical human head is covered with hair
allows us to correctly interpret the following expressions:

(11) head lice

a redhead

It should be clear that different facets of the head ICM may be relevant at
different times. On this approach to meaning, we do not need to conclude
252 MEANING AND COGNITION I

that the noun head has a large variety of distinct, polysemous senses (see
5.3), such as ‘location of perceptual organs’, ‘site of thought’, ‘part of body
from which scalp hair grows’, and so on. Instead, we simply posit that head
evokes a single ICM, and that different aspects of that ICM become rele-
vant or profiled in different contexts. Note also that the ICM is idealized. It
is modelled on the human head. The closer a creature’s head is to a human
head, the more appropriate it is to describe it as having a head. Thus,
there is nothing odd about describing monkeys, dogs, cats and many
other types of animal as having heads, whereas it seems more strained so
to describe the corresponding bodyparts of worms, whales, spiders, snails
and starfish.
We have not exhausted the uses of head in English, however. None of the
following uses can be explained with reference to the ICM we have just
described:

(12) a. head of the queue

b. head of a comet
c. head of a page
d. head of a hammer/axe
e. head of a department
f. head of a bed

Since the original ICM does not apply, we will describe these uses as
semantic extensions from it. These extensions can plausibly be analysed
as metaphors. In all of them, aspects of the head ICM are mapped onto
other domains. In (12a–d) the structure of the human body, with the head
at the top, is exploited metaphorically as a model for objects which do not
obviously have this structure. In (12e) we have a metaphorical use in
which the head’s control of the rest of the body serves as the foundation
for a metaphorical mapping onto an organization, while in (12f) the head–
foot structure of the human body is mapped onto the structure of a piece
of furniture.
Note that while it seems plausible to interpret the uses of head in (12 a–f)
as metaphorical mappings, this interpretation disguises many of the
uncertainties that surround the details of this process. Thus, (12a) may be
based on the image not of a human head, but on the head of a snake, or
perhaps a worm. Similarly, (12f) is no doubt partly due to the fact that
people lie in beds, providing a very obvious way of aligning the dimen-
sions of the two. It may not be simply the case that the structure of the
body is mapped onto the structure of the bed metaphorically; instead, we
might have a metonymy, in which head stands for the place at which the
head lies. In (12e), is the use of head motivated by the position of the head
at the top of the hammer or axe, or is it rather dependent on the separate
bulbous nature of heads?

QUESTION What are some possible motivations of the expressions head of

a valley and head of state? What evidence might be appealed to to substan-
tiate one particular analysis of these expressions over another?
 7.2 Language and conceptualization 253

Head also shows a number of clearly metonymic uses:

(13) a. . . . the Democrats would be well served to follow the advice of the wisest
heads in their caucus (www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?
id=1096414018)
b. The outbreak of the disease among animals has caused the death of 33
head of cattle, including three more today, according to reports reaching
here this afternoon. (www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050219/
himachal.htm)
c. Guests at the $70 per head seminar at Old Parliament House . . . were
greeted by 50 protesters . . . (www.greenleft.org.au/2006/689/35784)
d. How long have you been suffering these heads? – For months now . . . they
have become more frequent. (OED head 1d)

In (13a–c), head refers not simply to that body part alone, but to the whole
person or animal. In (13a), for instance, heads clearly conveys that the
Democrats should follow the advice of the wisest people in their caucus (cf.
(5) above). What we have here, then, is the use of a word denoting part of
a body to stand for the whole person: this part-for-whole relation is a clas-
sic metonymy, parallel to the use of screen for auditorium in (4b) above.
Exactly the same metonymy is present in (13c). In (13d), on the other hand,
the metonymic extension goes from the standard sense to the sense illness
of the head, headache, using the bodypart to stand for the pain experienced
in it.
Representing the meaning of head in English therefore involves a
detailed specification of the ICM underlying it, and of the metaphorical
and metonymic relations in which this ICM participates. Note that given
the ICM of head, we cannot predict what extended meanings it will take on.
However, once we know what these extended meanings are, we are able to
account for them economically in terms of metaphor and metonymy. This
type of analysis can be applied quite generally to the lexicon. This type of
structure, ‘where there is a central case and conventionalized variations
on it which cannot be predicted by general rules’, is called a radial struc-
ture by Lakoff (1987: 84). For head, the central case is represented by uses
consistent with the ICM described above, and the variations are the meta-
phoric and metonymic extensions we have discussed.
Note that some of the expressions involving head may be conventional-
ized or idiomatic: in other words, some of the collocations in which head
participates may be partly preformed or fossilized. This seems particularly
likely for expressions where the use of head is not productive, such as
head of cattle or redhead (cf. *head of poultry/fish, *blondehead/brownhead).
Conventionalization could be taken as evidence against the radial catego-
ries and metaphorical and metonymic extensions from them postulated
in cognitive semantics. The production and interpretation of expressions
like head of cattle, it might be argued, is not explained by these structures
at all; head of cattle and other conventionalized expressions are simply
listed in the lexicon as separate units. A cognitive semanticist could reply
that conventionalization like this in no way invalidates the notion of a
254 MEANING AND COGNITION I

radial category with senses being elaborated from the basis of a core ICM;
indeed, the gradual ‘freezing’ of various collocations into fixed expres-
sions and idioms is only to be expected. The analysis given above can be
taken to explain the origin of such expressions, as well as the process of
interpretation a hearer would have to go through in order to understand
the meaning on first exposure to the idiom. The explanatory contribution
of the radial category model is thus not committed to the idea that every
aspect of the ICM and extensions from it are freshly activated on every
occurrence of the noun. Nevertheless, the description we have given
allows a compendious and elegant representation of the conceptual links
between the different aspects of the word’s meaning and the extensions
which they undergo.
Question Consider the English nouns neck, mouth, eye, nose, arm and
back. Are their meanings amenable to a similar treatment to that of
head?

7.2.6 Problems with cognitive semantics

Cognitivist analyses of meaning focus on metaphor and metonymy, ency-
clopaedic meaning description and semantic extension, and enable a
much more detailed representation of semantic content than is possible
in more formal or componential approaches. The radial network models
and image-schema diagrams allow a rich description of meaning that
seems to make contact with perceptual and cultural aspects of language –
aspects which are easily left out in other types of analysis. In spite of these
attractions, however, cognitivist analyses of meaning have been criticized
for a number of reasons. We will consider three:

• the ambiguity of diagrammatic representations;

• the problem of determining the core meaning; and
• the indeterminate and speculative nature of the analyses.
Diagrams like those in Figures 7.3 and following have often been criticized
as inherently ambiguous. If the diagrams are to correctly indicate the
meanings of the prepositions, they must not be ambiguous with entirely
different concepts. This is exactly the same requirement we would place on
a verbal definition: if a definition of over is to be accepted, it must correctly
distinguish the meaning of over from that of other, non-synonymous
expressions. The diagrams in Figure 7.3 and following, however, fail to
meet this very requirement. For instance, consider Figure 7.8. This is pre-
sented as an explanation of the meaning of over, but there would seem to
be many other ways of taking it. For example, how do we know that it is
not intended as a representation of the verb hover? Any theory which rep-
resented over and hover as having identical meanings should surely be
rejected. In a similar spirit, Figure 7.10 seems just as suited as a representa-
tion of the words round or curve as it does of the reflexive sense of over. The
problem here is that the highly abstract nature of the diagrams allows
them to apply well beyond their intended range. Over does not have
the same meaning as hover, round or curve, yet the representations can be
 7.2 Language and conceptualization 255

interpreted as referring to these concepts. This is clearly an indication that

there is more to the meanings than can be captured in a visual format. If
image schemas are advanced as underlying the use of terms like over, the
diagrammatic representations we give of them seem not to go nearly far
enough in bringing out the full details of the meanings involved.
Another problem concerns the radial model of category structure dis-
cussed in 7.2.5. The main cognitivist model assumes a central meaning
which serves as a basis for various metaphorical and metonymic exten-
sions from it. The problem here is that it is often hard to pin down
exactly what the nature of this basic core meaning is and, as a result,
exactly when we have a metonymic or metaphorical extension from it.
For example, consider the metonymies in (13a) and (13d) above. In (13a),
for instance, what makes us so sure that we have a metonymic extension
from the basic head ICM? How do we know that this ICM excludes the
interpretation ‘thinking people’ that seems active in this context? After
all, it is part of the broad knowledge we have of heads that they come
attached to people. Similarly, in (13d), can we be certain that the inter-
pretation ‘headache’ results from a metonymic extension? We know that
people often suffer from pains in the head; why should this information
be considered as an extension from the basic head ICM, and not part of
it?
Lastly, cognitivist theories are often criticized for their arbitrary and
speculative character. The model of categorization proposed in cognitive
semantics is offered as a psychologically realistic model of conceptualiza-
tion, but has not yet been subjected to significant psychological experi-
mentation, although this is beginning (Boroditsky 2000; Boroditsky &
Ramscar 2002; Matlock et al. 2005). The analyses have largely been based
on linguistic evidence – a problematic state of affairs for a theory which
wants to develop a psychologically realistic model. Kamp and Reyle point
to the circularity of any attempt to explain meaning (‘content’) by way of
the mental representations lying behind uses of language:
it won’t do to base whatever one has to say about mental representations
of content solely on what can be learned from studying the linguistic
expressions through which these contents are publicly expressed, and
then to offer mental representation as explaining the content of the
corresponding expressions of the public language.
(Kamp and Reyle 1993: 10)
In other words, since the main evidence for the nature of the underlying
representations (ICMs, image schemas, etc.) is language itself, we have no
independent means of checking that the putative representations are in
fact psychologically realistic! If we want to explain the meanings of words
in a psychologically realistic way, we need to do more than simply develop
a theory which fits the evidence of the words themselves: there is a crucial
additional step, which is to look for non-linguistic evidence of conceptual-
izations, and to conduct and develop experimental ways of testing the
models advanced in linguistics. Without this experimental, psychologi-
cally grounded work, much about the theory seems unmotivated, and
256 MEANING AND COGNITION I

there is little to stop theorists developing models in a psychological vac-

uum, with nothing other than quite general hunches about what a psy-
chologically realistic model of the mind should look like. Lakoff’s analysis
of over, for instance, has spawned a huge amount of discussion and alter-
native models (Vandeloise 1990, Dewell 1994, Kreitzer 1997, Tyler and
Evans 2001), with, as yet, no clear way of discriminating between them.
Clearly, the development of psychological or other means of testing cogni-
tive semantics models would be welcome. In the meantime, many cogni-
tivists would probably acknowledge that these concerns are challenges for
the model. But they might also counter that the benefits of the approach –
rich meaning description – are more than reason enough to pursue the
programme in the hope of resolving any outstanding problems.

Summary Two views of categorization

Categorization is a fundamental psychological process: the human
mind can class different things in the world in the same category, and
denote them with a single term. Since words can be seen as the names
of categories, categorization has been a major focus of investigations of
word meaning. Linguists and psychologists typically contrast two views
of categorization:

• the classical view, on which membership of a given category is an

either-or property, with no in-between cases. For example, on the
classical view, something either is or is not a flower, or a lie, or red.
• the prototype view, on which a category is structured in terms of a
central tendency. On this view, categories like FLOWER, LIE or RED each
have more and less central (prototypical) members.

Problems with classical categorization

The classical view of categorization is rejected by many semanticists
since it seems unable to account for basic semantic phenomena, such
as the following:

• There are categories in which some members are better exemplars

of the category than others.
• There are categories in which the boundaries of membership are
not clear-cut: it is not always possible to say whether or not some-
thing is a member of the category.

Problems with prototype categorization

The prototype view is certainly able to account for these facts, but is
open to several questions and problems:

• how do we identify the relevant attributes in a category?

• how can we account for the boundaries of prototype categories?
• how much of the vocabulary is structured according to prototype
categories?
 Summary 257

• prototype semantics may simply absolve the semanticist from the

serious effort of lexical description
• the evidence for prototypes may be metalinguistic in nature
Cognitivist approaches to semantics
Cognitivist approaches to semantics are directly inspired by prototype
theory. These approaches have four important commitments:

• an identification between meaning and conceptual structure

• a rejection of the syntax–semantics distinction
• a rejection of the semantics–pragmatics distinction
• a rejection of a modular approach to language
ICMs and image schemas
A central notion in cognitive semantics is that linguistic meaning
depends on encyclopaedic knowledge structures stored in long-term
memory. Lakoff (1987) calls these idealized cognitive models (ICMs),
and sees prototype effects as explained by them. ICMs can be thought
of as theories of particular subjects – the implicit knowledge we
have about the objects, relations and processes named in language.
The knowledge structures typically involve image schemas, such as
CONTAINMENT, SOURCE-PATH-GOAL, FORCE, BALANCE and so on. These are
organizing structures of our experience and understanding at the
level of bodily perception and movement. They are usually represented
diagrammatically. Image schemas are particularly useful as representa-
tions of the meanings of prepositions.

Metaphor
Metaphor is stressed in much cognitive semantics as an inherent
aspect of language structure. Cognitive semantics shows that meta-
phor is not the exception in language: metaphorical ways of talking
are just as widespread as ‘literal’ ones. The normal way of referring
to many domains of meaning, such as that of obligation in English,
is metaphorical. Lakoff and Johnson’s conceptual theory of meta-
phor proposes that metaphor is a cognitive process which helps us to
conceptualize our experience by setting up correspondences between
easily understood things like burdens and hard to understand things
like obligations. A metaphorical mapping allows knowledge about the
metaphor’s source or vehicle domain (burdens) to be applied to the tar-
get (obligations) in a way that fundamentally determines or influences
the conceptualization of the target.

Metonymy
Another important cognitive process is metonymy: the concepts relat-
ed by a metonymy can be understood as contiguous to (neighbouring)
each other, either conceptually or in the real world.
258 MEANING AND COGNITION I

Semantic extension and radial categories

Metaphor and metonymy constitute the principal mechanisms of
semantic extension, as seen in expressions like head of a queue, head of
cattle and so on. This type of structure, where there is a central case
and conventionalized variations on it which cannot be predicted by
general rules, is called a radial structure. For head, the central case is
represented by uses consistent with the ICM described above, and the
variations are the metaphoric and metonymic extensions.

Problems with cognitive semantics

Cognitive approaches to semantics have proven very popular, but can
be criticized for three main reasons:

• the ambiguity of diagrammatic representations

• the problem of determining a lexical item’s core meaning, and
• the indeterminate and speculative nature of the analyses.

Further Reading
Aarts et al. (2004) conveniently collect some key texts on linguistic categorization, along with a useful intro-
duction. On problems with classical categorization, see Cruse (1990) and Vandeloise (1990). Rosch (1978)
is a very clear summary of prototype research. See Geeraerts (1988) and Bärenfänger (2002; in German)
for discussion of some of the ambiguities of prototype theory from the point of view of linguistics. See Prinz
(2002: Chapter 3) for more general problems. Ross and Makin (1999) compare prototype and exemplar
models of categorization. Taylor (2003) and (2002) are comprehensive outlines of issues in categorization
and cognitive linguistics respectively. Lakoff (1993) concisely presents conceptual metaphor theory, as updat-
ed since the classic works in Lakoff and Johnson (1980) and Lakoff (1987); see Evans and Green (2006:
Chapter 9) for a survey of subsequent developments and a useful discussion of metonymy, as well as
Rakova (2003), Haser (2005) and Riemer (2005) for criticisms. There is a vast bibliography on metaphor;
Goatly (1997) and Knowles and Moon (2006) are recent works. Rakova (2003) discusses metaphor and
polysemy research in cognitive linguistics. The journal Mind & Language devoted its volume 21:3 (2006) to
pragmatic work on metaphor.

Exercises
Questions for discussion
1. Construct an analysis of the semantics of under using image-schematic
diagrams like those of 7.2.3. How many different senses need to be pos-
ited? What is the justification for doing so? Some of the uses of under to
consider are

The car went under the bridge.

The rug is under the table.
The wall is under the painting.
under a hot sun
He put the box under his arm.
He wore socks under his shoes.
 Exercises 259

Run a burn under water.

There are monsters under the sea.
Compare these uses to beneath and underneath. What are the differ-
ences between the prepositions?
2. Consider the sentence I’d had a bit to drink the previous night . . . and
then I crashed. Crash seems to be a cardinal example of a metaphor.
What is its vehicle domain? How precisely can this be specified?
3. Consider this short example of journalistic prose:

Rose Shaffer’s heart attack taught her a lot of things that, as a nurse, she
should have known. She learnt it pays to eat carefully and exercise regu-
larly. And she learnt the hard way that if you cannot afford medical insur-
ance, you better hope you don’t get sick. (Julian Borger ‘Land where call-
ing an ambulance is first step to bankruptcy’ The Guardian (UK), Tuesday
4 November 2003.)

Which words are used metaphorically, and which literally? What are the
vehicle domains of the metaphors? What are the target domains? Discuss
any problems you encounter in trying to decide.
4. Consider the following use of ahead of, which is common in journalistic
prose:

Ahead of results on Monday Barclays Bank shed 5p to 351p. (OED

ahead 6b. 1982 Times 27 Feb. 13/2)

Explore the metaphorical aspects of this expression. Can you relate it to

other metaphors in English?
5. Look up the French preposition chez in a French–English dictionary, and
list its principal meanings.
Propose a radial-category interpretation of the underlying semantics of
this term. Are image-schematic diagrams like those in 7.2.3 suitable as a
means of representing its meanings?
What, if any, are the problems involved in doing this if one is not a
native speaker of French?
6. English get is a highly polysemous verb which appears in many differ-
ent contexts. Consult the Oxford English Dictionary for as many exam-
ples of get as you can find that date from 1900 on. Is it possible to
propose a single core meaning for this word from which other senses
are derived by metaphor and metonymy? (Note: there is no single, sim-
ple answer to this question. It is designed to get you thinking about the
problems and possibilities of semantic analysis in the radial category
model.)
7. Consider the difference between Lakoff’s ‘above’ and ‘covering’ schemas
for over (Figures 7.8 and 7.9 above). Is there a case for combining these
into a single schema? What would be gained by this move? What would
be lost? What evidence, if any, could we bring to bear on the question?
8. Ask three people to write down as many examples as they can of the fol-
lowing categories in one minute: tool, sport, accident, vegetable.
How would you determine which members of each category, if any,
are the most prototypical? What might the attributes be on which proto-
typicality is based?
260 MEANING AND COGNITION I

9. Read Searle’s 1979 essay on metaphor in Ortony’s 1993 anthology, list-

ed in the bibliography. Write a rebuttal of Searle’s theory of metaphor
from Lakoff’s perspective.
10. A recent Australian road-safety campaign used the slogan if you’re ham-
mered, expect to get nailed (i.e. ‘if you’re drunk, expect to get arrested’).
Do these expressions belong to any wider conceptual metaphors?
11. Consider the following sentences:
The bookshop holds over 1 million titles.
Upstairs for hotel and backpackers. [Sign]
Since Beijing, the Olympics have got even more popular.
The italicized words would traditionally be considered as examples
of metonymy. Explain why, and for each example try to identify other
metonymies with similar conceptual bases.
12. How might the adoption of a radial category model of word meaning
solve the problem of contextual modulation of meaning discussed in
2.2.4?
 CHA PT E R

8 Meaning and
cognition II:
formalizing and
simulating
conceptual
representations

CHAPTER PREVIEW
In the previous chapter we looked at some proposals about the types of cogni-
tive operation that underlie semantic ability. In this chapter, we examine some
attempts to formalize and model the conceptual representations involved in lan-
guage. In 8.1 we examine Jackendoff’s conceptual semantics, a theory about
the cognitive structures behind language and the modes of their interaction. This
is followed by a discussion of the treatment of meaning in computational linguis-
tics, which uses computer models of language as an aid to understanding the
mental processes involved in language production and understanding (8.2). We
will concentrate on the aspects of computational linguistics which give insight
into the nature of the task of meaning-processing. We specifically look at
WordNet, an online lexical database, at the problems of word-sense disambig-
uation, and at Pustejovsky’s solution to this in his model of qualia structure.
262 MEANING AND COGNITION II

8.1 Conceptual semantics

Jackendoff’s Conceptual Semantics framework is an important approach
to meaning ( Jackendoff 1983, 1990, 1991, 2002, 2007). Conceptual Semantics
shares a key commitment with the cognitivist approaches we looked at in
the last chapter: Jackendoff rejects any distinction between meaning and
conceptualization, stating (2002: 282) that ‘we must consider the domain
of linguistic semantics to be continuous with human conceptualization as
a whole’. As a result, Jackendoff aims to situate semantics ‘in an overall
psychological framework, integrating it not only with linguistic theory but
also with theories of perception, cognition, and conscious experience’
(1990: 2). Conceptual Semantics differs from Cognitivist approaches, how-
ever, in two important ways.

• It is committed to a strict distinction between syntax and semantics.

Conceptual Semantics is designed to be compatible with generative
grammar, one of whose tenets is an autonomous level of syntactic
organization. Consistent with this, Jackendoff sees linguistic ability as
involving an interface between conceptualization on the one hand
and phonology and syntax on the other.
• It uses a formalism, rather than the somewhat vague diagrams and similar
notational conventions deployed in cognitivist semantics. (See Jackendoff
1990: 16 for discussion of more differences between the approaches.)

Both of these features will be discussed more below.

8.1.1 Concepts and decomposition

Like many semantic theories, Jackendoff claims that a decompositional
method is necessary to explore conceptualization. Just as one of the ways
a physical scientist tries to understand matter is by breaking it down into
progressively smaller parts, so a scientific study of conceptualization pro-
ceeds by breaking down, or decomposing, meanings into smaller parts.
Clearly, however, this decomposition cannot go on forever: we must ‘reach
bottom’ at some stage. This is the level of conceptual structure, the level
of mental representations which encode the human understanding of the
world, containing the primitive conceptual elements out of which mean-
ings are built, plus their rules of combination. Just as generative syntax
posits a finite set of syntactic categories and rules for combining them, so
Conceptual Semantics posits ‘a finite set of mental primitives and a finite
set of principles of mental combination’ governing their interaction
(Jackendoff 1990: 9). Jackendoff refers to this set of primitives and the
rules governing them as the ‘grammar of sentential concepts’ ( Jackendoff
1990: 9). His starting point is a close analysis of the meanings of lexemes,
dedicated to bringing out parallelisms and contrasts which reveal the
nature of the conceptual structures underlying them. What his method
shows, he says, is that the psychological organization on which meaning
rests ‘lies a very short distance below the surface of everyday lexical items –
and that progress can be made in exploring it’ (1991: 44).
 8.1 Conceptual semantics 263

Since the primitives revealed by decomposition are designed to charac-

terize thought, they are universal, not language-specific ( Jackendoff 1991:
11). They are also not in themselves meaningful. This is a major point of
difference between Jackendoff’s approach and many others, including
Wierzbicka’s NSM (2.5) or those discussed in the previous chapter.
Jackendoff draws a parallel between semantic and phonological analysis
to explain this aspect of his system. In the analysis of phonology, we start
with a level of ordinary words. This level is decomposed into a level of
phonemes like English /k/, /i:/, /w/, etc., most of which cannot be words in
their own right. This level of phonemes is then decomposed into a further,
more abstract level of phonological features ([± voice], [± coronal], etc.).
None of these features can constitute a word; furthermore, none can even
be independently pronounced. Semantic decomposition for Jackendoff
shows a similar logic. We start with the actual meanings of whole words.
But when we break these meanings down, we soon ‘find layers of struc-
ture whose units cannot individually serve as possible word meanings’
(Jackendoff 2002: 335). This has important methodological consequences:
it means that we must instead develop a set of technical primitives to anal-
yse word-meanings with. The words of ordinary language are not them-
selves basic enough.
As a sample of the type of analysis done in Conceptual Semantics, con-
sider the analysis of the sentence Bill went into the house. This has the syn-
tactic structure shown in (1), and the underlying conceptual structure
given in (2):

(1) [S [NP Bill] [VP [V went] [PP [P into] [NP the house]]]]

(2) [EVENT GO ([THING BILL], [PATH TO ([PLACE IN ([THING HOUSE])])])]

The square brackets in (2) identify the sentence’s conceptual con-

stituents – the actual ‘bits’ of meaning or semantic content which the
sentence expresses. Each of these constituents can be assigned to a
major ontological category, such as Thing, Event, State, Action, Place,
Path, Property and Amount, coded in subscript capitals. Jackendoff
describes these ontological categories as conceptual ‘parts of speech’.
Just as parts of speech like Noun, Verb and Adjective constitute a con-
strained set of categories to which words can be assigned on the basis
of distributional criteria (see 9.1.2.1), so the ontological categories con-
stitute the major groupings to which our concepts can be assigned on
the basis of what they mean. Each major syntactic category in (1) cor-
responds to a conceptual constituent: the NPs Bill and the house corre-
spond to Thing slots in the conceptual structure, the verb went corre-
sponds to the Event slot, the prepositional phrase into the house corresponds
to the Path slot.
Each conceptual category can, like logical predicates (see 6.4), take argu-
ments – other elements of conceptual content which have to be inserted
into positions in the formalism in order to make them complete. Every
argument belongs to one of the major conceptual categories. This is illus-
trated in (3):
264 MEANING AND COGNITION II

(3) a. John is tall.

[STATE BE ([THING JOHN], [PROPERTY TALL])]

b. John loves Mary.

[STATE LOVE ([THING JOHN], [THING MARY])]

c. Nina went into the room.

[EVENT GO ([THING NINA], [PATH TO ([PLACE IN ([THING ROOM])])])]

As these decompositions illustrate, the conceptual structure of a lexical

item is an element with zero or more open argument slots, which are filled
by the syntactic complements of the lexical item: is in (3a) expresses the
major conceptual category State, whose arguments are found in the subject
( John) and predicate adjective position (tall); love in (3b) also expresses a State-
function, with the arguments supplied by the grammatical subject ( John)
and object (Mary); went in (3c) expresses an Event-function whose arguments
are the subject Nina and the path phrase into the room and so on.
Let’s concentrate on (3c). Jackendoff (1991: 13) gives the following expla-
nation of the formalism. The capitalized expressions denote conceptual
content. (NINA and ROOM are left unanalysed for the moment, though we
assume that each does have a conceptual analysis which will need to be
given for the theory to be complete.) The other three elements are the ‘func-
tions’ IN, TO and GO. IN is a one-argument function: it maps a single object
(here, the room) into a region or place that encompasses the interior of that
object. TO is also a one-argument function: it maps a Thing or Place into a
Path that terminates at that Thing or Place. Thus the constituent ‘[PATH TO
([PLACE IN ([THING ROOM])])]’ in (3c) can be read roughly as ‘a trajectory that
terminates at the interior of the room’. GO is a two-argument function that
maps a Thing and a Path into an Event consisting of the Thing traversing
the Path. Thus the entire Event in (3c) can be read roughly as ‘Nina traverses
a path that terminates at the interior of the room’.
Recall that Jackendoff’s framework presupposes a strict division between
syntax and semantics. This means that a mechanism is needed in order to
associate the conceptual structure in (3c) with its syntactic realization. This
is accomplished by the lexical entries of into and go, given in (4), which each
contribute part of the overall conceptual structure ( Jackendoff 1991: 14):

(4) a. ⎡ into ⎤ (phonological structure)

⎢ ⎥ (syntactic
t struc
r ture)
⎢ P ⎥
⎢ [path TO ([place IN ([thing])])] ⎥ (conceptual structure)
⎣ ⎦

⎡ ⎤ (phonological structure)
b. ⎢ go ⎥ (syntactic structure)
⎢ V ⎥
⎢ [event GO ([thing], [path])] ⎥ (conceptual structure)
⎣ ⎦

The bottom line gives the LCS (Lexical conceptual structure) associated
with each lexical item. The conceptual structure of go includes a Path
slot as one of its arguments; this allows the Path element of (4a) to be
 8.1 Conceptual semantics 265

incorporated into it; adding the subject argument into the first Thing
position generates the full conceptual structure as given in (3c).

8.1.2 Developing conceptual semantics analyses

How are Conceptual Semantics analyses like these developed? As with any
empirical investigation, there are no hard and fast rules. One simply starts
with whatever presents itself – interesting questions, hunches, or existing
analyses which seem to provide a promising starting point for further
investigation. One such existing analysis is provided by the data in (5)–(8).
In the spirit of Gruber (1965), Jackendoff points to the fact that there are
apparent parallelisms in the use of the verbs go, be and keep and the
prepositions to and from across four different semantic domains: spatial
location and motion, possession, property-ascription and activity-schedul-
ing (examples adapted from Jackendoff 1990: 25–26):

(5) Spatial location and motion

a. The bird went from the ground to the tree.
b. The bird is in the tree.

(6) Possession
a. The inheritance went to Philip.
b. The inheritance is Philip’s.

(7) Ascription of properties

a. The light went from green to red.
Harry went from elated to depressed.
b. The light is red.
Harry is depressed.

(8) Scheduling of activities

a. The meeting has gone from Tuesday to Monday.
b. The meeting is on Monday.

These sentences show the same verbs and prepositions operating in intui-
tively similar ways across the four semantic domains. Concentrating sim-
ply on the verbs, the sentences with go (the (a) sentences in (5)–(8)) express
a change of some sort, with the end points of the change being expressed
by sentences using the verb be (the (b) sentences).
In order to capture these intuitive similarities, Jackendoff claims that
go and be each realize an identical conceptual meaning across all the sen-
tences in which they appear. He expresses these identical conceptual
meanings with the following formalism:

(9) a. ⎡ FROM ([ ]) ⎤
[EVENT
N GO ([ ], ⎢ ⎥ )]
⎢⎣ PATH TO ([ ]) ⎥⎦

b. [STATE BE ([ ], [PLACE ])]

266 MEANING AND COGNITION II

Inserting the content from (5), we get the following structure:

(10) a.
⎡ FROM ([THING GROUND]) ⎤
[EVENT
V R ,⎢
GO ([THING BIRD] ⎥ )
⎢⎣ PATH TO ([THING GROUND]) ⎥⎦

b. [STATE BE ([THING BIRD], [PLACE IN ([THING TREE])])]

The important claim that Jackendoff makes about this analysis is that it
also applies to all the other (a) and (b) sentences. The scheduling examples,
for instance, are represented as in (11):

(11) a. ⎡ Y ⎤
FROM ([THING TUESDAY])
[EVENT
V GO ([THINGG MEETING], ⎢ ⎥ )]
⎢⎣ PATH TO ([THING MONDAY])
Y ⎥⎦

b. [STATE BE ([THING MEETING], [PLACE ON ([THING MONDAY])])]

The other examples can be given similar analyses. All that differentiates
them is a semantic field feature that specifies whether the concepts are
applying to possession, property-ascription, motion, or whatever. (The
change of semantic field also introduces variations in the expression of
the Place argument: in (5b) and (8b) it is expressed by a prepositional
phrase headed by in and on respectively; in (6b) by a possessive noun
phrase (Philip’s) and in (7b) by an adjective phrase. These variations have to
be explained by other mechanisms, which do not affect the point relevant
here.)
What is the advantage of this representation? Here is Jackendoff’s own
explanation:

The point is that at this grain of analysis the four semantic fields have
a parallel conceptual structure. They differ only in what counts as an
entity being in a Place. In the spatial field, a Thing is located spatially; in
possessional, a Thing belongs to someone; in ascriptional, a Thing has a
property; in scheduling, an Event is located in a time period.
This notation captures the lexical parallelisms in [(5)–(6)] neatly. The
different uses of the words go, . . . be, . . . , from, and to in (6) are distin-
guished only by the semantic field feature, despite the radically different
sorts of real-world events and states they pick out. (1990: 26)

BE and GO are core functions in the conceptual organization of events.

Two other important ones are INCH and CAUSE. To illustrate them, let’s
consider the three sentences in (12).

(12) a. The door was open.

b. The door opened.
c. John opened the door.

Sentence (12a) is the conceptually simplest, consisting simply of the state

function BE with Thing and Property arguments, as diagrammed in (13):
 8.1 Conceptual semantics 267

(13) [STATE BE ([THING DOOR], [PROPERTY OPEN])]

To obtain (12b), we add the INCH function. This stands for ‘Inchoative’
(Latin: ‘beginning’), and denotes the coming into being of an event. The
door opened thus receives the following analysis:

(14) [EVENT INCH ([STATE BE ([THING DOOR], [PROPERTY OPEN])])]

To get (12c), we can add the CAUS function. This stands for ‘causative’. John
opened the door is analysed as simply involving the addition of this function
to the previous structure:

(15) [EVENT CAUSE ([THING JOHN], [EVENT INCH ([STATE BE ([THING DOOR], [PROPERTY OPEN])])])]

As we have seen, this is one of the attractions Jackendoff claims for

Conceptual Semantics analysis: the fact that primitives postulated for one
area of meaning turn out to have a wide explanatory potential (1991: 42).
We will end this short description of the framework by considering two
other examples of this.
The first concerns the parallelism between the plural of nouns (mice,
committees, funfairs), and iterative uses of verbs like those in (16):

(16) The light flashed for ten seconds.

Here flashed can only be understood as indicating a repeated series of individ-

ual flashes. It has often been observed that this ‘iterative’ meaning can be
compared to the meaning of the plural in nouns: in both cases there is a mul-
tiplicity of entities – several mice, committees, funfairs; and several separate
flashes. Jackendoff therefore proposes that plural and repetitive meanings
correspond to the same element in conceptual structure, which he represents
as PL. When added to a Thing element, PL creates a multiplicity of things,
when added to an Event element, it creates a multiplicity of events (1991: 16).
A more complex example (1991: 31) also concerns a conceptual corre-
spondence between spatial and temporal domains. Jackendoff proposes a
4-place dimensionality feature DIM which represents the conceptual
underpinnings of dimensionality. Points are conceptualized as DIM 0D,
lines/curves as DIM 1D, surfaces as DIM 2D, and volumes as DIM 3D.
Consider line-like entities like roads, rivers, or ribbons. Jackendoff analyses
our conceptualization of their spatial qualities as involving two DIM speci-
fications. The most basic specification is DIM 1D: this expresses the concep-
tualization we have of such entities as single lines. (This conceptualization
is reflected in the way rivers are represented on maps, for example.) But
there is also a secondary dimension, the lateral cross-section dimension.
This is the dimension which we attend to when we cross a road or river, or
cut a ribbon. The two dimensions are shown in Figure 8.1.
primary
dimension
FIGURE 8.1
Primary and secondary
secondary dimensions of a line/
dimension curve.
268 MEANING AND COGNITION II

The primary dimension may be conceptualized as bounded, as in a

particular length of ribbon, or unbounded, as in a road that we think of
as continuing indefinitely. The secondary dimension, by contrast, is
always bounded: a ribbon has an edge, a road has a side, and rivers have
banks. Boundedness is coded by the feature [±b]. There is also a feature
[±i], which refers to ‘internal structure’ – whether or not the entity con-
sists of a ‘multiplicity of distinguishable individuals’ ( Jackendoff 1991:
19). Aggregates (the entities usually expressed by plural nouns) will be
[+i], singular nouns and nouns for substances (entities normally expressed
by mass nouns), will be [–i] (1991: 19–20). This gives us the following
specification for the conceptual structure underlying the nouns road,
river and ribbon in the singular. The inner brackets refer to the secondary
dimension:

(17) ⎡ ±b, −i ⎤
⎢ ⎥
road, river, ribbon ⎢ DIM 1D ⎥
⎢ ⎡+b, −i ⎤ ⎥
⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎣DIM 1D ⎦ ⎥⎦

Adding the [PL] operator has the function of changing the [i] value in the
outer bracket to positive.
The dimensionality feature is not limited to space: it can be extended to
time. Points in time (midnight, the moment I realized my mistake) and point-
events (the light turned on, they blinked, the climber reached the summit) are
[DIM 0D]. Periods of time and states and events with duration are [DIM 1D].
Space and time, on this picture, are thus represented by identical concep-
tual primitives.
Any one-dimensional entity can also have a direction, which Jackendoff
represents with the feature [DIR]. Ordinary lines, for example, which are direc-
tionless, lack this feature, but arrows and vectors possess it. The direction fea-
ture allows us to generalize between Places and Paths, which we introduced
above as two of the major conceptual categories in Jackendoff’s system. Paths
are conceptualizations like from the starting line to the finish or to the lighthouse:
these are one-dimensional and directional, coded as [DIM 1D DIR]. Places, con-
trastingly, are non-directional, and can be regions of any dimensionality: at this
point is zero-dimensional, along the line is one-dimensional, in the circle two-
dimensional and in the cup three-dimensional (Jackendoff 1991: 31).
Jackendoff then applies a similar analysis to events and states. Here are
his own words:

I would like to extend this, a little speculatively, to the relation between

Events and States. States like X is red or X is tall are conceptualized as
‘just sitting there’ – they have no inherent temporal structure. . . . Events,
by contrast, do have an inherent temporal structure which proceeds in a
definite direction. I would like to suggest therefore that the two catego-
ries be combined into a supercategory called Situation, with States as
the undirected case and Events as the directed case. (1991: 31)
 8.1 Conceptual semantics 269

He summarizes this as follows:

⎡ P E ⎤
SPAC
[ ]= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ − DIR ⎦
⎡ SPAC
P E ⎤
[ ]= ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ DIM ID DIR⎥⎦
⎡ I UATION ⎤
SITU
[ ]= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ − DIR ⎦
⎡ SITU ON ⎤
I UATIO
[ ]= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ DIR ⎦

This representation shows the same characteristics as the other examples

we have seen – it posits a small number of abstract conceptual constituents
which underlie an apparently divergent range of different meanings.

8.1.3 Problems with conceptual semantics

Jackendoff’s system could be criticized for precisely this feature: its highly
abstract primitives. These may permit interesting connections to be made
between apparently unrelated meanings, but how justified are we in
believing that these connections are cognitively real? Clearly, the more
abstract the conceptual primitives we propose, the greater the number of
possible connections between domains we can make. This is a similar
criticism to the criticism of arbitrariness earlier made against cognitive
semantics (7.2.6). What guarantee do we have, for instance, that a concep-
tual feature like [PL] really exists? In its current early state, the theory
seems somewhat arbitrary and unconstrained: the investigator simply
looks for plausible underlying conceptual structures, but there are no
clear procedures for determining when a primitive is justified.
Jackendoff has addressed this question in two ways. First, he has stated
that it is simply too early to demand that the theory justify its primitives:
as in any immature science, all we have to go on are hunches; only when
we have a good description of the semantic phenomena can we begin to
constrain the theory (1990: 4). Second, he adopts a holistic approach to the
justification of his primitives:
In fact, an isolated primitive can never be justified: a primitive makes
sense only in the context of the overall system of primitives in which it
is embedded. With this proviso, however, I think a particular choice of
primitives should be justified on the grounds of its capacity for express-
ing generalizations and explaining the distribution of the data. That is, a
proposed system of primitives is subject to the usual scientific standards
of evaluation. (1991: 12)
This reply might not satisfy everyone, since it does not tell us which gener-
alizations are psychologically real and which are merely artefacts of the
analysis. One possible way of constraining the generalizations is to look for
ones for which there is some independent linguistic evidence. For example,
270 MEANING AND COGNITION II

Jackendoff’s proposal that verb iterativity as illustrated in (16) above and

nominal plurality are varieties of a single conceptual feature, PL, might be
supported by the fact that some languages instantiate this with an identi-
cal morphological category. In Siraya, for example (Austronesian, Taiwan;
extinct), reduplication had these very functions (Adelaar 2000). Another
might be to look for psychological or perhaps neurological evidence to sup-
port the analyses developed in Conceptual Semantics.
A different line of criticism would be to question how we know whether
the primitives are actually primitive. Perhaps it will turn out that some of
them can be decomposed into even smaller conceptual units. Jackendoff is
not perturbed by this possibility. He has often stated that there is no way to
know exactly how far decomposition will be possible; and, in fact, his own
work has suggested further decompositions for what were originally pre-
sented as primitives, such as the proposed decomposition of Path and Place
into dimensionality and directionality features. Semantics is no different in
this way from the decomposition characteristic of physical sciences: particle
physicists do not know how far their decomposition of matter will lead, but
that does not deprive their current attempts of legitimacy.

8.2 Semantics and computation

One of the obvious differences between Jackendoff’s conceptual semantics
and the theories examined in the previous chapter is the formal nature of
Jackendoff’s theory. This formal character means that Jackendoff’s system
is already in a form which would ideally allow it to be implemented on a
computer. Computer technology has taken on great importance in linguis-
tics generally since the 1970s, and semantics is no exception. Computers
come closer than any other artificial system to matching the complexity
and interconnectedness of the human brain, and it has often been assumed
that we can learn important lessons about the way language is processed in
real-life minds/brains by trying to simulate this ability computationally.

The mind as a computer

Belief in the similarities between human minds and computers has
been crucial for many strands of research into human cognitive abili-
ties. The Chomskyan revolution in linguistics, for one, was just part
of a growing tendency to understand human cognition itself, includ-
ing language, as a series of computational operations performed
over mentally represented symbols. On this view, there is not just an
analogy between the operation of human cognition and a computer
program: the two processes are fundamentally identical, since the
human mind is, first and foremost, an information processing sys-
tem that works in the same way as a von Neumann (stored-program)
computer, i.e. by performing specific formal operations over strings
of symbols. This view of the mind as a computer is at the heart of the
classical research programme in artificial intelligence (AI). See 1.6.3.
 8.2 Semantics and computation 271

Computer simulations are not simply of theoretical interest, however.

They also contribute to diverse practical applications, such as machine
translation, the development of searchable corpora, speech recognition,
spell-checking, and so on. Much of the research in computational linguis-
tics is geared precisely towards these practical applications, and is con-
ducted just as much by computer scientists as by linguists. This means that
computational linguistics is a highly cross-disciplinary field. Another
result is that researchers are often more interested in satisfying practical
needs rather than theoretical ones. A software engineer concerned to
develop a functional natural-language processing system will have scant
regard for the psychological plausibility of the result: what determines its
success is simply whether it performs the task at hand, not whether it does
this in a way that might mirror human abilities. It is therefore important
not to expect to learn too much about the mind/brain from computer
simulation. Computer architectures certainly are the closest simulations
available for the complexity of the brain, but they still vastly underperform
humans in linguistic ability, as anyone who has used such functions as
grammar checkers, automatic translation programmes, voice recognition
systems and the like will be able to agree. One reason for this may be that
there are, in fact, many respects in which the analogy between mind and
computer breaks down. (There have been many critiques of attempts to
understand and model the mind on the analogy of computers. Searle 1980
and Dreyfus 1992 are two prominent examples.)
Another reason not to attach excessive significance to the mind–computer
parallel comes from the history of technology. As has often been pointed
out, it frequently proves to be the case that artificial simulations of natu-
ral abilities harness different underlying principles from those actually
found in nature. For example, early attempts to build flying-machines
tried to replicate bird flight, in the belief that the movable wing struc-
tures found in nature provided the best solution to the engineering prob-
lems involved. These attempts, however, never succeeded. The flying
technology perfected by humans uses fixed-wing principles, which, of
course, are unknown in birds. Fixed-wing flying is ultimately responsible
to the same physical principles as bird flight, but makes use of them in a
fundamentally different way. There is a cautionary lesson to be learnt
here. An artificial system can accomplish similar goals to a natural one
through quite different means. It may therefore be mistaken to look to
artificial computer simulations of natural language for specific insights
into the nature of the human language faculty: the neurological and psy-
chological process of language may be entirely unlike the computational
processes of a computer.
But the brain need not resemble a computer for the study of computer
simulation of human linguistic ability to be fruitful. Whether or not
humans and computers process information in fundamentally similar
ways, we can look to computer simulation as a way of appreciating, often
in fine detail, the tasks which any language-processor, people included,
must perform. Computer programs are blind. They cannot rely on humans’
general intelligence in solving problems or applying general principles to
272 MEANING AND COGNITION II

particular cases. A computer will not fill in gaps using general common-
sense knowledge. Instead, every step of a programme must be explicitly
spelled out in minute detail if the ‘right’ result is to be achieved. The pro-
cess of automating natural linguistic abilities therefore demands a fine-
grained attention to the detail of linguistic processes. This requires compu-
tational linguistic programmes to be specified in extremely close detail.
Only when language is simulated by a machine can we test the explicitness
and completeness of a given linguistic theory. In this section, we will there-
fore concentrate on the aspects of computational linguistics which give
insight into the nature of the task of language-processing as it concerns
semantics.

8.2.1 The lexicon in computational linguistics

Computers’ ability to store and process large amounts of information
makes them particularly valuable tools for the modelling of lexical knowl-
edge, easily the aspect of human linguistic ability in which the greatest
quantity of information has to be manipulated. Apart from their speed,
computer lexical databases have a major advantage over dictionaries, their
paper competitors. Whereas dictionaries only allow words to be searched
for alphabetically, an electronic database allows for as many different
search criteria as there are different data-codes in the entries (Fellbaum
1998: 7). This allows a much more efficient retrieval of information.
The most comprehensive attempt to model lexical knowledge on a com-
puter is the WordNet project, which has been running since 1985.
WordNet is an online lexical database which sets out to represent and
organize lexical semantic information in a psychologically realistic form
that facilitates maximally efficient digital manipulation. So far, the cre-
ators of WordNet have completed the coding of many thousands of
English nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs; similar work has also been
begun in a range of other languages.
The basic motivation behind WordNet was the ‘patterning assumption’: the
assumption that ‘ people could not master and have readily available all the
lexical knowledge needed to use a natural language unless they could take
advantage of systematic patterns and relations among the meanings that
words can be used to express’ (Miller 1998: xv). WordNet shows words’ mutual
interrelations within the system (the ‘net’) of lexical relations such as synon-
ymy, antonymy, hyponymy, entailment, and so on (see Chapter 5). The main
organizational unit in WordNet is the synset, conventionally marked by curly
brackets. Synsets are groupings of near-synonyms, like {beat, crush, trounce,
vanquish}, which identify a particular lexicalized concept (word sense): here,
the ‘defeat’ sense of beat. Each synset is given a short definition or gloss: ‘come
out better in a competition, race, or conflict’ is the WordNet gloss of this syn-
set, and serves as a definition of all the words in that synset.
Polysemous words are dealt with by being assigned to multiple synsets,
one for each sense. Thus beat also belongs to the following synsets
(Fellbaum 1990: 279): {beat, flatten}, {beat, throb, pulse}, {beat, flog, punish},
{beat, shape, do metalwork}, {beat, baffle}, {beat, stir, whisk} and so on. Each of
these synsets reflects a different sense of the verb – the ‘change’ sense, the
 8.2 Semantics and computation 273

‘pulsate’ sense, and so on. Similarly, the polysemous noun board belongs to
the synsets {board, plank} and {board, committee}. There is also the sense
found in collocations like full board and room and board, for which a suitable
synonym is not available; in cases like these the gloss of the meaning is
used to identify the intended sense: {board, (a person’s meals, provided
regularly for money)}.
WordNet’s focus on synonyms means that it is just as much a sophisti-
cated thesaurus as a dictionary. In many ways, it privileges a thesaurus-
style, relational representation of semantic information over a dictionary-
like, definitional one. Originally, WordNet’s designers believed that the
synsets on their own would be adequate to identify the different senses of
terms, and that there would be no need to supply glosses. ‘For example,’
explains Miller (Miller et al. 1990: 240), ‘someone who knows that board
can signify either a piece of lumber or a group of people assembled for
some purpose will be able to pick out the intended sense with no more
help than plank or committee. The synonym sets, {board, plank} and {board,
committee} can serve as unambiguous designators of these two meanings
of board.’ But it soon became obvious that glosses were needed to separate
different senses of words, and to identify the meanings involved. That
itself, of course, is an interesting result. The amount of synonymy in the
lexicon is simply not adequate to differentiate the total number of words’
senses, since many senses exist for which there simply are no synonyms.
The entry for the noun key is a good example of this situation. Synsets 1,
2, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 10 have no other members than key itself, and the sense is
only identified by a gloss (in round brackets).

1. {key (metal device shaped in such a way that when it is inserted into
the appropriate lock the lock’s mechanism can be rotated)}
2. {key (something crucial for explaining)} ‘the key to development is
economic integration’
3. {key (pitch of the voice)} ‘he spoke in a low key’
4. {key, tonality (any of 24 major or minor diatonic scales that provide
the tonal framework for a piece of music)}
5. {key (a list of answers to a test)} ‘some students had stolen the key to
the final exam’
6. {key (a list of words or phrases that explain symbols or abbreviations)}
7. {key (a generic term for any device whose possession entitles the
holder to a means of access)} ‘a safe-deposit box usually requires two
keys to open it’
8. {winder, key (mechanical device used to wind another device that is
driven by a spring (as a clock))}
9. {keystone, key, headstone (the central building block at the top of an
arch or vault)}
10. {key (a lever that actuates a mechanism when depressed)}

This is an interesting finding about the extent of synonymy in English.

English is known to be a language rich in synonyms, but even so it frequently
turns out that words have numerous senses for which no synonyms exist.
274 MEANING AND COGNITION II

Hyponymy/taxonomy is another crucial relation for the organization of

WordNet, which displays the entire hyponymic/taxonomic hierarchy for
every noun. For example, the nouns table and furniture would be linked by
a hyponym–superordinate relation: the WordNet entry for table would
include a pointer that labelled furniture as the superordinate term, called
the hypernym (Miller 1998: xvi; in Chapter 5 we call it the hyperonym).
These hyponymy relations can be followed in both directions. Thus, the
following tree of synsets contains furniture and table:

{entity}
{physical entity}
{object, physical object}
{whole, unit}
hyponymy {artefact} hypernymy
{instrumentality, instrumentation}
{furnishing}
{furniture, piece of furniture, article
of furniture}
{bed}, {cabinet}, {chest of drawers},
{table} etc.

Several of the hypernyms, such as {instrumentality, instrumentation}

and {whole, unit} are probably not typical of natural discourse. Nevertheless,
their inclusion in the hierarchy is claimed to reflect the conceptual struc-
ture of the vocabulary.
The fact that every noun is linked to its hyponyms and superordinates
creates what is normally known in computer science as an inheritance
hierarchy. Standard dictionary entries rely on readers’ general intelli-
gence to supplement definitions with necessary information that is only
implicit. For instance, a standard definition of tree – say ‘a large, woody,
perennial plant with a distinct trunk’ – does not say anything about trees
having roots, or consisting of cells having cellulose walls, or even being
living organisms: the reader is expected to assume all of that information
by virtue of the fact that trees are plants. But the dictionary itself doesn’t
make this connection explicit – and, in fact, a reader needs to know
which sense of plant is the relevant one to the definition of tree: the bio-
logical one, or the one that means ‘place where a product is manufac-
tured’. All of this implicit information ‘is omitted on the assumption that
the reader is not an idiot, a Martian, or a computer’ (Miller 1990: 246). In
an inheritance hierarchy, however, each term ‘inherits’ the information
associated with its hypernyms. In WordNet, the user can immediately see
the inheritance hierarchy of the term in question, thereby gaining access
to all the relevant definitional information. Here, for example, is the
inheritance hierarchy for French horn, in which each synset is the hyp-
onym of the one above it:

1. {musical instrument, instrument (any of various devices or contriv-

ances that can be used to produce musical tones or sounds)}
 8.2 Semantics and computation 275

2. {wind instrument, wind (a musical instrument in which the sound is

produced by an enclosed column of air that is moved by the breath)}
3. {brass, brass instrument (a wind instrument that consists of a brass
tube (usually of variable length) that is blown by means of a cup-
shaped or funnel-shaped mouthpiece)}
4. {French horn, horn (a brass musical instrument consisting of a coni-
cal tube that is coiled into a spiral and played by means of valves)}

By viewing the complete inheritance hierarchy all at once, the WordNet

user has access to far more definitional information than would be avail-
able for the single term French horn alone. The user also has immediate
access to a range of other information about the definiendum: for
instance, simply by clicking on the ‘sister term’ link, the user gains access
to a list of other hyponyms of brass instrument, such as trombone, bugle and
flugelhorn, which occupy the same level of the hyponymic tree as French
horn. As Miller (1990: 247) puts it, ‘lexicographers make an effort to cover
all of the factual information about the meanings of each word, but the
organization of the conventional dictionary into discrete, alphabetized
entries and the economic pressure to minimize redundancy make the
reassembly of this scattered information a formidable chore’. The elec-
tronic possibilities of an electronic database greatly reduce the difficulty
of the task.
This is not the only advantage of the explicit labelling of the relations
between words in WordNet: another is that the user is given great free-
dom of movement. ‘Unlike in a thesaurus, the relations between con-
cepts and words in WordNet are made explicit and labeled; users select
the relation that guides them from one concept to the next and
choose the direction of their navigation in conceptual space’ (Fellbaum
1998: 8). Finally, not the smallest advantage of an inheritance hierarchy
is that it saves space: since each piece of information percolates down
the hierarchy, it does not need to be reduplicated at several different
points.
So far, we have mainly considered the representation of nouns in
WordNet. Other parts of speech pose different representational problems.
Here we only have space to briefly consider verbs. There are fewer genuine
synonyms for verbs than for nouns in English (Fellbaum 1990: 280), a situ-
ation which reduces the usefulness of the synset as a means of identifying
verb meaning. An inheritance hierarchy arrangement also organizes the
representation of verbs. The verbal equivalent of hyponymy/taxonomy is
the relation of troponymy. A verb x is the troponym of a second verb y if
to x is to y in some particular way. Thus, stroll is a troponym of walk, gobble
a troponym of eat, and punch a troponym of hit. Verb hierarchies are much
shallower than noun hierarchies, typically showing no more than four
levels (Fellbaum 1990: 287). Furthermore, antonymy is another significant
structuring principle.
QUESTION Explore WordNet’s representation of verbs further by starting
with the entry for walk. What are the differences between the informa-
tion supplied in the walk (n.) entry and the walk (v.) entry?
276 MEANING AND COGNITION II

We will end this discussion by considering some of the problems of

WordNet. First, WordNet does not have a principled means for determin-
ing the number of polysemous senses of a word. As a result, its distinction
between different senses can often seem arbitrary. For instance, consider
the WordNet entry for trouble:

1. {trouble, problem (a source of difficulty)} ‘one trouble after another

delayed the job’; ‘what’s the problem?’
2. {fuss, trouble, bother, hassle (an angry disturbance)} ‘he didn’t want
to make a fuss’; ‘they had labor trouble’; ‘a spot of bother’
3. {trouble (an event causing distress or pain)} ‘what is the trouble?’;
‘heart trouble’
4. {trouble, difficulty (an effort that is inconvenient)} ‘I went to a lot of
trouble’; ‘he won without any trouble’; ‘had difficulty walking’; ‘fin-
ished the test only with great difficulty’
5. {worry, trouble (a strong feeling of anxiety)} ‘his worry over the pros-
pect of being fired’; ‘it is not work but worry that kills’; ‘he wanted to
die and end his troubles’
6. {trouble (an unwanted pregnancy)} ‘he got several girls in trouble’

This arrangement of senses could be accused of masking the fundamen-

tal similarity between these different senses. Indeed, an argument could
be mounted that trouble only has a single sense in English.

QUESTION Can you formulate a definition of trouble that accounts for all
of the sentences quoted in the WordNet entry?

Relatedly, the format of WordNet entries obscures the fundamental dif-

ference between homonymy and polysemy. The user who consults the
entry for bank, for instance, finds no indication that the two senses ‘finan-
cial institution’ and ‘sloping land, especially by water’ are semantically
unrelated. These two meanings simply appear in the list of senses, in
exactly the same way as the ‘problem’ and ‘unwanted pregnancy’ senses
of trouble, between which there is a clear relation. Most theories of lexical
representation would assume, however, that there is a fundamental dis-
tinction here that needs to be recognized, expressed by saying that trouble
exemplifies polysemy, and bank homonymy.
Both these problems can be summarized by questioning the extent to
which the principles underlying WordNet live up to the psychological
realism for which its creators were aiming. WordNet is motivated by the
patterning assumption, but there has been very little attempt to reflect
the results of psycholinguistic studies of meaning. Indeed, the restriction
of the number of semantic relations which WordNet recognizes consti-
tutes a serious limitation. There is no formal way in WordNet to recognize
contextual relations between words like ball, racquet and net. The fact that
these all belong to a single semantic domain – that of ball-games – is pre-
sumably a fact of some psychological importance, but WordNet has no
way of representing it, since the relation does not correspond to any of the
semantic relations which the database recognizes. This would seem to
 8.2 Semantics and computation 277

significantly compromise the seriousness with which WordNet can be

viewed as a complete model of human lexical memory. Murphy (2003: 113)
sums this criticism up as follows: ‘while WordNet has been claimed to be
a psycholinguistic model, its architects have used psycholinguistic evi-
dence selectively and its architecture limits it severely’.

8.2.2 Word sense disambiguation

WordNet may well be criticized for arbitrariness in its division of words
into different polysemous senses, but no one doubts that a division of
some kind is a practical necessity. Any automatic language processing sys-
tem will have to be able to ‘individuate’ (differentiate between/disambigu-
ate) the different senses of polysemous or homonymous word-forms if it is
to correctly interpret the meaning of a sentence. For instance, the failure
to distinguish between the different senses of the highlighted words in (18)
would be disastrous for any automated translation of the sentences:

(18) a. The bank will have more branches after the expansion.
b. The match really ignited after half time.
c. The tailor gave him a cuff around his neck.
d. The insider-trading scandal led to the chair being kicked off the board.
e. I just can’t see the point of a compass when you’ve got a GPS system.

Since in French, for instance, the two senses of bank are translated by two
different words (rive for the ‘edge of river’ sense and banque for ‘financial
institution’), a necessary first step in any automatic translation is the
selection of the appropriate sense for the context. If this is not done, we
risk obtaining translations of the following meanings:

(19) a. The financial institution will have more tree-parts after the
expansion.
b. The small wooden shaft with flammable head started spontane-
ously burning after half time.
c. The tailor gave him a sleeve-end around his neck.
d. The insider-trading scandal led to the piece of furniture being
kicked off the hard flat rectilinear surface.
e. I just can’t see the tip of a compass when you’ve got a GPS system.

In natural language, sentences (18a–e) do not typically create confusion.

Why not is still a mystery. We do not yet know how humans succeed in pick-
ing the right senses of ambiguous words: the relevant psychological pro-
cesses are simply not at all understood (see Taylor 2003: Chapter 8 for discus-
sion). This is quite a remarkable state of affairs. As discussed in 5.3, polysemy
is a universal feature of natural language. If we do not understand how the
correct polysemous sense is selected in a particular context, we clearly lack
a fundamental part of the explanation of linguistic processes.
Developing a successful sense-individuation procedure for computers
may therefore give us some clues about the relative advantages of different
solutions to the problem. It will not, of course, show us what procedures
278 MEANING AND COGNITION II

the human mind does in fact use, but it may give us some insight into the
nature of the task and point us in the direction of likely hypotheses. Given
the complexity of the task of developing a sense-individuation procedure,
we fortunately do not need to aim for complete accuracy. After all, people
do not themselves correctly identify the intended sense one hundred per
cent of the time in ambiguous contexts: as an initial goal, we should not
expect to develop programs which achieve full accuracy either.
There are currently two main approaches to word-sense disambiguation
in computational linguistics. The first, the selectional restriction
approach (Hirst 1987), generates complete semantic representations for all
the words in a sentence, and then eliminates those which violate selec-
tional restrictions coded in the component words. For instance, consider
(20), taken from Jurafsky and Martin (2000: 632):

(20) a. In our house, everybody has a career and none of them includes washing
dishes.
b. In her tiny kitchen at home, Ms Chen works efficiently, stir-frying several
simple dishes, including braised pig’s ears and chicken livers with green
peppers.

Dish is ambiguous between the senses ‘piece of crockery’ and ‘course in a

meal’. Selection restrictions on the patient argument of the verbs in (20)
would be used to exclude the wrong reading of dish. The lexical entry for
wash would include the specification that the verb could only take a
physical object as its patient argument, which would guarantee the cor-
rect reading in (20a), and the entry for stir-fry would specify that the argu-
ment had to belong to the category of food in (20b). These selectional
restrictions would be encoded reasonably straightforwardly by adopting
categories from WordNet: thus, the possible object of wash could be lim-
ited to any noun which had ‘artefact’ or ‘natural object’ as a hypernym,
and the possible object of stir-fry to nouns with ‘food’ as a hypernym. In
both these cases, selectional restrictions on the verbs eliminate the wrong
sense of the nouns.
Similarly, serve in the following sentences has three different senses
( Jurafsky and Martin 2000: 633):

(21) a. Well, there was the time they served green-lipped mussels from
New Zealand.
(provide [food] as a meal sense)

b. Which airlines serve Denver?

(include on transport network sense)

c. Which ones serve breakfast?

(provide [meal] sense)

Once again, selectional restrictions can be used to ensure the correct

interpretation is reached: the sense in (21a) is only found with food
objects; the (21b) sense only with place objects, and (21c) only with meal
 8.2 Semantics and computation 279

objects. Giving the program access to this information would allow the
wrong interpretations to be avoided.
QUESTION What are some problems and limitations of this procedure?
One major problem with this approach is that selection restrictions will
often not be available to resolve ambiguities. ‘What kind of dishes would
you recommend?’ is one such example: either the ‘course in meal’ or the
‘piece of crockery’ sense could be intended. While the non-linguistic con-
text would probably resolve the ambiguity, nothing in the linguistic con-
text itself does. Another difficulty is caused by the fact that selection
restrictions may often be violated. For instance, the representation of the
meaning of eat would presumably contain the restriction that only food
could be selected as object. Jurafsky and Martin cite (22) as examples of
perfectly well-formed sentences which violate this restriction:

(22) You can’t eat gold for lunch if you’re hungry.

In his two championship trials, Mr Kulkarni ate glass on an empty stomach,
accompanied only by water and tea.

More generally, the ubiquity of metaphor and metonymy in language

poses significant problems for sense-individuation based on selectional
restrictions, since these create contexts in which words’ typical co-occur-
rence restrictions do not hold.
A possible solution to these problems might be to take selection restrictions
not as absolute criteria which must be met, but as probabilistic preferences
(Resnik 1998). There is not time to discuss this development here, beyond not-
ing that this way of thinking is a semantic analogue to the optimality theory
approach to syntax and phonology, which describes grammatical phenomena
not as the results of absolute rules, but as the most optimal results of the sat-
isfaction of competing constraints. We should also note that Resnik (1998) only
reported fairly low success rates with this approach, an average of 44 per cent
for verb–object relationships. This is actually an improvement over the average
success rate of 28 per cent (Jurafsky and Martin 2000: 633–634). The extreme
modesty of these figures highlights the difficulty of the task.
The other approach uses the immediate context of the target word as a
clue in identifying the intended sense. The computer assesses the words sur-
rounding the target word, and chooses the appropriate sense on the basis of
the other words in this immediate context (the size of this ‘window’ varies
from program to program). For instance, if the word to be disambiguated is
pen, the ‘writing implement’ sense will be chosen if other words in the envi-
ronment include paper, write, etc., whereas ‘sty’ will be chosen if the words
are ‘pig’, ‘feed’, ‘farm’ and so on. Similarly, Manning and Schütze (1999: 238)
give the following contextual clues for sense disambiguation of drug:

(23) ‘medication’ sense: prices, prescription, patent, increase, consumer,

pharmaceutical
‘illegal substance’ sense: abuse, paraphernalia, illicit, alcohol, cocaine,
traffickers
280 MEANING AND COGNITION II

QUESTION Suggest possible contextual clues for the different senses of

tank, match and interest.
There are many contexts, however, which pose a problem for these con-
text-based disambiguation procedures. Wilks et al. (1996: 202) discuss the
particular problem posed by a sentence like The young page put the goat in
the pen. This will be a challenge for any disambiguation procedure that
chooses the relevant word sense on the basis of the immediate context,
since the cooccurrence of pen and page might lead to the wrong sense of
each being chosen. Other sentences which might raise a similar problem
are the following:

(24) A cigarette is no match for a pipe.

The table displays the location of the beds in the Botanic garden.
The censors screened all films for unsuitable content.
The painter put on a new coat.
QUESTION Are there other contextual features of the sentence which
would allow these problems to be avoided?
These studies are in their infancy, and we can certainly expect improve-
ments in the efficiency of disambiguation programs. Nevertheless, the
fact that most current disambiguation processes have been tested on a
very small number of lexical items, or report low success rates, means that
the question of polysemy and sense-disambiguation will be the focus of
intense theoretical and applied research for some time to come.

8.2.3 Pustejovskian semantics

The problem of word-sense disambiguation was the stimulus for an impor-
tant approach to the lexicon in computational linguistics developed by
Pustejovsky (1991, 1995; Pustejovsky and Boguraev 1994). This approach,
dubbed the generative lexicon approach, claims to solve many of the
types of problem seen in the previous section by adopting an entirely dif-
ferent picture of lexical information. Pustejovsky criticizes the standard
view of the lexicon, on which each lexeme is associated with a fixed num-
ber of senses. Lexical databases like WordNet are exactly like traditional
dictionaries, in that they simply enumerate a static number of fixed
senses for every word. Pustejovsky and Boguraev describe the generative
lexicon alternative as follows:
In contrast, rather than taking a ‘snapshot’ of language at any moment
of time and freezing it into lists of word-sense specifications, the model
of the lexicon proposed here does not preclude extendability; it is open-
ended in nature and accounts for the novel, creative uses of words in
a variety of contexts by positing procedures for generating semantic
expressions for words on the basis of particular contexts.
(Pustejovsky and Boguraev 1994: 297)
This can be exemplified with the adjective fast, which traditional descrip-
tions (including WordNet) need to credit with a large number of different
 8.2 Semantics and computation 281

senses. For instance, fast seems to have rather different senses in the three
phrases in (25):

(25) a. a fast typist (one who types quickly)

b. a fast car (one which can move quickly)
c. a fast waltz (one with a fast tempo) (Pustejovsky 1995: 413)

These uses of fast seem to involve at least three senses: ‘performing an act
quickly’ (25a), ‘moving quickly’ (25b) and ‘involving a fast tempo’ (25c).
Any computer needs to keep these senses separate, recognizing, for exam-
ple, that a ‘fast typist’ is not one who moves quickly in the way that a fast
car does. This is usually achieved simply by listing a number of distinct
senses for fast. Pustejovsky notes a problem with this strategy: it will not
account for ‘creative applications’ of the adjective in English, like fast
motorway or fast garage. Neither of these fits any of the senses in (25): the
former refers to a motorway on which vehicles can travel fast, the latter to
a garage which services cars quickly. Pustejovsky claims that the standard
sense-listing approach to the lexicon will always fail to cover all the pos-
sible meanings of an adjective like fast; furthermore, it is ‘unable to cap-
ture interesting generalizations concerning relationships between
“senses” of the same word’ (Pustejovsky and Boguraev 1994: 302).
In order to avoid these problems, Pustejovsky proposes that lexical analy-
sis needs to recognize different levels or perspectives of lexical meaning. Two
of these levels, argument structure and lexical inheritance, are already
familiar. Argument structure is the level of lexical representation for verbs
which specifies the number and type of noun complements (see Chapter 10).
Lexical inheritance structure refers to the conceptual relations between
words in the lexicon, as discussed in 8.2.1. In addition, Pustejovsky identifies
event structure (see 10.2), and qualia structure as crucial levels of word
meaning. We will concentrate here on qualia structure.
Qualia structure is a system of relations that has a similar importance
for the meaning of nouns as argument structure has for verbs. It reflects
those aspects of the referent of a noun which ‘have long been considered
crucial for our common-sense understanding of how things interact in
the world’ (Pustejovsky and Boguraev 1994: 305). A word’s qualia structure
has four aspects, its Constitutive Role, Formal Role, Telic Role and
Agentive Role. These roles constitute the framework for the word’s mean-
ing. Pustejovsky describes the type of information expressed by these roles
as follows (1995: 426):

1. Constitutive Role: the relation between an object and its constitu-

ents, or proper parts.
• Material
• Weight
• Parts and component elements
2. Formal Role: that which distinguishes the object within a larger domain.
• Orientation
• Magnitude
282 MEANING AND COGNITION II

• Shape
• Dimensionality
• Colour
• Position
3. Telic Role: purpose and function of the object.
• Purpose that an agent has in performing an act
• Built-in function or aim that specifies certain activities
4. Agentive Role: factors involved in the origin or ‘bringing about’ of an
object.
• Creator
• Artefact
• Natural Kind
• Causal Chain
How does this relate to the problem of determining the right meaning of
fast in the examples above? The essence of Pustejovsky’s theory is that the
lexical entry for fast specifies that it only ever applies to the telic role of
nominals. The telic role specifies the purpose and function of the noun.
Thus the specification of the telic role of motorway tells us that a motor-
way’s purpose is to bring about a certain event, road travel: this is what fast
is referring to. Similarly, typist has a telic role determining the function of
performing a different type of event: typing, and it is this which fast quali-
fies. Similarly, a fast waltz is fast with respect to the telic role of that noun,
which will refer to dancing. By introducing an additional level of structure
into the description of nominals, this approach succeeds in retaining a
single meaning for fast, which will be defined as something like ‘at a rapid
rate’; the contextual meanings it takes on in the noun phrases above are a
result of the differing telic roles to which this single meaning applies.
Easy and hard might be two other adjectives which are specified as refer-
ring to a noun’s telic role. Thus, easy books, easy loads, easy (ski) slopes and
easy software are easy with respect to their telic roles: being read, being
lifted, being skied down and being used. Similar remarks apply to hard.
We are not likely to interpret an easy book as a book that is easy to lift,
since lifting is not part of the event described in the telic role for book.
Another application of qualia structure occurs in the analysis of sen-
tences like (26a) and (26b):

(26) a. Sam baked a potato.

b. Sam baked a cake.

The sentences’ interpretations are fundamentally different: the potato

exists before Sam baked it, whereas the cake is only created by the act of
baking. Pustejovsky (1995: 421–423) accounts for this contrast through
differing agentive roles in the qualia structure of the two nouns. Cake is
classified as an artefact; as a result, it is part of our specific lexical knowl-
edge about it that there is an event associated with its coming into being.
The verb bake is thus interpreted as referring to this aspect of the noun’s
 Summary 283

qualia structure. Potato, on the other hand, is classified as a natural kind.

It cannot therefore be brought into being by any artificial process. The
predicate bake is thus understood as denoting an action which takes place
on the potato, but which does not bring the potato into being.
The introduction of qualia structure allows us to avoid postulating a
large number of polysemous senses for a single lexical item. Systematic
ambiguity in words like fast, easy and bake is not explained by postulating
multiple senses for these words, but by recognizing that the underlying
structure of their associated nominals is more complex than was origi-
nally thought. The increased semantic complexity of lexical entries for
nominals is ultimately a saving, since the uniformity of qualia structure
allows both a systematic account of polysemy and a reduction in the over-
all number of senses postulated in the lexicon.

Summary Jackendoff: Conceptual Semantics

Jackendoff’s Conceptual Semantics shares with cognitive semantics a
commitment to analysing meaning as inherently linked to conceptual-
ization. Its most important difference from cognitive semantics is that
it uses a formalism.

Decomposition and conceptual primitives

Jackendoff claims that a decompositional method is necessary to
explore conceptual structure, in which the concepts underlying word
meaning are broken down into their smallest elements: conceptual
primitives envisaged as the semantic equivalents of phonological fea-
tures. Conceptual Semantics posits ‘a finite set of mental primitives
and a finite set of principles of mental combination’ governing their
interaction. The conceptual structure of a lexical item is an element
with zero or more open argument slots, which are filled by the syn-
tactic complements of the lexical item. Jackendoff’s system permits
interesting connections to be made between apparently unrelated
meanings, but can be criticized for the apparently somewhat arbitrary
nature of the conceptual constituents it recognizes.

Modelling meaning computationally

Computers come closer than any other artificial system to matching
the complexity and interconnectedness of the human brain, and it has
often been assumed that the attempt to simulate human linguistic
ability computationally will teach us important lessons about the way
language is processed in real-life minds/brains. This is particularly true
of studies of words and their meanings, though it is important not to
push the mind–computer analogy too far.

WordNet and the lexicon

The most comprehensive attempt to model lexical knowledge on a
computer is WordNet, an online lexical database which sets out to
284 MEANING AND COGNITION II

represent and organize lexical semantic information in a psychologi-

cally realistic form that facilitates maximally efficient digital manipu-
lation. The main organizational unit in WordNet is the synset. Synsets
are groupings of near-synonyms, arranged into hyponymic/taxonomic
trees called inheritance hierarchies. Each term in an inheritance hier-
archy ‘inherits’ the information associated with its hypernyms: this
gives the user immediate access to the full range of information associ-
ated with a lexical item.

Word sense disambiguation

One of the hardest problems in computer simulations of natural
language processing is the problem of word-sense disambiguation.
Computers must know how to distinguish between the different senses
of ambiguous words like bank if they are to be able to process language
correctly. We discussed two main approaches to this task:

• selectional restriction approaches, which use selectional restric-

tions to weed out improperly formed semantic representations; and
• the contextual approach, in which the computer assesses the words
surrounding the target word, and chooses the appropriate sense on
the basis of the other words in this immediate context.

Both approaches are in their infancy and programs using them signifi-
cantly underperform humans.

Pustejovsky and qualia structure

Pustejovsky attempts to solve a number of problems in word-sense
disambiguation by proposing a richer structure for nominal entries in
the lexicon. He claims that the meaning of nouns is best modelled by
the notion of qualia structure. A noun’s qualia structure consists of
four roles, the constitutive, formal, telic and agentive roles. The key
element of Pustejovsky’s theory is that each of these roles can operate
independently within the semantics of a clause. For example, we know
that a fast car is one that moves quickly, and a fast motorway is one on
which cars can move quickly, since fast applies to the telic role of the
noun: the role that refers to the function or purpose which the refer-
ent fulfils.

Further reading
For an exposition of conceptual semantics, Jackendoff (2002) is a convenient summary, and situates the the-
ory within a wider approach to language. Jackendoff (1989) explains the background to the theory. WordNet
can be used online at http://wordnet. princeton.edu/. See www.globalwordnet.org/ for links to non-English
WordNets. For discussion of WordNet, see the special issue of the International Journal of Lexicography 3
(4) 1990, updated in Fellbaum (1998). Jackendoff (2002: 369ff) is a discussion of Pustejovsky. Blackburn
and Bos (2005) is an introduction to computational semantics which assumes minimal background in logic.
 Exercises 285

Exercises
Analytical questions
1. Look up WordNet at http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn. Find the
definitions for the synsets containing the following words: dream (n.),
chief, dramatic, manage. How adequate are these definitions? Do they
apply equally to every word in the synset?
2. What factors could be used by a natural language processing system to
distinguish correctly between the two readings of relish in I ate the meat
with relish? What clues might people use to infer the correct reading in
natural conversation?

Questions for discussion

3. Both Jackendoff’s proposals about conceptual structure and the image
schemas discussed in Chapter 7 propose to uncover an identical mean-
ing structure underlying apparently unrelated expressions. To what extent
are the proposals similar? How explanatory are they?
4. How many of the ambiguities in 8.2.2 could be solved by adopting a
qualia-structure approach to the semantics of nominals?
5. Consider the following nouns: day, computer, haircut, meal, mail, news-
day, thinker, book, beginning and oven. How many different senses of
slow would it be necessary to posit to account for the following noun
phrases: a slow day, a slow computer, a slow haircut, a slow meal, the
slow mail, a slow news-day, a slow thinker, a slow book, a slow begin-
ning, a slow oven? Can you give a description of these nouns’ telic or
other roles which would explain the different senses of slow?
 CHA PT E R

9 Meaning and
morphosyntax I:
the semantics of
grammatical
categories

CHAPTER PREVIEW
This chapter and the next investigate a range of semantic phenomena which are
relevant to morphosyntax. This chapter focuses on morphosyntactic categories
such as noun and verb and tense and aspect. The major questions are these:
◆ Does a word’s meaning determine its grammatical category?
◆ How can we describe the meanings of major verbal categories like tense and
aspect?
We begin with a discussion of the meaning of lexical categories (parts of
speech), exploring the possible semantic contribution made by a word’s categori-
zation as noun, verb, adjective, and so on (9.1). Section 9.2 focuses on the verb,
investigating the semantics of tense and aspect: two central dimensions of verb
meaning with major consequences on the verbal and clausal levels.
288 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

9.1 The semantics of parts of speech

Analysing a language grammatically involves analysing it into a variety of
elements and structures: phonemes, morphemes and words, and, within
the words, syntactic categories of various sorts. Among these categories
are the parts of speech (also known as lexical or grammatical categories):
noun, verb, adjective, determiner and so on. We usually think of these
classifications as inherent properties of words. We imagine, in other
words, that the lexicon of English is arranged with each word specified as
belonging to a particular part of speech, or sometimes to several parts of
speech. A word’s membership in a particular part of speech category is
thus one of its inherent properties. As a result, we say that quickly is an
adverb; woman a noun and capsize a verb; on the other hand, catch is both
noun and verb (a catch; to catch), and green is noun, verb and adjective (They
are on the green; the council is greening the city; I like green asparagus).

Question Find as many English words as possible which can be used as

a noun, a verb and an adjective, without any alteration. What semantic
changes follow from the change of syntactic category?

Parts of speech are indispensable in stating grammatical generalizations, since

they allow us to capture the classes of words to which different morphological
and syntactic operations apply. For example, we need the categories noun and
verb in order to describe the role of the English nominalizing suffix -er. Given a
set of forms think/thinker, glide/glider, race/racer, bind/binder and so on, we can
describe the suffix -er as converting a verb into a noun. If those two categories
were not part of the grammar, stating the role of -er would be greatly compli-
cated. Similarly, one of the rules for the English noun phrase, NP → (Det) N,
makes crucial reference to the categories determiner and noun.
Not all of the categories we use in linguistic analysis can be given
semantic definitions. Phonemes like /n/ and /I/ or distinctive features like
[± coronal], [± back] are good examples of linguistic units which in them-
selves just don’t have any meaning. The same is true of phrasal and
higher constituents: it makes no sense to ask what the meaning of the
category Verb Phrase or Sentence is, since the role of these categories is
in the analysis of syntactic arrangement, and they simply lack any inde-
pendent meaning. Other categories that we use in grammatical analysis,
however, do have their own meanings. Individual words are the best
example, but other elements, like clause-patterns (declarative, interroga-
tive, imperative), as well as utterances and even whole texts, can also
informally be said to have their own meanings: the typical meaning of
the interrogative-pattern in English, for instance, is that the clause is a
question (see 4.1 for problems and discussion). It also often makes sense
to ask for the meaning of elements below the word level, such as some
bound morphemes like the English plural marker -s or the tense suffix -ed
(see 2.2).
What about the parts of speech? Are they like phonemes or phrasal con-
stituents in simply not having any meaning of their own? Or are they like
words and clause-patterns in having an identifiable semantic content? In
 9.1 The semantics of parts of speech 289

this section, we will explore just how far it is possible to give a semantic
definition of the parts of speech, and what the alternatives to semantic
definition might be.

9.1.1 Variation in parts of speech systems

The languages of the world show some variation in what parts of speech
their grammars contain. In a typical sentence of any language, we can
identify constituents which are translated by, and seem to function in a
similar way to, nouns and verbs in English or other familiar languages.
But whether we want to call these words ‘nouns’ and verbs’ depends on a
number of considerations; some researchers deny that there is any mean-
ingful sense in which those two parts of speech can be said to exist univer-
sally (Foley in print; see also Croft 2003: 183, and Evans and Osada 2005).
We will say more about nouns and verbs shortly. Once we move away from
these categories, however, there is greater variation. Adjectives and
adverbs are frequently missing from the inventory of grammatical catego-
ries found in the languages of the world. In Warao (isolate; Venezuela), for
example, the single form yakera can be used without any modification
both referentially, as a name of the abstract thing ‘beauty’ (1a), and as a
modifier of both a referential object (1b), and a predicate (1c):

(1) a. yakera
beauty
‘beauty’

b. Hiaka yakera auka saba tai nisa-n-a-e.

garment beauty daughter for she buy-SG-PUNCT-PAST
‘She bought a beautiful dress for her daughter.’

c. Oko kuana yaota-te arone yakera nahoro-te. . .

we hardness work-NPAST although beauty eat-NPAST
‘Although we work hard and eat well, . . ..’ (Romero-Figeroa 1997,
quoted by Hengeveld et al. 2004: 531–532)

These uses would call for three quite formally distinct categories in
English and many other languages: noun (1a), adjective (1b) and adverb
(1c). In Ancient Greek (Indo-European, Greece and Mediterranean; extinct),
for example, the translations of yakera in (2a–c) are as follows:

(2) a. to kallos (‘(the) beauty’; noun)

b. kalos (‘beautiful’; adjective)
c. eu, kalŌs (‘well’; adverb)

In contrast, Warao shows no morphological distinction between the three uses.

Differences in part of speech systems are not limited to the presence or
absence of adjectives/adverbs. We can see this by comparing some rough
part-of-speech inventories from four languages: Chickasaw (Muskogean;
Oklahoma, USA), Wolof (Niger-Kordofanian; Senegal and Gambia), San
Lucas Quiavini Zapotec (Zapotec, Mexico), and Warlpiri (Pama-Nyungan,
Australia) as laid out in Table 9.1 (Munro 2006; Nash 1986):
290 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

Table 9.1. Part of speech categories in four languages.

Wolof Chickasaw Zapotec Warlpiri

nouns nouns nouns nouns

pronouns pronouns pronouns pronouns

a
determiners – – determiners

– demonstratives demonstratives –

verbs verbs verbs verbs

– – adjectives –

adverbs – adverbs –

prepositions – prepositions –

quantifiers – quantifiers –

– – – preverbs

– – – auxiliaries

interjections interjections interjections interjections

particles particles particles particles

a
(demonstratives and articles)

9.1.2 How are parts of speech delimited?

The world’s languages differ, therefore, in the parts of speech recognized
in their grammars. In order to understand this variation fully, we need to
understand how we decide what parts of speech a language has. This is
not a simple question. Modern European languages have inherited a
ready-made classification of grammatical categories from traditional
grammar, as developed since ancient times (see text box p. 295). We sim-
ply take it for granted that it is appropriate to think of our languages as
having nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, determiners/articles,
prepositions, as well as a few additional minor categories like interjec-
tions and conjunctions. For the purposes of teaching grammar at school
these categories are certainly adequate. But when we turn to languages
without any indigenous tradition of part of speech distinctions, or when
we examine a familiar language like English objectively, we discover that
determining exactly what the parts of speech are is a complicated ques-
tion: there are often several different ways of analysing the facts of any
one language, and the question of how the parts of speech should be
identified seems open to answering in a variety of different ways.
QUESTION Over the past few decades, grammarians have proposed sev-
eral different parts-of-speech lists for English and other languages, rang-
ing from eight categories to as many as a dozen or so. Before we discuss
this in the text, think about what the major reasons for these differ-
ences might be.
Let’s illustrate this with English. One of the main descriptive grammari-
ans of modern English, Rodney Huddleston, states in his 1984 grammar of
 9.1 The semantics of parts of speech 291

English that ‘It is inconceivable . . . that one might write a viable grammar
of English that failed to distinguish classes of nouns, verbs and adjectives
with very much the same coverage as in traditional grammar. . .’ (1984: 98).
As we’ll see, this is largely true. But notwithstanding that hard core of
central categories, different modern descriptive theories of grammar have
made quite different divisions. Let’s look, then, at three different cata-
logues of English parts of speech, Huddleston and Pullum (2002), Radford
(2004/1988) and Hockett (1958), before going on to consider the criteria on
which we might base a classification.
Leaving aside interjections, which we’re going to ignore in what fol-
lows, Huddleston and Pullum’s classification recognizes eight categories:

Huddleston and Pullum (2002)

Noun tree pig sugar hatred union Picasso London I you me it

Verb do fly melt think damage give have be must
Adjective good nice big easy ugly helpful reddish fond
Adverb obviously easily helpfully frankly soon so too
Preposition of to by into between over since towards
Determinative the this that a(n) some all every each
Subordinator that for to whether if
Coordinator and or but not

Radford, by contrast, has eleven. One difference is largely terminological:

Radford’s complementiser is equivalent to Huddleston and Pullum’s subor-
dinator. Some of Radford’s categories are unfamiliar: quantifier includes
words which fall into Huddleston and Pullum’s determinative category, and
prepositions include conjunctions; the tensemarker category contains forms
which Huddleston and Pullum class as verbs (can, could, might, may, must, shall,
should, will, would) – and includes infinitival to (as in I want to go home).

Radford (2004/1988)

Noun
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
Preposition (including particles and conjunctions: Radford 1988: 137)
Determiner
Quantifier
Pronoun
Auxiliary
Tensemarker (= finite auxiliaries and infinitival to)
Complementiser

Finally, let’s look at Hockett’s (1958) classification, focusing purely on his

treatment of nouns, verbs and adjectives. In fact, Hockett divides those
three parts of speech into no fewer than seven separate categories, depend-
ing on the syntactic possibilities of their members. The seven categories
are N, A, V, NA, NV, AV and NAV. A word is an N if, like cat, it can only occur
292 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

in the syntactic positions traditionally associated with nouns (e.g. follow-

ing a determiner). It is NA if it can occur as both a traditional noun and a
traditional adjective: an example would be good, as in the good soldier (adjec-
tival use) and the government is concerned for both the public and the private good
(nominal use). In its adjectival use, good displays the grammatical possi-
bilities characteristic of adjectives (notably comparison: good, better, best),
whereas in its nominal use it can follow a determiner and may take plural
marking (no goods may be left in storage). A word is NV if it can be used as both
a traditional noun and verb: an obvious example is cook (The cook (N) is too
drunk; now let’s cook (V) the duck). Finally, NAVs, such as green, display all
three uses (This green (N) is darker than that one; the green (A) grass; the council
wants to green (V) the city). In Hockett’s scheme, then, the ‘pure’ categories
N, V and A are just the kernel of a more elaborate system.
QUESTION In some classifications, pronouns are considered as a sub-
category of nouns and auxiliaries are considered a subcategory of verbs.
What might some advantages and disadvantages of these categorizations
be? Consider both the consequences for assigning a meaning to the cat-
egory, and the consequences for describing grammatical structure.
It’s clear just from a cursory examination of the three interpretations of
English that quite a lot of variation is possible in parts of speech systems,
especially in the less central categories. This variability in modern classi-
ficatory schemes shows that there’s no sense in which the division of the
entire vocabulary into parts of speech is natural. Terms like ‘noun’, ‘verb’,
‘conjunction’ and so on are ones which many of us feel entirely familiar
with, and which we apply unhesitatingly. It’s tempting to feel that there’s
no more doubt about whether something is a noun or a verb than there
is about whether a rabbit is a plant or an animal. Yet the variety of clas-
sifications which have been advanced shows that the opposite is the case.
What the parts of speech are is a matter for discussion, not an obvious and
straightforward fact about language. Whether or not she is a noun or pro-
noun depends on what your criteria for nounhood and pronounhood are.
And, as we’re about to see, different criteria are possible, and it may well
be that some criteria are better than others.
QUESTION Suggest some criteria for determining parts of speech in English.
QUESTION What part of speech is say in Say we come tomorrow. . .? What
about come in Come Tuesday, we’ll know the answer?
QUESTION There are a few items whose function is to introduce an utter-
ance in discourse, such as well (as in Well, are you coming this Sunday?) and
now (as in Now, we can do one of two things). What are the arguments for
and against these constituting a separate part of speech category?

9.1.2.1 Morpho-distributional criteria

The languages for which the earliest parts of speech classifications were
developed were strongly inflectional in nature. In both Latin and Greek,
nouns and verbs took two entirely different sets of suffixes. As a result, the
 9.1 The semantics of parts of speech 293

inflections provided a very obvious way of dividing the vocabulary up into

different word classes: nouns can be defined as the words which take a
certain set of inflectional suffixes; and verbs as words which take a cer-
tain different set. The classification into noun and verb, in other words,
can unproblematically be read off the morphology, and if we ever had a
doubt about what part of speech a given word belongs to, we can quickly
resolve it by checking which set of inflections it took. At an earlier stage
of its linguistic history, English itself used to be much more like Latin and
Greek, as we can see from the paradigms of the Old English nouns stān
‘stone’, giefu ‘gift’ and hunta ‘hunter’, and of the verb fremman ‘do’ (note
the character þ, pronounced [θ] and called ‘thorn’):

Singular: Nom stān gief-u hunt-a

Acc stān gief-e hunt-an
Gen stān-es gief-e hunt-an
Dat stān-e gief-e hunt-an
Plural: Nom stān-as gief-a hunt-an
Acc stān-as gief-a hunt-an
Gen stān-a gief-a hunt-ena
Dat stān-um gief-um hunt-um

SG 1 fremm-e ‘I do’
2 frem-est ‘you do’
3 frem-eþ ‘he/she/it does’
PL fremm-aþ ‘we/you (pl.)/they do’

In order to discover whether hunta is a noun or verb, then, we simply ask

what set of inflectional endings it can take.
In Modern English, where the morphology has greatly decayed, we cannot
determine word class from inflections: there just isn’t enough inflectional
morphology, and what there is isn’t regular enough through any one word
class. For example, we couldn’t define nouns as the class of words which take
plural markers, since some words which we clearly want to recognize as
nouns, like equipment, worth, emptiness, suffrage, marketing or music, typically do
not have this possibility. The English category ‘adjective’ is similar. We might
suggest that adjectives can be defined as those words which can accept com-
parative/superlative morphology: think of fast–faster–fastest, hot–hotter–hottest,
black–blacker–blackest and kind–kinder–kindest. The problem is that while this
criterion applies to some basic adjectives, it will end up excluding many words
we accept as adjectives, like prior (*priorer/*more prior), former (*formerer/*more
former), total (*totaler/*more total), future (*futurer/*more future) and many others.

QUESTION Is it possible to identify a morphological criterion for verbs

in English? What prevents us giving a simple answer to this question?

The difficulty of coming up with satisfactory definitions of these basic

parts of speech is somewhat embarrassing, since it is precisely the tradi-
tional categorization of verb, noun and adjective that we need if we are to
describe English in the way that most syntacticians believe is required.
294 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

Another criterion often used to define parts of speech is a distribu-

tional one. A distributional approach to parts of speech classifies parts of
speech on the basis of the way they pattern in sentences. One way of defin-
ing these patterns is to advance sample contexts which can serve as test-
frames. For example, Radford (2004: 30) suggests that (3) can serve as a test
for nouns, since it is only by a noun that it can be completed:

(3) They have no ____.

Thus, cardinal nouns like house, dog, patience, recognition and many others
can be substituted into the sentence, whereas adjectives/adverbs (sad(ly),
correct(ly), canine), verbs (eaten, dwell, conceal) and prepositions (to, with, by)
cannot. More examples are given in (4).

(4) (a) They have no car/conscience/friends/ideas [nouns]

(b) *They have no went [verb]/for [preposition]/older
[adjective]/conscientiously [adverb] (Radford 2004: 31)

However, further reflection soon reveals that not all words which we usu-
ally count as nouns can be appropriately put in the frame, as shown in (5):

??
(5) They have no instance.
??
They have no possibility.
??
They have no inconvenience.

These sentences might be improved by adding further material after the

noun (?They have no possibility of improvement). However, a better test-frame
for nouns might be the following one:

(6) There is/are no _______.

This works for all the nouns we have seen so far. But it is not free of prob-
lems, since it also admits the following, as any quick search of the Internet
will show:

(7) a. There is no I/me [pronouns].

b. There is no why/if [conjunctions].
c. There is no then [adverb]/after/before [adverbs/prepositions].
e. Do Or Do Not. There Is No Try [verb?].

None of the highlighted words is usually considered a noun in the senses

which they exemplify here. Consistently, none of these words should be
able felicitously to appear in the test-frame in (7).

QUESTION Consider the following test-frame for adverbs (Radford 2004: 31):

(a) He treats her _______.

(b) She behaved _______.
(b) He worded the statement ______.
Does this test work for all and only those words which we traditionally
classify adverbs?
 9.1 The semantics of parts of speech 295

Even if we were able to devise appropriate test-frames which did isolate

the categories in a way that matched our traditional classifications, there
is still a problem: the morphological and distributional tests only work if
the membership of the different parts of speech categories is already
known. That is why we can say that the words in (7a–e) are not nouns in
spite of their compatibility with the test-frame, and why we know that the
words in (5) are nouns even though they do not fit into the test context in
(3). In neither case are we using the test sentences to establish the part of
speech classification of a given noun; we are using it to justify a traditional
classification which we consider as self-evident. The traditional part of
speech categories seem simply to be so entrenched in the way we think of
our own language that we cannot avoid using them, even if we have a hard
time specifying exactly what criteria govern their application. It seems as
though we have to look elsewhere for some insight into this question.

The origin of parts of speech systems

The parts of speech categories used in modern linguistic theory go
back to the classical grammarians of Greek and Latin. Both Plato and
Aristotle include embryonic classifications of words into parts of
speech; the expression ‘parts of speech’, indeed, is first recorded in
Aristotle. But the first systematic classification of parts of speech is
due to the Stoics – philosophers who belonged to the school of Zeno
of Citium, who was active round 300 BC. The early Stoic classification
recognized just four parts of speech: nouns, verbs, articles (including
pronouns) and conjunctive particles (including prepositions; Michael
1970: 48). Dionysius Thrax, the grammarian responsible for the first
surviving work of Western grammar (see Kemp 1986), recognized
twice the number, distinguishing nouns, verbs, participles (which
roughly correspond to the -ing form of English verbs), articles, pro-
nouns, preposition, adverbs and conjunctions.
This eight-fold classification persisted in the influential system of
the Latin grammarian Donatus (mid-fourth century AD), the teacher
of St Jerome (the translator of the Bible into Latin). Donatus’ list of
categories was the following: noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, parti-
ciple, conjunction, preposition and interjection. Note that this list
substitutes interjections for articles. This reflects a significant differ-
ence between Greek, the language for which Thrax’s grammar was
designed, and Latin, Donatus’ concern. Unlike Greek, Latin lacks a
word meaning ‘the’, making the ‘article’ category completely redun-
dant for this language (neither Greek nor Latin has a word for ‘a(n)’).
This difference aside, however, the two languages are sufficiently simi-
lar for the rest of the Greek word classes still to play a plausible role in
the description of Latin. Donatus’ system forms the basis for the whole
grammatical tradition of the Middle Ages, and, consequently, for the
classification which we’re familiar with ourselves. That’s not to say
that the system didn’t go unchallenged. Various scholars throughout
296 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

the medieval period tinkered with the basic eight-way division found
in Donatus (details in Michael 1970). But it was Donatus’ system that
held sway. Smaragdus (a celebrated theologian active towards the start
of the ninth century AD) followed Donatus’ view that there were only
eight parts of speech, adding that ‘the whole church . . . holds that
there are only eight, and I have no doubt that this view is divinely
inspired’ (quoted in Michael 1970: 51). When grammarians first began
to describe the grammar of European vernaculars, they based their
classifications closely on these Latin systems, regardless of how appro-
priate they were to the language being described. It is as though prin-
ciples from cricket were automatically used to describe any ball game,
with terms like stumps, wicket, run, fielder and innings being applied
indifferently to football, hockey, lawn bowls and tennis.

9.1.2.2 Semantic criteria

One particularly obvious way of delimiting the categories is on the basis
of semantic criteria; in other words, on the basis of commonalities in the
meanings of words in any given class. This may well have been the way you
yourself were first taught to think of major parts of speech like noun, verb
and adjective/adverb. The following set of traditional definitions are rep-
resentative of semantic interpretations of the parts of speech (adapted
from Huddleston 1983, following Curme 1935):

Noun (substantive): word used as the name of a living being or lifeless thing.
Verb: word which denotes action or a state of being.
Adjective: word which denotes a property or characteristic of some
object, person or thing.
QUESTION What might some problems be with these definitions?
Semantic criteria for the parts of speech are very entrenched in our gram-
matical thought. One of the earliest English grammarians to write in the
vernacular, William Lily (c. 1468–1522), defined noun in his Latin gram-
mar as ‘the name of a thing that is and may be seen, felt, heard, or under-
stood’; the connection with Curme’s definition is obvious. In (7) above,
one of the reasons that we’re likely to reject why/if, then, after/before and try
as nouns is that we feel they’re not ‘thingy’ enough: their referents are
not abstract or concrete objects, unlike the referents of prototypical
nouns.
Semantic definitions, however, prove to be hopelessly inadequate as defi-
nitions of the parts of speech. On the semantic definition, verbs are sup-
posed to ‘denote action or a state of being’ or, in an alternative formulation
(COBUILD grammar, p. 137), ‘indicate what sort of action, process or state
you are talking about’. If that definition is to be accurate, it must mean that
anything which does that is a verb; otherwise, the definition won’t work. But
we find that there are countless nouns which ‘denote action or a state of
being’ or ‘indicate what sort of action, process or state you are talking
about’:
 9.1 The semantics of parts of speech 297

Action/process: riot, ceremony, election, conference, sport, genocide, trick, cel-

ebration, party, war, conversation, meal, punishment, sleep, bloodshed . . .
State of being: ability, old age, youth, maturity, arrogance, ignorance, stupid-
ity, preference, sickness, health, trouble . . .

You’ll be able to think of many more examples for yourself (see Hopper 1997
for interesting discussion). Some scholars have developed more sophisticated
descriptions of the claimed underlying semantics of nouns and verbs. Thus,
Givón (1979) claims that noun meanings and verb meanings occur at oppo-
site ends of a ‘time-stability’ continuum: nouns prototypically denote per-
cepts which possess ‘time-stability’ – they refer, in other words, to things or
objects, which persist over time. Verbs, by contrast, prototypically denote
percepts which lack time-stability – actions and events, which evolve through
time and cannot be fixed (on prototypicality, see 7.1.3). This is an attractive
idea, but it does not prove to be a viable definition of noun and verb mean-
ings. For every noun referring to a time-stable thing or object, we can pro-
duce one which refers to a fleeting ‘object’ which lacks time-stability: think
of the nouns spark, glint, flash, splash, wince, cry, blink, shiver. Many verbs, by
contrast, denote stable situations: to exist, remain, soak, rest, belong and many
others. These seem just as ‘prototypical’ as any others. These facts challenge
Givón’s claim of prototypicality. The grammatical difference between nouns
and verbs simply does not seem to be reducible to a semantic one.
Attempts to discover a semantic commonality to the class of adjectives
fare no better. The traditional semantic definition of adjective, ‘word
which denotes a property or characteristic of some object, person or
thing’, is far from an adequate way of delimiting the category. There are
many nouns and, to a lesser extent, verbs which perform exactly that
function:

Nouns: happiness, sadness, freedom, slavery, winner, loser, age, youth . . .

Verbs: differ, resemble, contrast . . .

For instance, if I say that her sadness increased, sadness refers quite unam-
biguously to a ‘property or characteristic’ of the person, just as much as
it does to ‘a lifeless thing’, the definition of noun. Similarly, to say that
something differs from something else, is certainly not to say anything
about an action or event in which it’s involved; we could say that it
denotes a state of the referent, but there’s no reason not to also say that
it denotes a property or characteristic. Indeed, whenever something is in
a particular state it can be described as possessing the property charac-
teristic of that state: if, for example, I know French, then I am in a particu-
lar state of being (knowing French), and I possess the property of know-
ing French. Or again, if you live in Sydney, the living can be described
both as a state of being you’re in, and as a property you possess – the
property of living in a certain place. That crossover between states and
properties introduces a total indeterminacy into the semantic defini-
tions of adjective and verb, rendering them useless as definitions of the
categories.
298 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

But these sorts of indeterminacy aren’t even the main problem with a
meaning-based classification. The real problem is that such classifications
are circular. As pointed out by Lyons (1968: 318), the ‘only reason we have
for saying that truth, beauty and electricity are things is that the words
which refer to them in English are nouns’. In other words, what counts as
a ‘thing’ in English seems not to be independently established, but depends
on whether the word for it is a noun: possibility, fraud and implication are
nouns and therefore can all be thought of as the names of things, whereas
if, then, try are not nouns and cannot. Lexical category, in other words,
seems to determine thingness, not the other way around. If we had some
independent way of saying what counts as a thing in English, we would be
in a better position. As it is, however, it seems that virtually the only evi-
dence we have on the thingness of a concept is, precisely, what part of
speech it belongs to. Why is to operate an action, but an operation a thing?
For Lyons, the only reason is that the former is a verb, the latter a noun.
This means that we cannot appeal to thingness, eventhood and so on as
criteria for grammatical category, since they are not known independently
of the very grammatical features which they are supposed to establish.
But perhaps there are some more general definitions we can find. What
about the function of verbs and nouns? Could we say that verbs are the part
of speech which predicate (i.e. attribute a property to a referent), and
nouns are the part of speech which refer? In a sentence like Sarkozy has
resigned, for instance, the proper noun Sarkozy refers to an individual,
while the verb has resigned attributes the property of having resigned to
him. Unfortunately, neither predication nor reference will work as defini-
tions of ‘verb’ and ‘noun’. Predication can’t be an adequate definition of
verb, since the notion of ‘predicate’ is usually understood in terms of the
notion ‘verb’. Any attempt to define verbs as predicates would therefore be
circular. (See the box ‘Verbs and predication’ for discussion.) As for defin-
ing nouns through reference, there are two problems. First, nouns don’t
always refer. In a sentence like Charles will not be king, the subject noun
Charles refers to an individual, but the complement noun king is non-
referring (see 3.2.2.2 for discussion). Thus, we cannot identify the function
of the noun as always being referential: many nouns and noun phrases
will be non-referential.
Maybe we could get around this by saying that nouns are that part of
speech which can refer, but which need not do so. This might prove to be an
effective strategy, if it weren’t for our second problem: once we look
closely at the question, we find that it isn’t nouns that refer, but noun
phrases. Consider the following sentences:

(8) a. Ice melts in the sun.

b. Civilization is headed for the scrap-heap.
c. Books annoy me.

(9) a. Ice that has not been chemically modified melts in the sun.
b. Your tawdry little human civilization is headed for the scrap heap.
c. Those books we borrowed from the library annoy me.
 9.1 The semantics of parts of speech 299

The underlined phrases in (8a–c) are noun phrases, not just nouns, for
well-known syntactic reasons which I’m assuming are familiar. (If they’re
not, you’ll find clear explanations in standard syntax texts like Carnie
2007, Radford 2004, or Bloor and Bloor 2004.) Sentences (8a–c) show that
noun phrases can sometimes consist of a sole noun (ice, civilization and books
respectively). Often, however, there needs to be more than just this single
‘head’ noun in order to convey the intended reference. In (9a–c), the
underlined noun phrases contain many other parts of speech than the
head noun. Yet only the full underlined noun phrase contains the infor-
mation we need in order to identify the referent. Clearly, then, reference
is achieved at the level of the entire phrase, not at that of the part of
speech itself (see 3.2.2.2). So our suggestion that nouns might be defined
as the part of speech that refers won’t turn out to be right: noun phrases,
not nouns, are the bearers of referential force.
Maybe we can save the situation. Maybe if we start from a different
point we can still use the connection between noun phrases and reference
as a way to define nouns. What if, instead of defining nouns through ref-
erence, we defined nouns through noun phrases, and then NPs through
reference? In other words, maybe we could say that nouns are the heads
of NPs, and that NPs are constituents which can refer. If we were able to
do that, we’d have discovered a way to account for the membership of the
noun category syntactically (by defining it as the head of an NP), and we’d
have defined NP functionally (as a potentially referring constituent).
Unfortunately, there are two problems with this. First, the very definition
of NP makes reference to the category noun. Let’s assume the rule NP S
(Det) (Adj) N. Since this contains the category Noun in its definition, we
need to know what the nouns are in a sentence before we can identify
what the noun phrase is. That’s obviously going to be a problem if we
want to use the NP category as a way of defining nouns. Second, not just
Ns are the heads of NPs. Any pronoun can constitute an NP on its own:

(10) I/you/he/she/we/they stole the diamonds.

Furthermore, if sentences like There is no after and the others in (7) contain
NPs, then these are arguably headed by parts of speech other than Ns. As
a result, the suggestion that we could define noun as the head of an NP
will not isolate those parts of speech which we want to count as nouns in
the first place. It looks as though we just won’t be able to ground the cat-
egory of noun in reference after all.

Verbs and predication

Verbs can be described as ‘predicators’, and the role of the verb in the
clause can be described as ‘predicating’. Could we use these notions
to give a foundation to the category of verb? Can we say that verbs are
defined by their role as predicators? Unfortunately, the answer to this
has to be ‘no’. Let’s see why.
300 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

The predicate is the part of the sentence which attributes a prop-

erty to a referent (see Rothstein 2006). The term ‘property’ is a bit
misleading: it covers not just adjectival properties, but verbal ones
too. So in (1), the referent in question is Stephen, and the properties
attributed to him are all properties which consist of performing a
certain action: walking home, shooting Nazis and accepting the glass.
Because these actions all involve other entities (home, Nazis and the
glass) the sentences include the NPs home, seventeen Nazis and the glass,
which specify additional information about the action.

(1) a. Stephen walked home.

b. Stephen shot seventeen Nazis.
c. Stephen accepted the glass.
These NP objects aren’t necessary for a predication, since we can
remove them and still succeed in attributing properties to Stephen:
the properties of walking (2a), shooting (2b) and accepting (2c):

(2) a. Stephen walked.

b. Stephen shot.
c. Stephen accepted.

As a result, it’s conventional in linguistics to say that it’s the verb

which is the predicator in a sentence: in a well-formed English sen-
tence, there must be a verb, but there need not be anything other than
a verb. The verb can bring associated NPs along as objects or comple-
ments, as in (1), but these associated NPs don’t themselves predicate,
as we can see if we remove the verb from the sentences of (1):

(3) a. *Stephen home.

b. *Stephen seventeen Nazis.
c. *Stephen the glass.

These sentences are ill-formed: in the absence of a verb, the non-

subject NPs can’t contribute to specifying the property attributed to
Stephen. For this reason the verb is thought of as the necessary part
of the predicate, and the verb is known as the predicator.
That, then, explains what predicates and predicators are. Back
to the question of whether we could define verbs in terms of
predication, thereby providing a semantic basis for the category.
Unfortunately, it turns out there are also other parts of speech than
the verb which can be considered as predicates. Look at (4):

(4) a. Stephen walked home ecstatic/ten feet tall/ravenous.

b. Stephen shot seventeen Nazis dead.
c. Stephen accepted the glass empty.
d. Stephen accepted the prize delighted.

Here we find additional properties being attributed to the referents of

the sentence. In (4a) and (4d), the property of being ecstatic/ten feet tall/
ravenous or delighted is attributed to the sentence’s subject (Stephen),
 9.1 The semantics of parts of speech 301

while in (4b) and (4c) properties are attributed to the sentence’s objects:
in (4b) the property of being dead is attributed to the Nazis, and in (4c)
the property of being empty is attributed to the glass.
This creates a serious problem if we want to define verbs as predica-
tors, since what the sentences in (4) show is that not all predicators
are verbs. If we’re planning to identify verbs with the class of predica-
tors, the (4) examples show that this will also include ecstatic, ten feet
tall, ravenous, dead and empty as verbs – a consequence we must avoid,
since these words aren’t verbs on anyone’s criterion!
Can we do anything about this? Perhaps we could introduce a con-
trast between ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ predicators, and say that pri-
mary predicators like those in (2) are verbs, but that secondary predi-
cators like the highlighted words in (4) are not. But how do we define
primary predicator? It seems the only obvious way is to say that the
primary predicator is the main verb. But this would be circular: since
we want to use ‘primary predicator’ as a definition of verb, we can’t
use ‘verb’ to define ‘primary predicator’. To do so would be uninfor-
mative: it would leave us with no way of identifying either the verbs
or the primary predicator in a clause, since we would have to be able
to identify each before we could identify the other. (Someone might
suggest here that we define primary predicator as something like ‘the
only obligatory predicator in a clause’. The problem with this is that
the idea of a clause itself depends on the notion ‘verb’, which means
that a circularity will once again be introduced.)
There’s one other compelling reason not to identify the notions
of ‘verb’ and primary predicator: in some languages, like Warlpiri,
nouns can be the primary predicators:

(5) Ngaju mata

I tired
‘I am tired’ (Hale, Laughren and Simpson 1995: 1430)

On morphological criteria, mata ‘tired’(which can also mean ‘lame’)

is a noun in Warlpiri (as seen in Table 9.1 above, there is no separate
adjective category), yet in this sentence it is the only possible primary
predicator.
The upshot of this dispiriting situation is this. We have to conclude
that verbs can’t be usefully defined as the class of (primary) predica-
tors in a language: to define them in this way only gives the appear-
ance of a definition, and does not actually get us anywhere.

QUESTION In Somali (Afro-Asiatic; Somalia), the words for ‘black’, ‘white’

and ‘red’ are intransitive verbs, those for ‘yellow’ and ‘green’ are denomi-
nal adjectives and the word for ‘blue’ is a noun: something can’t be said
to be blue; instead, it ‘has blue’ (Kay 2001: 2251). How serious a problem
does this pose for a semantic definition of parts of speech? Is there any
way a supporter of semantic definitions could respond?
302 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

9.1.2.3 Multicategoriality
Another factor which creates problems when we try to theorize about
grammatical categories is that in some languages, including English,
there are many words which are both nouns and verbs:

(11) catch, run, fish, clasp, head, ride, go, move, hit, break, fall, slip, drink, smoke,
risk, box, saddle, read. . .

Even words which are typically members of just one category can be used
in the other. (12) (a–b) show verbs appearing as nouns:

(12) a. As your road speed increases in the Commodore, the dwell of the intermit-
tent windscreen wipers reduces. (Jones 2001: 18).
b. We can see a real disconnect here.

In contrast, contexts like (13) show nouns being used as verbs:

(13) Don’t baby me; just Google it.

These possibilities are not limited to nouns and verbs. Contexts like
(14a–b) allow the titles sir and madam, which are certainly not verbs, to be
inserted into verb slots:

(14) a. ‘Madam,’ I began, very conscious of the evil glitter of her knife, ‘if you
will permit me to–’ ‘Don’t “madame” me, young man! I don’t like it. . .’
(http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/etext04/pereg10.
htm)

b. Colonel: Don’t sir me! Clevinger: Yes, sir.

(www.geocities.com/stuartthiel/clevingerscript.html)

Many types of word can be inserted into a pre-nominal position, and

hence interpreted as an adjective, as happens with badge of honour in (15):

(15) Another army of women is bandaged and bruised.. . . they wear their wounds
with much the same badge-of-honour determination.

Badge of honour is typically a noun; but when it takes on the grammatical

position associated with adjectives, it assumes a qualifying role. Examples
like these are widespread, and they suggest that there is a high degree of
fluidity to the English part-of-speech system.
QUESTION Traditionally the first noun in cases like (15) is labelled ‘a
noun used as an adjective’. What are the advantages and problems with
this? Think of other noun–noun combinations, such as snail mail, week-
end warrior, etc.
Some languages have even more far-reaching possibilities of multicatego-
riality. In some languages of the Pacific Northwest of America and Canada,
there is a widespread cross-over between noun and verb categories. The
 9.1 The semantics of parts of speech 303

following examples are from St’át’imcets (Salishan; British Columbia;

Davis and Matthewson 1999: 38):

(16) a. t’ak ti=nk’yáp=a

go.along DET=coyote=EXIS
‘The/a coyote goes along’

b. nk’yap ti=t’ák=a
coyote DET=go.along=EXIS
‘The one going along is a coyote’

In (16a) we find the root nk’yáp ‘coyote’ performing a function typically

associated with nouns – reference – and supplied with a determiner. The
root t’ak ‘go along’ functions as a verb. In (16b) these functions are com-
pletely reversed. Now it is nk’yap ‘coyote’ which has the verbal function,
and t’ák ‘go along’ the nominal morphology. This possibility for roots to
appear in either nominal or verbal contexts is widely found in the Pacific
North West of North America, such as Nuu-chah-nulth (Wakashan; British
Columbia; often referred to as ‘Nootka’), as well as in other languages of
the world, including Tagalog (Austronesian; Philippines): (17) gives some
Tagalog examples (Evans and Osada 2005: 368):

(17) a. nag.ta.trabaho ang lalaki

work.AT.IMPF TOP man
‘The man will be working.’

b. lalaki ang nag.ta.trabaho

man TOP work.AT.IMPF
‘The one who is working is a man.’

The predicate in Tagalog is signalled by clause-initial position; (17) gives a

sense of the freedom with which roots can be inserted into this position.
Sign languages also often have words which are able to function equally
as nouns or verbs. In DGS (Deutsche Gebärdensprache, German Sign Language),
for instance, both the signs in (18) can be translated as both nouns and
verbs:

(18) a. ARBEIT ‘the work, to work’

b. DENKEN ‘to think, a thought’ (Schwager and Zeshan n.d.: 1)

(The handsigns are represented here by their approximate German trans-

lation equivalents, given in capital letters.)
Facts like these give us a different way of thinking about the nature
of verbhood and nounhood. We began this section by saying that noun-
hood and verbhood are usually thought of as inherent properties of lexi-
cal roots: a word ‘brings’ its status as a noun or verb with it to the sen-
tence. The thoroughgoing multicategoriality found in languages like
St’át’imcets, Tagalog and Nuu-chah-nulth, as well as the more limited, but
still frequent multicategoriality of a language like English, give us good
reason not to talk in this way. Instead, we can think of nouns and verbs as
304 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

‘slots’ or contexts available in each clause, each of which comes associated

with typical grammatical machinery (TMA markers for verbs/events; plu-
rality/definiteness etc. markers for nouns). In English, these slots are the
phrase-level categories of NP and VP, each of which prototypically has its
distinctive grammatical markers. In other languages, the marking of the
slot may be purely morphological. But in both cases we can see the gram-
matical slots themselves as the carriers of the nounhood or verbhood
which the word ends up acquiring. These slots display the typical struc-
ture of a prototype category: prototypically, a noun slot is filled with
words denoting perceptible, time-stable referents, and a verb slot is filled
with words denoting concrete actions. In some languages, there are roots
which are uniquely licensed to appear in either noun or verb slots. In oth-
ers, a given root may appear in both. But in both cases, the categoriality
comes from the slot in the clause, not from the root itself.

9.1.3 Grammatical category and discourse function

In a well-known article, Hopper and Thompson (1984) suggested an alter-
native to semantically or grammatically oriented approaches to the parts
of speech like those discussed above. Hopper and Thompson claim that
nounhood and verbhood should be defined in terms of discourse-
functional factors: factors which are not primarily about meaning or
grammatical rules, but about the informational roles which words play in
actual discourse, the particular function of different words in organizing
the information conveyed by the utterance.
We’ll mainly concentrate on Hopper and Thompson’s proposals about
nouns. They begin by observing that the grammatical properties associ-
ated with nouns are not constant across all the contexts in which nouns
appear. They compare three uses of the noun fox:

(19) a. Early in the chase the hounds started up an old red fox, and we hunted
him all morning.
b. Foxes are cunning.
c. We went fox-hunting in the Berkshires.

In all three cases fox is, of course, a noun. But Hopper and Thompson note
that the grammatical ‘nouniness’ of fox is manifested in rather different
ways in the three cases. In English, nouns are often distinguished gram-
matically by the ability to take plural suffixes, and appear in NPs introduced
by determiners. Ability to host number markers and compatibility with
determiners are therefore among the cardinal grammatical possibilities
that an English noun has. Most common nouns have these possibilities. But
even though fox is an entirely typical English noun in terms of these abstract
grammatical possibilities, whether or not the possibilities are available
depends on the particular grammatical context in which the noun occurs.
In (19) above, the full possibilities of number-hosting and determiner accept-
ance are, in fact, only both available in (19a). Case (19a) already contains the
determiner an, and we could pluralize it to foxes (an alteration which would
necessitate substituting the determiner some for an). In order to express the
 9.1 The semantics of parts of speech 305

generic meaning of (19b), we either use the plural foxes, or we can use a sin-
gular noun with determiner: the fox is cunning. But we don’t have both
options. We can’t say Fox is cunning (singular noun; no determiner) or the foxes
are cunning (plural noun; determiner) and preserve the same meaning: the
foxes are cunning doesn’t mean that foxes in general are cunning, just that these
particular foxes, which we’re already talking about, are cunning. In (19c) fox
can have neither plural marking nor a preceding determiner. In (19a) fox iden-
tifies a concrete, perceptible entity which is introduced as a participant into
the discourse. In (19b) and (19c) fox(es) does not refer to any single, concrete
set of foxes, but to the class of foxes in general.
What accounts for these differences? Hopper and Thompson suggest
that nouns can be understood as prototype categories defined by their
discourse functions. The difference in the grammatical options available
to a given occurrence of a noun correlates with the discourse function
that that noun is playing in any given context – the closer the noun is to
playing its prototypical discourse role, the closer it comes to exhibiting
the full range of grammatical possibilities of its class. Nouns’ prototypical
function, Hopper and Thompson claim, is to introduce ‘participants’ and
‘props’ into the discourse, and to deploy them, as in (19a). We use nouns
to bring participants into the discourse, and then to manipulate them
through the course of the text. It is only in grammatical contexts which
can fulfil this discourse role that nouns display their full range of gram-
matical options. That is the reason that the possibilities of pluralization
and determiner selection are greatest in (19a). In (19b) and (19c), the gram-
matical context is not one which allows fox to be deployed as a participant/
prop in the discourse; as a result, fewer of the grammatical options associ-
ated with nounhood are available (see Table 9.2).
Hopper and Thomspon detail a large amount of cross-linguistic evidence
designed to ‘show that the extent to which prototypical nounhood is
achieved is a function of the degree to which the form in question serves
to introduce a participant into the discourse’ (1984: 708). Not all occur-
rences of a given noun, in other words, are equally ‘nouny’. Even though
fox is a typical English noun in having the full range of grammatical char-
acteristics we associate with nouns – compatibility with number markers
and determiners – these characteristics can only be manifested in some
contexts. The context where the full range of these grammatical character-
istics can be manifested is when the noun is fulfilling its prototypical

Table 9.2. Discourse function and grammatical nounhood.

Can show a singular/ Can take a Both singular/plural
Discourse function plural contrast determiner and determiner

Introduces or ✓ ✓ ✓
deploys participants/
props

Generic reference ✓ ✓ ✗

Non-referential ✗ ✗ ✗
306 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

discourse function: introducing or deploying a participant or prop, as in

(19a). When a noun isn’t doing this, the range of grammatical possibilities
shrinks (19b–c). ‘From the discourse viewpoint’, Hopper and Thompson
explain,

nouns function to introduce participants and ‘props’ and to deploy

them. To the extent that a linguistic form is carrying out this prototypi-
cal function, it will be coded as N, and will manifest the full possible
range of nominal trappings conventional in the language. Forms which
fail in some way to refer to concrete, deployable entities will typically
lack some or all of these trappings (1984: 710–711).

One obvious type of noun which does not introduce a participant into the
discourse are those nouns which are complements of verbs of being. This type
of nominal, Hopper and Thompson show, often loses many of the grammatical
characteristics associated with full nounhood. In Mokilese (Austronesian,
Micronesia) and Hungarian (Finno-Ugric, Hungary) (optionally), and in French
and Ancient Greek (obligatorily), nouns which are the complements of verbs
of being do not take determiners, even though appearance with determiners
is one of the grammatical hallmarks of nounhood in these languages:

(20) a. Mokilese (Harrison 1976: 74)

Johnpadahkk-o doaktoa
teacher-DEF doctor
‘The teacher is a doctor’ (not ‘the doctor is a teacher’) (Hopper and
Thompson 1984: 716)

b. Hungarian (Károly 1972: 86)

A báty-ám katona
DEF brother-my soldier
‘My brother is a soldier’ (not ‘the soldier is my brother’) (Hopper
and Thompson 1984: 717)

c. French
Il est médecin.
He is doctor
‘He is a doctor’ (not ‘the doctor is him’)

d. Ancient Greek
nuks hē hēmerē egeneto.
night the.FEM.SG.NOM day.FEM.SG.NOM become.IMPF
‘The day became night’ (not ‘the night became day’) (Goodwin
1894: 208)

In all these languages, however, when the noun phrases serve their proto-
typical function of introducing or deploying a participant or prop, they
regain the possibility of taking a determiner. The loss of this grammatical
possibility in the above examples
correlates with an absence of intention to refer to an extant entity: the
thing named is not used as a participant or prop in the discourse. In
 9.1 The semantics of parts of speech 307

other words, there are no discourse contexts in which such a predicate

nominal serves to introduce a participant into the discourse for further
deployability (Hopper and Thompson 1984: 716).
Another context in which participants are clearly not introduced or deployed
is that of negation. Nouns under the scope of negation (e.g. nouns which are
the objects of verbs in negative clauses) often cannot take the same range of
determiners as nouns which are not under the scope of negation:

(21) a. Modern Hebrew

lo kaniti sefer(*-exad)
NEG bought.I book one/a
‘I didn’t buy a book’ (Hopper and Thompson 1984: 717, quoting
Givón 1977: 304)

b. Hungarian
Jancsi nem olvasott (*egy) könyvet
John NEG read a book
‘John didn’t read any books’ (Hopper and Thompson 1984: 717,
quoting Givón 1979: 98)

Since a noun under the scope of negation cannot have the function of
deploying a participant or prop, its grammatical possibilities are much
more restricted.
We will not go into the details of Hopper and Thompson’s discussion of
verbhood, which sees assertion of the occurrence of an event as the proto-
typical discourse function of a verb. When verbs assert the occurrence of
events, they characteristically can take the full range of tense–mood–aspect
markers available in the language, as well as the other hallmarks of verb-
hood, like syntactic agreement with associated noun phrases. In contexts
where verbs do not assert the occurrence of an event, many of these possi-
bilities disappear. This accounts for the difference between (22a) and (22b):

(22) a. After the break, McTavish threw the log.

b. To throw a log that size takes a great deal of strength.

The verb in (22a) asserts the occurrence of an event and, as a result, can
occur with a wide range of tense, aspect and modality inflections (McTavish
threw/is throwing/will throw/might throw, etc.), and may, depending on the
language, show agreement with its associated NPs. In (22b), on the other
hand, no event is asserted to have occurred and these possibilities are lack-
ing (to throw/*will throw/*may throw/*can throw/*should throw, etc.).
Hopper and Thompson’s conclusion is that ‘linguistic forms are in prin-
ciple to be considered as LACKING CATEGORIALITY completely unless nounhood
or verbhood is forced on them by their discourse functions . . . In other
words, far from being given aprioristically for us to build sentences out of,
the categories of N and V actually manifest themselves only when the
discourse requires it’ (1984: 747; emphasis original). This conclusion is
similar to the one we reached at the end of the previous section, where we
308 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

argued that nounhood and verbhood need to be considered not as proper-

ties of given roots, but of grammatical ‘slots’ or ‘contexts’ in the sentence.
Hopper and Thompson’s analysis suggests that this is an oversimplifica-
tion: there is no such thing as a ‘noun’ slot or a ‘verb’ slot, each of which
is defined by a fixed range of grammatical properties. Rather, the slots
into which nouns and verbs can be inserted are structured around a cen-
tral, most prototypical member, which most completely manifests the
available grammatical properties for the category in question. Hopper and
Thompson’s innovation was to explain the origin of this prototype struc-
ture: the most grammatically prototypical nouns or verbs are those which
fulfil the most prototypical discourse function – introducing/naming a
participant in the case of nouns, and asserting the occurrence of an event
in the case of verbs. When nouns introduce props and participants, they
can appear in the most elaborated versions of their own slots – versions
where the full range of grammatical possibilities is available. When they
do not, the grammatical slots show a correspondingly reduced set of
grammatical options.
Hopper and Thompson’s analysis has certainly not gone unchallenged
(see Francis 1998). In particular, critics might well wonder whether the
notions of introducing a participant and asserting an event are any less
slippery than the semantic notions of reference and predication they
replace. But it is extremely suggestive, and in its refusal to ground catego-
riality in semantics alone, it opens up the interesting question of how
many grammatical facts can be explained by discourse-functional princi-
ples rather than semantic ones.

9.2 The semantics of tense and aspect

Exploration of semantic aspects of grammar has not come to an end once
we have a satisfactory theory of the parts of speech: we still have to under-
stand the meanings of the many morphosyntactic categories to which
grammatical principles apply, principally number and case for nouns, and
tense, mood and aspect for verbs. In this section, we will focus on the
semantics of the verbal categories of tense and aspect. These are catego-
ries with interesting and complex semantics, which show close relations
with other grammatical properties of the clause.

9.2.1 Tense
A famous comment about the difficulty of thinking about time is usually
attributed to Saint Augustine (354–430 AD): ‘What then is time? If no one
asks me, I know what it is. If I wish to explain it to him who asks, I do not
know.’ We could make a similar observation about the two linguistic cate-
gories in which information about time is presented, tense and aspect. The
first of these categories, tense, is a familiar part of the way we talk about
English grammar: one does not need to have studied very much grammar
to know that Jane runs is usually described as present tense, Jane ran as past,
and Jane will run as future. It also seems to make perfect sense for a lan-
guage to mark differences in the temporal location of different events.
 9.2 The semantics of tense and aspect 309

But the picture gets more complicated when we look at the details of the
way these different verb forms actually work in English. Tenses are very good
examples of prototype categories: their meanings can be defined by specify-
ing the central tendency of their members, but we find many peripheral
instantiations of the category which lack the prototypical features. These
central tendencies are often the meanings suggested by the grammatical
label for the tense-marker in question. But it soon becomes apparent that the
labels ‘past’, ‘present’ and ‘future’ can be quite misleading as descriptions of
the time-reference of some uses of English verb forms. For example, take the
English present tense, as exemplified by forms like Jane runs or Jane is running.
These are both examples of the present tense; runs is traditionally known as
the ‘simple present’ tense, and is running as the ‘present continuous’. What’s
odd about these labels is that the simple present tense – runs – actually can’t
be used to refer to an action that’s happening at the moment of speaking. To
see this, imagine that you and Jane are in a room. You are speaking on the
phone to Michael. While you’re still talking Jane gets up, waves, and moves
towards the door. You shout out ‘goodbye’ and Michael asks what’s happen-
ing. Your reply could only be (23a), and not (23b)

(23) a. Jane’s leaving.

b. Jane leaves.

The ‘simple’ present is unavailable as an option for actions happening at

the moment of speaking; only the present continuous can be used. That’s
far from being the end of the story, however. Note that we can use the
simple present to describe an action that someone habitually takes, even
if they’re not performing it now. For instance, She flies is a good reply to the
question ‘how does Jane get to Canberra?’ regardless of whether Jane is
currently in the air. As long as flying is her regular mode of transport the
simple present tense is appropriate.
Both varieties of the present can be used to describe future events:

(24) Q: When are you flying/do you fly out?

A: I’m leaving/leave next week.

QUESTION Can you discern any regular semantic difference between the
simple present and the continuous on the basis of this reply?
And it even works the other way round: there are situations where the
future tense can be used to refer to a situation unfolding at the present
moment. For example, (25) often has present time reference:

(25) I’ll look forward to seeing you tomorrow.

The speaker who says this doesn’t mean to imply that they’re not already
looking forward to it now. Instead, the future will look forward seems
equivalent in its temporal reference to the present continuous, I’m looking
forward: both refer to the present time.
310 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

The future tense, then, can sometimes be used to refer to presently

occurring actions. To make matters worse, we can sometimes use the
present tense to refer to past actions. This is especially common in narra-
tive:

(26) You’ll never believe what happened. I’m hanging round waiting to go home
when he bursts into the room, pulls out a packet of cigarettes, lights one
and then swallows it . . .

The events being related occurred in the past, but the speaker chooses the
present tense to refer to them.
Clearly, there is a lot more to the use of the ‘past’, ‘present’ and ‘future’
tenses in English than those simple labels imply. We will return to the
description of English at the end of this section.

9.2.1.1 Tense and time

Tense is the name of the class of grammatical markers used to signal the
location of situations in time, such as English sing–sang–had sung–will sing.
A language’s tense system isn’t its only means for signifying temporal rela-
tions, of course: as well as grammatical markers, languages have lexical
means of referring to temporal distinctions – words like English now, then,
yesterday, formerly and so on. Usually a much greater range of temporal
distinctions can be expressed lexically than by the grammatical markers:
languages have lexical expressions which mean the week before my mother’s
birthday, but there is no tense that can express this meaning. Some lan-
guages, indeed, lack a system of grammatical tense anything like the one
familiar from languages like English or German.
Tense markers are typically found on verbs. (See Nordlinger and Sadler
2004 for a survey of tense in nominals.) The moment of speaking typically
provides the point around which temporal reference is ‘anchored’, in the
same way that the speaker and their location constitute the ‘deictic cen-
tre’ for person and place deixis (see 3.2.3). Just as the speaker’s own per-
son is the ‘I’ and their spatial location is the ‘here’, so the time of utter-
ance is the ‘now’. This ‘now’ is what serves to locate the other temporal
categories of the language. In tense systems which distinguish past,
present and future tenses, the timeframe evoked by present tense verbs
will typically include the ‘now’ of utterance, but it will by no means be
limited to it. The events and states expressed by verbs usually last longer
than the actual moment of speaking. Really only in explicitly performa-
tive uses of verbs (4.1) such as ‘I promise’ or ‘I apologise’ can the time of
the event and the time of utterance be said to overlap. The activity or
state referred to by a present tense form will usually also have been true
in the immediate past and may also extend into the future; use of the
present tense, however, simply asserts that the action or state in question
obtains now.

QUESTION Can habitual uses of the present tense, like Jane flies to Canberra
be reconciled with this last statement? If so, how?
 9.2 The semantics of tense and aspect 311

QUESTION Sometimes the present tense is used for past time situations:
I hear you’re getting married; Glen tells me you’ve been sacked. Are there other
examples like this? Can you explain this use of the present?
Three basic temporal divisions are relevant to the representation of time in
language: what is happening now, what will happen afterwards, and what
has already happened. These three distinct temporal zones can be treated
in a number of different ways. Some languages display a three-way division
between past, present and future, with each tense marked separately on
the verb, as in (27). Others have a two-way distinction; either between past
and non-past, as in (28), or (more rarely) future and non-future as in (29)
(examples (27) and (29) are from Chung and Timberlake 1985: 204–205):

(27) Past–present–future distinguished: Lithuanian (Indo-European;

Lithuania)
a. dirb-au
work-ISG (PAST)
‘I worked/was working.’
b. dirb-u
work-ISG (PRES)
‘I work/am working.’
c. dirb-s-iu
work-FUT-ISG
‘I will work/will be working.’

(28) Past and non-past distinguished: Guugu-Yimidhirr (Pama-Nyungan,

Australia)
a. Ngayu mayi budaara-l ngayu yi-way
1SG.NOM food.ABS eat-NONPAST 1SG.NOM here-LOC
nhinga-l
sit-NONPAST
‘I’m eating food [and] I’ll stay here’ (Haviland 1979: 92)

b. Badhibay ngarraa yarra guwa dhamba-rrin

bone.ABS skin.ABS yonder west.ALL throw-PST
‘[She] threw the skin and bone[s] off to the West yonder.’
(Haviland 1979: 92)

(29) Future–non-future distinguished: Takelma (Penutian; Oregon; extinct)

a. yaná-t’e?
go(IRR)-ISG(FUT)
‘I will go.
b. yan-t’e?
go (REAL)-I SG(NONFUT)
‘I went/am going/am about to go.’

Languages with bipartite systems will, of course, have other means of indicat-
ing distinctions within the non-past or non-future categories. Adverbs with
meanings like ‘tomorrow’, ‘now’, ‘at some point in the future’, ‘formerly’ are
312 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

obvious examples. However, no language is recorded as having a single tense

covering both past and future: it would seem that the regions of temporal
reference covered by a single tense have to be continuous (Comrie 1985: 15).
One reason for the lack of any grammatical categories which merge
past and future meanings may be that the future has rather a different
status from the past (and, for that matter, from the present). Whereas past
and present events are usually knowable, at least in principle, what is
going to happen in the future is unknown. This means that a much
greater deal of uncertainty attaches to future meanings; as a result, the
grammatical category of future is often mixed up with modal categories –
categories which register the speaker’s attitude to and degree of confi-
dence in the events reported. We can see this in the following examples
from Lakota, which show the same morpheme that expresses futurity also
being used in modal contexts:

(30) Lakota (Siouan; Dakota, USA; Chung and Timberlake 1985: 206)
a. Ma-khúžį
I-sick
‘I was sick/am sick.’

b. Ma-khúžįkte
I-sick FUT
‘I will be sick.’

c. Yí˛-kta iyéčheča
go-FUT perhaps
‘He ought to go.’

This added modal coloration of future meanings may be what blocks the
assimilation of past and future into a single category.
Many languages express gradations within the past or future. In
Cocama (Tupi, Peru; Fabricius-Hansen 2006: 568), there are three past
tenses, each of which indicates a different depth of temporal distance
from the moment of utterance:

(31) a. ritama-ca tuts-ui

town-to go-PAST1
‘I went to town today’

b. ritama-ca tutsu-icuá
town-to go-PAST2
‘I went to town yesterday/a few days ago’

c. ritama-ca tutsu-tsuri
town-to go-PAST3
‘I went to town a long time ago’

The tense system of some languages, like Tiwi (isolate; Australia),

Yandruwandha (Pama-Nyungan; Australia; extinct) or Kom (Niger-Congo;
West Africa), includes morphemes indicating the time of day (e.g. morn-
ing, evening) at which the situation denoted by the verb occurs. Yet
 9.2 The semantics of tense and aspect 313

others, like Haya (Niger-Congo; Tanzania), have past tenses which encode
a contrast between ‘earlier today’, ‘yesterday’ and ‘before yesterday’.

9.2.1.2 Perfect tenses

An obvious characteristic of the English tense system is the availability of
a contrast between the simple past or preterite tense (32a), and the present
perfect (32b):

(32) a. We saw the Queen.

b. We have seen the Queen.

Both sentences locate the event of seeing the Queen in the past; however,
the choice between preterite and present perfect construes the implications
of the event in different ways. Meanings like that of the English present
perfect (32b) are common in the world’s languages, yet prove remarkably
hard to describe in a satisfying way. The perfect is often explained as convey-
ing the continuing relevance of the past action (Comrie 1985; Fabricius-Hansen
2006). Intuitively, there seems something right about this. But how to be
precise about the exact meaning conveyed here? Imagine that B is in the
room, and A comes in and initiates an exchange with the words ‘What’s
going on?’. Three possible replies are given in (33) and (34):

(33) A: What’s going on?

B: a. Well, I’ve been a bit naughty. . .
b. Well, I’ve written the email. . .
c. Well, I’ve broken your Ming vase. . .

(34) A: What’s going on?

B: a. Well, I was a bit naughty . . .
b. Well, I wrote the email . . .
c. Well, I broke your Ming vase . . .

The (33) sentences use the present perfect; the (34) the preterite. Presumably
B’s answer is just as relevant in both cases; the difference must be that in
(33) B is specifically representing their answer as relevant, whereas in (34) they
are not. The problem here is that in the absence of any way of knowing
whether something is or isn’t being ‘specifically represented’ as relevant,
we don’t really know whether our description of the semantics of the
present perfect is on the right track. ‘Relevant’ is a slippery label: without
an independent way of showing what is and isn’t perceived as relevant, we
arguably lack any way of testing it (Klein 1992).
We can also point to some cases where the present perfect seems to be
less likely a choice than the preterite, even though the situation referred
to is clearly relevant:

(35) a. ?What have you said?

b. ?You’ve frowned. Is something wrong?
c. ?Why have you laughed?
314 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

(36) a. What did you say?

b. You frowned. Is something wrong?
c. Why did you laugh?

In all three cases the present perfect in (35) is less idiomatic than the sim-
ple past equivalent in (36).
QUESTION Can you account for this situation? How restricted is it to a
certain class of verbs?
QUESTION Can you account for the varying acceptability of the follow-
ing sentences and ones like them? Sentences (i) and (ii) may appeal to
different explanations. What do they contribute to our understanding of
the meaning of the English perfect?
(i) a. I have read fifty novels since Christmas.
b. *I have read fifty novels last year.
(ii) a. I have eaten kangaroo many times before.
b. */?I have eaten some kangaroo many times before.
c. I have eaten some kangaroo.

9.2.2 Aspect and Aktionsart

Our discussion of English in the previous section has a glaring omission:
we haven’t yet discussed the progressive forms, i.e. forms like I am eating,
I was eating, I have been eating, I will be eating and so on. These forms have a
fundamental difference from tenses: they’re not, like tenses, about the
event in time, i.e. about whether the event is located in the past, present or
future; instead, they’re about whether time is seen as moving through the
event: they’re about time in the event.
What do I mean by this? Think about the contrasts in (37).

(37) a. John laughed.

b. John was laughing.

John laughed is in the simple past or preterite tense: it tells us that at some
point before the time of utterance, John was expressing his amusement.
How does that contrast with (37b), John was laughing? With respect to the
event’s location in time, it doesn’t contrast at all: just like (37a), (37b) tells
us that the laugh occurred some time before the moment of speaking.
From the point of view of how they locate the event in time, (37a) and
(37b) are identical.
So how do they differ? Think about the different ways each presents
what John was doing. John was laughing seems to emphasise the progress
or unfolding of the event over a period of time (several seconds, presum-
ably): John laughed, on the other hand, seems to treat the event as a single
moment in time, and not to focus any attention on the existence of differ-
ent stages within the laughing event itself. Another way of putting this
contrast would be to say that John was laughing ‘zooms in’ on the event so
that we become aware of its internal temporal duration; John laughed, on
 9.2 The semantics of tense and aspect 315

the other hand, ‘zooms out’ to a distance at which the event just appears
as a single, undifferentiated whole.
The difference between (37a) and (37b) is a difference of aspect. Aspect
is the name of the grammatical category which expresses differences in
the way time is presented in events. Different tenses show different loca-
tions of the event in time; different aspects show different ways of pre-
senting time within the event itself: as flowing, or as stationary. The
aspectual system, then, is about how the internal temporal constituency
of an event is viewed; about whether the event is viewed from the dis-
tance, as a single unanalysable whole, with its beginning, middle and end
foreshortened into one, or from close-up, so that the distinct stages of the
event can be seen individually.
The principal aspectual distinction is between perfective and imperfec-
tive aspect. Perfective aspect is the one found in (37a); imperfective in
(37b). In English, perfective aspect is expressed by the ‘simple’ forms of the
verb, and imperfective by the ‘progressive’ or ‘continuous’ ones – those
that are formed by the BE + -ing construction. (The English term ‘progres-
sive’ or ‘continuous’, which we used above to describe forms like (37b), are
language particular labels for imperfective aspect: in what follows, we will
mainly use them as labels for the formal grammatical category marked by
BE + -ing. To mark the semantic values that these categories express, we
will use the terms perfective and imperfective.) We find the same perfective/
imperfective contrast in the following forms:

perfective imperfective
Briony read the paper Briony was reading the paper
Briony will do the crossword Briony will be doing the crossword
Briony’s practised Briony has been practising.

Note that the distinction has nothing to do with the actual nature of the
event: exactly the same event can be expressed using imperfective or perfec-
tive aspect, without this entailing any difference in what actually hap-
pened. The same event of reading the paper, doing the crossword or practis-
ing is described in the two columns above. The shift between perfective and
imperfective aspect reflects no difference in the event itself, but simply a
difference in the way the speaker chooses to present (or ‘construe’) the
event. It’s especially important to realize that the contrast between perfec-
tive and imperfective is independent of the actual duration of the event in
question. Events that lasted a long time can often be described in perfective
aspect, as in (38a), whereas instantaneous (‘punctual’) events may also be
presented imperfectively, although this is somewhat rarer (38b):

(38) a. Evolution created the eye over many millennia.

b. I was turning the key in the lock when I heard a funny noise in the room
(Larreya and Rivière 1999: 44)

Similarly, the choice between perfective and imperfective aspect is also

independent of the question of whether the event is completed:
316 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

(39) a. We climbed the mountain all day yesterday and still didn’t reach the top.
b. We were climbing the mountain all day yesterday and eventually reached
the top.

Sentence (39a) uses perfective aspect (climbed) but signifies an incomplete

action; (39b) uses imperfective (were climbing) but refers to an event which
was completed.
The aspectual contrast between perfective and imperfective therefore
can’t be reduced either to a contrast of duration or of completion. The
default correlation is for verbs in the perfective to refer to complete
actions, and for verbs in the imperfective to refer to ones with a temporal
duration, but the above examples show that these default specifications
can easily be overridden. Aspect refers to a quite distinct semantic cate-
gory from completion or duration, and languages have different morpho-
syntactic means of conveying these notions. In Warlpiri (Pama-Nyungan,
Australia), for example, duration of an event can be registered through
reduplication of the verb stem.
Aspectual contrasts play an important role in discourse, especially in
narrative. The choice of an imperfective or perfective form influences the
interpretation of the chronological relations between the different actions
reported in a text. For example, consider the short narrative in (40):

(40) Kewell runs across the field and passes the ball. Cahill scores.

These verbs are all perfective. This indicates a sequence of events. We can
only understand the different actions as following each other: first Kewell
runs, then he passes, then Cahill scores. Varying the order of the verbs
also varies the temporal order in which we understand the events
occurred:

(41) Cahill scores. Kewell passes the ball and runs across the field.

By contrast, a string of imperfective verbs denotes a set of simultaneous

actions:

(42) Cahill was scoring, Kewell was running and Kennedy was fixing his boot.

Lastly, the combination in (43) shows a foregrounded perfective event cut-

ting into a background imperfective event:

(43) Cahill scored. Kewell was running and Kennedy was fixing his boot.

This time, we can vary the order of the verbs without any change to the
temporal relations: whatever the order of the clauses, the default interpre-
tation is that Cahill scored during the period in which Kewell was running
and Kennedy fixing his boot. For more discussion of the role of aspect in
discourse, see Hopper (1982) and Thelin (1990).
A major difference between tense and aspect is that tense is deictic
(3.2.3) and aspect isn’t. The time of utterance forms the point of reference
which structures a language’s tense system; since the time of utterance
 9.2 The semantics of tense and aspect 317

changes from one utterance to the next, the actual values of past, present
and future themselves change, future becoming present becoming past as
time moves on. The particular time reference of any tense therefore has to
be anchored deictically in the moment of utterance, just as the reference
of spatial deictics like here and there has to be anchored by considerations
of the speaker’s location. Aspect, by contrast, doesn’t depend like tense on
any external, deictic connection to the speech situation; it only makes
reference to the internal temporal properties of the event, regardless of its
location with respect to the continually shifting present moment. But
despite this important difference, aspect and tense categories are typically
merged in the grammatical categories of a particular language. Two well-
known examples are the Spanish ‘imperfect’ tense, which combines
imperfective aspect and past time, and the ‘perfective’ in Arabic (perfec-
tive aspect and past time).
QUESTION Aspectual considerations give us a way to explain the impos-
sibility of using the English simple present (I read, I run, I fly) to refer to
presently occurring events. Can you see what the explanation is?

9.2.2.1 A rich aspectual system: Mandarin

As an example of a fairly rich system of aspectual markers, let’s consider
Mandarin Chinese (Smith 1997). Aspectual markers are optional in
Mandarin, and they are frequently omitted. When this happens, the
aspectual interpretation of the sentence is flexible. Thus, (44) can receive
either perfective or imperfective interpretation:

(44) Zhangsan xiuli yitai luyinji.

Zhangsan repair oneCL tape recorder
‘Zhangsan repaired/is repairing a tape recorder.’ (Smith 1997: 277)

Since Chinese has no grammatical marking of tense, (44) can reasonably

prompt the questions ‘is he still repairing it?’ and ‘did he finish repairing it?’.
If a speaker chooses to introduce aspectual meaning, Mandarin offers two
perfective and two imperfective markers, each with a differing meaning. The
perfective markers are le and guo. As perfectives, they present the situation
as simple and closed – lacking any of the internal complexity associated with
imperfectives. The following sentences show some typical uses of -le:

(45) a. Tamen shang ge yue qu-le Xiang Gang

they last CL month go-LE Hong Kong
‘Last month they went to Hong Kong.’ (Smith 1997: 266)

b. Wo shuaiduan-le tui
I break-LE leg
‘I broke my leg.’ (Smith 1997: 267)

We said a moment ago that perfectivity is not the same as completion,

and Chinese illustrates this very nicely. Thus, the perfective form in (46a)
does not entail that the action be completed, as we can see in (46b); (46c)
318 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

gives another example of the perfective used without the implication of

completion:

(46) a. Wo zuotian xie-le yifeng xin

I yesterday write-LE oneCL letter
‘I wrote a letter yesterday.’ (Smith 1997: 68)

b. Wo zuotian xie-le yifeng xin, keshi mei

I yesterday write-LE oneCL letter but not
xie-wan.
write-finish
‘I wrote a letter yesterday but didn’t finish it.’ (Smith 1997: 68)

c. Wo gangcai xie-le yifeng xin yinwei shijian

I just write-LE oneCL letter because time
guanxi mei.you xie-wan
issue not.have write-finish
‘I was just writing a letter and because of issues with time I
didn’t finish writing it.’

Completion is signalled by an entirely different morpheme, wan, in (46b)

and (46c).
Like -le, the second perfective marker, -guo, also presents a closed, simple
situation. Unlike -le, however, it indicates that the final state of the situa-
tion no longer holds. In contrast to (45a), compare (47):

(47) Tamen shang ge yue qu-guo Xiang Gang

they last CL month go-GUO Hong Kong
‘Last month they went to Hong Kong (and they are no longer there)’
(Smith 1997: 267)

(45a) gave no information about whether the people referred to are still in
Hong Kong; (47), on the other hand, tells us through -guo that the final
part of the situation referred to by the verb no longer holds. The final part
of the situation denoted by qu ‘go’ is being in Hong Kong: they must,
therefore, no longer be in Hong Kong.
Here is another example of -guo, to be contrasted with (45b) above:

(48) Wo shuaiduan-guo tui

I break-GUO leg
‘I have broken my leg (it has healed since)’ (Smith 1997: 267)

The final part of the event of breaking one’s leg is having a broken leg. -guo
tells us that this situation no longer obtains: the leg must have subse-
quently healed.
The two Mandarin imperfective markers present the situation from an
internal point of view. One of them, -zhe, has a resultative stative meaning
which we will not discuss (for details, see Smith 1997: 273ff). The other, zai,
is a typical imperfective with a meaning similar to the English progressive:
 9.2 The semantics of tense and aspect 319

(49) a. Tamen zai da qiu.

they ZAI play ball
‘They are playing ball’ (Smith 1997: 272)

b. Zhangsan zai xie yifeng xin.

Zhangsan ZAI write oneCL letter
‘Zhangsan is writing a letter.’ (Smith 1997: 272)

There are some differences between the English progressive and Mandarin
zai, however. In English, verbs which denote instantaneous events can be
compatible with progressive markers. It is possible to say he is winning the
race or he is dying, even though winning a race and dying are strictly events
which occur instantaneously. With both these verbs, the progressive
means that the subject is in the lead-up to the occurrence itself. Mandarin
zai does not allow this interpretation: instantaneous events are incompat-
ible with zai, as the following examples show:

(50) a. *Ta zai ying sai pao.

He ZAI win race run
‘He is winning the race.’ (Smith 1997: 272)

b. *Lao Wang zai si.

Old Wang ZAI die
‘Old Wang is dying.’ (Smith 1997: 272)

The impossibility of these sentences in Mandarin raises another set of

important considerations. As we have just seen, what rules these sentences
out is the incompatibility of imperfectivity with the inherent nature of the
events concerned – winning a race, or dying. These events are, as we’ve seen,
instantaneous; they just can’t be ‘stretched out’ in order to accommodate a
progressive meaning. We might say that ‘win’ and ‘die’ are inherently perfec-
tive events. But, in this case, what about the English translations of (50)?
How can win and die receive imperfective treatment in English if the verbs
refer to inherently perfective events? We will consider the answer below.
QUESTION In the meantime, can you account for the acceptability of the
English translations of (50a) and (50b)?

9.2.2.2 States and occurrences

The idea that events have certain inherent aspectual properties goes back
to Aristotle. In the twentieth century, the philosopher Zeno Vendler (1957)
put forward an influential framework for the study of these properties,
claiming that events could be classified into four basic classes: states,
activities, accomplishments and achievements. The term for an event’s
inherent aspectual classification is Aktionsart (German: ‘action kind’).
These classes show significant interaction effects with perfective and
imperfective meanings, as we will see below. The four basic Aktionsart
classes do not reflect properties of individual verbs: as we will see in a
moment, I am drawing is an activity, whereas I am drawing a picture is an
320 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

accomplishment. A single verb can thus have different Aktionsart proper-

ties in different contexts.
The most basic Aktionsart distinction is between states and occurrences.
States are, unsurprisingly, static; they involve an unchanging situation.
Occurrences, by contrast, are dynamic, and involve something happening.
States don’t involve anything happening; they just exist or obtain, without
any sequence of internal phases. Because of this lack of any internal,
dynamic phases, they are associated cross-linguistically with perfective
aspect, as can be shown in English, for instance, by the following gram-
matical properties, both of which distinguish them from occurrences:

States vs. occurrences

• states can’t appear, or can only appear exceptionally, with the pro-
gressive (imperfective): *I am/was knowing Greek; *I am understanding
what you’re telling me; */?They are liking tomatoes. Occurrences can take
the progressive.
• states can take the simple present in reference to the present moment,
whereas occurrences can’t: I know Greek (= I know Greek now); *I teach the
class French (≠ I am teaching the class French now)

Another grammatical feature separating states and occurrences is the fol-

lowing:

• states can’t appear in the frame What she did next was______. E.g.
*What she did next was like tomatoes/know German/believe in a supreme
being.

Not all occurrences are alike. Based on considerations of inherent dif-

ferences between the events involved, Vendler distinguished three dif-
ferent types of occurrence, achievements, activities and accomplish-
ments.
Achievements are punctual occurrences; this means that they are
instantaneous, occurring at a point in time. Examples of achievements
would be realizing the truth, buying the paper, dying, recognizing/spotting/
identifying something, losing/finding something, reaching the summit, crossing
the border, starting/stopping/resuming something . . . These verbs essentially
refer to an instantaneous or near-instantaneous transition between two
states: not knowing and knowing the truth; not owning and owning the
paper, being alive and being dead, etc. Because the transition is concep-
tualized as instantaneous, achievements often resist imperfective aspect,
as is reflected by their frequent incompatibility with the English pro-
gressive:

(51) ?/*I was noticing a problem

?/
*I was losing my keys
?/
*I was finding the keys (= in the process of finding them; the sentence is
acceptable if taken to mean ‘I was meant to find the keys’/‘I was the
one in charge of finding the keys’)
 9.2 The semantics of tense and aspect 321

In addition to their incompatibility with imperfective aspect, achieve-

ments in English are distinguished from activities and accomplishments
by the following grammatical features:

Achievements vs activities/accomplishments

• Achievement expressions are not compatible with begin or stop/finish:

?
He began to reach the summit.
?
She stopped noticing a sudden dimming of the lights.
?
He stopped buying the apple.
Cf. she began/stopped/finished building the wall [accomplishment]

• Achievement expressions can’t appear in the ‘middle alternation’:

They found the keys > *The keys find easily. [= the keys are easy to find]
They noticed the difference > *The difference notices easily. [= the
difference is easy to notice]
They bought the book > *The book buys easily [= the book is easy to buy]
They solved the problem > ?The problem solves easily [= the problem
is easy to solve]
Cf. They read the book [accomplishment] > The book reads easily
QUESTION What other achievements can you think of ?
Unlike achievements, accomplishments and activities are durative: they
occur over a period of time. This means that they can freely appear with
imperfective aspect. Accomplishments are bounded or telic (Greek telos
‘goal’): they have an inherent final point beyond which they cannot con-
tinue. Delivering a speech is a good example of an accomplishment: this
is an event that cannot continue beyond a certain point: the point where
the speech is finished. The speaker can make the speech as long as they
like, of course, but once they have reached the end of the speech, the
action of delivering the speech is obviously over (although the speaker
may continue to stay on the podium, answer questions, shuffle their
notes, and so on: none of this counts as delivering a speech). Other accom-
plishments are painting a picture, making a chair, building a house, writ-
ing/reading a novel, giving/attending a class, playing a game of chess . . .
Activities differ from accomplishments in being unbounded or atelic:
they don’t have any inherent terminal point. Running, walking, swimming,
pushing or pulling something, watching and doodling are all examples of
activities. These occurrences can continue indefinitely: one can go on run-
ning, walking and so on without any limit.
QUESTION Name the following occurrences as activity, accomplishment,
or achievement.
They watched the TV.
He found his pen.
She walked to the museum.
You were talking.
I’ll take the bus.
322 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

The difference between an activity and an accomplishment (or an

achievement) will often be correlated with the presence of other gram-
matical structures in the clause, in particular, the presence of certain
types of direct object or certain types of adverbial modification. Activities,
as we’ve seen, are unbounded processes. But they can be transformed
into achievements/accomplishments by altering these other grammatical
variables. For instance, consider (52):

(52) a. I’m reading [activity]

b. I’m reading books [activity]
c. I’m reading a book [accomplishment]
d. I’m reading three books [accomplishment]

Reading in (52a) is an activity: it denotes an ongoing process with no inher-

ent temporal boundary. The same is true in (52b): since the clause doesn’t
tell us how many books are being read, we assume that the process of
reading can continue indefinitely. But if the verb’s object is precisely
quantified, as in (52c–d), the verb phrase is an accomplishment: the object
serves to identify the end-point of the event. We know that the event will
have reached its inherent end-point once one or three books have been
finished.
Since mass nouns are not, by definition, precisely quantified, the verb
phrases they appear in will typically count as activities:

(53) a. I ate pasta [activity]

b. I maintained machinery [activity]

What about other types of modification than NP objects? Think about the
contrast between (54a) and (54b):

(54) a. I fell.
b. I fell down.

Fall in (54a) is an activity; it can continue indefinitely (in space, say); fall
down, however, imposes an end-point, transforming the event into an
achievement.
The difference between activities and accomplishments can also be
captured by thinking about how we would describe what is happening
within the event itself. Activities like running are homogeneous: they con-
sist of themselves; the sub-events they are composed of can be described
in exactly the same way as the entire activity itself. As Vendler explains ‘If
it is true that someone has been running for half an hour, then it must be
true that he has been running for every period within that half hour’ (Vendler
1957: 145–146; emphasis added). The activity of pulling something – let’s
say, a cart – is similarly homogeneous: it consists of itself; any period
within the timeframe of the complete event can also be described as pull-
ing a cart. A donkey that is pulling a cart for half an hour is also pulling
a cart during any smaller interval within that half hour.
 9.2 The semantics of tense and aspect 323

Unlike activities, accomplishments aren’t homogeneous: they don’t

consist of themselves; the sub-events they are composed of cannot them-
selves be described in the same way as the complete event itself. Unlike
running, running a mile is an accomplishment: the addition of the noun
phrase a mile imposes an inherent limit on the event, transforming it from
an activity to an accomplishment. To take Vendler’s example, if an athlete
has run a mile in four minutes, they haven’t run a mile [accomplishment]
in any sub-part of that four minutes, even though they have been running
[activity] (Vendler 1957: 146). Vendler summarizes the difference between
activities and accomplishments as follows:
It appears, then, that running and its kind [activities] go on in time in a
homogeneous way; any part of the process is of the same nature as the
whole. Not so running a mile or writing a letter [accomplishments]; they
also go on in time, but proceed towards a terminus which is logically
necessary to their being what they are. Somehow this climax casts its
shadow backward, giving a new color to all that went before. (1957: 146)
The principal linguistic test to distinguish activities from accomplishments
in English is the following:
Activities vs. accomplishments
Activity predicates

• can’t be modified by time-frame adverbials like in an hour:

?/
*I watched television in an hour
?/
*They walked in an hour

• resist
?/
appearing as the complement of finish
*I finished daydreaming

Accomplishment predicates can appear in both type of structure:

He cooked the meal in three hours.

She finished writing her novel.

QUESTION Consider the effect of almost in the following sentences:

(a) I almost washed the car.
(b) I almost sang.
(c) I almost ran a mile.
(d) I almost rang.
(e) I almost reached the top.
(f) I almost took the blame.

Sentences with almost are sometimes ambiguous. Identify and describe

the ambiguity. Is it correlated with any Aktionsart class(es)?
Focusing on what is happening inside the event itself gives us a way to
think about the difference between the first class, achievements, and the
other two. Achievements are usually described as punctual or instantane-
ous; we followed this description a few paragraphs ago. An alternative,
324 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

and in fact better way of thinking of achievements is the following, due to

Dowty, which we will quote at length:
It is often suggested that accomplishments differ from achievements
in that achievements are ‘punctual’ in some sense, whereas accom-
plishments have duration: dying, an achievement, happens all at once,
while building a house, an accomplishment, takes time. However,
many events usually classed as achievements do in fact have some
duration. [. . . For example,] a physician may [. . .] view dying as a proc-
ess with multiple stages happening in sequence. [. . .] Rather, I think
the distinction as Vendler and others must have intuitively under-
stood it is something like the following: achievements are those kine-
sis predicates which are not only typically of shorter duration than
accomplishments, but also those which we do not normally under-
stand as entailing a sequence of sub-events, given our usual every-day
criteria for identifying the events named by the predicate. Dying, or
reaching the finish line, take place, according to every-day criteria,
when one state – being alive or being not yet at the finish line – is
recognized as being replaced by another: being dead, or being at the
finish line, respectively.
(Dowty 1986: 42–43)
On Dowty’s view, the difference between accomplishments and achieve-
ments is not a contrast between events which do and don’t have dura-
tion. The idea of a durationless event is, in any case, paradoxical. Instead,
the contrast is between events (accomplishments) which are normally
thought of as containing a series of subevents, and those (achievements)
which are not. Another way of expressing this distinction, inspired by
Bache (1997: 219), would be to say that achievements are events which
are ‘conceived of as taking up an absolute minimum of time’.
Bearing in mind how we are now interpreting ‘punctual’, we can dia-
gram the four Aktionsart classes in the following way:

State [+static], [–telic], [–punctual]

Activity [–static], [–telic], [–punctual]
Achievement [–static], [+telic], [+punctual]
Accomplishment [–static], [+telic], [–punctual]

Following Smith (1997), many discussions of aspect now recognize a

fifth Aktionsart class, the semelfactives (Latin semel ‘once’; fact-
‘done’). Semelfactives are single-instance events like cough, knock,
blink, f lap (a wing), etc. They are punctual, since we conceive of them
as occupying a bare minimum of time. Somewhat less obviously,
Smith classifies them as atelic, since they have no result or outcome
(Smith 1997: 29). Atelicity, indeed, is the only feature distinguishing
semelfactives from achievements, the class to which these verbs had
previously belonged. The feature specifications for semelfactives are
therefore

Semelfactive [–static], [–telic], [+punctual]

 9.2 The semantics of tense and aspect 325

When semelfactives combine with progressive or durative constructions,

they take on an iterative interpretation, i.e. one where we understand
that several instances of the event took place:

(55) a. I was knocking (several individual knocks)

b. I was blinking (several individual blinks)

As a result, they are compatible with expressions for durations of time:

(56) a. The bird flapped its wings for half an hour (numerous individual
flaps)
b. I was coughing all day yesterday

9.2.2.3 Variation within a single class: achievements

The traditional account of Aktionsart classes assumes that the four classes are
homogeneous cross-linguistically. On this account, verbs which have similar
meanings should have similar aspectual properties from one language to
another, since they will belong to the same Aktionsart class. In this section
we will see that the picture is not as simple as this: cross-linguistic investiga-
tion reveals some fairly significant differences in the temporal properties
associated with verbs of the same Aktionsart class in different languages.
In order to show this, we’ll explore a classic achievement verb, die, dis-
cussed by Botne (2003). Recall that achievements are instantaneous or
minimally lasting occurrences, in which the actor passes from one state
to another: realizing the truth, losing/finding something, noticing something,
and so on. Dying is just about as instantaneous an event as they come. One
moment we’re alive, the next moment we’re dead: blink and you might
miss it. Dying is thus something that happens in an absolute minimum of
time. Of course, the lead-up to the moment of death might be protracted,
but someone who’s near to death is still, quite clearly, alive. The instanta-
neous nature of die in English is reflected by its incompatibility with in the
midst of: one cannot, in English, be in the midst of dying. Other classic
achievement verbs show the same restriction: *I’m in the midst of realizing
the truth/losing my wallet/noticing a problem.
Botne proposes that achievement verbs can, in fact, potentially encode
durative temporal phases. This doesn’t mean that their traditional classifi-
cation as punctual is wrong; just that we need to adopt a more detailed view
of their meaning. According to Botne, achievement verbs aren’t limited to
simply expressing a single punctual culmination point. Instead, some
achievement verbs may have a more complex temporal structure, in which
the central point is surrounded by one or two subsidiary phases, a prelimi-
nary (‘onset’) phase and a ‘coda’ phase . . . It is this tripartite structure which
constitutes ‘the underlying fabric of the event’ (Botne 2003: 236).
Botne claims that all languages have a verb which expresses the instan-
taneous transition from life to death. Where languages differ is in the
temporal phases surrounding this central nucleus. Let’s begin our cross-
linguistic survey by looking at English die. Botne claims that die in English
consists of two phases: the punctual nucleus, and a durative onset phase.
326 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

His main evidence for this claim is that, unlike some other achievement
verbs, die can appear in the progressive, as in (57):

(57) The old man is dying.

Given that achievements are described as punctual or instantaneous, this is

a somewhat unexpected situation. Some other achievement verbs, like buy,
can appear in the progressive. Many, however, resist progressive contexts:

(58) ?/*She is losing her wallet.

?/
*She was recognizing her brother.

Consider the force of the progressive be dying. This refers not to the transi-
tion moment between life and death itself, but to the lead-up to this
moment; to be dying typically means to be in the last stages of life.
Someone who is dying is still alive. (This explains the occurrence of die
with the present continuous that we noted in (50b) above. Win, as exempli-
fied in (50a), has exactly the same explanation.)
Unlike achievements, activities and accomplishments are durative and,
as a result, freely appear in the progressive. But there is an important
difference in the effect of the progressive on achievements and activities/
accomplishments. Consider the entailment structure of the activity weep
and the accomplishment recover (as in recover from an illness):

(59) a. ACTIVITY The old woman is weeping.

entails The old woman has wept.
b. ACCOMPLISHMENT The old man is recovering (from an illness).
does not entail The old man has recovered.
does entail The old man has recovered somewhat. (Botne
2003: 240)

Compare this to the facts for die:

(60) ACHIEVEMENT The old man is dying.

does not entail The old man has died.
does not entail The old man has died somewhat.

QUESTION Compare the entailments of is buying the paper, is opening the

door and is realizing the truth. Do they pattern like die?
With die, the progressive does not entail that any amount of dying has
already occurred – the opposite of the case with activities and accomplish-
ments. Botne concludes from this that our conceptualization of dying
consists of two phases, a durative onset phase, which is what the progres-
sive targets, and a punctual nucleus.
Botne (2003: 240) states that Arabic, Hausa (Afro-Asiatic; Nigeria) and
French are like English in that their die verbs consist of a durative onset
phase preceding the nucleus. He calls this inceptive type coding. In
Egyptian Arabic, for example, the root mwt ‘die’ takes the progressive pre-
fix bi-, as do non-achievement verbs:
 9.2 The semantics of tense and aspect 327

(61) b. Bi-y-muut.
PROG-3SG.M.PRES-die
‘He is dying.’ [Achievement] (Botne 2003: 243)

a. Bi-yi-qra (it-taqriir).
PROG-3SG.M.PRES-read (DEF-report)
‘He is reading (the report).’ [Activity] (Botne 2003: 243)

Further, the progressive can be used even when the nucleus itself did not
eventuate, as in (62):

(62) Kaan bi-y-muut bas il-amaliyya

3SG.M.was PROG-3SG.M.PRES-die but DEF-operation
?anqaz-it-u.
save-3SG.F-3SG.M
‘He was dying, but the operation saved him.’ (Botne 2003: 244)

The possibility of the progressive here is explained by the hypothesis that mwt
is not simply an instantaneous state-transition event; the verb’s temporal
structure also includes an anterior phase which can have durative structure.
Another type of temporal structure found in die verbs is what Botne
calls resultative-type encoding. We will illustrate this from Japanese. The
Japanese counterpart to the English progressive is the so-called -te iru con-
struction, illustrated in (63):

(63) a. Warat-te i-ru.

laugh.3-GER be-IMPF
‘S/he/they is/are laughing.’ (Botne 2003: 250)

b. Tanaka-wa muse-te i-ru.

Tanaka-TOP choke-GER be-IMPF
‘Tanaka is choking.’ (Botne 2003: 250)

This construction consists of a gerundive form of the verb (glossed GER)

and the auxiliary iru, an imperfective form of ‘be’. When applied to sinu,
‘die’, the -te iru construction does not produce a ‘progressive’ meaning.
Instead, it refers to the state of death that results from the instantaneous
transitional moment:

(64) a. Tanaka-wa sin-de i-ru.

Tanaka-TOP die-GER be-IMPF
‘Tanaka is dead/*is dying.’ (Botne 2003: 250)

Botne claims that Japanese has no way to refer to the onset phase of dying.
Rather, all one can say is that someone is ‘about to die’, or ‘appears about
to die’, as in (65).

(65) a. Tanaka-wa sini-soo-da.

Tanaka-TOP die-appear/about.to-be
‘Tanaka is about to die.’ (Botne 2003: 249)
328 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

b. Tanaka-wa sini-kake-te i-ru.

Tanaka-TOP die-about.to-GER be-IMPF
‘Tanaka is about to die.’ (Botne 2003: 249)

All this says is that the moment of death is imminent – not that it is
already ‘in progress’.
Lastly, we will discuss the purest type of temporal structure for die, in
which the verb only expresses the instantaneous nucleus. An example of
this structure is Assiniboine (Siouan; Dakota, USA). Assiniboine t’a can
only have a punctual reading, referring to a non-extended point of time
(66a). This contrasts with other verbs, such as activity verbs, which also
have a progressive reading without any modification to the root (66b).

(66) a. T’a.
die
‘He dies/(has) died/*is dying.’ (Botne 2003: 269)

b. Mani.
walk
‘He walks/(has) walked/is walking.’ (Botne 2003: 269)

Assiniboine does have both a progressive (-hã) and a continuative (-ga) suf-
fix, as seen in (67):

(67) a. Mani-hã.
walk-PROG
‘He is [in the midst of] walking.’ (Botne 2003: 270)

b. Manii-ga.
walk-CONT
‘He is continuing to walk.’ (Botne 2003: 270)

However, t’a is compatible with neither of these suffixes.

How, then, does one express the inceptive meaning encoded in the
English progressive? To convey this meaning, Assiniboine uses the auxil-
iary verb aya ‘become’, as in (68):

(68) T’a aya.

die become
‘He is becoming dead.’ (Botne 2003: 269)

This construction cannot, however, be used with activity verbs:

(69) *Mani aya.

walk become (Botne 2003: 270)

Botne concludes from these facts that t’a is best thought of as only encod-
ing the nucleus transition.
QUESTION Can you think of any other ways of analysing the facts?
 9.2 The semantics of tense and aspect 329

What is the upshot of this survey? Botne’s discussion shows that the verb
meanings typically classed as achievements have a more complex temporal-
ity than was originally assumed. We cannot simply describe achievements
as instantaneous transition points and leave it at that. What is punctual
about achievement verbs like find, die, notice, or recognize is their nucleus; in
addition to this nucleus, they may well express a durative onset or coda.

9.2.3 Typology of tense–aspect interactions

Some languages lack any grammatical means of expressing tense–aspect
contrasts. In such languages, the relevant contrasts will be achieved
through non-grammatical (lexical and pragmatic) means; see Dahl (2001)
for details. The complete absence of grammatical coding of tense and
aspect is not uncommon in the languages of the world. On the other
hand, it is relatively uncommon for languages to show a fully elaborated
set of tense and aspect markers in which a past/non-past contrast is avail-
able in both perfective and imperfective aspect. Russian is a well-known
language which does have just such a full contrast. The range of cross-
linguistically attested tense–aspect systems is shown in Figure 9.1.

Type 0 No core categories FIGURE 9.1

(common) Cross-linguistic frequency
of tense-aspect marker
combinations (Dahl
2000: 17).
Type 1
(common) IMPERFECTIVE PERFECTIVE

Type 2
(common)
NON-PAST PAST

Type 3
(common) IMPERFECTIVE PERFECTIVE

NON-PAST PAST

Type 4 IMPERFECTIVE PERFECTIVE

(less common)

NON-PAST PAST NON-PAST PAST

330 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

Summary What parts of speech a language has is a

matter of interpretation
There are usually several different plausible interpretations of the part
of speech categories (lexical categories, grammatical categories) of
any language.

Morphological and distributional criteria for

parts of speech
Some languages have clear morphological criteria for assigning words
to parts of speech: we can divide up the classes on the basis of what
affixes they appear with. In languages without clear morphology, a dis-
tributional approach to parts of speech can sometimes be used to clas-
sify parts of speech on the basis of the way they pattern in sentences.
Both morphological and distributional methods for part of speech clas-
sification are unreliable. In any case, both presuppose a pre-existing
decision about how the parts of speech are to be defined.

Semantic definitions of parts of speech

The same problem affects semantic definitions of parts of speech: we
cannot appeal to thingness, eventhood and so on as criteria for gram-
matical category, since they are not known independently of the very
grammatical features which they are supposed to establish.

Multicategoriality
Many languages show widespread multicategoriality (roots which may
appear as different parts of speech). We can think of nouns and verbs
as ‘slots’ or contexts available in each clause, each of which comes
associated with the appropriate grammatical machinery. The gram-
matical slots themselves can be seen as the carriers of the nounhood
or verbhood which the word ends up acquiring.

Hopper and Thompson: parts of speech and

discourse function
Hopper and Thompson suggest that parts of speech can be understood as
prototype categories defined by their discourse functions. The difference
in the grammatical options available to a given occurrence of a noun or
verb correlates with its discourse function in a given context – the closer
the noun or verb is to playing its prototypical discourse role, the closer it
comes to exhibiting the full range of grammatical possibilities of its class.
It is open to question whether the discourse function definition of parts
of speech is any less problematic than the semantic definitions it replaces.

Tense
Tense is the name of the class of grammatical markers used to signal
the location of situations in time. Three basic temporal divisions are
relevant to the representation of time in language: what is happening
 Summary 331

now, what will happen afterwards, and what has already happened.
Some languages display a three-way division between past, present and
future, with each tense marked separately on the verb. Others have a
two-way distinction; either between past and non-past, or (more rarely)
future and non-future. Perfect tenses are often described in terms of
relevance to the speech situation, but this definition is problematic.

Aspect
Aspect is the grammatical category which expresses differences in the
way time is presented in events. Aspectual categories express the inter-
nal temporal constituency of an event; whether the event is viewed
from the distance, as a single unanalysable whole (perfective aspect),
or from close-up, so that the distinct stages of the event can be seen
individually (imperfective aspect). The perfective/imperfective distinc-
tion has nothing to do with the actual nature of the event, but is all
about how the event is construed by the speaker. In particular, it is
independent of the actual duration of the event in question.

Tense is deictic, aspect isn’t

A major difference between tense and aspect is that tense is deictic
and aspect isn’t.
The particular time reference of any tense therefore has to be
anchored deictically in the moment of utterance.

Aktionsart
Aktionsart is the term for an event’s inherent aspectual classification.
Many researchers claim that events can be classified into five basic
Aktionsart classes:

• states
• activities
• accomplishments
• achievements, and
• semelfactives
These classes show significant interaction effects with perfective and
imperfective meanings. The five Aktionsart classes can be summarized
along the dimensions of whether they are static (whether they refer
to unchanging states or to occurrences), telicity (whether they have an
inherent end-point) and punctuality (whether they are conceived of as
consisting of internal temporal parts):

State [+static], [−telic], [−punctual]

Activity [−static], [−telic], [−punctual]
Achievement [−static], [+telic], [+punctual]
Accomplishment [−static], [+telic], [−punctual]
Semelfactive [−static], [−telic], [+punctual]
332 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX I

The internal structure of achievements

Botne showed that achievement verbs have a more complex temporal-
ity than was originally assumed. What is punctual about achievement
verbs like find, die, notice, or recognize is their nucleus; in addition to
this nucleus, a verb may contain a preceding onset phase or a subse-
quent coda phase. Languages differ in the temporal phases surround-
ing the central nucleus.

Tense and aspect-less languages

Some languages lack any grammatical means of expressing tense–
aspect contrasts. In such languages, the relevant contrasts will be
achieved through non-grammatical (lexical and pragmatic) means. The
complete absence of grammatical coding of tense and aspect is not
uncommon in the languages of the world.

Further reading
On parts of speech, see Croft (1991; 2001), Baker (2003) and Evans and Osada (2005) and the other arti-
cles in the same issue of Linguistic Typology. Kinkade (1983) is a classic paper on the absence of the N/V
contrast in Salish. Dixon and Aikhenvald (2004) is a cross-linguistic survey of adjectives. On parts of speech
in general, and adjectives in particular, see Beck (2002). On tense and aspect, see Comrie (1985) and
(1976) respectively. Reichenbach (1947) sets out an influential theory of tense. Klein (1992) is an interest-
ing discussion of the English present perfect. Binnick (1991) is a compendious treatment of tense and
aspect. Ter Meulen (1995) and Hopper (1982) relate aspect and discourse. Van Valin (2005) has a useful
discussion of Aktionsart classes. An online bibliography of literature on tense, mood and aspect can be found
at www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~binnick/TENSE/index.html. Lingua 117:2 (2007) is devoted to tense, while volume
118:11 (2008) is devoted to perfectivity.

Exercises
Questions for discussion
1. Morphological criteria for lexical category require that we already know
which inflectional endings are the ones that identify nouns, and which are
the ones that identify verbs. This seems to render them circular. Discuss
whether the circularity is a problem. What are its implications?
2. Think of thirty English adjectives which do not permit comparison. Are
there any obvious generalizations you can make explaining why compari-
son is not a possibility?
3. On the traditional definition, adjectives are defined as qualifying nouns.
But in she smoked an occasional cigarette, occasional doesn’t qualify
the noun but the event/act of smoking. Are there other adjectives like
this? Can you reformulate the traditional definition in a way that avoids
this problem?
4. Consider the following observation:
. . . human characteristics tend to be designated by nouns rather than
adjectives if they are seen as permanent and/or conspicuous and/or
 Exercises 333

important. The common denominator is, I think, this: a noun indicates a

categorization; an adjective, on the other hand, indicates a mere descrip-
tion:’ clever/genius; blonde/redhead; *greyhead, *blackhead.
(Wierzbicka 1988: 468)
Another example of this phenomenon is that ‘Max is fat’ doesn’t, accord-
ing to Wierzbicka (p. 469) imply that Max is the kind of person who is
fat; it just mentions fatness as one of the many things that can be said
about Max. Do you think this is right? Can you give some other examples
of the same contrast in adjective/noun pairs? Does it apply beyond the
domain of human characteristics?
5. What are the virtues and disadvantages of a coarse-grained or fine-
grained part of speech system?
6. Discuss Hopper and Thompson’s claim that nouns function in discourse
to introduce participants and ‘props’ and to deploy them. Assemble and
examine samples from a variety of different text types (newspaper arti-
cles, blog entries, novels). To what extent is Hopper and Thompson’s
claim reasonable?
7. Gather a corpus of examples of the English perfect tense from the
Internet and elsewhere. Can you improve on ‘relevance’ as a characteriza-
tion of its semantics?
8. Tenses in English can often be used to convey other distinctions than
those of time. What are some of these?
9. Phrases like reach the summit are usually classed as achievements. How
then can the possibility of ‘it took three hours to reach the summit’ be
explained?
10. The following sentences seem to be exceptions to the principle that
states do not occur in the progressive Can we explain them in some
way?

(a) You’re looking well today.

(b) I’m living in Australia now.
(c) I was feeling good that morning.
(d) Jones is sitting on his horse right in front of her.
(e) Another week passed and even the missionaries were enjoying the
voyage.
(f) I’m hoping you’ll be able to join us for dinner tonight.
(g) I’m wondering what to do about the twins.
 CHA PT E R

10 Meaning and
morphosyntax II:
verb meaning and
argument structure

CHAPTER PREVIEW
This chapter discusses the semantics of the clause, particularly the relationship between a
verb and its noun participants. This relationship is called the verb’s argument structure.
There are three basic questions:
◆ What principles determine which of the noun phrases associated with a transitive verb
will be expressed as subject and which as object?
◆ Can verbs be grouped into classes about which argument structure generalizations can
be made?
◆ Can constructions have meanings on their own?
We begin by looking at the semantics of argument structure, a central topic in investiga-
tion of the way semantics and syntax are connected. We introduce and motivate the
notion of thematic role, and go on to consider the modifications this notion has under-
gone in research into argument structure (10.1). We then consider argument structure
alternations (10.2), the name for situations where a single verb can take several different
argument structures. Lastly, we consider construction grammar, which attributes many
apparently lexical meanings to the grammatical constructions in which they occur (10.3).
336 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

10.1 Verbs and participants

As the core of the clause, verbs play an important role in the interaction
between meaning and syntax. This is because verbs are typically accompa-
nied by nouns which refer to the participants in the event or state the verb
describes. These participants receive a range of morphosyntactic markers –
case suffixes, subject or object markers, etc. – specifying which participant
is the ‘actor’ or instigator of the action, which the undergoer of the action,
as well as other possible roles. In English, these distinctions are made clear
by grammatical relations: the noun’s coding (or, better, the noun-phrase’s
coding) as subject, object or indirect object of the verb. In some other
languages the job of indicating who acted on whom is done by affixes or
particles, without any system of grammatical relations. We will see exam-
ples of both types of arrangement in this section.
There’s an obvious question we can ask here: what principles govern the
morphosyntactic relationship between a verb and its arguments? In
English, for example, how do we know which noun phrase to code as sub-
ject and which to code as object? Given a situation in which a car hit a
tree, why is it that we must describe this as the car hit the tree, and not as
the tree hit the car? Or again, why can we convert (1a) into (1b) and (1c), and
(2a) into (2b), but not (2a) into (2c)?

(1) a. I gave the bone to the dog.

b. I gave the dog the bone.
c. The dog was given the bone (by me).

(2) a. I sent the chimp to the cage.

b. I sent the chimp.
c. *The cage was sent the chimp by me.

Similarly, why is the last sentence in (3) ungrammatical?

(3) a. John opened the door with a key.

b. The key opened the door.
c. The door was opened by John with a key.
d. *The key opened the door by John.

These questions all concern the ways noun phrases relate morphosyntacti-
cally to verbs. More generally, we can ask what semantic distinctions are
operative in case-systems like the ones illustrated in (4) from Finnish
(Finno-Ugric; Finland):

(4) a. ammu-i-n karhu-a

shoot-PST-1SG bear-PART
‘I shot at the (a) bear’ (Kiparsky 1998: 276)

b. Ammu-i-n karhu-n
shoot-PST-1SG bear-ACC
‘I shot the (a) bear’ (Kiparsky 1998: 276)
 10.1 Verbs and participants 337

The choice between different case-endings for karhu ‘bear’ has implica-
tions for the overall interpretation of the sentence. An obvious general
answer to these questions is that the morphosyntactic facts somehow
depend on the meaning being conveyed. In English, whether a noun is
subject or object depends on what its role is in the meaning of the clause
to which it belongs: if a car hits a tree, we have to say that the car hit the
tree, with car as subject and tree as object, because that is, in some sense,
part of the meaning of subject and object position in an active clause. The
semantic basis of these choices is made very clear in the Finnish example:
when the noun for ‘bear’ is in the accusative case, the clause means ‘shoot
the/a bear’; when it’s in the partitive case, it means ‘shoot at the/a bear’.
In this section, we will be exploring the ways in which meaning affects
the clause-level relation between a verb and its participants.

10.1.1 The traditional picture: thematic roles

The problem of understanding the relations between a verb and its argu-
ments is often talked about as a problem of the syntax–semantics inter-
face. This is a term used mainly in generative grammar (Chomsky 1965,
Carnie 2007), the theoretical tradition in linguistics in which these ques-
tions have mostly been explored. Generative grammar postulates a strict
division between different components of the grammar: syntax, phonol-
ogy, semantics, and so on, each of which is assumed to have its own
explanatory principles and structure (cf. 7.2.1). The interfaces between each
of the components are the areas where these different explanatory prin-
ciples interact: in the present case, there is an interaction between seman-
tic principles concerning the meaning conveyed by the clause, and the
morphosyntactic principles governing such phenomena as case-marking
and grammatical relations. For reasons that will become apparent, the
questions we asked above are referred to in the generative tradition as the
linking problem, the argument mapping, argument selection or argu-
ment realization problem, or the theta-role problem. We’ll explore this
mainly in relation to English, specifically concentrating on the question of
the principles determining subject and object choice in the clause.

Complements and adjuncts

A verb’s complements (in bold below) are the non-subject NPs which
must obligatorily be expressed in order for the clause in which the
verb figures to be grammatical in that meaning. A verb’s adjuncts (itali-
cized) are any optional arguments:

(1) The eunuchs had many ways of augmenting their incomes.

(2) The eunuchs always kept a complete range of court clothing for
officials.
(3) Most of the eunuchs fled after the 1911 revolution.
(4) The terror-struck Dowager summoned the imperial council to an
emergency meeting.
338 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

(5) I would accuse the eunuchs of disloyalty to me for trifling

reasons.
(6) My English interpreter explained things to me.

QUESTION Mark the subjects, complements and adjuncts in the fol-

lowing clauses:

(1) Bismarck coveted power in the 1870s.

(2) Bismarck waged war against Denmark in 1864.
(3) Prussia has been compared by Bismarck to ancient Rome.
(4) Lieutenant-General Graf Fink von Finkenstein is Head Tutor.
(5) The boy’s mind was opened by his tutor to a lively perception of
things round him.

The standard explanation of the linking problem in generative syntax is

due to Gruber (1965) and Fillmore (1968), later developed and extended by
a host of investigators. This approach has two parts. First, the lexical
entries (the representations of linguistic information associated with a
lexeme) for verbs are assumed to include a specification of the types of
argument they have associated with them. It was assumed that the possi-
ble arguments of all verbs could be classified into a small number of
classes, called thematic roles, participant roles, semantic roles, or theta
roles. The following list (based on the one in Carnie 2007) shows a com-
monly assumed set of roles:

Agent: the initiator of the action

Experiencer: the entity that feels or perceives something
Theme/Patient: entity that undergoes an action, undergoes motion, is
experienced or perceived
Goal: entity towards which motion takes place
Recipient: subclass of goal for verbs involving a change of possession
Source: entity from which motion takes place
Location: place where the action occurs
Instrument: object with which an action is performed
Beneficiary: one for whose benefit an event took place

In the words of Fillmore (1968: 24–25), these roles ‘comprise a set of uni-
versal, presumably innate, concepts which identify certain types of judg-
ments human beings are capable of making about the events that are
going on around them, judgments about such matters as who did it, who
it happened to, and what got changed’. It was assumed that the argu-
ments of all verbs could be assigned to one of these roles.
Take kill, for example. Killing involves someone who kills (the ‘killer’), and
someone who is killed (the ‘killee’). Obviously, the killer is ‘the initiator or
doer of the action’, and the killee is the ‘entity that undergoes the action’.
This means that kill is associated with agent and theme participants. This
 10.1 Verbs and participants 339

information about kill is stored in long-term memory as a distinct part of

the verb’s lexical entry:
kill <agent, theme>
We will talk of this situation as kill subcategorizing agent and theme
roles. Other verbs that subcategorize these roles are hit, drive as in Wotan
drove the chariot, and hug.
Now consider fear. The ‘fearer’ isn’t considered to be ‘initiating’ or
‘doing’ the action of fearing, since this implies a greater degree of agency
and control than actually exists. We’re not really in control of whether we
fear something or not. The first participant of fear therefore isn’t an agent,
but an ‘experiencer’. The thing feared, however, is still a theme:
fear <experiencer, theme>
In receive we have a recipient and a theme as participants. The ‘receiver’
doesn’t ‘initiate’ the action of receiving, which isn’t under their control:
receive <recipient, theme>
Put, as in put the book on the table, subcategorizes three roles, since it is
characteristically ditransitive. The putter is an agent, the thing that is put
is the theme, and the place where it is put is the goal.
put <agent, theme, goal>
Die, by contrast is intransitive, and consequently subcategorizes only a
theme:

die <theme>

The idea here is that by matching up the specific semantics of the argu-
ments of individual verbs with the wider classes of ‘agent’, ‘theme’, ‘expe-
riencer’ and so on, it would be possible to classify the entire verbal lexicon
using a finite set of participant roles. The list of the subcategorized argu-
ments of each verb was assumed to constitute a separate aspect of the
verb’s lexical entry, its theta-grid or subcategorization frame. Such grids
or frames are shown for five verbs in (5).

(5) break <agent, theme>

donate <agent, theme, recipient>
send <agent, theme, goal>
google <agent, theme>
get <recipient, theme>

These grids were taken to be a distinct part of a verb’s lexical entry, sepa-
rate from all other aspects of its semantic representation.
The identification of verbs’ theta-grids constitutes the first part of the
standard generativist explanation of the linking problem. The second
part explains how the various labelled participant roles are linked or
mapped onto morphosyntactic positions like subject and object. As the
examples we’ve looked at show, subjects aren’t always agents, and objects
340 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

aren’t always themes. This means that it’s not possible to propose any
invariant linking rules associating a particular thematic role or (set of
thematic roles) with either subject or object position. Instead, the basic
insight behind the proposed solution is that the different thematic roles are
not equivalent: some are more likely to be coded as subject, and others as
object. It was suggested that it is possible to rank the different roles in an
order which shows their relative accessibility to subject position.
Many versions of this ranking have been suggested. For English, an appro-
priate ranking might be something like this, with ‘>’ read as ‘outranks for
subject’:
Possible thematic hierarchy for English:
Agent > Beneficiary/Experiencer > Instrument > Theme/Patient >
Goal/Source/Location
This ranking says that if there is an Agent in the situation being referred
to, it will automatically be coded as subject. In the absence of an agent,
any Beneficiary or Experiencer will be given subject status, and so on. In
a transitive clause, the other participant will be coded as object, and any
other participants as adjuncts (obliques). We won’t attempt to give evi-
dence for the whole of the hierarchy here. Instead, we will illustrate vari-
ous parts of it. In each case, the subject of the clause is the participant
that is ranked higher. We will start with evidence showing that Agent
outranks all other roles.

(6) a. Agent > Beneficiary

Bismarck helped the King.

b. Agent > Experiencer

Bismarck informed the King.

c. Agent > Instrument

Bismarck used a faked telegram.

d. Agent > Theme

Bismarck hoarded bullion.

e. Agent > Goal/Source/Location

Bismarck entered/left/occupied the Palace.

If there is no Agent, the Beneficiary is the next highest-ranked partici-

pant:

(7) Beneficiary > Theme

a. Bismarck received the King’s support.
b. Bismarck inherited an estate.

If there is an Experiencer and a Theme, the Experiencer is ranked higher:

(8) Experiencer > Theme

Bismarck heard the news.
 10.1 Verbs and participants 341

If there is an Instrument and a Theme, Instrument is ranked higher:

(9) Instrument > Theme

The hammer shattered the rock.

If the arguments are a Theme and a Location, Theme outranks Location:

(10) Theme > Location

The gas was filling the room.

Facts like these lead to the postulation of the hierarchy. Researchers initially
assumed that it would be possible to discover a single, cross-linguistically
valid hierarchy of participant roles, specified by Universal Grammar. This
allowed evidence from other languages to be used to fill in the gaps left in a
single language.
QUESTION How would you categorize the arguments of the following
clauses? Is Carnie’s list sufficient?
(a) The trip cost us two months’ pay.
(b) She owns three racehorses.
(c) The fence surrounds the field.
(d) The CD contains twenty-five tracks.
(e) The trip lasted four days.
(f) Clouds mean rain.
(g) Henry needs help.
(h) Their slavishness matches their intelligence.
(i) The luggage weighs twenty kilos.
(j) Fred realized the truth.
QUESTION Propose subcategorization frames for the following verbs,
inventing clauses which exemplify them. Some verbs may take more than
one frame, and not all verbs may be easy to classify. Note any of these dif-
ficult cases, and keep them in mind in the discussion that follows:

bend, throw, show, get, apologize, yawn, roll, open, fall down, stroll, collide, see,
watch, offend, cry, touch, applaud, like, bother, rent

QUESTION Can you think of any other examples of verbs which (a) have
more than a single subcategorization frame; (b) have arguments which
can be assigned to more than one thematic role; and (c) have arguments
which it is not easy to classify using the list given above? Keep these
verbs in mind in the discussion that follows.

10.1.2 Problems with thematic roles

Doing the above questions may have given you an insight into some of the
problems involved in assuming a fixed inventory of thematic roles. The
motivation for postulating a thematic hierarchy was the existence of cases
where it’s fairly easy to decide what role to assign arguments to. In John
[Agent] kills Mary [Theme], for instance, the identity of the roles couldn’t
342 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

be more obvious. But there are many occasions where things are much
less clear cut, and where we could assign an argument to several thematic
roles. In (11), for example, the subject could be analysed as both Agent
(initiator of the action) and Theme (entity undergoing motion):

(11) John rolled down the hill.

In response to data like these, some researchers have suggested that nouns
may instantiate two thematic roles simultaneously (see Jackendoff 1990).
The arguments of many verbs seem hard to assign to any of the conven-
tional thematic roles. For example, it’s not obvious how we should label
the roles associated with the following clauses:

(12) a. The shirt fits me.

b. The caravan sleeps a whole family.
c. Ten cents will buy you thirty seconds.
d. Clouds mean rain.
e. The book weighs half a kilo.
f. The committee confirmed the appointment.
g. This job requires skill.

In none of these cases is it obvious that the arguments can be assimilated

into any of the basic roles. One could, of course, invent new roles for each
of the verbs individually, but this tactic would threaten the strength of
the original proposal: if our aim is to account economically for the
observed general patterns of argument structure, we can’t just invent new
roles every time the system breaks down – this would risk exploding the
number of roles beyond what investigators have assumed to be reasonable
boundaries. Dowty (1991: 561) puts the problem like this:
[t]he variety of semantic distinctions that correlate with syntactic and
lexical patterns in one way or another is surely enormous. To postulate
thematic role types for each of them is, quite possibly, to dilute the
notion beyond its usefulness, but what we lack is a principled way to
decide what kind of data motivates a thematic role type.
Even if these problems are resolved, the difficulties are not over. Not only
has it not been possible to unambiguously assign arguments to thematic
roles, but the thematic hierarchy ranking these roles has proven extraor-
dinarily elusive. Cross-linguistic investigation over a long period has failed
to produce any version of the hierarchy on which investigators can agree,
since the rankings between different arguments seem to vary consider-
ably from one language to the next. This in itself is reason to be sceptical
of the very idea that Universal Grammar (UG) specifies a thematic hierar-
chy. As Newmeyer says, ‘[t]here is reason for strong doubt that there exists
a Thematic Hierarchy provided by UG. That seems to be the best explana-
tion for the fact that after over three decades of investigation, nobody has
proposed a hierarchy of theta-roles that comes close to working’
(Newmeyer 2002: 65). This has certainly not been helped by the fact that
 10.1 Verbs and participants 343

different investigators have applied thematic role terms inconsistently.

But the problems of reconciling conflicting theta hierarchies is more than
simply terminological. Two authoritative investigators, in fact, go so far as
to claim that it is simply ‘impossible to formulate a thematic hierarchy
which will capture all generalizations involving the realization of argu-
ments in terms of their semantic roles’ (Levin and Hovav 2005: 183).
But even if there were a cross-linguistically accepted thematic hierar-
chy, cases still exist which call into question its ability to explain argu-
ment structure. So-called symmetrical predicates – equal, be similar to, be
near, resemble, weigh as much as – show that the thematic hierarchy isn’t the
only determinant of argument selection, since the two arguments of
these verbs, by definition, share an identical thematic role (see Dowty
1991: 556 for discussion). Something determines the choice between sub-
ject and object – just not thematic role. But if thematic role doesn’t deter-
mine subject-selection in these cases, perhaps it never does.
Now consider the following pair:

(13) Mary owns the book/The book belongs to Mary

The book presumably instantiates the role of theme; Mary is less clear, but
perhaps beneficiary is the most appropriate label. In any case, own and
belong show a contradictory ranking of arguments. In cases like this, the
thematic hierarchy predicts the correct subject–object choice for only one
of the verbs. For the other, there must be some other explanation.
Examples like (14), from Italian, pose a similar problem. Here we find
experiencer and theme roles being differentially assigned to subject and
object position:

(14) a. Questo preoccupa Gianni.

this worries Gianni
‘This worries Gianni.’

b. Gianni teme questo.

Gianni fears this
‘Gianni fears this.’ (Levin and Hovav 2005:23)

This sort of phenomenon is widespread cross-linguistically. English is

actually rather lacking here, but the pairs in (15) show the same flipping
of thematic roles:

(15) Experiencer subject; theme Theme subject; experiencer

object object
I like this This pleases/appeals to me
I fear this This frightens me
I think that It strikes me that
I missed what he was saying What he was saying escaped me

These sentences represent different linguistic construals of the same (or at

least a highly similar) situation, one of which is in accordance with the
344 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

thematic hierarchy, and one not. The verbs in the left column, whose argu-
ments obey the hierarchy, are unproblematic: the grammar does not need
to include any special information about how these verbs’ arguments are
linked to subject and object, since this is explained by general principles.
But the badly behaved cases on the right are different: since frighten, please,
and their ilk all violate the thematic hierarchy, the learner has to learn the
appropriate argument linking patterns for each verb. This means that
there are two types of verb in the lexicon: those whose argument-linking
properties conform to the thematic hierarchy and don’t need to be sepa-
rately learned; and those whose arguments don’t observe the hierarchy
and so do need to be learned. Given this situation, it might be a simpler
solution to say that the verb always individually specifies what arguments
are linked to subject and object, and dispense with the thematic hierarchy
altogether as a component of the grammar.
Supporters of the hierarchy could answer here that doing this would
ignore a significant generalization: the arguments of most verbs are
assigned to subject and object position in accordance with the hierarchy.
It’s only exceptional ones like those in (15) which show an option.
Furthermore, these verbs are a coherent cross-linguistic class. It’s not just
any verb and argument combinations which exist in the pairs like those
above. Instead, the choice between two alternants seems mainly to be
available for psych-verbs, i.e precisely those verbs which subcategorize
experiencer and theme. Other verbs mostly don’t show alternants in
which the arguments are flipped: as observed by Carter, there is no
English verb *benter which has the same meaning as enter, except that the
agent and goal arguments are swapped (*The room bentered John.) The fact
that alternants which violate the thematic hierarchy are the exception
rather than the rule means that the best policy is to allow the exceptions’
argument linking to be part of the information included in each verb’s
lexical entry, leaving the thematic hierarchy to determine all the rest.
Proponents of the hierarchy could also point to the fact that its usefulness
in the grammar is not confined to solving the linking problem: as noted
by Newmeyer (2002), thematic role hierarchies have also been appealed to
as the explanation of a range of other grammatical phenomena (e.g. ante-
cedence for reflexivization (Jackendoff 1972) and the choice of controller
in embedded infinitivals (Culicover and Jackendoff 2001)). If we need the
hierarchy to do other work in the grammar anyway, the motivation for
dispensing with it is reduced.
Whether thematic hierarchies should be retained as part of the explana-
tion of linking depends on a number of tricky metatheoretical issues – in
other words, issues about the circumstances in which one theoretical
explanation should be preferred to another. It’s fair to say that there is
rather little consensus on these issues. At the moment, it is simply unclear
whether thematic hierarchies are an appropriate device in the grammar.

10.1.3 Proto-roles
Dowty (1991) proposed a solution to some of the problems with thematic
roles. The first component of Dowty’s solution was the suggestion that the
 10.1 Verbs and participants 345

different participant roles ‘are simply not discrete categories at all, but
rather are cluster concepts, like the prototypes of Rosch and her follow-
ers’ (1991: 571; on prototypes, see 7.1.3). What this means is that the
boundaries between different roles are fuzzy: an argument isn’t classi-
fied as either an Agent or, say, an Instrument; instead, it’s classified as
more or less Agent-like. The prototypical nature of the thematic role types
explains why it is hard to assign each argument neatly to a single role: a
single argument, like the subject of roll in (11) above, can have both
Agent-like and Theme-like aspects at the same time. Because the bound-
aries between roles are fuzzy, it’s expected that there should be these
sorts of effects.
The second aspect of Dowty’s proposal was that thematic roles are based
on entailments of verb-meanings. A verb’s entailments are those proposi-
tions that must necessarily be true whenever the verb itself is true (see
6.6.1). For example, consider the subject argument, Gavrilo, and the verbs
murder, nominate and interrogate, in (16):

(16) Gavrilo murders/nominates/interrogates the Archduke.

These verbs share the following entailments:

• VOLITION: Gavrilo acted volitionally;

• INTENTION TO PERFORM THE ACT NAMED BY THE VERB: Gavrilo intended to
murder, nominate or interrogate the Archduke; these weren’t things that
just happened as a side-effect of what he was doing;
• CAUSATION: Gavrilo caused some event to take place that involved the
Archduke; and
• MOTION OR EXTERNAL CHANGE: Gavrilo either moved or changed in some
external (i.e. not just mental) way in performing the action.

Note the affinity of these entailments with our definition of Agent, the
‘initiator of the action’. In standard accounts of linking, Gavrilo would be
classified as an Agent in all three contexts. Not all subject arguments,
however, share these entailments. Dowty gives the following verbs as
examples:

• volitional action isn’t an entailment of kill (traffic accidents kill with-

out being volitional)
• intending to perform the act named by the verb isn’t shared by con-
vince (I can convince you without intending to convince you, even
though I am intending to speak)
• causation isn’t shared by look at
• motion or external change isn’t shared by understand
These arguments lack some of the Agent entailments, but they are still
treated as subject. Dowty proposed that only two role-types are needed to
account for linking. He called these role-types Proto-Agent and Proto-
Patient. Each proto-role is identified by a number of properties. The more
of these properties a verb’s argument entails, the more it belongs to the
appropriate proto-role. The properties for the two roles are as follows:
346 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

Contributing properties for the Agent Proto-Role:

a. volitional involvement in the event or state
b. sentience (and/or perception)
c. causing an event or change of state in another participant
d. movement (relative to the position of another participant)
e. exists (independently of the event named by the verb)

Contributing properties for the Patient Proto-Role:

a. undergoes change of state
b. incremental theme
c. causally affected by another participant
d. stationary relative to movement of another participant
e. does not exist (independently of the event named by the verb) (Dowty
1991: 572)

Incremental theme is a new term due to Dowty (1991) and Krifka (1987).
The object NPs in (17) are examples:

(17) build a house, write a letter, play a sonata

eat a sandwich, polish a shoe, proofread an essay

The key to the idea of Incremental theme is that the verb’s object is pro-
gressively – ‘incrementally’ – affected by the action of the verb as the event
unfolds. Building a house, for example, happens over a certain period of
time, with the house getting more and more built with each passing day.
Similarly, a letter gets more and more written as I write it, the sandwich
more and more eaten as the eating progresses, and so on. To see how much
has been built, written, or eaten we need only compare the house, the let-
ter or the sandwich at two different points in time during the event. The
verb, in other words, affects the theme ‘incrementally’. Examples of non-
incremental themes would be the objects of achievement predicates like
reach the top, shoot the target, and so on (see 9.2.2.2).

QUESTION Can you think of any examples in which the subject (instead
of the object) is the incremental theme?

As we have seen, the entailments are independent of each other – not

every verb has every one. Dowty (1991: 572) gives the following examples
of the independence of the Proto-Agent entailments:

Volition alone: John is being polite to/is ignoring Mary, What he did was not
eat for two days.
Sentience/perception alone: John sees/fears Mary.
Causation alone: Teenage unemployment causes delinquency.
Movement alone: Water filled the boat. He accidentally fell.
Dowty points out, however, that build has all subject and all object entail-
ments.
QUESTION Can you find equivalent sentences showing the independence
of the Proto-Patient entailments?
 10.1 Verbs and participants 347

The full solution to the linking problem may already be clear to you. Dowty
suggests that the argument with the most Proto-Agent entailments will be
coded as subject, and the one with the most Proto-Patient entailments as
object. This principle has two related corollaries. First, it’s possible for
some arguments to share the same role, have neither role, or qualify par-
tially but equally for both proto-roles. Second, if two arguments satisfy
roughly the same number of Proto-Agent and Proto-Patient entailments,
then either may be coded as subject or object. This is the case for psych-
verbs such as Joe likes sausages/Sausages please Joe: in this situation, regardless
of how it is described, both participants have just a single entailment each:
Joe has the proto-agent entailment of sentience, and sausages has the proto-
agent entailment of causation. Dowty says that neither argument has any
other entailments. This means that each argument has equal likelihood to
surface as subject.
The same explanation accounts for other doublets like Fabienne lent
Briony a book/Briony borrowed a book from Fabienne. We can see this in the
following table:

Table 10.1. Proto-agent and proto-patient entailments for lend/borrow.

Briony Fabienne
Lend/borrow: Proto-agent entailments (borrower) (lender)

Volition ✓ ✓

Sentience ✓ ✓

Causation ✓ ✓

Movement ✗ ✗

Briony Fabienne
Lend/borrow: Proto-patient entailments (borrower) (lender)

Changes state ✗ ✗

Incremental theme ✗ ✗

Causally affected ✓ ✓

Stationary ✓ ✓

QUESTION Dowty (1991: 576) makes the following statement about three
place predicates like give:

COROLLARY 2: With a three-place predicate, the non subject argument

having the greatest number of entailed Proto-Patient properties will be
lexicalized as the direct object and the nonsubject argument having
fewer entailed Proto-Patient properties will be lexicalized as an oblique
or prepositional object (and if two nonsubject arguments have approxi-
mately equal numbers of entailed P-Patient properties, either or both
may be lexicalized as direct objects).
348 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

Does this work for the following clauses?

x made y a meal/x made a meal for y
x brought the package to y/brought y the package

10.1.4 Thematic relations and conceptual structure

So far, none of the theories we have discussed uses verb meaning to deter-
mine argument selection directly. In the traditional theta-role system, verbs
are associated in the lexicon with theta-grids, and it is the hierarchy that
determines how arguments get into a verb’s subject and object positions. As
a result, even though the investigator uses the verb’s meaning to work out its
theta-roles, and then uses the thematic hierarchy to work out its argument
structure, the crucial dependence of argument structure on meaning isn’t
explicitly formalized: argument structure cannot be read directly off the
verb’s meaning, but proceeds via the intermediate stage of theta-roles.
This type of theoretical arrangement is somewhat redundant: looking
at a verb’s meaning provided the justification for the theorist’s decision
about what theta-roles a verb was given, but the precoded roles still con-
stituted a separate aspect of the verb’s lexical representation, indepen-
dent of its meaning. The precoded roles only exist for the syntactic pur-
pose of getting the ‘right’ arguments as subject and object. In Dowty’s
system, something similar is true: the theorist has to examine the verb’s
meaning and decide in each case how many of the proto-role entailments
are satisfied. There is no way in which argument structure can follow
automatically from the verb’s meaning: since neither traditional theta-role
theories nor Dowty’s proto-role system offers any way to represent verb
meaning explicitly, a direct mapping from verb meaning to argument
structure is impossible.
Explicit representation of verb meaning is therefore a prerequisite for a
more unified theory of linking. Jackendoff (1987, 2002) offers just such a
theory. As discussed in 8.1, Jackendoff’s theory of semantic representation
involves a decomposition of meanings into primitive elements – BE, GO,
CAUSE and so on. As we will see, according to Jackendoff it is the nature of
the primitive elements within the semantic decompositions of verbs which
directly determines argument structure. This allows Jackendoff to dispense
completely with theta-roles or proto-roles, and to derive argument structure
directly from semantics. Jackendoff explains the virtue of this as follows:

What is at stake is the issue of language acquisition. If a word’s syntactic

behavior (including its syntactic argument structure) were always tightly
linked to its meaning (including semantic argument structure), there
would be far less lexical idiosyncrasy for the child to learn, always a
desideratum . . .
( Jackendoff 2002: 138)

The primitives of Jackendoff’s system provide a new way of thinking about

the nature of theta-roles. Consider Jackendoff’s representation of the con-
ceptual structure underlying the following three sentences (also discussed
in 8.1.2);
 10.1 Verbs and participants 349

(18) a. The door was open.

b. The door opened.
c. John opened the door.

Sentence (18a) is the conceptually simplest, consisting simply of the state

function BE with two semantic arguments: Thing (which refers to the door)
and Property (which refers to openness), as diagrammed in (19):

(19) [STATE BE ([THING DOOR], [PROPERTY OPEN])]

(To say that Thing and Property are ‘semantic arguments’ is to say that
they are necessary complements of the function BE – concepts una-
voidably bound up with its meaning in this use: see 8.1.1 for explana-
tion.)
Jackendoff defines the thematic role of ‘Theme’ as ‘the first argument
of the functions GO, STAY, BE and ORIENT’ (1987: 378). The conceptual
representation of (18a) contains the element ‘BE’, with two arguments,
DOOR and OPEN. This means that the first argument in (18a), DOOR,
which is realized by the lexeme door, is interpreted as Theme.
Now consider (18b). This has the same conceptual structure as (18a),
except that it has added the ‘INCHoative’ function (Latin: ‘start’), which
denotes the coming into being of an event. The door opened thus receives
the following analysis:

(20) [EVENT INCH ([STATE BE ([THING DOOR], [PROPERTY OPEN])])]

The addition of INCH makes no difference to the thematic roles in the

sentence: DOOR/door still satisfies the definition of ‘theme’.
Sentence (18c) adds the ‘CAUSative’ function to the previous structure:

(21) [EVENT CAUSE ([THING JOHN], ([EVENT INCH ([STATE BE ([THING DOOR], [PROPERTYOPEN])])])]

CAUSE is a two-argument function: the first argument is a Thing (here,

John), the second an Event (here, the door becoming open). Jackendoff
defines Agent as the first argument of the Event-function CAUSE. This
makes John Agent in (18c).
The other thematic roles are dealt with in exactly the same way. Source,
described above as ‘the entity from which motion takes place’, is analysed
as the argument of the Path-function FROM. Goal, the ‘entity towards which
motion takes place’ is the argument of the Path-function TO. The experi-
encer argument, Jackendoff says, ‘presumably is an argument of an as yet
unexplored State-function having to do with mental states’ (1987: 378).
This approach has an important consequence: ‘Agent’, ‘Theme’ and the
other roles can be eliminated from the theory. Since Jackendoff defines
the theta-roles in terms of underlying conceptual structure, it’s the under-
lying conceptual elements, not the theta-roles themselves, which do all
the explanatory work. As Jackendoff puts it, the names of theta-roles ‘are
just convenient mnemonics for particularly prominent configurations’ of
350 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

underlying conceptual primitives. This means that we can restate the

thematic hierarchy in terms of underlying conceptual configurations.
Instead of Agent, for example, we substitute the first argument of the
predicate CAUSE; instead of Theme, we substitute the single argument of
GO, STAY, BE or ORIENT. Jackendoff is claiming, in other words, ‘that the
terms Theme, Agent, and so on, are not primitives of semantic theory.
Rather, they are relational notions defined structurally over conceptual
structure’ (2002: 378–379). He compares this to the way ‘subject’ and
‘object’ are not primitive notions of generative syntax, but structural posi-
tions in the classical tree structure: subject is the NP immediately domi-
nated by S, and object the NP immediately dominated by the VP.
The types of semantic distinction conveyed by the different theta-roles or,
for Jackendoff, underlying conceptual configurations, are not the only
semantic connections between a verb and its arguments. Verbs also place
selectional restrictions on their arguments: the object of eat must be a solid,
that of drink a liquid, that of read something visible, that of pay (in one of its
uses) an amount of money. In Jackendoff’s theory of conceptual structure,
these selectional restrictions are, like theta-roles, specified directly by the
conceptual structure: they are not extra information which needs to be learnt
in addition to the meaning of the verbs themselves. Jackendoff observes that
a sentence like Bill paid inherently entails the information that what Bill paid
was an amount of money; similarly, Harry drank contains the information
that what Harry drank was something liquid. This shows that if an argument
isn’t expressed lexically, information about its nature is still available. As a
result, the selectional restrictions on the objects of drink and pay are ‘essen-
tially explicit information that the verb supplies about its arguments’ (1987:
385). Selectional restrictions are ‘part of the verb’s meaning and should be
fully integrated into the verb’s argument structure’ (1987: 385).
The lexical entry for drink, for example, is something like this ( Jackendoff
1987: 386):

(22) ⎡ ⎤
ink
⎢ ⎥
⎢ [ N, V ] ⎥
⎢ __(NP Pj ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ [ EVENT
V N CAUS
A E ( THING
NG] i [EVEN Q D] j , ⎥
V T GO ([ THING LIQUI
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ [ PATH
T TO ( PLACE
C IN ([ THING MOUTH O ([ ( TH NG]i )])])])] ⎥
T ING
⎦

The Thing arguments which can be subcategorized by the verb are marked
by the indices i and j. The first of these, indexed i, is the first argument of
the CAUSE predicate: this makes it an Agent. The second, indexed j, is the
first argument of the GO predicate: this makes it a theme. But the paren-
theses around ‘NPj’ in the third line of the representation indicate that
drink doesn’t have to have a fully expressed direct object – the verb can be
intransitive. But whether it does or not, the verb’s meaning itself contains
the information that the thing being drunk is a liquid.
We can see another illustration of this approach to argument structure
by considering the difference in meaning between the verbs butter and
 10.1 Verbs and participants 351

bottle, as in Harry buttered the bread and Joe bottled the wine. The meanings of
these verbs are quite different: butter means ‘to put butter on something’;
bottle means ‘put wine in a bottle’. Jackendoff represents the conceptual
structures as follows (1987: 387):

(23) a. butter
[EVENT CAUSE ([THING]i, [EVENT GO ([THING BUTTER], [PATH TO ([PLACE ON ([THING]j)])])])]

b. bottle
[EVENT CAUSE ([THING]i, [EVENT GO ([THING] j, [PATH TO ([PLACE IN ([THING BOTTLE])])])])]

In (23a) the subject argument (Harry in our example) is indexed with the
letter i. As the first argument of CAUSE, this identifies the verb’s Agent.
(Recall that terms like ‘Agent’ are just convenient shorthand here; what
we mean is ‘first argument of a CAUSE predicate’.) The verb’s object – the
bread – is also indexed, showing that it is subcategorized. As the argu-
ment of a TO function, bread would traditionally be called a Goal. Unlike
the other two semantic arguments, the Theme argument, BUTTER, does
not have an index linking it with an argument. This means that it is not
connected to a subcategorized position. Jackendoff explains that, as a
result, ‘this argument is totally filled in with information from the verb
and is understood as “nonspecific butter” (1987: 387) – when we are told
that Harry buttered the bread we don’t know anything about the identity of
the butter involved. This contrasts with (23b). Here it is the Goal argument
– the argument of the TO function – that doesn’t have an index. This
means that it gets its interpretation entirely from the verb: all we know is
that Joe bottled some specific wine, but we know nothing about the iden-
tity of the bottle into which the wine was put. Jackendoff notes that com-
paring these examples shows us that ‘the similarities and differences
between butter and drink fall out directly from the notation adopted here.
There is no need to interpose a level of argument structure to encode
them’ (1987: 387). Argument structure and selectional restrictions are not
separately coded pieces of information that have to be learnt as well as the
meaning of the verb; they are part of the meaning of the verb itself. As a
result, the learner’s task is simpler.

Theories and simplicity

Proposals to streamline the number of theta-roles, à la Dowty, or to
derive thematic relations from conceptual structure, à la Jackendoff,
are often well received, for reasons of theoretical simplicity: it’s
thought that the fewer components or levels of structure a theory
has, the simpler and hence more desirable it is. But how cogent this
reasoning is depends on the position you take on some methodologi-
cal questions often discussed by philosophers of science. As we’ve
seen, the virtue of deriving grammatical relations from conceptual
structure is that it cuts down on the theoretical machinery, hence
352 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

observing the principle of Ockham’s Razor – don’t posit more enti-

ties than you need to. Some critics, however, might point out that
since both ways of doing things make exactly the same predictions,
they’re equivalent in every way that matters, and we shouldn’t worry
about which we adopt. Furthermore, the question of simplicity isn’t
as simple as it seems. How can you tell which out of two rival theories
is simpler? It’s surely not the case that the theory with the fewer bits
of mechanism is the simpler one: a theory which used three counter-
intuitive bits of machinery doesn’t seem simpler than one which uses
four intuitive bits. Jackendoff’s conceptual representations eliminate
theta-roles, but involve a complex decomposition of verb meanings
which introduce many extra components. Is this a gain in simplicity
or not? Also, how do you tell what counts as a single piece of theoreti-
cal machinery? Ludlow (1999) concludes that there’s no objective way
to tell a simpler theory from a less simple one – it’s just a question of
what the community of linguists find simpler.

10.2 Verb classes and alternations

We saw in the previous section how many psych-verb meanings (the mean-
ings of verbs for mental states) can be realized by two variants, each of
which selects different subject and object arguments: fear vs. frighten, like
vs. please/appeal to, think vs. strike, and so on. Doublets like these, wide-
spread cross-linguistically, pose a problem for linking rules, since they
allow quite different mappings from meaning to argument structure,
only one of which is consistent with the thematic hierarchy. Because of
these verbs, Culicover and Jackendoff (2005: 184) suggest that the the-
matic hierarchy ‘does not apply to all combinations of thematic roles’.
In this section we will consider another problem-case for the standard
account of argument structure and the thematic hierarchy: argument
structure alternations. Many verbs show not just one argument struc-
ture, but several. Consider the verbs in (24). They can all appear in an
<agent patient> array:

(24) Ben ripped the ricepaper.

Emily broke the laptop.
Ron shattered the walnut.
Mill cut the fabric.
The camper slashed the tarpaulin.
The carpenter sawed the wood

But, along with many other verbs, they can also appear in a so-called
middle alternation, with <theme> as the only subcategorized argument:

(25) Ricepaper rips easily.

Laptops break often.
 10.2 Verb classes and alternations 353

Walnuts will only shatter along the seam.

The fabric cuts from both ends.
The tarpaulin slashes really easily.
This wood saws easily.

Not all verbs allow the middle alternation. The verbs in (26), for instance,
are impossible in the middle:

(26) Mill pats Macintosh/*Macintosh pats easily.

They stroked its back/*Its back strokes easily.
They touched the surface/*The surface touches easily.
They hit the ball/*The ball hits easily.
They kicked the ball/*The ball kicks easily.
I bashed the nail/*The nail bashes easily.

Are there any general principles governing which verbs allow the middle
alternation and which don’t? Hale and Keyser (1987) use an archaic
English verb, gally, to suggest an answer. If you’re like me, gally isn’t always
on the tip of your tongue; in fact, this may well be the first time you’ve
come across the word. Imagine two English speakers hearing the sentence
The sailors gallied the whales for the first time (gally is a word particularly
used in whaling jargon). One speaker might assume that gally means ‘see’,
while the other might think it means ‘frighten’. Hale and Keyser point out
that each assumption has certain consequences for what the two speakers
will consider as possible alternations for the verb. If gally is assumed to
mean frighten, then the middle alternation – the whales gallied easily – will
be acceptable, whereas if it is thought to mean see, the middle alternation
will not. This suggests that whether the middle alternation is possible
depends on the verb’s meaning. (Gally means ‘frighten’, by the way, not
‘see’.)
What is the factor in the meaning that makes the difference? Hale and
Keyser suggest that verbs which do allow the middle alternation all express
the bringing about of a change of state in the verb’s object. This meaning
is absent from the ones that don’t allow the middle, like see, consider, believe
and notice.
We have, then, two hunches about the relation between semantics and
argument structure:

• a verb’s meaning determines what syntactic alternations it partici-

pates in;
• verbs fall into semantically defined classes, which all show similar
syntactic behaviour with respect to their alternations.

These ideas have been especially pursued by Levin and Hovav (Levin 1993;
Levin and Hovav 1995, 2005).
Let’s continue our exploration of this by considering a couple of other
alternations. The conative alternation is exemplified by each of the sec-
ond sentences in (27):
354 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

(27) a. The zombies slashed my face/The zombies slashed at my face.

b. They cut the root with the blade/They cut at the root with the blade.
c. They sawed the rafters that pinned my legs/They sawed at the rafters that
pinned my legs.
d. They hit me fiercely/They hit at me fiercely.
e. They kicked the pile of wood/They kicked at the pile of wood.
f. I bashed the nail/I bashed at the nail.

As the term ‘conative’ (Latin ‘attempt’) suggests, this alternation conveys

a reduced degree of effectiveness: (27a) suggests that the zombies directed
the slashes at my face, but that their slashing didn’t succeed in putting
me out of action completely – I could still slash back at them, perhaps. The
reduced effectiveness is also true for the verbs in (27b–f).
As with the middle alternation, not all verbs allow the conative alter-
nation:

(28) a. They touched its paw/*They touched at its paw.

b. They stroked its back/*They stroked at its back.
c. They patted its head/*They patted at its head.
d. They broke the screen/*They broke at the screen.
e. They ripped the cloth/*They ripped at the cloth.
f. They shattered the vase/*They shattered at the vase.

Now consider the body-part possessor ascension alternation. Many verbs

can appear in this alternation:

(29) a. Terry touched Bill’s shoulder/Terry touched Bill on the shoulder.

b. James kicked Margo’s shin/James kicked Margo on the shin.
c. The door bashed Grahame’s elbow/The door bashed Grahame on the elbow.
d. Margaret cut Bill’s arm/Margaret cut Bill on the arm.
e. The blade slashed my finger/The blade slashed me on the finger.
f. The drill scratched my hand/The drill scratched me on the hand.

With some verbs, though, this alternation is impossible:

(30) a. Janet broke Bill’s finger/*Janet broke Bill on the finger.

b. Janet ripped Bill’s palm/*Janet ripped Bill on the palm.
c. Janet shattered Bill’s knee/*Janet shattered Bill on the knee.

QUESTION Can you find any regular meaning difference in the sentence
pairs in (29a–f)?
QUESTION What other types of verb alternation can you think of ?

If we examine (24) – (30) we can see a pattern. The verbs in these examples
seem to cluster together in a way that allows us to predict what alterna-
tions they will appear in. Shatter and rip always behave the same as break:
if break allows an alternation, so will the other two; if it doesn’t, rip and
shatter won’t either.
 10.2 Verb classes and alternations 355

Table 10.2. English verb classes and three alternations.

touch verbs hit verbs cut verbs break verbs

Middle No No Yes Yes

Conative No Yes Yes No

B-p p ascension Yes Yes Yes No

On the basis of these regularities, Levin (1993) identified the following

classes of verbs, each one named after its most general member:

(31) a. Break verbs: break, crack, rip, shatter, snap, . . .

b. Cut verbs: cut, hack, saw, scratch, slash, . . .
c. Touch verbs: pat, stroke, tickle, touch, . . .
d. Hit verbs: bash, hit, kick, pound, tap, whack, . . .

The verbs in each class, Levin claimed, pattern in exactly the same way
with respect to the middle, conative and body-part possessor ascension
alternations (subject, of course, to dialectal differences). The patterns can
be summed up in Table 10.2 (Levin 1993: 7).
In the spirit of Hale and Keyser’s discussion of gally, Levin suggested that
the differences between these classes are basically semantic: what alterna-
tions a verb participates in is explained by its underlying semantic struc-
ture. These differences can be revealed by decomposing the verb’s meaning
into a set of basic sub-events, involving primitives such as CAUSE, ACT,
BECOME, like the Jackendoffian decompositions already discussed in 10.1.4.
The particular way in which these subevents are present in the meaning of
any given verb is known as that verb’s event structure.
We have already seen the meaning difference hypothesized to explain
the middle alternation: cut and break verbs, which do manifest the alterna-
tion, include the idea of a change of state being brought about. We could
represent their event structure as follows:

(32) x cuts/breaks y = [[x ACT] CAUSE [y BECOME <cut/broken>]]

Hit and touch, on the other hand, do not decompose into an underlying
change of state structure.
In the middle alternation, the cut and break verbs lose the idea of caus-
ing anything to happen, and jettison the ‘Agent’ argument as a result. This
just leaves the ‘change of state’ idea intact:

(33) [y BECOME <cut/broken>]

Can we apply similar reasoning to the conative alternation, manifested by hit

and cut verbs? Following a suggestion by Guerssel et al. (1985), Levin proposes
that verbs of these classes involve two ideas: contact, and motion preceding
the contact. Break verbs, on the other hand, lack both components: one can
break something without coming into contact with it, and without the
presence of any preceding motion. For instance, I can break an appliance by
356 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

not turning it off, and a glass can be shattered by a high pitched sound.
Touch verbs do include a contact component, but they lack a motion one.
Levin suggests that both motion and contact are necessary for the conative
alternation to be possible. Confirmation for this idea comes from the fact
that verbs involving motion alone don’t allow the alternation either:

(34) a. Jean moved/shifted the table.

b. *Jean moved/shifted at the table.

If both motion and contact are required to qualify a verb for the conative
alternation, the incompatibility of pure motion verbs with this alterna-
tion is exactly what we would expect.
What about a possible semantic basis for the body-part possessor ascen-
sion alternation?
This alternation is available to all the verb classes except the break verbs.
Again, contact is the relevant component: hit, cut and touch classes all
involve a notion of contact, but break verbs, as we just saw, don’t.
Confirmation of this analysis of the semantics of the four verb classes
comes from another alternation, the causative/inchoative alternation. As
we have seen, the meanings of both cut and break involve a change of state.
Cut verbs, however, also involve notions of contact and motion. This
semantic difference is correlated with a syntactic difference; only break
verbs participate in the causative/inchoative alternation:

(35) a. The child broke the screen (causative)

b. The screen broke (inchoative)
c. The child cut the ribbon (causative)
d. *The ribbon cut (inchoative)

Similar behaviour is found with the other verbs of each class:

(36) Jeff cracked/ripped/shattered/snapped his credit card (causative)

The credit card cracked/ripped/shattered/snapped (inchoative)
Jeff sawed/scratched/slashed the plank (causative)
*The plank sawed/scratched/slashed (inchoative)

The causative/inchoative alternation appears to be confined to pure

change of state verbs. Since hit and touch aren’t change of state verbs, they
don’t display the alternation:

(37) Jeff touched/hit his credit card.

*The credit card touched/hit.

Another important alternation is the locative alternation:

(38) Seth loaded hay onto the cart (locative variant)

Seth loaded the cart with hay (with variant)
Ruth sprayed water on the wall (locative variant)
Ruth sprayed the wall with water (with variant)
 10.2 Verb classes and alternations 357

The key to the understanding of this is that the with variant entails the
locative variant, but not vice versa. That is, (39a) entails (39b), but (39b)
doesn’t entail (39a):

(39) a. Seth loaded the cart with hay Ruth sprayed the wall with paint
entails entails
b. Seth loaded hay onto the cart Ruth sprayed paint onto the wall

The reason that the entailments hold in one direction only is that the
two variants differ in the extent to which the object of the verb is
affected. If Seth loaded the cart with hay, the default interpretation is that
the cart is fully loaded, whether or not all the hay has been transferred.
But if Seth loaded hay onto the cart, no such implication holds. Similarly, if
Ruth sprayed the wall with paint, we understand that the wall was entirely
covered, whether or not all of the paint was used up. But if Ruth sprayed
paint onto the wall, we have no information either about whether the paint
was used up, or whether the entire wall was covered.
The core of the lexical semantic representations proposed by Rappaport
and Levin (1988) for the locative alternation are shown in (40a) and (b),
corresponding to (39a) and (b). The ‘x’ variable refers to the subject, the ‘y’
to the hay, and ‘z’ to the cart:

(40) a. With variant: load the cart with hay

load: [x CAUSE [z TO COME TO BE IN STATE]
BY MEANS OF [x CAUSE [y TO COME TO BE AT z]]]

b. Locative variant: load hay onto the cart

load: [x CAUSE [y TO COME TO BE AT z]]

The differing degrees of affectedness are correlated with the linking of

arguments to the direct object position: whichever argument is direct
object is understood as wholly affected by the verb. Assuming a general
principle like that of Jackendoff, according to which the first argument of
a BE function is coded as direct object, the differing object assignments
fall out from the representations in (40): in (40a) the cart is the first argu-
ment of the main (COME TO) BE function; in (40b) the hay is.
Levin and Hovav (2005: 206) observe that this analysis is supported by
some other facts about English. There are some verbs – putting verbs –
which only appear in locative-type structures, and some – filling and cover-
ing verbs – which only allow structures like the with variant:

(41) Putting verbs

Seth put the hay on the cart/*Seth put the cart with hay
Nigella poured/dripped the oil into the frying pan/*Nigella poured/dripped
the frying pan with oil

(42) Filling and covering verbs

Seth filled the cart with hay/*Seth filled hay onto the cart
Seth covered the cart with hay/*Seth covered hay onto the cart.
358 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

We have, then, a situation where verbs’ syntactic behaviour seems to

divide them into a small number of semantically differentiated classes.
Levin and Hovav (2005: 18) observe that
verb classes are similar in status to natural classes of sounds in phonol-
ogy and the elements of meaning which serve to distinguish among the
classes of verbs are similar in status to phonology’s distinctive features.
Furthermore, since these grammatically relevant facets of meaning are
viewed as constituting the interface between a full-fledged representa-
tion of meaning and the syntax, most researchers have assumed that,
like the set of distinctive features, the set of such meaning elements is
both universal and relatively small in size.
This approach to alternations shares with Jackendoff the idea that a verb’s
syntactic possibilities are derived from the nature of its underlying seman-
tic representation. This allows a far more economical description of the
grammatical facts: instead of coding each verb separately with a list of the
possible syntactic alternations in which it can appear, the analysis simply
derives these possibilities directly from the details of the verbs’ meanings.

Getting the verb classes right

Levin and Hovav (2005: 13) note that ‘there is more than one way of
semantically characterizing most verbs, and it is not always a priori
obvious which characterization is appropriate for argument realiza-
tion’. How do we know, for example, that cut, hack, bash and hit con-
tain a motion component, whereas pat and touch don’t? It’s not at all
clear. The fact that the classifications are often indeterminate in this
way might seem to undermine the very idea of semantically based
verb classes, and hence undo the attempt to derive argument-structure
alternations from semantics. As a result, a critic could make the fol-
lowing objection to Levin and Hovav: if several different descriptions
of the meaning of the same verb can be validly given, isn’t it arbitrary
to claim that just one drives argument alternation? What about all the
incompatible semantic descriptions that also fit the verb?
This objection raises an interesting issue about the process of
empirical research in a domain like linguistics. We normally think of
theories being based on some sort of solid evidence: we start out with
an unambiguous set of observed facts, and then try to come up with
a theory that explains them. The theory matches the facts, which are
therefore evidence for the truth of the theory. For example, the facts
on which Copernicus based his theory of the solar system are ulti-
mately observations made of the sky. Because the Copernican theory
fits these observations, we have a reason to think the theory is true.
This is only part of the story, however. Often, the facts aren’t solid
and unambiguous. It’s frequently the case that we’re not exactly sure
what all the observational facts actually are: maybe our measurements
aren’t always precise enough, maybe there’s disagreement about
 10.3 The meaning of constructions 359

whether a phenomenon is relevant, maybe there are conflicting obser-

vations about the same phenomenon. In the case of astronomy, maybe
there weren’t good enough instruments to check the details of the
heliocentric theory directly. In this sort of situation, it’s often argued
to be appropriate to let the theory tell you what the facts are. As long as we
have enough clear cases, it’s OK to allow the unclear ones to be inter-
preted in whatever way is most favourable to the theory. Just as we
adjust the theory to reflect the facts, so we can sometimes adjust our
idea of what the facts are in order to fit the theory. Applied to verb-
classes, if we follow this approach we could accept that the semantic
classification of some verbs isn’t obvious. But we wouldn’t see this as a
threat to the broader theory. Instead, we could just say that consider-
ations from the theory as a whole allow us to resolve the uncertainties
of verb meaning. Independent of the theory, there are arguments both
for and against including motion in the semantic representation of pat
and touch. But since the theory only works if we say that this compo-
nent is absent, that in itself is all the justification we need.

QUESTION Psych-verbs do not allow the middle alternation, as the fol-

lowing sentences show. Can you suggest why not?
Amber considers the problem/*The problem considers easily.
Sophie believes Sam/*Sam believes easily [this can only mean that Sam
believes other people easily, not that he is easy to believe, the meaning
required for the middle].

10.3 The meaning of constructions

The accounts of argument structure and alternations that we have looked
at so far are sometimes described as projectionist. This means that they are
ultimately based in the verb’s semantic representation, which ‘projects’
(determines) its syntactic behaviour (either directly, or via theta-roles).
Projectionist accounts give the individual lexeme a central role in the expla-
nation of the clause: the argument structure and the alternations associ-
ated with a verb are always the product of its semantic representation.
Projectionist accounts seem plausible as long as the verb only participates in
a limited number of alternations. The locative alternation, discussed above for
the verbs spray and load, is a good example of an alternation plausibly handled
in a projectionist account. There is a basic variant, the locative variant, whose
underlying representation forms part of the with variant, as in (43):

(43) a. Locative variant: load hay onto the cart

load: [x CAUSE [y TO COME TO BE AT z]]

b. With variant: load the cart with hay

load: [x CAUSE [z TO COME TO BE IN STATE]
BY MEANS OF [x CAUSE [y TO COME TO BE AT z]]]
360 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

On this account, load has two separate lexical entries, one for each variant.
Load is, in other words, polysemous (5.3).
Let’s now think about the verb siren. This can appear with a number of
quite distinct argument structures:

(44) a. The factory horns sirened through the raid.

b. The factory horns sirened midday and everybody broke for lunch.
c. The police car sirened the Porsche to a stop.
d. The police car sirened up to the accident site. (adapted from Levin and
Hovav 2005: 190)

In (44a) the verb is intransitive and denotes the emission of a sound. In

(44b) it still denotes sound-emission, but has an object, which denotes not
the sound emitted, but the time of day which the siren marks. In (44c) the
verb’s object denotes the entity caused to stop by the sirening. In (44d)
siren is again intransitive, but this time seems to be primarily a verb of
motion, and only secondarily one of sound-emission.
Different syntactic complement structures like these are usually taken
to reflect differences in the verb’s semantic representation: siren has to
have a number of polysemous senses to account for the different struc-
tures in (44). But Goldberg (1995) points out that this approach leads to a
blow-out in the number of senses which we attribute to verbs. Take sneeze.
We usually think of this as an intransitive verb. But Goldberg notes that
it’s ditransitive in the phrase sneeze the napkin off the table, suggesting an
entirely separate, polysemous sense.
For Goldberg, this analysis is undesirable. Siren and sneeze should not be
credited with a large number of senses, one for each different argument
structure pattern they display. In order to avoid this, Goldberg develops a
different conception of the nature of grammar. On this conception, words
are not the only meaning-bearing units in grammar. Semantic representa-
tions are also associated with constructions. In the most general terms,
constructions are form–meaning pairs, just like words. The difference is
that the forms involved in constructions are on a higher level than indi-
vidual lexemes: they are particular grammatical patterns, which individ-
ual lexemes instantiate. Some examples of constructions are given in
Table 10.3 (Goldberg 1995: 3–4).
Each construction can be instantiated by a large number of lexical
items. This is most obvious with the intransitive motion construction. As
well as appearing with verbs of motion (go, come) and manner of motion
(run, limp, hobble, slide, fall, drop), the construction can be instantiated by
verbs of sound emission (buzz, siren), by verbs of bursting (burst, pop) and
even by verbs such as sweat (the runners sweated up the hill). The construction
is thus a broad general pattern in the grammar.
QUESTION Consider the following examples. Which constructions might
they instantiate?

Fred watered the plants flat.

Jack licked the platter clean.
 10.3 The meaning of constructions 361

Table 10.3. Four constructions

Name Meaning Syntactic structure

Caused motion X CAUSES Y TO MOVE Z SUB V OBJ OBLique Pat sneezed

the napkin off the table.

Resultative X CAUSES Y TO BECOME Z SUBJ V OBJ X-COMP She kissed

him unconscious.

Intransitive X MOVES Y SUBJ V OBL The fly buzzed into

motion the room.

Conative X DIRECTS ACTION AT Y SUBJ V OBLat Sam kicked at Bill.

Note: In the ‘Meaning’ column, the Z after the ‘move’ predicate in the caused motion con-
struction, and the Y after the ‘move’ predicate in the intransitive motion construction do not
stand for the object of the verb ‘move’, but for a specification of the path along which the
movement takes place, corresponding to ‘off the table’ for the first, and ‘into the room’ for
the second.

He pried it apart/open/loose/free. (Goldberg and Jackendoff 2004: 559)

It came apart/open/loose/free. (Goldberg and Jackendoff 2004: 559)
Pat sliced the carrots into the salad. (Goldberg 2006: 7)
Pat sliced the box open. (Goldberg 2006: 7)
The descriptions of the syntax of each construction are essentially specifi-
cations of argument structure. An important feature of a constructional
account of the syntax–semantics interface is that arguments can be sub-
categorized by the construction itself. In (45), for example, the highlighted
phrases are all brought into the structure of the clause by the construc-
tion: they are not subcategorized by the verb:

(45) a. She sneezed the napkin off the table.

b. The fly buzzed into the room.
c. She kissed him unconscious.
d. Sam kicked at Bill.

Note that all the sentences are grammatical without the highlighted phrases.
This means that the highlighted phrases are adjuncts: the verbs do not
obligatorily select them as part of their argument structure. It is important
to see that adding the highlighted phrases doesn’t simply add an argument
to the verb; it also changes the basic meaning of the sentence. On its own,
sneeze is simply an intransitive verb denoting a bodily emission. But when
it is plugged into the caused motion construction, the construction sup-
plies two extra argument slots, filled in (45a) by the napkin and off the table,
and is paraphrased ‘she caused the napkin to move off the table’.
Complementation patterns are therefore the joint product of verbs and
the constructions in which they are placed.
In this respect, constructions are like idioms. Consider an idiom like take
(someone) to task or the let alone idiom, as in I wouldn’t do X, let alone (do) Y. These
idioms are listed in the lexicon with a syntactic structure, a meaning, and a
partially filled phonology. For example, the lexical entry for take to task
362 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

would specify the structure [take NP to task], and include the information
that the NP must be human. The let alone idiom could be described as [V NP,
let alone (V) NP], with the specification that the first V NP component must
have a negative interpretation. (For discussion of let alone, see Fillmore et al.
1988; for comparison of idioms and constructions, Goldberg and Jackendoff
2004.) Constructions are like this too, except that they are even less specified
lexically. The intransitive motion construction, for instance, just specifies
the structure V PP, and imposes certain constraints on what types of verb and
prepositional phrase may instantiate it (more on this below). The conative
construction, again, just specifies the structure V at NP. Constructions are
thus clausal/phrasal shells, waiting to be filled with lexical material.
As we have already seen, the important difference between a construc-
tional and a traditional account of argument structure is that the con-
structional account reduces the proliferation of verb-senses. Sneeze has
exactly the same semantic structure in (45a) as it does in its ordinary
intransitive use (someone sneezed loudly, say). We do not have to list sneeze as
polysemous between the basic sense sneeze1 ‘involuntarily emit burst of air
as result of nasal irritation’ and a sneeze2 sense (‘cause to move by sneez-
ing1’). Instead, the extra meaning, ‘x causes y to move z’, comes from the
caused motion construction itself, which we only need to state once.
Similarly, we do not have to postulate a different polysemous sense of slice
in order to account for the different complement configurations in which
it figures. Rather, exactly the same lexical entry of slice is operative in each
of the contexts below; it is different constructions which contribute the
different arguments, and the particular semantic interpretations:

(46) He sliced the bread. (transitive construction)

Pat sliced the carrots into the salad. (caused motion construction)
Pat sliced Chris a piece of pie. (ditransitive construction)
Emeril sliced and diced his way to stardom. (way construction)
Pat sliced the box open. (resultative construction) (Goldberg 2006: 7)

Not all verbs can appear in all constructions. Take the caused-motion con-
struction. We can sneeze a napkin off the table, but we cannot use or waste a
napkin off the table: use and waste are not compatible with the caused-motion
construction. In the same way, the intransitive-motion construction cannot
be used with verbs of sense-perception (*Ann smelled/noticed/listened into the
room) or some verbs of striking (*She hit/knocked into the room), among others.
QUESTION What restrictions are there on the resultative construction?
Consider the following sentences, which are all ungrammatical in the resulta-
tive reading (though they may be grammatical in some other reading):

*He pried it flat/straight.

*He opened the letter flat.
*She held the plastic cup crumpled.
*They played the tape broken.
*They cleaned the room sparkling.
*She taught the children tired.
 10.3 The meaning of constructions 363

How can we account for these constraints? As Goldberg (1995: 24) puts it,
constructions don’t just impose their meaning on ‘unsuspecting’ verbs; a
verb’s meaning determines whether it is compatible with a given construc-
tion. She gives two general conditions governing which verbs can appear in
which construction. The conditions turn on the question of what Goldberg
calls the ‘event type’ of the verb and construction – whether the verb/con-
struction concerns motion, change of state, causation, and so on. Here are
the conditions, with ec standing for the event type designated by the con-
struction, and ev for the event type designated by the verb.

I. ev must be related to ec in one of the following ways:

A. ev may be a subtype of ec
B. ev may designate the means of ec
C. ev may designate the result of ec
D. ev may designate a precondition of ec
E. To a very limited extent, ev may designate the manner of ec, the
means of identifying ec, or the intended result of ec

II. ec and ev must share at least one participant (Goldberg 1995: 65)

Let’s see how these conditions apply to the examples in (47):

(47) a. She sneezed the napkin off the table.

b. The fly buzzed into the room.
c. She kissed him unconscious.
d. Sam kicked at Bill.

In (47a) and (47c) the verb denotes the means by which the construc-
tion’s event type arises. ((47a) is a caused-motion event type, (47c) resul-
tative.) (47b) denotes the manner, or perhaps the means, in which the fly
entered the room – buzzing – and (47d) denotes a subtype of the category
‘directed action’ – here, obviously, kicking. Constraints like these,
Goldberg claims, determine the range of constructions in which a verb
can appear.

QUESTION The following sentences are ungrammatical. State which

constructions they exemplify. Does the ungrammaticality result from
a failure to meet the event-type conditions, or must we look for some
other reason?

a. *The car honked down the road.

b. *The dog barked out of the room.
c. *Bill whistled past the house. (Goldberg and Jackendoff 2004: 540)
d. *Someone coughed into the room.
The constructional approach to language has a wide application. Goldberg
states that ‘[e]ven basic sentence patterns of a language can be understood
to involve constructions. That is, the main verb can be understood to com-
bine with an argument structure construction (e.g. transitive, intransitive,
364 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

ditransitive, etc.)’ (2006: 6). We will illustrate this with the ditransitive con-
struction, which we have not yet discussed. The ditransitive construction is
the following:

(48) X CAUSES Y TO RECEIVE Z SUbject Verb OBJect OBJect2

Pat faxed Bill the letter

This covers any situation in which the verb appears with a double object:

(49) Nigella baked me a cake.

They showed me the problem.
Just read me the letter.
He asked her a question.
The travel agent booked me a ticket.
I chose myself a new suit.

These sentences don’t, of course, satisfy the semantic description ‘x causes

y to receive z’ since the object doesn’t receive anything. Nevertheless, they
count as instances of the construction. The justification for this is that
Goldberg sees constructions as basically polysemous: they do not have a
single sense, but a family of closely related senses, arranged according to
the same principles of prototypicality as other radial sense networks (on
polysemy and radial networks, see 7.2). In the ditransitive construction,
the core sense is ‘actual transfer’ (Goldberg 1995: 32). But many instances
of the construction, such as all of those in (49), don’t entail that the
recipient actually receives the theme. Further, the ‘transfer’ involved may
not be literal, but metaphorical, as in Claude taught the class French.
Thinking of the ditransitive as a construction with its own polysemous
set of meanings is a radical departure from projectionist accounts of
grammar, in which different argument options are interpreted as reflect-
ing differences in the lexical entries of verbs themselves. For Goldberg,
everything in language can be seen as a construction – a form–meaning
pairing in which the phonology may be more or less fully specified.
From this point of view, individual lexemes are themselves a type of
construction. For Goldberg, an uttered expression ‘typically involves the
combination of at least half a dozen different constructions’ (2006: 10).
The centrality of constructions to grammar is not, of course, limited to
English. As an example of an obvious construction in another language,
Goldberg (2006: 7–8; examples from Chidambaram 2004) discusses the
Russian data in (50):

(50) a. Kirill v magazin

Kirill-NOM to store-ACC
‘Kirill goes/will go to the store.’

b. Kirill iz magazina
Kirill-NOM from store-GEN
‘Kirill just got back from the store.’
 Summary 365

The constructions express the meaning that motion occurred, without

the presence of any verb whatsoever. Cases like these provide clear evi-
dence that certain form–meaning pairs need to be credited with mean-
ing in their own right, and that it should not be the verb which is auto-
matically assumed to be the kernel of the meaning of the rest of the
clause.

Summary The linking problem

The linking problem is the problem of accounting for the relations
between a verb and its associated noun phrases. According to the tradi-
tional generative understanding, the lexical entries for verbs include a
specification of the types of argument they have associated with them.
It was assumed that the possible arguments of all verbs could be classi-
fied into a small number of classes, called thematic roles, theta-roles,
participant roles or semantic roles. Typical roles include agent, patient/
theme, goal, source, location, instrument, beneficiary and experiencer.
Some roles are more likely to be coded as subject, and others as object.
It was suggested that it is possible to rank the different roles in an order
which shows their relative accessibility to subject position.

Problems with thematic roles

There are three main problems with thematic roles:

• The arguments of many verbs seem hard to assign to any of the con-
ventional thematic roles.
• There are also many occasions where an argument could be
assigned to several thematic roles.
• It has not proven possible to formulate a universal thematic hierar-
chy ranking these roles.

Proto-roles
Dowty (1991) suggested that the different participant roles are cluster
concepts, like Roschean prototypes, and that thematic roles are based
on entailments of verb-meanings. The argument with the most Proto-
Agent entailments will be coded as subject, and the one with the most
Proto-Patient entailments as object.

Thematic roles and conceptual structure

Jackendoff’s theory of semantic representation dispenses completely with
theta-roles, and derives argument structure directly from the semantics
of the verb. This means that the thematic hierarchy can be completely
restated in terms of underlying conceptual configurations. In Jackendoff’s
theory of conceptual structure, selectional restrictions are also specified
directly by the conceptual structure: they are not extra information which
needs to be learnt in addition to the meaning of the verbs themselves.
366 MEANING AND MORPHOSYNTAX II

Verb classes and alternations

Many verbs show several different argument structures. These dif-
ferent types of argument structure are known as alternations. They
include the causative, middle, resultative, conative and others. Levin
and Hovav proposed that which alternations a verb participates in is
explained by its underlying semantic structure. On their theory, verbs
fall into semantically defined classes, which all show similar syntactic
behaviour with respect to their alternations.

The meaning of constructions

Words are not the only meaning-bearing units in grammar. Semantic
representations are also associated with constructions. Goldberg put
forward a constructional account of the syntax–semantics interface, in
which arguments can be subcategorized by the construction itself. Not
all verbs can appear in all constructions. A verb’s meaning determines
whether it is compatible with a given construction. The constructional
account reduces the proliferation of verb-senses.

Further reading
On the semantics of verbal arguments, see Van Valin (2005) and Levin and Hovav (2005), which surveys
the main theories of argument realization. Levin (1993) is a comprehensive discussion of English verb class-
es and alternations. On construction grammar, see Goldberg (2006). Newmeyer (2002) justifies scepticism
about the existence of a thematic hierarchy.

Exercises
Questions for discussion
1. The discussion of verb complementation in this chapter has assumed
that single verbs with fairly stable patterns of complementation are of
central importance to the structure of grammar. However, an examination
of texts reveals that constructions involving a single verb are far from
being in the majority for the purposes of expressing the occurrence of
events (Hopper 1997). What other means does English present of lexi-
calizing events?
2. Consider the with/against alternation (hit the wall with a stick vs. hit the
stick against the wall). Is there any consistent meaning difference
between the different members of the alternation? Answer the same
question for alternations such as water leaked from the tank/the tank
leaked water and the tank filled with water/water filled the tank (Levin
and Hovav 2005: 195).
3. It is often pointed out that not all semantic distinctions are syntactically rele-
vant. For example, verbs of colouring like paint, colour, bleach, whiten, stain,
etc. do not constitute a single class for the purposes of alternations or argu-
ment structure generalizations. Similarly, there seem to be no syntactically
relevant distinctions between verbs of loud and soft speech (shout vs.
 Exercises 367

whisper). Is it possible to generalize about what types of meanings are

syntactically relevant in English? In another language you know?
4. Would it make sense to extend the term ‘incremental theme’ to the
patient argument of change-of-state verbs, such as open, close, break,
etc.? Why (not)?
5. Goldberg (1995: 11) claims that standard accounts of argument structure
are circular: ‘it is claimed that kick has an n-argument sense on the basis
of the fact that kick occurs with n complements; it is simultaneously
argued that kick occurs with n complements because it has an n-argu-
ment sense’. Is Goldberg’s criticism justified? Does a constructional
account avoid the problem?
6. Think about the sentence The Romans defeated Hannibal’s army at
Zama from the point of view of the linking problem. The two arguments
we need roles for are Hannibal’s army and The Romans. Which is
theme? Theme is usually defined as the participant affected by the
action; or, sometimes, as the participant which undergoes a change of
state as a result of the action. Well, weren’t both sides here affected?
Didn’t both undergo a change of state? Hannibal’s army went from the
state of non-defeated to the state of defeated; the Romans from the
state of not-victors to the state of victors. How do we know which is the
right state for the purpose of argument selection?
7. Consider the ditransitive construction, described by Goldberg as follows
(cf. (48) above).

Semantics CAUSE-RECEIVE (agent recipient theme)

| | | |
Syntax V Subj Object Object2)

Are the following verbs compatible with the description offered by

Goldberg?
arrange me a table; book me a ticket; take me 50 kilometres; choose
me a jacket; charge me fifty euros; cost me fifty euros; show me a
room; ask me a question; give them prominence.
8. Other factors than semantic ones can determine the distribution of argu-
ments in actual discourse. Two such factors are the ‘heaviness’ of the NP,
and its information status (whether it refers to given or new information).
Read Levin and Hovav (2005: 216–218) and Arnold et al. (2000) and
discuss the implications of their results for the linking theories we have
discussed in this chapter.
 CHA PT E R

11 Semantic variation
and change

CHAPTER PREVIEW
Variation is one of the most immediately obvious facts about meaning. Everyone is aware
of how the meaning of identical expressions can differ from one person to another, some-
times significantly. There are two aspects of meaning variation: a synchronic and a dia-
chronic (historical) one; we examine each in turn in this chapter. After a quick tour of
some important preliminary questions (11.1), we begin diachronically by illustrating the
traditional categories with which meaning change has been described, and we consider
some of the shortcomings of this approach (11.2.1). We then move on to more recent
studies of the pathways and mechanisms of semantic change (11.2.2) and a brief discus-
sion of grammaticalization, the process by which full lexical words are converted into
grammatical morphemes (11.2.3). The second half of the chapter discusses synchronic
meaning variation. We start by examining the subtle types of semantic variation which
exist within a single language community at any one time. Powerful new tools developed
within corpus linguistics allow this kind of variation to be studied in a way that was not
previously available: these are illustrated in 11.3. We then look at the field of semantic
typology, which studies possible constraints on meaning variation and seeks out possible
semantic universals in various semantic fields such as the body, colour, space and motion
(11.4). Lastly, we consider the implications of these studies for the question of the influ-
ences between language and cognition, discussing the famous Sapir–Whorf or linguistic
relativity hypothesis (11.5).
370 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

11.1 Sense, reference and metalanguage

in semantic comparisons
Since meanings are unobservable, we cannot examine their historical
variation or cross-linguistic universality directly in the way that we might,
for instance, explore the history or distribution of a particular sound. In
principle, it is a fairly straightforward matter to answer the question of
whether the nasal [n], for instance, is found universally, and of what dia-
chronic developments it is likely to undergo. To do this, one examines
every language in turn, or at least a large sample of languages, to see
whether they all have sounds which meet the criteria for [n] – criteria
established by the discipline of phonetics – and uses this as the basis for
exploration of its historical developments. In semantics, things are not so
simple. In this section, we will discuss two particular points:

• the difference between universality/variation of sense and universality/

variation of reference, and
• the problems of the appropriate metalanguage in undertaking cross-
linguistic or historical semantic study.

Sense and reference are both crucial aspects of meaning (see Chapter 3).
But there is a big difference between them when we study meaning cross-
linguistically or historically: it is much easier to establish cross-linguistic
identity of reference than of sense. To see why, imagine that we are con-
ducting an investigation into body-part terminology in the languages of
the world. As part of this study, we want to test the hypothesis that all
languages have at least one expression which has the meaning ‘skin’ (per-
haps among other, polysemous meanings). Questions like this are the
stock-in-trade of the study of semantic typology, which we discuss in 11.4.
In the course of this investigation, we discover an interesting situation in
Warlpiri (Pama-Nyungan, Central Australia). In Warlpiri, the word for
‘skin’, pinti, is also used to refer to bark and peel, and these two other uses
are just as literal as the ‘skin’ use itself. What conclusions should we draw
from this about the sense of pinti? Pinti clearly refers to skin, but does it
contain ‘skin’ as one of its senses? Perhaps Warlpiri doesn’t actually
express the distinct meaning ‘skin’, but contains instead a single general
meaning applying to all three types of referent simultaneously, along the
lines of ‘outer layer of person, animal, tree or fruit’. In this case, we would
have to claim that ‘skin’ isn’t a semantic universal, since it doesn’t inde-
pendently exist in Warlpiri: pinti refers to skin, but ‘skin’ isn’t a separate
sense of the word.
QUESTION Would this seem a reasonable conclusion? What are its
advantages and problems?
The conclusion that pinti is general in meaning would also have conse-
quences for historical study. For example, it would mean that there would
be no point in asking questions about the diachronic origin of the ‘skin’
meaning, such as whether it developed from the ‘bark’ or ‘peel’ meanings,
 11.1 Sense, reference and metalanguage 371

or vice versa. If pinti is general between these senses, these questions can-
not be asked.
Another possibility, though, is that pinti is polysemous, with the three
distinct meanings {skin, bark, peel}. In this situation, pinti not only refers
to skin, it also contains ‘skin’ as one of its three separate senses. If this was
the case, the status of ‘skin’ as a semantic universal wouldn’t be threat-
ened: we could claim that the meaning ‘skin’ is found in Warlpiri, but
that it is not individually lexicalized. This means that there is not a word
which just expresses the meaning ‘skin’ on its own; ‘skin’ always comes
along in a ‘package’ with other meanings included, even though each of
the meanings is conceptually separate. Speakers of Warlpiri can obviously
distinguish skin, bark and peel, as shown by the fact that they treat each
in different ways. They can also distinguish between them linguistically at
a phrasal level (e.g. a phrase like ‘pinti of animal’ can only mean ‘skin’). It’s
just that in pinti, they’re all combined together. (See 5.3 for discussion of
the problems that affect attempts to tell whether an expression is general
or polysemous.)
Whether pinti is general or polysemous, its reference is determined by
its sense. Determining its reference is, at least for practical purposes, easy
enough: we can get a Warlpiri speaker to point, draw pictures, and so on.
These activities have their own subtle ambiguities (see 2.3.2), but, at least
for concrete nouns like pinti, they are usually straightforward enough for
the purposes of practical linguistic description. As a result, we can talk
with some certainty about cross-linguistic differences of reference for this
kind of noun. But what this discussion has shown is that questions of
cross-linguistic differences of sense are more complicated, and conclu-
sions based on them accordingly harder to reach.
An associated problem is the question of the correct or optimal meta-
language for the description of meanings. Claims about the universality
of given meanings necessitate a particular metalanguage in which the
meanings can be described. Similarly, studying meaning change implies
that we have a reliable metalanguage which can be used to represent his-
torical sense developments accurately. But this immediately introduces
complications since there is not yet any agreement about what the correct
metalanguage for semantic description is. Semantic theories like those of
Jackendoff, Wierzbicka and many others presuppose a universal set of
primitive concepts lexicalized in all languages. In claiming that the mean-
ings of all languages can be translated into a unique, universal metalan-
guage, these types of theory constitute strong hypotheses of semantic
universalism. As illustrated elsewhere, however, these hypotheses are also
highly controversial (2.5; 8.1.3). There is no agreement that a single univer-
sal metalanguage for semantic description is even possible, let alone
agreement on what it should be like. The absence of an agreed standard
for description complicates the process of achieving consensus in com-
parative or historical studies of meaning. Two investigators can always
disagree about the details of a word’s meaning. But the prospects for
agreement are obviously improved if they are at least working with the
same descriptive metalanguage: if they are not, it may not be even clear
372 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

whether they agree or not. We will see some examples of this sort of prob-
lem in 11.4.2 and 11.4.4 below.
The idea that the variation among languages conceals an identity of
meaning at some deeper level has a lot to be said for it. Humans share the
same perceptual and cognitive organs, and we regularly succeed in mak-
ing ourselves understood, even across breathtaking cultural and linguistic
divides. We also inhabit the same shared world to which we refer. Surely,
one might ask, this means that the meanings we express are also the
same, deep down? If they weren’t, we couldn’t accurately translate from
one language to another, and we would have no guarantee that under-
standing was possible across linguistic divides (see Chapter 1).
Linguistics in general, and semantic theory in particular, certainly
assume that languages are mutually translatable in a way that preserves
important meaning components. If we abandoned this assumption, any
cross-linguistic work involving meaning would be impossible. But it is one
thing to presuppose a rough and ready translatability, and quite another
to suppose that exactly the same meaning or concept can be captured by
the words of different languages. Just as it seems obvious that we can
convey the essence or gist of our thoughts in another language, so it is a
commonplace that no two languages ever convey exactly the same ideas.
The cross-linguistic and historical study of meaning has to weave a course
between these two equally obvious positions.

11.2 Semantic change

Meaning change is everywhere, and no words are immune from it. A strik-
ing example of this is the English conjunction and. At face value, it seems
that this is such a simple and basic word that we would be safe in assum-
ing that its meaning has been the same throughout the history of English.
But this isn’t at all the case. In premodern English, and was polysemous
with ‘if’, as exemplified in (1):

(1) And I had but one penny in the world, thou shouldst have it to buy ginger-
bread. (Shakespeare, Love’s Labours Lost, Vi 71–2)

The only possible reading of this sentence is ‘If I had just one penny in the
world. . .’. This polysemy has been lost in modern English. But it shows
that even elements of the vocabulary that one would think are conceptu-
ally the most basic, and hence the least likely to shift, can change their
meaning.
QUESTION Before we begin exploring semantic change, ask yourself
what semantic change could consist in. How might we know when a
change has occurred? What evidence could we draw on?
Like many other branches of linguistics, the modern study of semantics
began with a largely diachronic focus, investigating meaning change.
Knowledge of the history of Indo-European languages had sensitized
 11.2 Semantic change 373

scholars to the extreme fluidity of words’ meanings through time.

Traditional scholarly study of ancient languages in the nineteenth cen-
tury (philology) meant that the details of meaning change in European
languages were well known. The availability of a long written tradition,
going back in the case of Greek to well before the sixth century BC, sup-
plied an enormous quantity of texts through which changes in words’
meaning could be traced. Because of this history, Indo-European lan-
guages have had an overwhelming importance in the study of semantic
change. The rich textual tradition of European languages and its associ-
ated history of scholarship mean that studies of semantic change have
traditionally relied on Indo-European evidence much more than have
other domains of modern linguistics. In contrast, we are largely in
the dark about long-term sense developments in the languages of oral
societies, which lack the written evidence on which historical study
needs to be based.
Unlike sound change, which seems to be governed by regular laws of
great generality which were open to ‘scientific’ study, meaning change
has often struck investigators as chaotic and particularistic. Since changes
in words’ meaning are often determined by socio-cultural factors, much
meaning change is not even linguistically motivated. For instance, since
the advent of modern air transport, the verb fly can refer to travelling as a
passenger in an aeroplane. This is a meaning that was obviously unavail-
able before the twentieth century. But it does not necessarily correspond
to any change in the sense of fly itself: this is still arguably ‘travel through
the air’. What has caused the change of meaning is arguably not anything
to do with language, but simply a change in the word’s denotation.
An important characteristic of semantic change is that it crucially involves
polysemy (see 5.3). A word does not suddenly change from meaning A to
meaning B in a single move; instead, the change happens via an intermedi-
ate stage in which the word has both A and B among its meanings. Consider
the French noun glace ‘ice’. In the course of the seventeenth century, it
acquired the additional sense ‘ice cream/iced drink’, but this did not replace
the original sense. Instead, glace had simply acquired an extra polysemous
sense in addition to its original one. This is the usual case in semantic
change. Meaning change most often takes the form of an addition of polyse-
mous senses. The loss of the original sense is less common. In all of the
changes discussed in this chapter, we will assume the presence of an inter-
mediate polysemous stage, though we won’t always mention it specifically.

11.2.1 The traditional categories

Early studies of semantic change like those in Bréal (1897) did little more
than set up broad categories of change, described with very general, and
often vague, labels like ‘weakening’, ‘strengthening’ and so on. In the first
instance, we will consider four of these traditional categories of semantic
change: specialization, generalization, ameliorization and pejorization.
These categories were not part of an effort to explain why meaning change
happens, but were meant to contribute to a typology of semantic changes –
a precondition of any further explanatory progress.
374 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

One common type of change is specialization (narrowing), in which a

word narrows its range of reference:

• English liquor used to refer to liquid of any kind: the reference to alco-
hol was a subsequent specialization.
• English pavement originally referred to any paved surface, but special-
ized to simply cover the footpath on the edge of a street (called side-
walk in American English).
• The proto-Romance word for ointment, unctu, specialized in Romanian
so as only to refer to a single type of ‘ointment’, butter (as well as
undergoing some phonological changes to become unt; Posner 1996:
319).

The opposite tendency is generalization (broadening), in which a word’s

meaning changes to encompass a wider class of referents.

• zealot first referred to members of a Jewish resistance movement

against the occupying Romans in the first century AD; its contempo-
rary meaning ‘fanatical enthusiast’ is a later generalization.
• French panier ‘basket’ originally meant just a bread-basket; it was sub-
sequently generalized to baskets of any kind.
• Latin noun passer means ‘sparrow’, but in a number of Romance
The
languages it has generalized to the meaning ‘bird’: this is the case, for
example, with Spanish pájaro and Romanian pasa‡re.
• The most common verb for ‘work’ in Romance languages, like French
travailler and Spanish trabajar, is a result of a generalization from the
Latin *tripaliare ‘torture with a tripalium’, a three-spiked torture
instrument (Posner 1996: 322).
• The German adverb sehr ‘very’ originally meant ‘cruelly’ or ‘painfully’
(Kluge 1989; a trace of this meaning survives in the verb versehren
‘injure, hurt’). The shift to ‘very’ is an example of an extreme general-
ization that has lost almost all connection with the original sense. A
similar change is found in many English intensifier terms, like terribly
and awfully.

QUESTION Classify each of the following semantic changes as either

generalization or specialization. Are there any cases where it is hard to
decide?

• Latin curtus ‘short (in space)’ > ‘short (in space and time)’: French
court, Spanish corto, Portuguese curto, Italian corto.
• Midde Japanese ake-sita, ‘dawning time, dawn’ > asita ‘tomorrow’
(Traugott and Dasher 2002: 56).
• Dutch drukken ‘to press, to push hard’ > ‘to print (books)’.
• French arriver ‘arrive at the shore’ > ‘arrive (anywhere)’.
Two other traditional categories in the analysis of meaning change are
pejorization (Latin pejor ‘worse’) and ameliorization (Latin melior ‘better’).
These refer to change in words’ evaluative force. In pejorization, a word
takes on a derogatory meaning. This is frequently seen with words for
 11.2 Semantic change 375

animals, which can be used to refer to people negatively or insultingly, as

when someone is called a monkey, parasite, pig, sow, and so on. Another
example of pejorization is the adjective silly. This originally meant
‘blessed, happy, fortunate’; its contemporary meaning ‘foolish’ is a later
development – and one which, this time, has entirely displaced the origi-
nal sense. Similarly, boor’s original meaning was ‘farmer’; ‘crude person’
was a later pejorization. Accident originally meant simply ‘chance event’,
but took on the meaning ‘unfavourable chance event’.
Ameliorization is the opposite process, in which a word’s meaning
changes to become more positively valued. The normalization of previ-
ously proscribed taboo words is a good example. Bum, for example, appears
to be gaining somewhat in social acceptability, at least in Australian
English. It has thus started on the path to what could be full amelioriza-
tion: this would be attained if it eventually became fully synonymous with
bottom. Another example of ameliorization is provided by English nice. The
earliest meaning of this adjective, found in Middle English, is ‘simple,
foolish, silly, ignorant’; the basic modern sense, ‘agreeable, pleasant, sat-
isfactory, attractive’ is not attested until the eighteenth century.
These four categories on their own are not at all adequate to describe
the complexities and diversity of the types of meaning change encoun-
tered in the history of languages. How do we explain, for instance, the
shift of Latin ver ‘spring’ to the meaning ‘summer’ in many Romance lan-
guages (Romanian vara, Spanish verano, Portuguese verão; Bourciez 1967:
207)? This seems to fit none of the four categories we have mentioned. The
same could be said for the development from Latin sensus ‘sensation, con-
sciousness, sense’ to the meaning ‘brains’ in Spanish seso. Similarly, how
to account for the shift from ‘count’ to ‘read’ in Tolai luk (Austronesian,
Papua New Guinea; Tryon 1995 IV: 509)?
A solution to this sort of problem comes from recognizing specializa-
tion and generalization as just two types of metonymic change. Metonymy
(see 7.2.4) is the process of sense development in which a word shifts to a
contiguous meaning. ‘Contiguous’ has a number of meanings (Peirsman
and Geeraerts 2006), but the essential idea is that two senses are contigu-
ous if their referents are actually next to each other (either spatially or
temporally), or if the senses underlying the words are closely related con-
ceptually. The Spanish ‘consciousness’ > ‘brains’ shift exemplifies concep-
tual contiguity (brains and consciousness have a close conceptual associa-
tion), while the ‘spring’ > ‘summer’ shift exemplifies both temporal and
conceptual contiguity: summer is next to spring in time, and also a closely
related notion conceptually. Some instances of pejorization and ameliori-
zation can also be considered metonymic: the shift of boor from ‘farmer’
to ‘crude person’ could be considered to be based on the close association
of these two notions.
Metonymy is a powerful category: it can describe many types of change
which can’t otherwise be accommodated. The English noun bead originally
meant ‘prayer’ in Old English. Its present meaning can be explained through
the widespread use of the ‘Rosary’, a chain of beads which Christians used
to keep track of prayer sequences. This association established a conceptual
376 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

link between the notions ‘prayer’ and ‘bead’, explaining the metonymic
transfer of bead to the latter meaning in the Middle English period. This is
neither generalization/specialization, nor ameliorization/pejorization, so a
new category is clearly needed to describe it.
Metonymic changes are common. A particularly colourful one under-
lies the word pupil, which in English refers both to a student and to the
opening in the eye through which light passes. This puzzling polysemy
goes back to Latin, where pupilla means both ‘small girl, doll’ and ‘pupil’.
This can be explained by metonymy. Our eyes have ‘pupils’ because of the
small doll-like image that can be observed there: spatial contiguity, in
other words, underlies the shift. Greek khōrē has exactly the same meto-
nymically related meanings. Another example of a metonymic meaning
shift is the Romanian word ba‡rbat ‘husband’, which derives from the Latin
barbatus ‘bearded’. If husbands often have beards, the ideas will be concep-
tually associated.
Metonymy was a notion adopted into linguistics from rhetoric, the tra-
ditional study of figurative, literary and persuasive language. Another
originally rhetorical concept with linguistic application is metaphor,
discussed from the synchronic point of view in 7.2.4. Metaphors are based
not on contiguity, but similarity or analogy. English germ is a good exam-
ple of a metaphor-based meaning change. The earlier meaning of this
word was ‘seed’, clearly visible in a sentence like (2), from 1802:

(2) The germ grows up in the spring, upon a fruit stalk, accompanied with
leaves (OED germ 1a).

The word’s application to the microscopic ‘seeds’ of disease is a meta-

phorical transfer: ailments are likened to plants, giving them ‘seeds’ from
which they develop. The Old French word for ‘head’, test, is another exam-
ple of metaphorical development. Originally, test meant ‘pot’ or ‘piece of
broken pot’: the semantic extension to ‘head’ is said to be the result of a
metaphor current among soldiers, in which battle was colourfully
described as ‘smashing pots’ (Hock 1991: 229). Exactly the same metaphor
explains the sense development of German Kopf ‘head’, which used to
mean ‘cup’. The use of monkey, pig, sow, etc. in pejorative reference to peo-
ple can also be seen as the result of a metaphor based on perceived simi-
larity with the animals concerned. Another, very common, metaphor
relates space and time. It is seen in the use of verbs with spatial meanings
in temporal ones, as when English conveys the ‘immediate’ future tense
using go (I’m going to stop now), or French uses venir ‘come’ to express
events in the recent past (je viens de terminer ‘I have just finished’, literally
‘I come from finishing’). In these expressions temporal events are
expressed in language on the analogy of spatial ones. Many investigators
have commented on the deep-seated nature of this transfer, which is
widely attested cross-linguistically (Bybee, Perkins and Pagliucca 1994).
The centrality of metaphor and metonymy in semantic change is due to
the fact that they jointly exhaust the possibilities of innovative word use
and thus subsume all the other descriptive categories. If you want to
express yourself innovatively and be understood, then ‘there are only two
 11.2 Semantic change 377

ways of going about that: using words for the near neighbours of the
things you mean (metonymy) or using words for the look-alikes (resem-
blars) of what you mean (metaphor)’ Nerlich and Clarke (1992: 137).
QUESTION Consider the following changes, and decide in which of the six
categories of change discussed in this section they are best classified. Note
any changes which belong to more than one category, and any which do
not seem to fit into any.

• Old English steofan ‘die’ > Modern English starve.

• broadcast ‘sow seeds’ > ‘transmit’
• fair ‘beautiful’ > ‘unbiased’
• nasty ‘filthy, dirty’ > ‘ill-natured, unpleasant, objectionable’
• naughty ‘having or possessing naught; poor, needy’ > ‘morally bad,
disobedient’
• Greek eksupnos ‘awakened from sleep’ > ‘clever’
QUESTION Motu (Austronesian, PNG), shows a semantic development
from ‘tree house’ to ‘tower’ in the word kohoro (Tryon 1995 IV: 619).
Adzera (Austronesian, PNG) uses the word for ‘bamboo’ for ‘pipe’, as
does Tawala (also Austronesian, PNG; Tryon 1995 III: 238). How could
these semantic changes be classified? Is there any way of distinguishing
between different possible analyses?

11.2.2 Mechanisms and pathways of semantic change

The descriptive approach to semantic change described in the previous
section is far from ideal. The categories are vague and purely taxonomic,
and offer no explanatory insight into the conditions under which mean-
ing change happens. They are also highly informal, and lack clear criteria
for their application. This is particularly true for ameliorization and
pejorization: whether a meaning change is in a positive or negative direc-
tion will often depend on little more than the subjective judgement of the
investigator. For example, the change of English knight from the meaning
‘boy, servant’ to the meaning referring to the aristocrat is often described
as ameliorization. But this is only the case if the latter meaning is evalu-
atively superior to the former, a judgement that not everyone would
share. Another problem with the traditional categories is that they are
also either too powerful or not powerful enough: in the case of generaliza-
tion/specialization and ameliorization/pejorization, there are many mean-
ing changes which do not seem to fit, and in the case of metonymy/
metaphor, the categories seem to be able to explain any change, since we
can always find some connection of similarity or contiguity between two
meanings to justify their treatment as one or the other category. The tra-
ditional analysis of semantic change seems worlds away from the kinds of
precise explanations that were possible in the study of sound change.
Work in the second half of the twentieth century, still continuing, has
tried to remedy some of these defects.
One of the features of this more recent work is the attempt to go beyond
the mere description of changes, and search for causal explanations. For
378 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

some scholars, the categories of metonymy and metaphor themselves are

cognitively real and hence explanatory: as discussed in Chapter 7, cogni-
tive linguists take metonymy and metaphor as basic cognitive operations
which are at work throughout language. From this point of view, it is not
surprising that metaphor and metonymy are prominent in meaning
change, since they are also the principles behind much synchronic seman-
tics. For someone committed to understanding language in terms of
metaphor and metonymy, the contrast between explaining semantic
change and just describing or classifying it collapses: the shift from germ
‘seed’ to germ ‘microbe’ is explained, not just classified, simply in virtue of
being identified as a metaphor.
For others, however, this type of explanation is not satisfactory. Much
modern work on semantic change stresses the role of the convention-
alization of implicature as a source of semantic change. Consider the
pejorization of English accident, discussed above. The original sense of
‘chance event’ would often have been used in discourse circumstances
where the unfavourable nature of the event was strongly implied,
as in (3):

(3) 1702: The wisest councils may be discomposed by the smallest accidents.
(OED accident, 1)

The description ‘chance event’ would seem perfectly appropriate to the

sense of accident present here. The context, however, strongly implies that
the chance event is unfortunate or regrettable, since it ‘discomposes the
wisest councils’. According to the conventionalization of implicature
theory of semantic change, accident would have become increasingly asso-
ciated with contexts like (3), and the implication that the event was unfa-
vourable or regrettable would have been progressively strengthened. On
encountering accident, speakers would increasingly associate it with con-
texts like (3), and assume that the event was an unfavourable one. With
time, this process of strengthening would change the status of the read-
ing ‘unfortunate/unfavourable chance event’ from an implication to part
of the word’s literal meaning. The pejorization of accident is thus the
result of the conventionalization of an implicature. This explanation does
not deny that there is a relation of ‘contiguity’ between the notions
‘chance event’ and ‘unfavourable chance event’, and is not incompatible
with an explanation based on metonymy. But it goes further, by showing
the actual discourse mechanisms which allow the contiguity to become
relevant.
Another instance where a conventionalization of implicature explana-
tion is persuasive is the transfer of spatial to temporal meanings, as in the
case of English go or French venir ‘come’, mentioned in the previous sec-
tion. Bybee, Pagliucca and Perkins (1991) argue that description of this
change as a metaphor is misleading: the transfer of ‘go’ and ‘come’ mean-
ings to temporal uses does not spring from any general analogy or resem-
blance that speakers exploit between the domains of time and space. They
point out that the semantic change only affects the verbs in specific gram-
matical contexts – not what one would expect for a metaphorical change
 11.2 Semantic change 379

grounded in a large-scale analogy between the temporal and spatial

domains. Instead, the meaning change should be seen as the convention-
alization of implicatures generated in particular uses of the spatial verbs.
For go, the uses that give rise to the future meaning are those which spe-
cifically refer to an agent on a path moving toward a goal. In other words,
go on its own is not enough to trigger an implicature of futurity; instead,
it must be in an imperfective or progressive construction (see 9.2.2), with
an allative (goal-directed) component. The future meaning will then arise
as a conversational implicature of the verb under those discourse condi-
tions. As Bybee et al. explain

The temporal meaning that comes to dominate the semantics of the con-
struction is already present as an inference from the spatial meaning.
When one moves along a path towards a goal in space, one also moves in
time. The major change that takes place is the loss of the spatial mean-
ing. Here . . . the function of expressing intention comes into play. When
a speaker announces that s/he is going somewhere to do something,
s/he is also announcing the intention to do that thing. Thus intention is
part of the meaning from the beginning, and the only change necessary
is the generalization to contexts in which an intention is expressed, but
the subject is not moving spatially to fulfill that intention.
(Bybee, Perkins and Pagliucca 1994: 268).

In other words, go only takes on a future reference in contexts like (4a),

which could be used by someone leaving one room to go into another in
order to watch television. This context is both imperfective/progressive,
describing an action currently unfolding, and allative, in that it involves
a specific goal. In contrast, contexts like (4b) (neither imperfective nor alla-
tive), (4c) (imperfective but not allative), and (4d) (allative but not imperfec-
tive) do not give rise to an implication of futurity:

(4) a. I am going to watch some TV.

b. I usually watch TV for a while and then just go.
c. I’m going now.
d. I go there every Tuesday to watch some TV.

For Bybee et al., any explanation of the semantics of go based on metaphor

cannot explain these constraints. Only by attending to pragmatic, dis-
course-based factors can we understand the circumstances in which the
change from spatial to temporal meaning takes place.
This explanation, then, puts pragmatic considerations at the heart of the
understanding of semantic change: to understand why meaning changes,
we should not be thinking in terms of broad cognitive operations like meta-
phor and metonymy, but should look instead at how inferences generated
in discourse become part of lexicalized word meaning. The conventionaliza-
tion of implicature theory of semantic change allows us to add a stage to
our earlier generalization about the role of polysemy in semantic change.
In light of the role of implicature, we can now describe the process of
semantic change of a form between meanings A and B as in Figure 11.1:
380 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

FIGURE 11.1 A > A + Bimplicated > A + Bpolysemous (> B)

The conventionalization of
implicature theory of
semantic change.

The pragmatic origin of semantic change in conventionalized implica-

tures is now widely accepted. But what about the actual meanings them-
selves? Figure 11.1 tells us how a change from A > A (+ B) happens. But is it
possible to generalize about the meanings A and B themselves? Can any
meaning change into any other via a conventionalization of implicature,
or are there regularities of semantic change which make some meanings
more likely than others to appear as the As and Bs in the figure? Traugott
has proposed several general tendencies of semantic change (1987, 1989;
Traugott and Dasher 2002), of which we will discuss two.
The first is that ‘[m]eanings based in the external described situation’
shift to ‘meanings based in the internal (evaluative/perceptual/cognitive)
described situation’ (1989: 34). We might call this semantic internaliza-
tion. This category takes in many changes from the concrete to the
abstract, particularly the common change whereby words for physical
properties are extended to also denote mental ones. Many languages show
evidence of this type of change. The change in the Old English verb felan
from the meaning ‘touch’ to the meaning ‘feel’ is a case in point: the ear-
lier meaning makes no reference to the internal psychological domain,
while the later one does. The history of Greek (Indo-European; Greece)
gives many other examples:

(5) a. dexios ‘on the right hand’ > ‘clever’

b. pikros ‘pointed, sharp, bitter’ > ‘embittered, angry, spiteful, mean’
c. skaios ‘left’ > ‘stupid’
d. isos ‘equal in size’ > ‘fair, impartial’
e. elaphros ‘light in weight/movement’ > ‘flighty, frivolous, wanton’
f. eksupnos ‘awake’ > ‘clever’

QUESTION Can you think of any analogies for these changes in your own
native language?
The second tendency is also the more important. This is the tendency of
subjectification, which Traugott sees as the ‘dominant tendency’ in
semantic change (Traugott and Dasher 2002: 96). This is the tendency for
meanings to ‘become increasingly based in the speaker’s subjective belief
state/attitude toward the proposition’ (Traugott 1989: 96). Ameliorization
and pejorization are prime examples of subjectification: the shift of boor
from meaning ‘farmer’ to ‘crude person’ involves the speaker’s subjective
attitude being imported into the meaning of the noun, displacing the
previously non-evaluative sense ‘farmer’. The ground of the meaning thus
shifts from the realm of public observable facts to the subjective opinion
and assessment of the speaker. Another common example of this ten-
dency is the development of epistemic modality. Epistemic modality is
manifested by may and must in (6):
 11.2 Semantic change 381

(6) a. Alfred must be guilty (= the evidence suggests/I conclude that Alfred
is guilty)
b. Alfred may be guilty (= I think it is possible that Alfred is guilty)

The speaker uses epistemic modality to indicate that they suspect (6b), or
have concluded (6a), that Alfred is guilty: they assert that Alfred’s guilt is
possible or likely, rather than an accepted fact. Epistemic modal mean-
ings are thus firmly based in the speaker’s subjective belief state towards
the proposition. But an examination of the history of epistemic modal
verbs shows that they have not always expressed epistemic meanings.
Must, for example, goes back to Old English motan, which meant ‘be able/
obliged to’, not an epistemic meaning, since it concerns the subject’s
ability or obligation to do something, not the speaker’s opinion about
the likelihood of their doing it. In Middle English, this quite often
occurred with the adverb nedes ‘necessarily’; the following sentence, from
a mid-fifteenth century text (the end of the Middle English period), illus-
trates this:

(7) ho-so hath with him godes grace: is dede mot

who-so-ever has with him god’s grace his deed must
nede beo guod
necessarily be good
‘He who has God’s grace necessarily is required to be/we can con-
clude is good’ (Traugott and Dasher 2002: 128)

The contribution of nede ‘necessarily’ in this sentence makes an epis-

temic reading possible as an implicature: not only is a possessor of God’s
grace obliged to be good (the original sense of motan ‘must’), but we have
good reason to conclude that they are, in fact, good – an epistemic mean-
ing. It would have been this sort of context that encouraged the develop-
ment of the epistemic meaning of the modal through the conventionali-
zation of the implicature. In sentences like (8) only the epistemic reading
is available:

(8) For yf that schrewednesse makith wrecches, than mot he nedes ben moost
wrecchide that lengest is a schrewe.
‘For if wickedness makes men wretched, then he must necessarily be
most wretched that is wicked longest’ (Traugott and Dasher 2002:
129).

There is no question here of any obligation to be wretched; the speaker/

writer simply concludes that, as a matter of fact, the person who is ‘wicked
longest’ will also be the most wretched.
We will end our discussion of semantic change by considering investiga-
tion into some more specific pathways of meaning change, specifically
those involving verbs of perception and cognition. These types of verb
seem particularly likely to feature in semantic change. In an influential
study, Viberg (1984) found that the following strong cross-linguistic
382 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

hierarchy (in a slightly more complicated version) governed the polysem-

ies of perception verbs.

⎧ ⎫
sight > hearing> touch > ⎨ smell ⎬
⎩ taste ⎭

The visual modality of perception, in other words, is always the source,

but never the target of processes of polysemy involving other perceptual
meanings. Since, as we have seen, semantic change always proceeds via an
intermediate polysemous stage, Viberg’s hierarchy can also be interpreted
diachronically and taken to express constraints on the possible direction
of meaning development. The hierarchy expresses the relative strengths
of perception verbs cross-linguistically. A verb whose prototypical mean-
ing belongs to a sense modality further to the left in the hierarchy can get
a polysemous meaning referring to some (or all) of the modalities to the
right. Verbs principally referring to sight, for instance, can have polysem-
ies of ‘hear’, ‘touch’, ‘smell’ and ‘taste’, but verbs whose prototypical sense
is in these other domains don’t take on polysemies referring to vision.
Hearing verbs can develop polysemous meanings in the domains of touch,
taste and smell, but verbs prototypically from these latter three domains
never develop the additional meanings ‘hear’ (or ‘see’).

QUESTION What tests do you think could be used to work out what the
prototypical sense of a perception verb is?

Polysemies in numerous languages conform to Viberg’s hierarchy. In

Swahili (Niger-Congo; Tanzania), the basic sense of ona is ‘see’, but it can
polysemously convey ‘taste’ when followed by the noun ladha ‘taste’ in the
phrase ona ladha, literally ‘see taste’. The verb sikia basically means ‘hear’,
but can also be used for ‘touch’. In Kurdish (Indo-European; Turkey and
Middle East) dîtin ‘see’ also means ‘touch’, and can mean ‘smell’ and ‘taste’
when paired with nouns for these words in the same way as Swahili ona
ladha. In Luo (Nilo-Saharan, Kenya) winjo basically means ‘hear’, and has
polysemies of ‘touch’, and ‘taste’ and ‘smell’ when combined with the
appropriate NPs. As discussed by Evans and Wilkins (2000), Australian
Aboriginal languages also conform to Viberg’s hierarchy: to give just two
of many possible examples, Mayali bekkan ‘hear’ also means ‘touch,’ and
Guugu Yimidhirr nhaamaa ‘see/look’ also means ‘hear’, with an additional
polysemy to ‘think’.
This Guugu Yimidhirr polysemy shows an extension out of the domain
of perception proper into that of cognition. This looks rather like a pat-
tern of semantic extension familiar in Indo-European languages, in which
verbs of cognition like ‘know’/ ‘think’/ ‘understand’ are often derived from
verbs of seeing. This is seen again and again in Indo-European. For exam-
ple, Proto-Indo-European *weid- ‘see’ not only gives many IE daughter lan-
guages their word for ‘see’ (Latin video, Russian videt ‘see’, etc.), but also
becomes the verb for ‘know’ in many languages (Ancient Greek oida,
Dutch weten, German wissen), and gives other parts of speech related to
cognition in other languages (English wise, wit; Irish fios ‘knowledge’).
 11.2 Semantic change 383

Sweetser (1990) explained this pattern of extension as an instance of

what she termed the mind-as-body-metaphor: the persistent equation
of the physical and the inner self. The world of concrete physical expe-
rience serves as an analogical model for talking about abstract mental
phenomena like knowing and understanding. For example, many Indo-
European languages recruit their vocabulary of intellection (under-
standing) from that of physical holding. English grasp is a perfect
illustration of this polysemy. Other examples include Latin comprehen-
dere ‘seize’, which gives French comprendre ‘understand’ and Ancient
Greek katalambanō ‘seize’, which had the metaphorical sense of ‘grasp,
understand’, and is the source of Modern Greek katalabaino ‘under-
stand’.
For Sweetser, the mind-as-body metaphor is what lies behind the exten-
sion of ‘see’ verbs to ‘know/understand’. Vision is a concrete phenomenon
which serves as the metaphorical model for knowing, conceived of as
inner ‘vision’. Sweetser says that this metaphor is based in the primary
status vision has as a source of information about the world: since vision
gives us our most certain knowledge of what is outside us, physical seeing
is a natural model for inner, mental understanding. Sweetser points out
that the use of physical, vision-based vocabulary for abstract domains of
intellection is by no means limited to verbs. Thus, we speak in English of
‘a clear presentation’, ‘opaque statements’ and ‘transparent ploys’, in all
cases appropriating the vocabulary of visual experience to describe more
abstract mental domains. Sweetser’s conclusion (1990: 45) is that the
vocabulary of physical perception
shows systematic metaphorical connections with the vocabulary of
internal self and internal sensations. These connections are . . . highly
motivated links between parallel or analogous areas of physical and inter-
nal sensation . . . . The internal self is pervasively understood in terms
of the bodily external self, and is hence described by means of vocabu-
lary drawn (either synchronically or diachronically) from the physical
domain.
A natural question to ask is how widespread the mind-as-body metaphor
is as a source of polysemies and semantic changes. In this light, the Guugu
Yimidhirr ‘see, hear, think’ polysemy mentioned above suggests that the
same vision > intellection shift may be observed in an entirely different
language family. However, Evans and Wilkins (2000) found that it is in fact
the meaning ‘hear’, not ‘see’, which leads to inner, cognitive meanings in
Australian Aboriginal languages. A representative survey of ‘see’ words in
Australian languages reveals that the extension to ‘understand’ is only
found when the verb also means ‘hear’. ‘Understand’ is typically associ-
ated with the verb for ‘hear’, as in this example from Pitjantjatjara (Pama-
Nyungan, central Australia):

(9) Mutuka/ computer ngayulu putu kulini

car computer I in vain hear/understand
‘I don’t understand cars/computers.’
384 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

The link between hearing and cognition is a frequent polysemy pattern in

Australian languages, not restricted to verbs alone. Evans and Wilkins give
the following list of reflexes of the Proto-Pama-Nyungan word for ‘ear’,
*pina:

(10) Yidiny pina ‘ear’; pina-N ‘hear, listen to, think about, remember’
Guugu Yimidhirr pinaal (adj.) ‘smart, clever, know’
Gugu Yalanji pinal ‘to know’
Warlpiri pina ‘wise, knowing, experienced’, pinarri ‘wise, knowledge-
able, smart’, pina-wangu [ear-without] ‘ignorant’; pina(pina)(ri)-jarrimi
[ear-INCH] ‘to learn’, pina(pina)-mani [ear-put] ‘to teach’
Jaru pina yungan [lit. ear put] ‘to learn’, pinarri ‘knowing’
Gooniyandi pinarri ‘know, knowledgeable’

Vanhove (2008) shows that the link between audition and cognition is a
widespread polysemy in the languages of the world.

11.2.3 Grammaticalization
One particular context for semantic change is grammaticalization, the
process of semantic bleaching and category change by which gram-
matical forms develop in a language. Grammaticalization is a complex
subject, and we will only touch on it briefly here. Grammaticalization
can be defined as the process by which open-class content words (nouns,
verbs, adjectives) turn into closed-class function forms like adpositions,
conjunctions, pronouns, particles and demonstratives, as well as case-
and tense-markers, by losing elements of their meaning, and by a
restriction in their possible grammatical contexts. Study of these proc-
esses has revealed a number of regular pathways which recur again and
again in the world’s languages, linking particular open-class lexemes
with particular grammaticalized functions (see Heine and Kuteva 2002).
A simple example is the grammaticalization of the word meaning ‘cir-
cle’ into a preposition in many European languages. In Icelandic,
German and Latin, for instance, the noun meaning ‘ring, circle’ (kring,
Ring and circus respectively) is the source of the preposition ‘around’
(kring, rings and circum). The shift involves a change in both meaning
(‘circle’ > ‘around’) and grammatical category (noun > preposition: see
Heine and Kuteva 2002: 68 for details). Another example, this time from
outside Europe, is that perfect/completive markers are often derived
from lexical roots meaning ‘throw’. Examples are Korean pelita, a per-
fect aspect marker, and Japanese sutsu (utsu, tsu), a completive marker,
both of which developed out of the lexical verbs meaning ‘throw away’
(Heine and Kuteva 2002: 297).
The following example from Ewe (Niger-Congo; Ghana) shows different
stages in a common grammaticalization process. We start with a content
word, the body-part noun ‘back’ (11a), which is grammaticalized into a
marker of spatial and other relations:
 11.2 Semantic change 385

(11) a. épé megbé fá

3sg.POSS back be cold
‘His back is cold.’
b. é-le xø á megbé
3sg-be house DEF behind
‘He is behind the house.’
c. é--nø megbé
3sg-stay behind
‘He stays back.’

d. é-kú le é-megbé
3sg-die be 3sg.POSS-behind
‘He died after him.’ (Heine, Claudi and Hünnemeyer 1991:65–66)

Here, just as in English, the word for ‘back’, megbé, is used to cover a vari-
ety of notions. In (11a) it simply refers to an object, the body part. In (11b)
it expresses a spatial relation which we can see as the application of a
metaphor: just as in English, the subject is said to be at the house’s ‘back’.
In (11c) no obvious metaphorical motivation is any longer present, and
megbé conveys the fact that the subject stayed while the others left, while
in (11d) it refers to time. Categorial development runs from ordinary noun
in (11a), to adverb in (11c), to postposition in (11b) and (11d). This change
of syntactic category goes hand in hand with a progressive shifting of the
form’s meaning from concrete to abstract.
The history of French negation provides a well-known example of gram-
maticalization. In Old French, negation could simply be achieved through
a negative particle, ne (n’ before a vowel):

(12) Don ne porroit ce estre?

Then not could this be
‘Couldn’t this happen?’ (Einhorn 1974: 78)

But the negation was often strengthened by the addition of a further noun,
determined by the context. Some of these nouns were mot ‘word’, mie
‘crumb’, gote ‘drop’, grain ‘grain’ and point ‘point’. Originally, as in (13a), the
additional noun has its full lexical value and was only used when semanti-
cally appropriate – in contexts of speaking or thinking for mot, eating for mie,
drinking for gote and so on: (13a) is an example of this for mot. Often, how-
ever, this original value is bleached away and it does no more than reinforce
the negation, as in (13b):

(13) a. Mot n’ en sait

Word not about it knows
‘He doesn’t know (a word) about it.’ (Einhorn 1974: 95)

b. Morir ne voldroie je mie

to die not would want I crumb
‘I wouldn’t like to die.’ (Einhorn 1974: 95)
386 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

Verbs of motion typically formed their negative with ne . . . pas, the noun
pas meaning ‘step’:

(14) Vos n’ irez pas uan de mei si luign.

you not will go step one from me so far
‘You will not go one step away from me.’ (Song of Roland 250; Segre
1989: 105)

This was subject to exactly the same sort of bleaching as the other nouns,
and often occurs in contexts where no motion is relevant:

(15) n’ est pas mervelle, se vous estes lassés

not is step marvel if you are tired
‘It is not a marvel if you are tired.’ (Winters 2002: 627)

In contemporary non-formal French, pas on its own has assumed the role
of principal negative (Ashby 1981), as in (16):

(16) Moi, j’ aime pas ça

Me I like not that
‘I don’t like that.’ (Bourciez 1967: 704)

In these contexts, pas is no longer a noun, but has been grammaticalized

into a negative particle by losing its original sense ‘step’. This coalition of
semantic bleaching and change of grammatical category is typical of
grammaticalization.
QUESTION Could this grammaticalization chain be described through
any of the traditional notions discussed in 11.2.1 (generalization, meta-
phor, etc.)? If so, how?

11.3 Meaning through corpora

The seeds of semantic change are found in synchronic meaning variation
in everyday discourse. Although many differences in meaning and usage
between different people are obvious, still more of this variation occurs
below the threshold of our awareness, and we fail to notice the ways in
which language is changing all around us. Only in exceptional circum-
stances do we become aware of the extent of the variation in meaning and
usage. Stubbs (2001) reports the story of Monica Baldwin, who entered a
strict convent shut off from the outside world in 1913. She spent the next
28 years in complete isolation, without access even to newspapers or
radio, the other members of the convent providing her only company. In
her autobiography, Baldwin records the words and expressions she did not
understand after she left the convent in 1941. These included cocktail, hard
boiled, have a hunch, nosey parker, it’s your funeral, jazz, close-up, streamlining,
plus fours, cutie, robot, parking, Hollywood, believe it or not and striptease. Some
 11.3 Meaning through corpora 387

of these expressions may, of course, now be unfamiliar to contemporary

readers.
Because of the vast amount of data involved, studying this language-
wide variation in depth is not feasible without the use of computers. The
field of corpus linguistics uses computers to store and analyse corpora
(Latin: ‘bodies’; singular corpus), collections of large amounts of text. There
are several large corpora of written and spoken English, such as the British
National Corpus, the Cobuild corpus, the London–Lund corpus of British
English (LLC), the Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen corpus (LOB) and the Australian
Corpus of English. Corpora of various kinds are also available for many
other languages, including Japanese, Chinese and most European lan-
guages. The wide availability of these corpora means that the methods of
corpus linguistics are replicable: a statistical analysis of a corpus can be
repeated and confirmed by any number of researchers.
Corpora are useful for semantic analysis because they can reveal unsus-
pected patterns of collocation, or regular word combination. The extent
to which discourse consists of predictable word-sequences is easy to
underestimate. In general, corpus study has shown that many words
(called nodes in corpus linguistics) have fairly predictable patterns of col-
location within a given span (the number of words taken into account
before and after the node). Take brightly as an example. Stubbs (2001: 81)
reports that a search of the Cobuild corpus shows that brightly occurs
1,467 times. In 26% of these occurrences, it occurs within four words of
coloured. This is conventionally represented in the following way:
brightly 1,467 <coloured 26%>
Such a high degree of collocational predictability isn’t uncommon.
Roughly four per cent of a sample of the headwords in the Cobuild corpus
fell into a category in which the most frequent collocate occurred with
the node in at least twenty per cent of cases (Stubbs 2001: 81). Here are
some examples:
calorie 846 <low 29%>; classical 5,471 <music 22%>; profile 5,584 <high 28%>;
shuttle 3,453 <space 33%>; tricks 2,202 <dirty 25%>
For another twenty per cent of all nodes, the top collocate was found with
the node in between ten and twenty per cent of the node’s occurrences,
while for forty per cent of nodes, the top collocate was recorded in
between five and ten per cent of cases.
If one considers variant forms of the collocates, these scores often go up
impressively. Stubbs (2001: 83) gives the following examples, in which the
combined proportion of the collocates’ occurrences, given as the final per-
centage, accounts for a significant proportion of the nodes’ occurrences:

cheering 1,226 <crowd 13%, crowds 6%> 19%

resemblance 1,085 <bears 18%, bear 11%, bore 11%, bearing 4%> 44%

Thus, almost one in five occurrences of cheering is collocated with crowd(s),

while more than two in five occurrences of resemblance occurs with a form
of the verb bear. And once one takes into account semantically related
388 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

words (synonyms, hyponyms, hyperonyms, etc.), the figures skyrocket

(Stubbs 2001: 83):

breakaway 1,379 <republic(s) 35%, group, faction, party> 45%

cheering 1,226 <crowd(s) 19%, people, supporters, fans, audience> 30%
doses 1,687 <large 13%, high, small, low, higher, lower, massive, heavy, larger>
48%
humanitarian 3,933 <aid 23%, relief, assistance, help> 39%
warring 1, 586 <factions 49%, parties, sides> 73%

Findings like these, according to Stubbs, ‘show that there is a level of

organization beyond lexis and syntax, which is only starting to be system-
atically studied, and which is not reducible to any other level of organiza-
tion’ (2001: 97).
Studies of collocation can give surprising results. In an earlier study,
Stubbs found that nearly 80% of the 38,000 occurrences of cause (both the
noun and the verb) in a million-word corpus were paired with clearly
negative collocates in the span of three words before or after. The most
frequent collocates are the following:

cause <problem(s) 1806, damage 1519, death(s) 1109, disease 591, concern
598, cancer 572, pain 514, trouble 471>
(Stubbs 2001: 46)

On the evidence of this corpus, cause is not used neutrally, as most speak-
ers would probably guess, but has a strong tendency to be associated with
negative events. This tendency is not yet strong enough to count as a con-
notation of cause, but it constitutes a striking regularity which would
come as a surprise to most speakers. Simply introspecting about the mean-
ing of cause would be unlikely to reveal the collocational tendencies uncov-
ered by the corpus search.
The situation with cause is not unusual. Stubbs comments that ‘[a]ll of
the most frequent content words in the language are involved in [collo-
cational] patterning. This is not a peripheral phenomenon (collocations
are not an idiosyncratic feature of just a few words), but a central part
of communicative competence’ (2001: 96). Another example of this situ-
ation comes from Channell (2000). Consider regime. Intuitively, one
would say that it simply refers to a ruling political administration.
Channell discovered, however, that the most frequent collocates of the
word in the British Cobuild corpus were military, communist, ancien, Nazi,
Soviet, Vichy, fascist, present and Iraqi. Channell comments that these are
words ‘which from a British perspective represent those types of govern-
ment which are generally disapproved of’ (2000: 46). Regime, in other
words, seems to have a tendency to occur in unfavourable contexts.
Native English speakers would not necessarily have predicted this result
through merely introspecting about the word’s meaning. Channell also
investigated the phrase roam the streets. There are 113 occurrences of this
in the Bank of English corpus, with the subjects prostitutes, vagrant chil-
dren, armed men, mobs, looters, right-wing youth gangs and neo-Nazis, vandals,
 11.3 Meaning through corpora 389

wild dogs and bigots (Channell 2000: 53). The activities associated in the
corpus with roam the streets included searching for food, attacking people,
stoning cars, randomly beating people, burning and looting and rioting. This
collocation is, then, typically associated with activities that are danger-
ous, threatening and censured. Again, this is not a result that is availa-
ble through mere introspection. Channell predicts on the basis of these
data that the negative evaluation associated with roam in these colloca-
tions will extend to all uses of the verb, and become one of its regular
connotations.
Partington (2004) examined the English adverbs completely, entirely,
totally and utterly. These share a large number of collocates with each
other, and, as a group, share very few collocates with apparently broadly
synonymous adverbs like perfectly or absolutely. Partington reports some
interesting patterns. Utterly, for instance, modifies items that ‘almost
invariably express either the general sense of “absence of a quality” or
some kind of “change of state”’ (2004: 147), such as helpless, useless, unable,
forgotten; changed, different; failed, ruined and destroyed. Only two of the col-
locates of utterly had positive connotations: pleasant and clear. Totally also
had many ‘absence’ or ‘lack of’ collocates, such as bald, exempt, incapable,
irrelevant, lost, oblivious, uneducated, unemployed, unexpected, unknown, unpre-
dictable, unsuited, ignored, excluded, unfamiliar, blind, ignorant, meaningless,
unaware, unable, vanished, naked and without. Similar patterns of collocation
were found for completely and entirely.
Speakers are mostly unaware of these sorts of patterns. As Channell
observes (2000: 54), ‘it is disturbing to discover that important aspects of
the use of lexical items are not open to conscious reflection’. The regu-
larities of use demonstrated by Stubbs, Partington and Channell are
clearly robust enough to warrant linguists’ attention, but they are hard
to come to grips with theoretically. Specifically, the regularities of use
revealed by corpus study seem not to appropriately fit into the categories
of either an expression’s literal meaning or its connotation (see 1.4.2).
The differences between synonymous adverb intensifiers demonstrated
by Partington operate among words with near-identical literal mean-
ings. Perhaps, you might think, that shows they are connotational: per-
haps utterly, for example, has a connotation ‘absence of a quality’ or
‘change of state’. But this suggestion is clearly not plausible: most con-
notations are fairly stable aspects of an expression’s meaning which are
hard to cancel. The correlations we have seen in this section are mostly
not like this. It isn’t a connotation of utterly that it refer to absences of a
quality: we can say things like the meal was utterly perfect without the
slightest feeling of clash. Similarly, it is not a connotation of cause that
it be associated with negative occurrences. Nevertheless, corpus data
demonstrate that these words show these associations in a significant
proportion of cases. This raises the questions of just what, on the speaker
level, causes these patterns, and of how they are to be described linguis-
tically. As Channell points out, to talk of the collocational facts discussed
here as facts about ‘meaning’ is to use that term in a non-standard
sense.
390 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

11.4 Semantic typology

Semantic typology is a fairly recent development in linguistics. Because of
the problems of determining universals of sense discussed above, it often
concentrates on the question of cross-linguistic regularities in denotation
or extension. What is the range of possible variation shown by the world’s
languages in the references of words for colours, body parts and basic
actions? Are there any universal or widespread similarities in the bounda-
ries between different words in each of these domains? Since serious
cross-linguistic investigation of these questions has only begun recently,
there is still only a small range of evidence available, and we will often be
forced to exemplify points from the same handful of languages.
Nevertheless, even the preliminary work done so far can disabuse us of
any simplistic assumption of universalism: cross-linguistic variation in
meaning is at least as great as variation in form. We will begin our survey
of this question by looking at the way different languages refer to the human
body.

11.4.1 Body parts

Because of our common physiology, the body is an obvious place to look
for universally shared aspects of meaning. But cross-linguistic investiga-
tion reveals that there is actually huge variety in the extensions of human
body-part terms. Languages certainly do not all divide the body up in the
same way for the purposes of reference. This is a significant finding. If
languages don’t treat something as basic and universal as the body identi-
cally, what is the likelihood that there will be semantic universals in less
basic domains?
A first surprising fact is that not all languages even have a term for
‘body’. Tidore (Papuan, Indonesia) has a word for ‘flesh’, but this does not
cover the body as a whole, and no other word in the language does either.
In order to refer to the body as a whole, Tidore speakers must either use
the Indonesian word badan ‘body’, or speak non-literally using a Tidore
word, mansia which literally means ‘person, human’ (van Staden 2006:
330). Absence of a word referring to the body is not confined to Tidore. In
Thaayoore (Pama-Nyungan, Australia), the word with the closest exten-
sional range to English body is pam-minj. This doesn’t just cover the physi-
cal body, however. It also denotes many other related ideas, such as peo-
ple’s tracks, their voice, and their shadow, none of which can be referred
to with body in English (Gaby 2006). Pam-minj in Thaayoore thus spills over
the familiar boundaries of the physical body to encompass entirely non-
corporeal referents. The same phenomenon can be repeated at the level of
body parts. Thus, the word for ‘bottom’ in Thaayoore is also the word for
‘excreta’, and in Jahai (Mon-Khmer, Malaysia/Southern Thailand; Burenhult
2006: 168), ‘belly’ and ‘excreta’ are expressed by the same word. To Western
ears, this is a highly unfamiliar polysemy, that strikingly suggests that the
divisions of the world presupposed in familiar languages are by no means
universal.
 11.4 Semantic typology 391

The world’s languages display, then, remarkable variety in their treat-

ment of the different parts of the body. Sometimes, for example, there
simply are no words for (to our minds) important body parts. Jahai has no
word for ‘mouth’, ‘face’ or ‘leg’ (Burenhult 2006). Instead, there are many
morphologically simple terms for more detailed body parts: wε̃s ‘frontal
tuber’, nus ‘upper lip’ and mŋka? ‘molar tooth’ (Burenhult 2006: 167). Jahai
also lacks terms for ‘arm’ and ‘leg’, and the word for ‘head’, kuy, only
refers to the part of the head covered by head-hair (Burenhult 2006: 169).
These facts disprove the assumption that languages always favour lexi-
calization of body-part categories at the level of the limb or other major
‘whole’ body part (head, trunk).
Let’s now consider how different languages segment the parts of the
body. The body is obviously a continuous whole, but is made of percep-
tually discontinuous parts: the trunk, limbs and head, at the highest
level of structure, with each of these parts presenting easily distinguish-
able subparts (chest, back; fingers, elbows; mouth, ears). Since these
divisions are so perceptually salient, a natural hypothesis is that all
languages exploit them for the purpose of body-part labelling. This
hypothesis has been tested through the use of a body-colouring task, in
which consultants are given an image of a body and asked to shade in
the region that corresponds to a given body-part term. Experiments
using this kind of method have partly confirmed the hypothesis that
visual discontinuities like those of the limb-joints guide the referential
range of body-part terms. For example, no languages are known in
which perceptual discontinuities play no role in the segmentation of
body-part terminology. Most languages respect the discontinuity of the
joints of the arm and leg in the extensions of at least some of their
terms for these regions of the body (Enfield et al. 2006: 141). In other
words, there are always some words in a language which divide the body
at the shoulder/elbow/wrist or hip/knee/ankle, even if not all the lan-
guage’s body-part terms do. For example, many languages, like Punjabi
(Indo-European, India) and American Sign Language (signed; USA), dis-
tinguish upper and lower leg (Enfield et al. 2006: 141), with the knee
constituting the point of division. Yélî Dnye (isolate; Papua New Guinea)
is an example of a language which does not observe the joint-division
below the knee: a single term covers the lower leg and the foot, ignoring
the discontinuity of the ankle. A single term for leg/foot and another for
arm/hand is a common situation in Austronesian and Papuan languages
(van Staden 2006: 327).
QUESTION Use a line drawing outline of a human body to colour in the
boundaries between the different body-part terms in your own language.
How easy is it to designate clear boundaries? Are there any cases where
the boundaries are unclear?
Two interesting exceptions to the relevance of visual discontinuity in
body-part naming have been noted in the recent literature. The first comes
from Tidore. Here, the word yohu, translated as ‘leg’, does not actually cor-
respond fully to that English body part, since it does not include the
392 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

upper thigh. According to van Staden (2006: 327), this is explained by the
fact that exposure of the upper part of the thigh is considered indecent,
and it must be covered in public. It is therefore not a perceptual, but a
cultural discontinuity that determines the limits of this body-part term.
The second exception is the Jahai word cŋĩŋ, which refers to a spectacle-
shaped area around both eyes (Burenhult 2006: 167) – again, not an exten-
sion with any obvious visual determinant, although there may well be
socio-cultural factors behind the salience of this region of the face which
explain its lexicalization.
Finally, many investigators of cross-linguistic body-part terminology
report widespread inconsistency among speakers of the same language
about the extension of body-part terms. For example, speakers of
Lavukaleve (East Papuan; Solomon Islands) were divided over whether the
word vatu ‘head’ also includes the meaning ‘face’ (Terrill 2006: 3070). This
uncertainty may partly be a product of the body-colouring task, the unfa-
miliarity of which may induce a higher level of self-consciousness and
hence hesitation than spontaneous, unmonitored language use. But it
might also indicate that it is wrong in many cases to imagine that body-
part terms have a single fixed, circumscribed meaning in a language com-
munity: both within and between speakers, there may be considerable
variation in the extensions of terms in this semantic domain. It would be
a mistake here, as in most other areas in semantics, to imagine that eve-
rything is cut and dried.

11.4.2 Colour vocabulary

At first blush, the domain of colour seems a prime example of language
introducing distinctions within the continuous flux of our experience. It
has been known for a long time that different languages divide up the
visible spectrum in various and incompatible ways, and the consequent
difficulty of translating colour terms from one language to another has
often been commented on. There often is no simple equivalent for one
language’s colour words in another: Ancient Greek khlōros is not really
green, its typical English translation, but a green-yellow colour combina-
tion which can refer to the colours of young grass/leaves, sand and honey
(Liddell and Scott 1940: 890). Since we all see the same wavelengths of
light, this cross-linguistic variation cannot be the result of differences in
colour perception, but must be language-internal: we see the same col-
ours, but different languages name them differently. For this reason, colour-
naming was often taken as the crucial example of the linguistic relativity
hypothesis (see 11.5). The cross-linguistic variation in colour naming strat-
egies suggests that speakers do not simply label pre-existing categories,
which are objectively out there, ‘staring them in the face’. Instead, lan-
guages create the colour categories for themselves and, once created,
speakers categorize colours in the terms particular to their language.
Colour categories, in other words, are not universal, but language-
relative.
However, a tradition of research inaugurated by Berlin and Kay (1969)
and still continuing has led to some important revisions of this relativist
 11.4 Semantic typology 393

picture. Berlin and Kay hypothesized that each language has a set of
basic colour terms (BCTs). In English, black, white, red, yellow, green, blue,
purple, and grey are BCTs, whereas violet, ochre, eggshell blue, turquoise, etc.
are not. To be counted as a BCT, a colour term has to meet the following
criteria:

• it must be psychologically salient, i.e. one of the commonly remem-

bered and used terms. This excludes English russet, cyan, jade, sepia,
magenta, etc.;
• must not be included in the range of another colour term; this
it
excludes crimson (a type of red), indigo (a type of purple), tan (a type of
brown) and light green (a type of green);
• it must be morphologically simple. This excludes grey-green and
reddish;
• must be applicable in all contexts, i.e. able to refer to a colour
it
regardless of the object which has it. This excludes English sorrel and
blonde, which primarily refer to colours of horses and hair/furniture/
beer respectively.

The number of BCTs can vary widely from language to language. The
smallest number recorded is just two; on the other side, very few lan-
guages have more than eleven. Berlin and Kay and their colleagues have
now explored the typical range of reference of BCTs in a wide range of
different languages. They did this using 330 colours from the Munsell
colour system, a standardized set of samples showing fine gradations
between colours, rather like the colour sample cards available in paint
shops. They particularly concentrated on what they termed the focus of
colour terms. This meant the best example of a particular colour. For
instance, the focus of English red, ‘focal red’, is that particular shade of
red (say London bus red) which speakers would indicate as the ‘reddest’
red possible.
QUESTION What is the full set of ‘basic colour terms’ of English, accord-
ing to the criteria listed above?
The general findings of work in the Berlin and Kay tradition challenges
relativist beliefs about colour terms. Berlin and Kay discovered that even
though languages differed in the number of their colour terms, and in
the boundaries of any one of their terms, speakers show remarkable con-
vergence, both between and within languages, in the particular shades
they nominate as the focal colours of each category. Out of the 330
Munsell colours Berlin and Kay presented to speakers, only a pool of
thirty closely similar colours were chosen as examples of focal hues.
These thirty were concentrated on the most typical examples of black,
white, red, green, yellow, blue, grey, brown, orange, purple and pink.
Take as an example those languages with a term for ‘red’. There is, in
general, wide variation in the range of colours which speakers of these
languages will count as examples of this category: sometimes it includes
pale, pinkish reds, sometimes oranges, sometimes even whites. But in
spite of this wide range of reference, there is consistent agreement
394 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

between speakers of different languages about what counts as the best

example of red: speakers consistently choose a very narrow range of
Munsell chips, regardless of how many other shades the term also covers.
Similarly, some languages have a term for ‘blue/green’, but speakers
always chose either a single shade of blue (focal blue) or a single green
(focal green) as the best example of this colour, not any of the large range
of other blue and green shades to which the term can refer. A similar
situation exists with other BCTs: their boundaries vary widely, but their
focal hues show clear cross-linguistic convergence. This is a remarkable
finding. It suggests that colour terminology is not an unconstrained free-
for-all. Basic colour terms in all languages target a restricted range of
colours.
The restriction of focal hues to a small set was not Berlin and Kay’s only
discovery. They also found that the number of BCTs in a language makes
it possible to predict exactly what the basic colour terms would be. For
example, consider those languages with only two colour terms. Berlin
and Kay claimed that such languages have one term for white, red and
yellow, and another for black, green and blue. No languages with only
two BCTs have any different combinations: for example, no language has
as its two BCTs one referring to white, green and blue, and the other to
red, yellow and black. Similar generalizations were also made for larger
BCT systems as well. In general, Berlin and Kay’s findings were that the
range of colour term references in the languages of the world represents
a tiny selection out of the myriad theoretically possible options.
Languages don’t just choose their colour terms arbitrarily, but observe
quite strict constraints in the range of possible focal colours to which
their BCTs refer. Berlin and Kay interpreted these findings as an evolu-
tionary sequence. Colour vocabularies started with just two terms, and
developed diachronically into more ramified, complex systems, with
different hues splitting off to create independent colour categories.
Table 11.1 sets out these findings, showing the five different evolutionary
‘stages’ into which colour-naming systems can be arranged. The colour
names (given in obvious abbreviations) refer to the best examples of the
colours.
Terms for brown, purple, pink, orange and grey are added in two later
stages, giving the maximal system of eleven colour terms observed cross-
linguistically, arranged in a seven-stage system.
It is important to be clear about what these stages mean. First, note that
it is not the case that a language cannot refer to any colour incompatible
with its typological stage. Just because a language belongs to stage V, for
example, does not mean that speakers do not acknowledge brown, orange,
purple or pink hues as genuine colours. All it means is that these colours
are treated as variants or types of one of the named colours in the lan-
guage, and thus fail to count as basic colour terms. Second, note that the
focal colours for some of these categories vary by both language and
speaker. We can illustrate this with the different focal colours for the
Green/Blue category found at Stages III and IV. Speakers of some languages
 11.4 Semantic typology 395

Table 11.1. Five stages of BCT vocabulary in Berlin and Kay.

Stage I

W/R/Y

Bk/G/Bu

Stage II

R/Y

Bk/G/Bu

Stage III

W W W

R/Y or R/Y or R

G/Bu G Y

Bk Bk/Bu Bk/G/Bu

Stage IV

W W

R R

Y or Y

G/Bu G

Bk Bk/Bu

Stage V

Bu

Bk

choose blue as the focus, speakers of some choose green, speakers of some
choose both, and speakers of others chose either one, but not both
(MacLaury 1999: 5). Categories like this with more than one focal colour
are called composite categories.
We don’t have to go along with Berlin and Kay’s evolutionary interpreta-
tion of their own findings. The five stages can be interpreted simply as
typological generalizations stating the references of colour term systems
of different sizes. Here are some examples of the stages (from Kay et al.
1997):
396 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

Stage II
Ejagham (Niger-Congo; Nigeria, Cameroon: Kay et al. 1997: 37):
ényàgà ‘black/green/blue’
ébáré ‘white’
ébí ‘red/yellow’

Stage IIIBk/G/Bu
Kwerba (Trans-New Guinea; Irian Jaya; Kay et al. 1997: 44)
icәm ‘black/green/blue’
әsiram (әhεrεm, әrεm) ‘white’
nokonim ‘red’
kainanesεnum ‘yellow’

Stage IVG/Bu
Sirionó (Tupí; Bolivia: Kay et al. 1997: 46):
erondeI ‘black’
eshĩ ‘white’
eIrẽI˜ ‘red’
echo ‘yellow’
eruba ‘green/blue’

Stage V
Kalam (Trans-New Guinea; Papua New Guinea: Kay et al. 1997: 51)
mosimb ‘black’
tund ‘white’
likañ ‘red’
walin ‘yellow’
minj-kimemb ‘green’
muk ‘blue’

The seven-stage typology revealed by Berlin and Kay’s research has been
broadly confirmed (MacLaury 1999: 30). This doesn’t mean, however, that
it’s always easy to tell what stage of colour vocabulary a language instanti-
ates. Since languages are in a continual state of change, there will often
be transitional cases which complicate the analysis. For example, a lan-
guage will accomplish the transition from one colour stage to another by
introducing a new, special term which only gradually becomes a BCT, and
it may well be hard to decide exactly when the transition is complete. But
this is no more than a typical problem encountered in any attempt to
distinguish typologically significant generalizations in the flux of lan-
guage variation and change. On the other hand, there are some signifi-
cant counterexamples to Berlin and Kay’s typology, as well as fundamen-
tal criticisms of their methodology. We will explore each in turn.
As acknowledged by Kay and Regier (2003: 9085), some exceptions to the
Berlin and Kay findings have come to light, and the original typology cannot
any longer be claimed as universal. Some of the exceptions necessitate only
minor adjustments. Thus, Russian (Indo-European; Russia) has 12 BCTs,
one more than the maximal number originally recognized, including
goluboj ‘light, pale blue’ and sinij ‘dark, bright blue.’ Hungarian (Finno-Ugric;
 11.4 Semantic typology 397

Hungary) has both piros ‘light red’ and vörös ‘dark red’ BCTs (MacLaury 2002:
499), not a possibility accommodated in the original system.
More seriously, the Salishan languages of the Pacific North West of North
America include a yellow-with-green BCT, which does not fit any of the
predicted types (MacLaury 1999: 20–21). Further, parameters not consid-
ered in Berlin and Kay’s original investigation, such as brightness, seem to
form the basis of basic colour terms in some languages (see MacLaury 1999
for discussion), a possibility which challenges the original decision to
exclude this parameter from the investigation. Another serious challenge
to Berlin and Kay’s findings comes from investigation of Yélî Dnye (isolate;
Papua-New Guinea). This language appears not to have any colour terms
which would count as basic on Berlin and Kay’s criteria. This is because Yélî
Dnye colour terms are often simply the reduplicated names of objects; for
instance, the word glossable as ‘red’, mtyemtye, comes from mtye, ‘red parrot
species’, and kpêdêkpêdê, glossable as ‘black’, is a reduplication of kpêdê ‘tree
species’. Furthermore, large zones of the Munsell colour space are simply
unnamed, lacking any distinct term (Levinson 2001). This poses a major
challenge to the premises of the Berlin and Kay investigation.
Counterexamples like those above have led to the Berlin and Kay typology
being restated not as a universal of colour semantics, but as merely a particu-
larly strong cross-linguistic tendency, to any part of which exceptions will exist.
This does not remove its value: there are very few, if any, areas in language
where iron-clad generalizations are possible. A more serious type of challenge
is one which questions the very basis of Berlin and Kay’s colour survey. A
number of such challenges have been made. For example, MacLaury (1999: 19)
notes that Berlin and Kay’s findings may have been skewed by the nature of the
Munsell colour system itself, which does not allow representation of a psycho-
logically important dimension of colour perception, luminosity. Luminosity is
non-reflective brightness originating within the source of the colour itself, for
example the sun, or a hot, glowing object. It contrasts with lightness, which is
reflected illumination. Since the Munsell chips are only reflective, ‘they may
not adequately reveal the meanings of certain color terms that principally
name luminosity’ or involve luminosity as a crucial factor. Similarly, Lucy (1997)
criticizes the Berlin and Kay tradition on the grounds that it usually omits
consideration of the colour term’s characteristic referential range, simply
assuming that the BCTs elicited are in fact primarily used for the coding of
colour (see Lucy 1997: 322–333). Lucy claims that this ignores the way ‘colour’
terms are actually used in a language. The set of Munsell chips used in the
study is not at all representative of the everyday contexts in which colour
vocabulary is used. We rarely use colour terms in the context of an abstract
exercise in hue-naming. Typically, a colour term will be predicated of a real
object, which necessarily introduces many other considerations as possible
determinants of its use. But all these other components are factored out by the
use of the Munsell array. ‘In a sense’, Lucy says, use of the set of Munsell chips

dictated in advance the possible meanings the terms could have since no
other meanings were embodied in the samples. Although restricted in
this way, the stimulus array was also very complex, and the labeling task
398 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

performed with it forced informants to make referential microcompari-

sons and judgements of a sort rarely encountered in daily life. The task
assumed that speech is about labeling accuracy rather than situational
intelligibility . . .
(Lucy 1997: 333)
Lucy’s criticism, in other words, is that Berlin and Kay’s methodology
artificially constituted ‘colour’ as a meaningful category in the languages
they tested, without any attention to the contextual values of colour
terms, or consideration of non-colour uses – uses which might, after all,
be extremely revealing about the semantics of the terms.

QUESTION Does this seem a fair criticism? Why (not)?

One obvious example of the selectivity of the Berlin and Kay scheme is
discussed by Payne (2006: 605). Some languages’ colour words also include
reference to factors which fall outside the domain of colour pure and
simple. For example, in Maasai (Nilo-Saharan, Kenya/Tanzania), there are
colour-plus-design terms for ‘spotted black and white’, ‘thinly striped,
typically with tan and white’. These would presumably not count as basic
colour terms for Berlin and Kay, but this raises exactly the point in ques-
tion: how far does ‘colour’ reflect a psychologically or culturally real cat-
egory?
This point can be most clearly seen in work done by Conklin (1964) on
colour terms in Hanunóo (Austronesian; Philippines). In Berlin and Kay’s
terms, Hanunóo has a stage III colour system, with categories translated
‘black’, ‘red’, ‘white’ and ‘light green’. But Conklin’s account shows that
translation simply with English colour adjectives makes the wrong predic-
tions about what the terms will be used to refer to, since the words in ques-
tion have other semantic values which it is crucial to take into account. In
fact, Conklin shows, Hanunóo ‘colour’ terms refer to three other parame-
ters as well as hue: a light/dark opposition; a dryness/wetness (freshness)
one, and a deep versus pale distinction. The reason that these other values
matter is that they are just as important as the hue dimensions in govern-
ing what Hanunóo colour terms refer to. For example, a shiny section of
newly cut bamboo, which English speakers would describe as brown, is
described in Hanunóo as malatuy ‘green’ (Conklin (1964 [1955]: 191). This is
extremely surprising, if we assume that malatuy and related terms have hue
as their basic reference. But if we include the three other dimensions in our
description of the terms’ meanings, we have a way of understanding what
is going on. Instead of malatuy meaning ‘green’, it really means something
like ‘wetness’, a description which explains its application to the newly cut
bamboo – and also to many green things as well. As Lucy puts it (1997: 326),
‘[w]hat is crucial to recognize here is that an “adequate knowledge” of the
system would never have been produced by restricting the stimuli to color chips
and the task to labeling’ (italics original). Berlin and Kay’s colour elicitation
methodology simply presupposes that words which can be used to refer to
Munsell chip categories are basically colour terms; Conklin’s research sug-
gests that this may seriously misrepresent the semantics of an individual
 11.4 Semantic typology 399

language. Only investigation of actual, natural discourse will reveal the

semantics of ‘colour’ terms in a language, and any attempt to erect univer-
sals of colour vocabulary that does not include such investigation risks
prejudging the data.

11.4.3 Deictic motion

We have seen that although the body is a basic and universal aspect of
our experience, there are remarkably few cross-linguistic generaliza-
tions that hold about the semantics of body-part terms. The basic
actions expressed in English as ‘coming’ and ‘going’ present a similar
situation, at least on the evidence of a smaller-scale study undertaken
by Wilkins and Hill (1995). ‘Come’ and ‘go’ are deictic motion verbs,
expressing movement to and away from an anchoring point (the deictic
centre). These meanings have often been assumed to be universally
lexicalized.

QUESTION Does go show any non-deictic motion senses in English?

Wilkins and Hill examined the verbs translating come and go in Arrernte
(Pama-Nyungan, Australia) and Longgu (Austronesian, Solomon Islands).
They found that the basic types of scene which the verbs express in the
two languages do not coincide. The languages differ in both the scope of
application of the terms – how broad a range of situations the come and go
verbs can refer to – and in what counts as the most typical example of
each category. In our discussion we will only consider the expressions
translating ‘come’, the Longgu verb phrase la mai and the Arrernte verb
root petye-. Wilkins and Hill used diagrams like those in Figure 11.2 to
capture the essential parts of these verbs’ meaning.
‘O’ represents the deictic centre, understood as ‘the place where both
speaker and hearer are located, and where the speaker is reporting the
whole motion event to the addressee’ (Wilkins and Hill 1995: 217). The
arrows are the path along which the motion proceeds, and the dots repre-
sent the place from which it originates: notice that this is missing in
scene 3, which corresponds to a situation in which the origin of the
motion is not specifically represented (when someone approaches from
over the horizon, for example).

FIGURE 11.2
Motion scenes for come
verbs. Key: Arrow = ‘ori-
ented motion path’. Dot =
1. 2. 3. 4. place. ‘O’ = deictic centre.
400 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

The differences between la mai and petye- can be seen through these
examples. The four scenes in the diagram can all be described in Arrernte
with the verb petye-. This is appropriate whether or not the thing in move-
ment reaches the deictic centre: all that is required is that the thing in
motion move towards the deictic centre. Indeed, some Arrernte speakers
feel that the verb is most appropriate precisely in scenes 1 and 2, when the
deictic centre is not reached. By contrast, Longgu la mai can only be used
when the deictic centre is actually reached, which rules out scenes 1 and
2, the very ones sometimes judged as central by Arrernte speakers.
This simple case reveals how much semantic detail is obscured by the
identical English translations of the two verbs. Translation into the same
English word is no guarantee of semantic identity. Only a more fine-
grained metalanguage, in this case using diagrams, can show the cross-
linguistic differences in meaning.

11.4.4 Lexicalization patterns in motion verbs

Come and go differ in the type of path they express: in come, the path is
oriented towards the deictic centre, whereas in go it need not be. Path, the
route traversed by the object in motion, is one of the major elements of a
motion situation. In English, motion verbs often do not express path in
the verb root, as come and go do. Mostly, the path element is expressed in
a preposition or ‘particle’, like in, out, away, along, down, through etc., with
the verb root expressing the manner of the motion. Thus, English has a
wide range of verb roots indicating different manners of motion: crawl,
run, roll, walk, skip, fly, float, stroll, tumble and so on. In themselves, these
verbs do not convey anything about the path along which the motion
takes place: to express this, it is necessary to specify the path using a direc-
tional expression:

(17) crawl off, run out of the room, fly over the Alps

In an influential study, Talmy (1985) compared how different languages

lexicalize the four elements of motion, path, manner and figure (the mov-
ing object), which he took to be the essential components described by
motion verbs. He was particularly concerned to see how the manner and
path components are shared between the verb root itself and elements
like prepositions and particles. Talmy coined the term satellite to refer to
this latter type of structure. Satellites are ‘certain immediate constituents
of a verb root other than inflections, auxiliaries or nominal arguments’
(1985: 102). Off, out of the room and over the Alps in (17) are all satellites.
Talmy hypothesized the existence of three basic combinations of the
possible components of the motion event, depending on whether the
basic motion element is paired with manner, path or figure. Languages
differ in which of these three options predominates. As we will see,
English is biased towards the first, but also illustrates the second:

Motion + manner run, slide, bounce, waddle, spin, totter, hop, stroll, amble. . .
Motion + path enter, exit, come, go, leave, skirt . . .
 11.4 Semantic typology 401

The third lexicalization pattern, motion + figure, is the least represented

in English. A language that exemplifies it generously is Atsugewi (Hokan;
northern California):

(18) -lup- ‘for a small shiny spherical object (e.g.a round candy, an eye-
ball, a hailstone) to move/be located’
-caq- ‘for a slimy lumpish object (e.g. a toad, a cowdropping) to
move/be located’
-qput- ‘for loose, dry dirt to move/be located’ (Talmy 1985: 73)
QUESTION Talmy proposes that rain and snow exemplify this third
pattern in English. Can you think of any other examples?
Talmy proposed a major typological division between what he called verb-
framed and satellite-framed languages. This division concerns whether
the path component is lexicalized in the verb root itself or in a satellite
element.
Germanic languages like English and German are principally satellite-
framed: most verbs of motion are not like enter or exit (both of them loan
words in English). Instead, most Germanic motion verbs express the
manner in which the motion occurred, and any specification about the
path has to be introduced in a separate locative expression. Consider, for
example, the German sentences (from Brecht 1967: 81) and their English
translations in (19)–(20):

(19) a. Als Martin Gair eines Nachmittags bei guter September-

while Martin Gair one afternoon in fine September
sonne in einer vornehmen Straße promenierte. . .
sun in a exclusive street was walking

b. While Martin Gair was walking one sunny September afternoon in an

exclusive street. . .

(20) a. die Witwe Marie Pfaff. . . an den Auslagefenstern entlang

the widow Marie Pfaff at the display windows along
schritt
walked

b. The widow Marie Pfaff was walking beside the shop windows.

English walk denotes a particular manner of motion and does not say
anything about the path the motion took: this is conveyed in the satellite
prepositional phrases in an exclusive street (19b) and beside the shop windows
(20b). The German original has exactly the same structure. The verbs
promenieren and schreiten (past tense schritt) both mean ‘walk’, expressing
both the fact and manner of motion in a single form. Like English,
German encodes the path in a satellite, consisting of a prepositional
phrase (in einer vornehmen Straße/ an den Auslagefenstern). Slavic, Celtic and
Finno-Ugric languages are also satellite-framed.
Romance languages, however, are characteristically verb-framed: the
path is specified in the verb root itself. Here is an example from Spanish:
402 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

(21) Y todas las abejas salen volando de la colmena

and all the bees exit flying of the hive
‘All the bees fly out of the hive.’ (literally ‘All the bees exit the hive
flying’; Ibarretxe-Antuñano 2004: 485)

As the literal translation ‘exit’ makes clear, the verb salen inherently
expresses the path element ‘out of’. Greek, Semitic, Turkic, Basque, Korean
and Japanese are all verb-framed languages like Romance. Here is the same
sentence as (21) in Basque (isolate; Spain and south-west France):

(22) Eta erlauntzatik erle guztiak irten ziren hegaka

and hive.FROM bee all.ABS.DET.PL depart.PERF AUX flying
‘All the bees fly out of the hive.’ (literally ‘All the bees exit the hive
flying’; Ibarretxe-Antuñano 2004: 485)

Notice how the most natural English translation – ‘all the bees fly out of
the hive’ – doesn’t reflect the literal structure of the original.
It is worth emphasizing that statements about such and such a language
being verb or satellite framed do not mean that every motion verb in the lan-
guage is of the appropriate type; it is a question of which type is most charac-
teristic of the motion expressions in the language. Talmy defines ‘characteris-
tic’ as meaning (i) that the verb-type is the one found in colloquial, not liter-
ary, language; (ii) that it occurs frequently, and (iii) that it is pervasive, mean-
ing that a wide range of different types of motion are expressed by it.
QUESTION Assemble as long a list as possible of English motion verbs,
and note whether they include a Path component. Are there any where
it is hard to decide? Is Talmy’s classification of English as a satellite-
framed language justified?
Talmy illustrated this with the following selection of Spanish motion
expressions, all of which show the verb-framing characteristic of the lan-
guage. Comparison with the English translations shows how systemati-
cally the two languages diverge: English always expresses manner in the
verb, and path in a satellite, while Spanish expresses path in the verb, and
manner in a satellite ( flotando).

(23) a. La botella entró a la cueva (flotando)

The bottle moved-in to the cave (floating)
‘The bottle floated into the cave.’

b. La botella salió de la cueva (flotando)

The bottle moved-out from the cave (floating)
‘The bottle floated out of the cave.’

c. La botella pasó por la piedra (flotando)

The bottle moved-by past the rock (floating)
‘The bottle floated past the rock.’

d. La botella pasó por el tubo (flotando)

The bottle moved-through through the tube (floating)
‘The bottle floated through the tube.’
 11.4 Semantic typology 403

e. El globo subió por la chimenea (flotando)

The balloon moved-up through the chimney (floating)
‘The balloon floated up the chimney.’

f. El globo bajó por la chimenea (flotando)

The balloon moved-down through the chimney (floating)
‘The balloon floated down the chimney.’

g. La botella se fue de la orilla (flotando)

The bottle moved-away from the bank (floating)
‘The bottle floated away from the bank.’

h. Las dos botella se juntaron (flotando)

The two bottles moved-together (floating)
‘The two bottles floated together.’ (Talmy 1985: 69–70)

Note that the indication of the path isn’t limited to the verb in Spanish:
all the sentences contain satellites which convey additional path-related
information. So in (23a) the verb entró supplies the information that the
path is an inwards one, whereas the satellite a la cueva tells us that it had
the cave as its goal. In the right context it would also be possible to say La
botella entró desde la cueva (flotando) ‘the bottle floated in from the cave’. This
shows that the verb itself expresses a different path element from the one
mentioned in the prepositional phrase. This is also clear from (23e) and
(23f), where the difference between the verbs corresponds to a difference
in path, in spite of the identical prepositional phrase.
As well as verb- and satellite-framed languages, some linguists claim that
there is a third type, equipollent languages. This is a type in which both
path and manner are treated in the same way by the language’s morpho-
syntax (see Slobin 2004, 2006). Most equipollent languages are ones with
serial verbs, i.e. verb complexes consisting of several independent verbs,
each making a separate semantic contribution, as in the following sen-
tence from Papiamentu (Afro-Iberian creole; Netherlands Antilles):

(24) e-l a bula bai

3-SING ASP fly go
‘he flew away’ (Muysken and Veenstra 1995: 289)

The verb phrase contains a sequence of equally central and morphosyntac-

tically equivalent verb morphemes ‘fly, go’, which does not admit any sort
of verb–satellite distinction on Talmy’s criteria.
Talmy’s typology has been widely discussed, and the distinction between
verb- and satellite-framing is often invoked as a way of characterizing how
different languages distribute motion information in the clause. It has not
gone unchallenged, however. We will consider two types of criticism.
The first typically hinges on Talmy’s notion of characteristic motion
expression, mentioned above. As we have seen, languages usually contain
other types of lexicalization pattern than the one reflected by their clas-
sification as verb- or satellite-framed. These categories are idealizations
404 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

which capture what Talmy takes as the predominant, most basic type of
lexicalization pattern in the language. This leaves it open to other schol-
ars to probe whether, and how far, the idealization is justified. Kopecka
(2006: 97), for example, claims that French ‘does not correspond to a con-
sistent type within Talmy’s typology and furthermore exhibits a greater
variety of lexicalization patterns than had previously been recognized’.
This is because there is a large number of basic motion expressions in
which the path is expressed by a prefix, a satellite element. This conflicts
with the status of French as a verb-framed language in Talmy’s scheme.
Some of the many possible examples are accourir ‘run to’ and atterir ‘land,
touch down’, formed with the prefix a(d), s’envoler ‘fly away’ and s’enfuir
‘run away’, formed with the prefix en- and parcourir ‘run all over’, formed
with the prefix par (see Kopecka 2006: 86 for more examples). A similar
criticism is made for Spanish by Cuartero Otal (2006). This type of criti-
cism does not undo the distinction between verb- and satellite-framing,
but simply questions its status as a language-wide phenomenon. If many
languages initially taken as exemplars of one type prove to be mixed,
Talmy’s principal typological conclusion – that languages typically display
a single lexicalization pattern – will be disproven.
The second criticism questions the legitimacy of the very category
‘motion verb’. Talmy-style analyses take this as a basic semantic class and
as the site of the major typological distinction between verb- and satellite-
framing languages. Concentrating on French, Cadiot et al. (2006) argue
that it is a mistake to see ‘displacement’ – physical motion in space – as
the basic component of the meaning of many of the verbs relevant to
Talmy’s analysis. This suggests that Talmy’s typology overemphasizes a
single aspect of what is actually an intricate and multifaceted array of
meanings. Cadiot et al. claim that the traditional way in which we describe
the meaning of French motion verbs is basically flawed. It is a mistake,
they suggest, to see displacement as the most central aspect of the sense of
motion verbs, even if they are obviously often used to refer to motion
events. They claim that the assumption that motion in space is semantically
basic is untrue to the experiential grounding of language. Talmy’s
distinction of path, manner and figure as fundamental components of the
motion scenario ignores the fact that human beings do not experience
motion in abstracted, ‘geometrized’ terms; as they put it, the abstract
framework of space in the Talmy tradition ‘is neutral with respect to any
practical engagement’ (2006: 187). We do not simply move from point A to
B in a particular manner, but do so with aims and intentions, in a way
that involves many types of subjective, perceptual and qualitative factors
which are ignored by Talmy’s analysis. Cadiot et al. argue that these
additional factors reveal themselves in the numerous non-spatial, non-
physical uses of motion verbs, which have to be taken as metaphorical or
otherwise non-literal in Talmy-style approaches. For Cadiot et al., a unified
analysis of these various uses is possible which does not privilege
displacement as the key notion. This unified analysis avoids postulating a
literal, basic motion use and a set of non-literal semantic extensions from
it. Instead, they claim it is possible to discern aspects of meaning common
 11.4 Semantic typology 405

to the so-called ‘literal’ and ‘metaphorical’ uses alike which reflect the
distinctive subjective character of the experience of motion expressed by
the verbs.
The French verb tomber ‘fall’ is an example. For Talmy, tomber would
count fundamentally as a verb of manner of motion. But Cadiot et al.
propose that other aspects are equally important, specifically the aspects
of verticality, suddenness, non-control and surprise. These elements are
all features of the human experience of things that fall. For Cadiot et al.,
it is illegitimate to treat these as secondary. Indeed, their presence is
revealed in uses of the verb usually considered as metaphorical, such as
the following (among others):

(25) la nouvelle tombe ‘the news has just come through’ (literally ‘is falling’)
ça tombe bien ‘it comes at the right moment’ (literally ‘it falls well’)
tomber amoureux ‘fall in love’

Uses like these do not involve displacement. Instead, they foreground

aspects of the meaning of tomber which Cadiot et al. claim are always
present even in ‘literal’ uses referring to motion. Ignoring them in a way
that treats motion as the principal ‘core’ of the verb’s meaning is, they
suggest, an important distortion of the semantics of tomber. One can,
indeed, use tomber in a way exactly parallel to the English ‘s/he fell down/
over’, and this is a use which need not encode any motion in the sense of
displacement in space: one can fall without changing one’s spatial
position in any significant sense. Instead, what has changed when a
subject falls over is the degree of their control over their own body. In this
instance, motion of the type privileged by Talmy, displacement on a path
between distinct points, is not an important aspect of the verb’s meaning.
To make displacement central to the semantic analysis of tomber is to
‘ignore dimensions bound to the subject, which are not necessarily
associated with an actual displacement, but rather with a change that is
perceived from inside and outside the subject, and that cannot be reduced
to an external trajectory in a topological space’ (Cadiot et al. 2006: 182).
Again, these ‘subject-bound’ dimensions of meaning are revealed in a use
of the verb usually treated as metaphorical or extended, and thus as
derived from some more basic meaning. The expression tu tombes bien,
literally ‘you fall well’, expresses the idea ‘you’re just in time’: a meaning
in which abstract motion is significantly less important than the more
subjective dimensions of suddenness or surprise.
QUESTION Consider English fall, assembling as many representative
examples as possible. How far is abstract, Talmy-style motion a central
part of its meaning? Is an analysis in Cadiot’s terms attractive?
The verb monter, glossed as ‘go up’, is exactly analogous. Here too it would
be a mistake to treat motion as the central aspect of the verb’s meaning.
Indeed, the gloss ‘go up’ obscures the fact that monter can have transitive
uses which have little to do with spatial verticality, as Cadiot et al. explain
(2006: 194):
406 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

It is essential to notice the dimension of intentional programming or

the anticipation of a terminal point, which is more readable in the
‘assembly/put together’ uses (monter un kit ‘to assemble/put together a
kit’, or even monter une maison ‘to build a house’, where the construction
process is considered to be inherently programmed) or in the
constitution uses (monter un projet ‘to set up a project’). We therefore see
an inherent telicity or programmed aiming at the center of the meaning
of monter. . .

Verbs like tomber and monter, then, are semantically more complex than
their simple treatment as motion verbs implies. Cadiot et al. criticize
investigators in the wake of Talmy for their privileging of motion, which
leads them to artificially introduce it as a component of the meaning of
these verbs in many cases where it is not in fact relevant. A particular case
is the metaphorical expression la route monte, an exact French equivalent
of the English ‘the road goes up’. This is usually explained as involving
metaphorical motion based on the personification of the road, or as
representing the mobile point of view of a subject following the road
uphill. Yet this use is better understood, Cadiot et al. claim, as instantiating
the semantic feature of ‘anticipation of a terminal point’ referred to in
the passage just quoted. The road does not in any sense move: indeed,
precisely the point of a road as opposed, say, to an escalator, is that it is
not itself in motion. To introduce motion into the semantic analysis of la
route monte is therefore unreasonable. The use of monter is explained by
what Cadiot et al. see as a permanent feature of its semantics, the notion
of ‘anticipation of a terminal point’. To say that the road ‘goes up’ is to
register the difference in verticality between its initial and terminal
points, not to attribute motion to it in any way. A similar case would be
the verb sortir ‘come out’, which, in French just as in English, applies to
many cases where there’s no actual physical motion, like la photo est bien
sortie ‘the photo came out well’.
Cadiot et al. do not deny that real, physical motion between spatial points
is often a part of the meanings of verbs like monter, tomber and sortir. But
they do not believe that it should be privileged as the unique or
determinative aspect of their semantics. In their opinion, analysis in terms
of the motion of a figure on a path is insufficiently focused on the
embodied, subjective qualities of our experience of these actions, and
reflects an overly abstract, conceptual approach to meaning. This analysis
springs from a very different understanding of meaning from Talmy’s.
Talmy’s approach involves abstracting from the multiplicity of uses of
motion verbs and concentrating on just one aspect of their meaning. By
contrast, Cadiot et al. resist the instinct to abstract, believing that there is
a basic mistake involved in taking displacement as the central aspect of the
semantics of verbs like monter, tomber and sortir. Instead, they emphasize
how the meanings of these verbs reflect subjective, qualitative dimensions
of experience which are not easily reduced to configurations of paths and
figures. In doing so, they offer a more holistic, but considerably more
complicated analysis.
 11.4 Semantic typology 407

The two styles of analysis can coexist. Talmy can always claim that his
analysis does not have to be taken as the end of the story about motion
verbs’ meaning. The verb/satellite distinction only targets those aspects of
the verbs’ meaning which are relevant to displacement between points,
and nothing in it precludes the more subjective, qualitative approach
advocated by Cadiot et al. If displacement is not an important part of the
meaning of many motion verbs, this in itself does not challenge the typo-
logical division between verb- and satellite-framing; it simply deepens our
appreciation of the semantic complexity of the verbs in question.

11.4.5 Spatial reference

All languages have some means of indicating the spatial position of
objects. In English, this is achieved through terms like left and right, and
front and back: these words, which have counterparts in a wide range of
European and other languages, use the planes of the body itself to identify
different regions of space (it’s on the left/at the front). In fact, this type of
spatial reference seems so basic that it is hard to conceive of any serious
alternatives. As a result, the systems of spatial reference involved in terms
like left, right, front and back have often been assumed to be innate, and
hence universal. For the great Enlightenment philosopher Immanuel
Kant (1724–1804), for instance, the concept of space is not derived empiri-
cally from any experiences, but is one of the innate mental ‘intuitions’
which the mind brings to the understanding of the world (see Kant
1998).
Cross-linguistic study does not bear out this expectation of universality.
Instead, it turns out that there are other systems of spatial reference
employed in the languages of the world than the one familiar from English
and other European languages. The large-scale investigation undertaken
by researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics,
reported by Pederson et al. (1998) and Levinson (2003), tested how speakers
of different languages describe the spatial relations between simple
objects.
Pairs of speakers sitting out of view of each other were each presented
with an identical set of twelve photographs like those in Figure 11.3, as
part of an experiment known as the ‘Men and Tree Game’. One speaker,
the ‘director’, described a particular photograph, and the other, the
‘matcher’, had to guess, on the basis of the director’s description alone,
which picture was meant. The photographs were of a sort which necessi-
tated the use of the language’s spatial vocabulary; because director and
matcher could not see each other or each other’s pictures, the matcher
only had the director’s verbal descriptions to go on. Because of this
arrangement, games of this type are an efficient way of eliciting spatial
reference terms.
Experiments like these were conducted around the world on speakers of
a broad range of mostly small-scale, traditional languages, but also in lan-
guages of non-traditional, largely urban societies, like Dutch and Japanese.
These experiments explored the varying frames of reference used in
languages for spatial location. A frame of reference is ‘the internally
408 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

3.1 3.2

3.3 3.4

FIGURE 11.3
Six ‘Men and Tree game’
photographs, showing
left–right relations. 3.5 3.6

consistent system of projecting regions of space onto a figure-ground rela-

tionship in order to establish specification of location’ (Pederson et al. 1998:
571). English, for instance, uses left/right and front/back to divide space
into different regions which can then be used to locate an object (the fig-
ure) with respect to a reference point (the ground): the man (figure) is to
the left of the tree (ground), the tree (figure) is to the right of the man
(ground), and so on. We will concentrate here on the frame of reference
used for transverse (left–right) relations.
European languages including English, Japanese, and other languages
have a relative frame of reference. This is a system of spatial identifica-
tion which uses information about the bodily arrangement of a speech
participant, often the speaker. Languages with relative frames of refer-
ence use spatial expressions with meanings like ‘in front of me/behind
me’ and ‘to (my) left/right’. For instance, in describing picture 3.6 in
Figure 11.3, a Japanese player of the Men and Tree game produced the
following sentence:

(26) de ki no migi-gawa ni hito ga i-te

then tree GEN right-side at man NOM exist-CONN
kocchi o mi-te i-ru shashin
this.way ACC look-CONN PROG-PRES photo
‘Then the photo where the man is at the right side of the tree and
looking this way’ (Pederson et al. 1998: 573)
 11.4 Semantic typology 409

Just as in English, the Japanese terms for ‘left’ and ‘right’ designate spatial
regions which project out from the speaker’s own body. As a result, if the
speaker changes position, the description of an object as on the left or
right may also change: the frame of reference is ‘relative’ to the speaker’s
location.
The relative reference frame is highly familiar and intuitive to an
English or Japanese speaker. But it is not the only one. Some languages
also contain an absolute frame of reference. This is a system of spatial
location which does not depend on the position of a speech participant,
but which is anchored instead in unchanging features of the geography,
like uphill/downhill distinctions, or in the cardinal directions (north,
south, east, west). In absolute frame of reference languages that use the
cardinal directions, one does not say ‘the man is on the left’; instead,
one says ‘the man is at the eastern/western/ northern/southern side’.
Arrernte (Pama-Nyungan, Australia) is an example of a language with an
absolute frame of reference, as exemplified in (27), also a description of
picture 3.6:

(27) Ikngerre-thayte-le warlpele re tne-me ularre-theke

east-side-LOC whitefella 3SGS stand-NPP face.towards-WARDS
are-me arne-arle kenhe itere-le.
look-NPP tree-FOC but side-LOC
‘The whitefella is standing on the east side and looking towards us,
but the tree is at (his) side.’ (Pederson et al. 1998: 565)

As speakers of a relative frame of reference language like English, it is easy

to mistake what is going on in a sentence like (27). English speakers can
superimpose the four cardinal directions onto a figure like 3.6 as conven-
tional markers of the top (‘north’), bottom (‘south’), left (‘west’) and right
(‘east’) sides. To say ‘the man is on the east side’ can, for us, simply be
equivalent to ‘the man is on the right-hand side’. As a result, ‘the man is
on the east side’ could be an appropriate description of picture 3.6, with
‘east’ functioning simply as an alternative for ‘right’. In Arrernte, however,
the cardinal direction terms are not used like this. Instead, east really
means East, the direction of sunrise. For Arrernte speakers, the words for
‘north’, ‘south’, ‘east’ and ‘west’ aren’t able to be used as conventional
substitutes for top, bottom, right and left; they are literal descriptions relat-
ing figures to absolute coordinates of the external world. The speaker of
(27) describes the man-figure as ‘on the east side’ because it really was on
the Eastern (sunrise) side of the picture, given the way the picture had been
placed on the table during the experiment, and the table’s orientation in actual
space. The ability of an Arrernte participant in the Men and Tree game to
identify the correct image thus depends on their ability to orient them-
selves in space with respect to the cardinal directions. The fact that
Arrernte speakers are typically able to do this is, to Westerners, a surpris-
ing ability. Given that both players in the Men and Tree game were seated
facing the same way, cardinal points can be appealed to in order to pre-
cisely identify position.
410 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

The relative and absolute frames of reference often combine. About half
of the languages investigated in the Men and Tree experiments use both
frames of reference. English speakers, for example, occasionally use abso-
lute frames of reference, as when they say that someone lives to the west of
the bridge, or when they describe themselves as going further inland, or
towards the coast. Some languages, however, only use one of the two: this is
the case with Arrernte.
Apparently the least common frame of reference in the languages of the
world is the intrinsic frame of reference. This system only makes refer-
ence to intrinsic features of figure and ground: ‘the man is at the side of
the tree, the tree is at the chest/face/back of the man’ and so on. In the
intrinsic frame of reference, there is no way of dividing space which is
independent of the objects in it. In languages with other frames of refer-
ence, by contrast, it is possible to refer to regions of space without making
any reference to objects: we can talk about the left side of the picture, or
the eastern side of the picture, for example. These possibilities are not
available in a language with only an intrinsic frame of reference. In the
Men and Tree game, the only way of conveying the pictured spatial rela-
tions is by anchoring the descriptions in the man or the tree themselves:
descriptors which are independent of these objects, like ‘left/right’ or
‘north/south’, are unavailable.
A language using an intrinsic frame of reference is Mopan (Mayan;
Belize). Here is a typical example:

(28) Ka' a-ka'-käx-t-e' a nene' tz’ub’

CONJ 2ACTOR-again-seek-TR-SUBJ_3UNDERGOER ART little child
a. . . t-u-ta’an ke'en-∅ top'-o
ART at-3POSSESSOR -chest be_located-3UNDERGOER bush-ECHO
‘You should find the little child again who . . . has the bush at his
chest.’ (Pederson et al. 1998: 570)

This was the instruction given by the director in the Men and tree game
as a way of identifying photograph 3.3 in Figure 11.3 above. Notice that, as
a matter of fact, there are actually two pictures which meet the descrip-
tion of the tree being at the man’s chest: 3.1 and 3.3. These pictures are
mirror-reflections of each other, differing only in their transverse (left–
right) orientation: precisely the distinction that is not made in intrinsic
frame of reference languages. As a result, speakers of this language consis-
tently failed to differentiate pictures 3.1 and 3.3 in the Men and Tree
game: when prompted to identify 3.3, they chose 3.1, and vice versa.
Mopan provides no means for conveying this distinction.
What about the other pictures involving a left–right contrast, specifi-
cally 3.5 and 3.6? Given our description of Mopan as an intrinsic frame of
reference language, it may come as a surprise to learn that it contains
spatial terms corresponding in form to left and right, lef and rait. But these
terms have a crucial difference in meaning from their English analogues.
In English, left and right project regions of space relative to the speaker.
Looking at picture 3.6, for instance, we would say ‘the bush is on the left
 11.5 Language and thought 411

[of the man]’ or ‘the man is on the right [of the bush]’. This left–right divi-
sion is anchored in the speaker: our left is, of course, the man’s right. This
English form of spatial reference is non-intrinsic: it depends on more than
the inherent features of the reference objects, but invokes a set of coordi-
nates which originate in a speaker external to the scene.
With this in mind, consider the Mopan description of picture 3.6:

(29) Ich rait ke'en-∅ a top'= -o

in right be_located-3UNDERGOER ART bush-ECHO
‘The bush is to the [the man’s] right’:

What the speaker means is that the bush is on the man’s right: a correct
description. This strikingly illustrates the difference between an intrinsic
and a relative frame of reference. In a relative reference frame, left/right
divisions are based on a participant in the speech situation, often the
speaker. On their own, ‘the left’ and ‘the right’ of a picture refer to the
speaker’s left and right, and if this is different from the hearer’s, further
specification is necessary. In Mopan, by contrast, lef and rait refer to parts
of the object, here, the man’s right side. The bush is on the right-hand side
of the man, and this form of spatial identification is exactly parallel to the
one quoted in (28) above. Rait is just like ‘chest’: it refers not to a general-
ized spatial region, but to an intrinsic part of one of the objects in the
scene. ‘Man’s right-hand side’ would thus be a more accurate translation
in this context.
These Mopan results serve as a reminder that notions like the left/right
contrast which we take to be experientially basic and therefore likely to be
present in all languages may not prove to be universal. Claims about what
is and isn’t conceptually or semantically basic should not therefore be
made without close cross-linguistic comparison.

11.5 Language and thought

An age-old philosophical tradition emphasizes the close links between
language and thought. In the Theaetetus (189e–190a) Plato said that
thought is ‘the conversation [logos] the soul has with herself’. (In Ancient
Greek, in fact, logos means both ‘sentence, word, conversation, discourse,
language’ and ‘thought, reason’.) In a clear echo of Plato, the German
philosopher Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803) claimed that lan-
guage is the ‘common understanding of the soul with itself’ (Herder 2002
[1771]: 90). For Herder, language and reason (we would say ‘cognition’) are
intimately connected, perhaps the same thing.
This understanding of the connection between language and thought
had its most influential recent advocate in the linguist Benjamin Lee
Whorf (1897–1941). Whorf believed that the grammatical and lexical cat-
egories of one’s language determine the categories in which we think:
We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages. The
categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we
412 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the
contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions
which has to be organized by our minds – and this means largely by the
linguistic system in our minds. We cut nature up, organize it into con-
cepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties
to an agreement to organize it in this way – an agreement that holds
throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our
language.
(Whorf 1956: 213)
For Whorf, in other words, language itself shapes the categories we use to
reason about the world. Our conceptual categories are derived from the
semantic categories of our native language. This idea is known as linguistic
determinism or the linguistic relativity hypothesis, and is often para-
phrased as the proposal that language determines thought, which thus var-
ies from one language to another. Obviously, this proposal could mean many
different things. ‘Thought’ is an extremely vague expression: it covers con-
scious and subconscious mental processes, reasoning, the holding of beliefs
and desires, and so on. No investigator would be willing to claim that every-
thing we call ‘thought’ is determined by language. In particular, we need to
distinguish thinking in general from thinking for speaking. This latter term
refers to the particular types of cognitive process involved in preparing and
uttering language. Slobin (1996, 2001) and Levelt (1989) emphasize the extent
to which the types of semantic distinctions encoded in language may direct
the speaker to explicitly engage in certain thoughts. For example, a language
which obligatorily encodes a perfective/imperfective contrast on the verb
will require the speaker to subconsciously determine the relevant aspectual
construal of the event being referred to in the lead-up to the utterance.
Similarly, a language with a definite/indefinite contrast on NPs requires the
correct definiteness value to be chosen for every NP, which means that speak-
ers have no choice but to subconsciously attend to this contrast. This process
of thinking for speaking means that the grammatical categories of a lan-
guage must determine thinking for speaking.
It is during first language acquisition that the effects of thinking for
speaking are most noticeable. In learning their native language, the child
gradually learns what kind of conceptual distinctions are relevant in
framing messages:

In learning the language, the speaker (the child) must surely have realized
that the language requires him to attend to certain perceptual or concep-
tual features when he encodes a message. And . . . the child makes charac-
teristic errors that reveal his successive hypotheses about the conceptual
properties required for the assignment of his language’s morphology.
(Levelt 1989: 104–105)

Each native language, in other words, ‘has trained its speakers to pay dif-
ferent kinds of attention to events and experiences when talking about
them’ (Slobin 1996: 89). Languages without an explicit perfective/imper-
fective contrast, for example, do not require speakers to attend to this
 11.5 Language and thought 413

dimension of an event, whereas languages with an explicitly coded defi-

nite/indefinite contrast will require speakers to determine the definite-
ness values of the NPs they mention. Building on Levelt’s and Slobin’s
proposals, Gentner and Boroditsky (2001) qualify the extent to which lan-
guage exerts an influence on conceptualization in child learning. Based
on evidence from language acquisition, they suggest that the conceptu-
alizations referred to by verbs, prepositions, and other relational predi-
cates are linguistically influenced, ‘whereas concrete nouns are in many
cases simply names for preexisting cognitively natural referents’ (2001:
241). According to Gentner and Boroditsky, the denotations of concrete
nouns tend to follow natural partitions – naturally preindividuated per-
ceptual groupings. Nouns like rock, apple and box denote entities which are
highly demarcated from their environment. Acquisition of grammatical
distinctions relevant to these nouns, like number, does not require learn-
ers to attend to aspects of the objects which are not already salient percep-
tually: it is obvious from just looking whether there is one apple, or more
than one. Relational terms, however, like concrete verbs and prepositions,
are more linguistically influenced. In order to learn them, speakers have
to enter the system of semantic distinctions that their language uses.
Learners are forced to go beyond the most perceptually salient aspects of
the referents, and have to actively attend to those specific aspects of the
event relevant to their subsequent linguistic coding.
As a result, acquisition of relational terms is hypothesized to only come
later, after the child has had more exposure to the language. In the same
study, Gentner and Boroditsky show evidence that the hypothesized
acquisition sequence is indeed the one that occurs – concrete nouns are
acquired earlier than verbs. This is true even if the nouns are morpho-
logically more complex, a feature which could be expected to disfavour
their early adoption. Gentner and Boroditsky describe the process as fol-
lows:

Consider the child’s initial task in its simplest terms, as one of attaching
words in the stream of speech to their referents in the stream of expe-
rience. . .Concrete objects and entities have already been individuated
prelinguistically. . .Given a salient potential referent, part of the child’s
task of finding word-referent connections is already solved; it remains
only to find the correct linguistic label. In contrast, for verbs and other
relational terms, isolating the word is only part of the job. The child
must also discover which conflation of the available conceptual elements
serves as the verb’s referent in her language.
(2001: 219)

If language plausibly influences conceptual development through the

demands of thinking for speaking, what happens later? By adulthood,
Levelt suggests that thinking for speaking no longer actively happens:
although conceptualizing and grammatical encoding are interacting
for the language-acquiring child, the mature speaker has learnt what
to encode when preparing a message for expression. He knows by
414 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

experience whether his language requires a category of medial prox-

imity, number, tense, object shape, or whatever is needed, and he will
select the appropriate information in building his preverbal messages.
(Levelt 1989: 105)

This would explain some of the difficulties of second language acquisi-

tion. The process of learning our first language ‘sets’ the mind in a
particular way that sensitizes it to certain distinctions while accustoming
it to ignoring others. Mastery of a second language therefore requires
sensitization to unfamiliar categories, and is correspondingly difficult.
What about cognition that is not purely geared towards speaking? Can
we discern any wider influence of language on non-linguistic thinking
(‘thinking for action’, such as planning sequences of events, or navigating
on a map)? The idea that our thinking in general is influenced by the lan-
guage we speak seems both plausible and implausible. Its plausibility
comes from the following fact: the thought processes of which we are
most consciously aware are precisely the explicitly linguistic ones. The
experiences we call ‘thinking’ usually take place subconsciously. If you
read a sentence that you don’t understand, for example, and stop to think
about it, you usually aren’t aware of any explicit thoughts unfolding in
your mind as you try to work out what it means. Instead, what happens is
that you reread it, or go over it mentally until, suddenly, you understand.
This sudden understanding usually just happens: the pieces just fall
together all at once. We’re not aware of any of the mental processing that
must be going on in the background: it is all below the level of conscious-
ness. Sometimes, though, our thought surfaces in an explicitly conscious
form. Examples of conscious thought include visualizing scenes in the
imagination, performing thought experiments like rotating geometrical
figures, or doing mental arithmetic. One of the most obvious forms of this
self-aware thought is inner speech. Thinking quite often takes the form of
silent talk to oneself. For me, this is often the case for planning sequences
of events. When thinking about what order to do things in, I will often
mentally construct sentences: if I go to the library first, it will be too late to buy
bread, but if there’s no bread there’ll be nothing for lunch tomorrow, so I should go
and get bread first. Experiences like these are apparently common. Because
of them, the idea that thinking actually is linguistic in form seems to
make a lot of sense.
From another point of view, however, the idea that thought is in lan-
guage, and hence determined by whatever language we speak, is most
implausible. We’re frequently aware of how inadequate language is to the
ideas we want to express. Often, for example, words are ambiguous, and
only one of the possible interpretations corresponds to the meaning we
want to convey. Cases like this seem clear evidence of the non-identity of
language and thought: we have a particular intention or meaning that we
want to express, and it just so happens that our language expresses this
meaning ambiguously. Surely this shows that the categories of language
and thought are separate. More evidence of language–thought separabil-
ity comes from coinages and borrowings. We resort to coinages and
 11.5 Language and thought 415

borrowings because it seems that the resources of our native language

aren’t adequate on their own to the ideas we want to express.
The variations in meaning discussed in the previous section provide a
good test case for the linguistic relativity hypothesis. If general cognition
really is determined by the semantics of natural languages, there ought to
be experimental evidence of a correlation between a speaker’s native lan-
guage and their performance in non-linguistic tasks in the relevant
domain. If this correlation was found to exist, it would not be direct evi-
dence that language influences cognition, but would establish a correla-
tion between the two. Further studies would be required to show whether
the correlation was the result of cognition influencing language, or lan-
guage influencing cognition. But if no correlation between language and
thought is found, then that will be a clear refutation of linguistic deter-
minism.
As part of the same study into spatial reference discussed in the previ-
ous section, a team of investigators from the Max Planck Institute for
Psycholinguistics set out to test the linguistic relativity hypothesis. This
research is discussed in a string of books and papers (see the further read-
ing section at the end of the chapter); here, we will rely mainly on the
account in Pederson et al. (1998). After establishing the features of spatial
reference in the languages concerned, Pederson et al. conducted an exper-
iment designed to reveal how speakers of different languages behave in
spatial reasoning tasks. Subjects were presented with three different toy
animals arranged in a row. They were asked to memorize the order of the
animals ‘just as they are’, then turned around 180 degrees and after a
thirty second delay asked to rearrange the animals in the ‘same’ order.
This task thus required subjects to store the order of the animals in
memory, and to draw on these stored memory representations in order to
reproduce the original array. The hypothesis was that the type of spatial
frame of reference characteristic of the language would influence the way
subjects behaved in non-linguistic spatial reasoning tasks.
In principle, two types of result in these non-linguistic tasks are possi-
ble, corresponding to the relative and non-relative (intrinsic/absolute)
frames of reference described in 11.4.5. A subject observing a relative
frame of reference will reconstruct the row of animals in the same left–
right order as the original. If the original array was in the order pig on the
left, horse in the middle and cow on the right, a subject observing a rela-
tive frame of reference will reconstruct the array as pig–horse–cow from
left to right, mirroring the original scheme. This preserves the animals’
orientation with respect to the subject’s own body. On the other hand, a
subject observing an absolute frame of reference will keep the order of the
animals fixed with respect to external anchoring points like the cardinal
points or landmarks. Because of the 180 degree rotation, the order will be
inverted on the transverse (left-right) axis, but fixed with respect to the
external bearings. For such a subject, the animals will be rearranged in
the order cow left, horse middle and pig right.
Pederson et al. found a statistically very highly reliable correlation
between the type of response in the non-linguistic animals-in-a-row task
416 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

and the prevailing frame of reference used in the subject’s native lan-
guage. Speakers of Arrernte, Tzeltal and Longgu, which all have absolute
frames of reference, were likely to reconstruct the animals in an inverted
order which preserved their orientation with respect to the external bear-
ings. In contrast, speakers of Dutch and Japanese, languages with relative
frames of reference, were likely to preserve the left–right order of the
animals, inverting their order with respect to fixed external bearings.
These differences of behaviour were independent of other variables such
as literacy, schooling, sex or age (Levinson et al. 2002: 161). These results do
not mean that speakers are locked into any one form of reasoning. Anyone
is able to reason in any of the three ways at different times, and context
may play a large role in determining which style of reasoning will be
adopted at any one time. The original Max Planck Institute findings are
still controversial, but have stood up to challenge (by, for example, Li and
Gleitman 2002: see Levinson et al. 2002).
This experiment therefore provides evidence of a correlation between
language type and non-linguistic cognition. The frame of reference used in
a language is correlated with the way people conceptualize spatial rela-
tions in non-linguistic reasoning. This is enough to keep the linguistic rela-
tivity hypothesis in the game, but it is not yet enough to confirm it. The
experiment tells us nothing about the direction of any influence between
language and thought. Do speakers behave as they do in the memory task
because their language has moulded the concepts they use to reason spa-
tially? Or does the frame of spatial reference characteristic of a particular
language derive from patterns in the way its speakers think? Many
researchers think the former conclusion is the more likely. Levinson et al.
(2002: 161–162) construct the argument that language moulds thought like
this. Neighbouring, closely related cultures can use an entirely different
mix of reference frames: Mopan, for example, uses intrinsic only, while the
neighbouring Tzeltal, another Mayan language, has absolute and intrinsic
frames. In a case like this, there simply is no other source for the observed
differences in spatial reasoning techniques than the individual’s native
language. As Levinson (2003: 214) puts it, ‘linguistic determinism seems
the most likely explanation for the correlation . . . it would seem to take a
communicative system to induce cognitive uniformity throughout a com-
munity in such an abstract psychological domain’. In the same vein, for
Pederson et al. the language structure manifested in language use provides
individuals with a system of spatial representation:

use of the linguistic system, we suggest, actually forces the speaker to

make computations he or she might otherwise not make. Any particular
experience might need to be later described, and many are. Accordingly
many experiences must be remembered in such a way as to facilitate
this. Since it seems, based on our findings, that the different frames of
reference cannot be readily translated, we must represent our spatial
memories in a manner specific to the socially normal means of expres-
sion. That is, the linguistic system is far more than just an AVAILABLE pat-
tern for creating internal representations: to learn to speak a language
 11.5 Language and thought 417

successfully REQUIRES speakers to develop an appropriate mental repre-

sentation which is then available for nonlinguistic purposes.
(Pederson et al. 1998: 586; emphasis original)
Pederson et al. express confidence that similar effects will be observed in
other areas of language:
We do, however, feel optimistic that these correlations between language
and thought will generalize to some other domains as well – when these
are investigated in the manner described here. The domain of these spa-
tial relations seems especially basic to human experience and is quite
directly linked to universally shared perceptual mechanisms. Since linguis-
tic relativity effects are found here, it seems reasonable that minimally
they could be found in other, less basic domains as well. Finally, there
must be a mechanism at work that creates mental representations consist-
ent with social language use. It seems improbable that such a mechanism
would be specific only to this one domain. Rather, such a mechanism
would potentially operate across many areas of human cognition.
(1998: 586)

Even if Pederson et al. are right that similar effects of language on cogni-
tion exist elsewhere, there is still a substantial body of evidence from
other domains suggesting that Whorfian effects are not pervasive.
Papafragou (2002), for example, investigated path and manner distinc-
tions of the type studied by Talmy (11.4.4). She showed that the differ-
ences between English and Greek in the lexicalization of motion don’t
correlate with any differences in the behaviour of Greek and English
speakers in memory and classification tasks based on these variables.
Subjects don’t differ in their memory or classification for path and man-
ner distinctions, in spite of the differences between their languages.
Malt et al. (1999) studied perceptions of container similarity for bottle
and jar-like objects among speakers of languages which draw the bound-
aries between these categories in very different ways. Speakers of
Argentinian Spanish, Chinese and American English were asked to
undertake sorting tasks in which they had to sort photos of objects into
piles that were physically similar, functionally similar, and similar over-
all. Here again, no significant linguistic relativity effect was found. Malt
et al. conclude as follows:

our correlations suggest that linguistic categories are not even the pri-
mary determinant of perceived similarity. Our data, if anything, suggest
that perception of the similarity among objects remains relatively con-
stant despite wide variation in linguistic category boundaries.
(1999: 258)

Perceptions of similarity among objects are thus not influenced by striking

cross-linguistic differences in the way objects are categorized. This is con-
sistent with the results of Gentner and Boroditsky mentioned earlier. The
challenge for linguistic research is to clarify exactly which domains seem
to involve Whorfian effects like those uncovered in the spatial domain.
418 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

Summary Diachronic and cross-linguistic meaning comparison

presupposes a correct metalanguage
Claims about the variation or change of given meanings necessitate
a particular metalanguage in which the meanings can be described,
a situation which immediately introduces complications since there
is not yet any agreement about what the correct metalanguage for
semantic description is. Linguistics in general, and semantic theory in
particular, assume that languages are mutually translatable in a way
that preserves important meaning components.

Importance of polysemy in meaning change

Meaning change crucially involves polysemy. A word does not suddenly
change from meaning A to meaning B in a single move; instead, the
change happens via an intermediate stage in which the word has both A
and B among its meanings.

The traditional classification of semantic change

The traditional classification of semantic change recognized the fol-
lowing six types:

• Specialization (narrowing), in which a word narrows its range of

reference
• Generalization (broadening), in which a word’s meaning changes to
encompass a wider class of referents
• Pejorization, in which a word takes on a meaning with a less
favourable evaluative force
• Ameliorization, in which a word takes on a meaning with a more
favourable evaluative force
• Metonymy, the process of sense-extension in which a word shifts to
a contiguous meaning
• Metaphor, changes based on similarity or analogy
Conventionalization of implicature
Much modern work on semantic change examines pathways and regu-
larities of semantic change, stressing the role of the conventionaliza-
tion of implicature. This is the theory that semantic change occurs
through the progressive strengthening of the implicatures of expres-
sions in particular contexts, until the implicated meaning becomes
part of the expression’s literal meaning. These explanations can super-
sede ones based on the traditional categories.

Subjectification
An important tendency in semantic change is subjectification. This is
the tendency for meanings to ‘become increasingly based in the speaker’s
subjective belief state/attitude toward the proposition’.
 Summary 419

Perception verbs and the mind-as-body metaphor

Viberg (1984) found a strong cross-linguistic hierarchy governed the poly-
semies of perception verbs. The visual modality of perception is always
the source but never the target of processes of polysemy. The mind-as-
body metaphor is a possible explanation of the extension of ‘see’ verbs
to ‘know/understand’ in Indo-European languages, but is not universal:
many languages draw their ‘know’ verb from verbs for hearing.

Grammaticalization
One particular context for semantic change is grammaticalization,
the process by which open-class content words turn into closed-class
function forms. They do this by losing elements of their meaning, and
by a restriction in their possible grammatical contexts. Study of these
processes has revealed a number of regular pathways which recur
again and again in the world’s languages linking particular open-class
lexemes with particular grammaticalized functions.

Corpus studies of meaning variation

The seeds of semantic change are found in synchronic meaning varia-
tion in everyday discourse. Corpora are useful for semantic analysis
because they can reveal unsuspected patterns of collocation (regular
word combination). Many words cluster in predictable collocational
patterns. Studies of collocation can give surprising results: for exam-
ple, corpus investigation reveals that cause is not used neutrally, but
has a strong tendency to be associated with negative events.

Semantic typology
Because of the problems of determining universals of sense, semantic
typology concentrates on the question of cross-linguistic regularities
in denotation or extension (11.4).

Typology of body-part reference

The human body is a basic and universal aspect of our experience,
but there are remarkably few cross-linguistic generalizations that hold
about the semantics of body-part terms.

Typology of colour-reference
Colour terms have been an important site of cross-linguistic investi-
gation. Berlin and Kay hypothesized that each language has a set of
basic colour terms (BCTs). Basic colour terms in all languages target a
restricted range of colours, but the boundaries between these targets
vary widely. The number of BCTs in a language makes it possible to
predict exactly what the basic colour terms are, and Berlin and Kay
proposed seven types of language, classified according to the number
of BCTs. Berlin and Kay’s findings have been broadly confirmed, but
420 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

there are some significant counterexamples to their typology, as well

as fundamental criticisms of their methodology which cast doubt on
the significance of their approach.

Deictic motion typology

Meanings in the domain of deictic motion, the actions expressed in
English as ‘coming’ and ‘going’, also vary widely cross-linguistically.

Typology of motion, path and manner lexicalization

Talmy (1985) compared how different languages lexicalize the four
elements of motion, path, figure and manner in motion verbs. Talmy
proposed a major typological division between verb-framed and
satellite-framed languages. In verb-framed languages the path compo-
nent is lexicalized in the verb root itself. In satellite-framed languages
it is lexicalized in a satellite element. As well as verb- and satellite-
framed languages, some linguists claim that there is a third type, equi-
pollent languages, in which both path and manner are treated in the
same way. Talmy’s typology has been widely discussed, and the distinc-
tion between verb- and satellite-framing is often invoked as a way of
characterizing how different languages distribute motion information
in the clause. It has been challenged, however, on the grounds that
it artificially targets an abstract motion component in verbs whose
meaning is actually much less abstract.

The typology of spatial reference

A frame of reference is ‘the internally consistent system of projecting
regions of space onto a figure-ground relationship in order to establish
specification of location’ (Pederson et al. 1998: 571). Languages with a
relative frame of reference use spatial expressions with meanings like
‘in front of me/behind me’ and ‘to my left/right’. Other languages con-
tain an absolute frame of reference. This is a system of spatial location
which does not depend on the position of a speech participant, but is
anchored instead in unchanging features of the geography, like uphill/
downhill distinctions, or in the cardinal directions (north, south, east,
west). The least common frame of reference in the languages of the
world is the intrinsic frame of reference. This system only makes refer-
ence to intrinsic features of figure and ground: ‘the man is at the side
of the tree, the tree is at the chest/face/back of the man’ and so on.

The relation of language and thought

Differences in semantic typology raise the question of the influence
between language and thought. Whorf believed that the grammatical
categories of one’s language determine the categories of broader cogni-
tion. This idea is known as linguistic determinism or the linguistic
relativity hypothesis. Thinking in general must be distinguished from
thinking for speaking. The grammatical categories of a language must
determine thinking for speaking. The interesting question is whether
 Exercises 421

they also determine general cognition. Research has found a statisti-

cally very highly reliable correlation between the prevailing frame
of spatial reference used in a language and the types of response in
non-linguistic cognitive tasks. These suggest a limited influence of lan-
guage on general cognition. There are many other domains, however,
where such an effect is not observed.

Further reading
The Oxford English Dictionary copiously documents the history and etymology of English words. Rey et al.
(ed.) (2000) and Kluge (ed.) (1989) are etymological dictionaries of (and in) French and German, respec-
tively. Buck (1949) is a fascinating thesaurus of semantic changes in Indo-European languages. Tryon (ed.)
(1995) is a mammoth equivalent for Austronesian languages. Traugott and Dasher (2002) is a major synthe-
sis on work in semantic change. Williams (1976) is an early attempt to uncover regularity in semantic change.
Wilkins (1996) discusses some interesting changes in Australian languages. On grammaticalization, see Heine
et al. (1991) and Hopper and Traugott (2003). Stubbs (2001) and Jones and Jackson (forthcoming) survey
the field of corpus semantics. Free access to the British National Corpus is available for anyone who signs up
at http://bncweb.lancs.ac.uk/bncwebSignup/. For surveys of work on semantic typology, see Koptjevskaja-
Tamm et al. (2007) and Evans (forthcoming). Volume 28 of Language Sciences (2006) contains a compre-
hensive study of body-part terminology. There is a voluminous literature on colour: Berlin and Kay (1969),
and Hardin and Maffi (eds.) (1997) are good places to start. See Talmy (1985) for the original presentation
of lexicalization patterns. Much of the large literature on spatial reference is referenced in Levinson (2003).
For the relation between language and thought more generally, see Lucy (1992), the chapters in Bowerman
and Levinson (2001) and Gumperz and Levinson (1996).

Exercises
Questions for discussion
1. Many types of semantic change seem to involve a shift from concrete to
abstract meanings. Can you find counterexamples to this from the history
of English? What might explain them?
2. Browse through Buck (1949) in search of interesting meaning develop-
ments. Are there any which can’t be described in any of the terms we
have used in this chapter?
3. The examples of ameliorization and pejorization discussed in this chapter
seem different from other processes of semantic change in that the later
meaning has often displaced the earlier one completely. Can you suggest
why this might be the case?
4. Sweetser’s mind-as-body metaphor is meant to explain the origin of intel-
lectual vocabulary in the vocabulary of vision. But what about the sources
of vision verbs? Look up the etymology of see, discern, examine, scruti-
nize, perceive and behold in the Oxford English Dictionary. Is it possible
to generalize about the sources of these verbs?
5. Lucy (1997: 331) says that the Berlin and Kay colour typology provides a
‘view of the world’s languages through the lens of our own category,
namely, a systematic sorting of each language’s vocabulary by reference
422 SEMANTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE

to how, and how well, it matches our own’. To what extent, if at all, is this
an inevitable feature of cross-linguistic semantic research? What are the
problems it might involve? Is it necessarily problematic?
6. Discuss the problem posed by language change for the attempts to do
semantic typology discussed in this chapter.
7. Consult the entries for the following adjectives in the full version of the
Oxford English Dictionary: smart, stern, kind, decent, coarse, base, merry,
sad, fair, silly, gentle, clever, nasty, mean, honest, poor, happy, naughty.
Which of the mechanisms of semantic change discussed in this chapter
are best able to describe, and account for, these changes? What prob-
lems are there in answering this question?
8. Visit www.doubletongued.org, an online slang and new-word dictionary.
Gather twenty-five single word entries. How far can the categories intro-
duced in 11.2.1 account for the meaning developments documented
there? Are there any types of new meaning which cannot be accommo-
dated? Are there any points where a different description can be given of
the new meaning, allowing it to fit into one of the categories?
9. In the context of their discussion of Australian ‘hear/know’ verbs, Evans
and Wilkins (2000: 581) comment that

it remains possible that there is no one-to-one semantic correspondence

between the English verbs and those in Australian languages. For some
Australian languages one might venture to argue that ‘know’ could be
defined, for example, along lines like ‘because of what I have heard, I say:
X; because I heard it from the right people, I can say: X is true’. Mutatis
mutandis, one might seek to define ‘know’ for Indo-European languages
through the verb ‘see’.

They say that this is a real possibility, but one which needs to be ‘sub-
jected . . .to the testing of careful paraphrasing with native speakers’. What
types of tests could be developed to explore this hypothesis?
10. Compare Cadiot et al.’s critique of Talmy with Lucy’s critique of the Berlin
and Kay colour tradition. Are the two critiques motivated by similar con-
siderations? How valid are they?
11. Read Pederson et al. (1998), followed by Li and Gleitman (2002) and
Levinson et al. (2002). What aspects of the Li and Gleitman critique
survive Levinson et al.’s (2002) rejoinder? How strong is the case for
Whorfian effects in spatial reasoning?
12. Meaning changes often accompany lexical borrowings. For example, in
Atayal (Austronesian, Taiwan), [taŋ] ‘coin’ is borrowed from a word mean-
ing ‘copper, brass’. In Murut (Austronesian, Malaysia), the word for ‘coin’
[usin], is borrowed from Dutch cent ‘cent’. Is it legitimate to treat borrow-
ings like these as instances of semantic change, or are they fundamental-
ly different?
13. Is there any sense in which the collocational tendencies described in
11.3 can be considered part of the words’ meanings? What are the impli-
cations for semantics of corpus studies like those described there?
Glossary
&: Logical symbol for conjunction (‘and’; 6.2).
⊃: Logical symbol for material conditional (‘if . . . then’; 6.2).
: Logical symbol for inclusive disjunction (‘or’; 6.2).
¬: Logical symbol for negation (‘not’; 6.2).
Accomplishment: Aktionsart category referring to durative processes with an inherent end
point beyond which the process cannot continue, e.g. walk to school, draw a
picture, etc. (9.2.2.2).
Achievement: Aktionsart category referring to an instantaneous occurrence occurring
at a point in time, e.g. recognize, find, etc. (9.2.2.2).
Activity: Aktionsart category referring to a durative process which does not have
an inherent endpoint, e.g. run, swim, etc. (9.2.2.2).
Agent: Theta-role referring to the initiator of an action (10.1.1).
Aktionsart: An event’s inherent aspectual classification, irrespective of the aspectual
coding of the verb which expresses it. The four basic Aktionsart classes
are states, achievements, accomplishments and activities. Semelfactives
were added to this list later (9.2.2).
Ameliorization: Meaning change in which a word takes on a meaning with a more favour-
able evaluative force. Cf. pejorization (11.2.1).
Antonymy: The semantic relation of oppositeness (5.1.1).
Argument structure Cases where a single verb can appear with different complementation
alternation: patterns. E.g. load can either appear with the goal argument as direct
object and the theme argument in a with phrase (George loaded the truck
with hay), or with theme as direct object and goal in an onto phrase (George
loaded hay onto the truck). If a verb shows an argument structure alterna-
tion, it is associated with several theta-grids (10.2).
Argument: In logic, the thing of which a predicate is predicated (6.4). A one-place
predicate takes one argument, a two-place predicate two arguments, etc.
(6.4). In syntax, a verb’s arguments are the noun phrases referring to the
participants in the event or state the verb describes, coded as subject,
object, etc. of the verb (10.1).
Aspect: The grammatical category which expresses the internal temporal constit-
uency of an event: whether the event is viewed as a single unanalysable
whole (perfective aspect), or so that the distinct stages of the event are
foregrounded (imperfective aspect) (9.2.2).
Atelic: Aktionsart category referring to processes which do not have any inher-
ent end point, like wander or sweat (9.2.2.2).
Autoantonymy: The situation in which a single word has two antonymous meanings
(5.1.1).
Beneficiary: Theta-role referring to the participant for whose benefit an event took
place (10.1.1).
Binary features: Features with only two possible values, ⫹ or ⫺ (5.2).
424 GLOSSARY

Body-part possessor The argument structure alternation seen in pairs like Terry touched Bill’s
ascension alternation: shoulder/Terry touched Bill on the shoulder (10.2).
Broadening: See generalization.
Causative-inchoative The argument structure alternation exemplified by the pair Jeff cracked/
alternation: ripped/shattered/snapped his credit card (causative) and The credit card cracked/
ripped/shattered/snapped (inchoative) (10.2).
Circular definition: A definition or series of definitions is circular if the words of the definition
contain the word they are meant to define (1.5).
Citation form: The particular morphological variant of a lexeme used to refer to the lex-
eme as a whole, e.g. in dictionaries (1.4.1).
Classical category: A category whose membership can be defined with a list of necessary and
sufficient conditions (7.1).
Cognitive definition: A type of definition which brings about an understanding of the meaning
of a word (2.3.1).
Collocation: Regular word combinations (11.3); the immediate context of words and
morphemes in which a word occurs (2.2.4).
Committedness: The fact that, in many antonym pairs, one antonym is typically ‘uncom-
mitted’, i.e. neutral or unmarked, simply serving to invoke the dimension
of contrast as a whole, without attributing either of the properties to the
noun it qualifies. In the antonym pair hot/cold, hot is the uncommitted
member, as seen by its use in questions like how hot is it? (5.1.1).
Communicative The intention to communicate a meaning. Talking to oneself, for
intention: example, does not involve any communicative intention (1.1).
Componential A type of definitional analysis which breaks meanings down into (usually)
analysis: binary features (5.2).
Composite category: In colour research, a colour category with more than one focus (11.4.2).
Compositionality: An expression is compositional when its meaning is made up, or ‘com-
posed’, of the meanings of its constituent parts (1.4.3).
Compound: Two or more lexemes conjoined into a single conventionalized semantic
unit, such as lunchbox (2.2.1).
Conative alternation: The argument structure alternation exemplified by James hit the fence (non-
conative)/James hit at the fence (conative) (10.2).
Conceptual theory The theory that the meanings of linguistic expressions are
of meaning: concepts (1.6.2).
Conclusion: In logic, a proposition deduced from premises by an argument (6.1).
Conjuncts: Conjoined propositions. ‘Julie likes cheese and Xavier likes chips’ has two
conjuncts: ‘Julie likes cheese’ and ‘Xavier likes chips’ (6.2).
Connotation: An expression’s connotation is those aspects of its meaning which do not
affect its sense or denotation, but which have to do with secondary fac-
tors such as its emotional force, its level of formality, its character as a
euphemism, etc. (1.4.2).
Constative: In Austin’s theory of speech acts, an utterance is constative if it describes
or states facts about a situation (4.1.1).
Construction: Any form–meaning pair. In construction grammar, constructions are the
conventionalized ‘patterns’ with which semantic representations are asso-
ciated. The caused motion construction, the resultative construction and
the intransitive motion construction are all examples of constructions
(10.3).
 Glossary 425

Contextual The way in which the meaning of a lexeme varies slightly depending on
modulation: the other lexemes with which it cooccurs (2.2.4).
Contradiction: A pair of propositions with opposite truth values. There are three types of
contradictions, contradictories, subcontraries and contraries (6.6.3).
Contradictories: Contradiction whose two members always have opposite truth values to
each other: if one is true, the other must be false, and if one is false, the
other must be true (6.6.3).
Contraries: Contradiction whose two members can both be false at the same time but
cannot both be true (6.6.3).
Conventional In Grice’s theory of communication, an implicature based on the
implicature: conventional meaning or typical force of the word (4.3.2).
Conventionalization Mechanism of semantic change in which pragmatically
of implicature: generated implications become part of the expression’s meaning
(11.2.2).
Conversational In Grice’s theory of communication, conversational implicatures are
implicature: those that arise in particular contexts of use, without forming part of
the expression’s characteristic or conventional force (4.3.2).
Conversational In Grice’s theory of communication, the principles which speakers
maxims: mainly observe, and expect others to observe, in conversation. There are
four general maxims: quality, quantity, relevance and manner (4.4).
Cooperative In Grice’s theory of communication, the principle that the participants
principle: in a conversation recognize a common purpose or direction for the con-
versation, and work together to achieve it (4.4).
Corpus Any collection of texts which serves as an empirical basis for linguistic
(plural: corpora): research (11.3).
Decomposition: Applied to meaning, the process of analysis which consists of breaking an
expression’s meaning down into a number of separate parts (6.7).
Definiendum The object language word whose meaning is being or has been
(plural: definienda): defined (2.3.3).
Definiens (plural: The metalanguage word(s) proposed as an expression’s
definientia or definientes): definition (2.3.3).
Definite Singular terms like the President of Iraq referring to a single, specific
descriptions: individual. In English, definite descriptions are usually expressed by noun
phrases starting with the. Definite descriptions contrast with ambiguous
descriptions, which contain the indefinite article and do not refer to a sin-
gle specific individual: a President of Iraq (6.8).
Definition by Defining a word by describing the context in which its referent typically
context: occurs (e.g. defining glass with ‘what you usually drink water out of’)
(2.3.4).
Definition by genus Defining a word by specifying the broader class (the genus) to
and differentia which the definiendum belongs, and then showing the distinguishing
(GD definition): feature of the definiendum (the differentia) which distinguishes it from
the other members of this broader class (2.3.5).
Definition by typical Defining a word by specifying a typical example (e.g. specifying
exemplar: ‘robin’ for bird) (2.3.4).
Definitional test A type of polysemy test which identifies the number of senses of a word
for polysemy: with the number of separate definitions needed to convey its meaning
accurately (5.3.2).
426 GLOSSARY

Deictic: Expression whose interpretation always depends on reference to the per-

sonal, spatial, or temporal context of the utterance. The referents of deic-
tic expressions vary with the situation in which they are used. Examples
of deictics in English are this, here, there and now (3.2.3).
Deictic centre: The anchoring point from which the meaning of a deictic expression is
determined. The deictic centre of here and there is the spatial location of
the speaker (11.4.3).
Deictic motion: A class of motion event expressed with reference to a deictic centre, such
as ‘coming’ and ‘going’ in English (11.4.3).
Demonstrative: A deictic pronoun or adjective like English this or that (3.2.3).
Denotation, The entire class of objects to which a linguistic expression correctly
denotatum refers (1.4.2; 3.3.2).
(plural: denotata):
Dictionary meaning: A word’s inherent, linguistic meaning (3.3).
Disjunctive definition: A definition that contains two clauses linked by ‘or’ (5.3.2).
Distal: A class of demonstratives, equivalent to that in English, which is used to
refer to objects not in the immediate vicinity of the deictic centre. Cf.
proximal (3.2.3).
Distributional A criterion for part of speech classification, which assigns words to part
criterion: of speech categories on the basis of their morphosyntactic properties
and/or distribution (9.1.2.1).
Durative Event which occurs over a period of time, e.g. sleep. Contrasts with punc-
tual (9.2.2.2).
Embodied A conceptualization which originates in basic physical experience
conceptualization: (7.2.3).
Encyclopaedic Factual information about a word’s denotation (3.3).
meaning:
Entailment: The relation between propositions where the truth of the first guarantees
the truth of the second. P entails Q if whenever P is true, Q must be true (6.6.1).
Epistemic modality: A type of modality expressing the speaker’s subjective belief state towards
the proposition. Might in it might already be raining is an example of episte-
mic modality, since it shows that the speaker is uncertain about whether
it is raining or not (11.2.2).
Equipollent A class of gradable antonyms: they are symmetrical in their distribution
antonyms: and interpretation, with neither member of the pair having an uncom-
mitted use (5.1.1).
Event structure: The arrangement of subevents like CAUSE, ACT or BECOME within the
semantic representation of a verb (10.2).
Exemplar theory of A theory of categorization in which categories are structured
categorization: around a particular example of the category as stored in long-term memory
(7.1.4.1).
Existential In logic, the operation which says that a predicate is true of at least one
quantification: entity in a domain. The symbol for existential quantification is ∃, the
existential quantifier. ∃(x) is read as ‘there is at least one x, such that . . .’
(6.4).
Experiencer: Theta-role referring to the entity that feels or perceives something (10.1.1).
Extension: The items to which a predicate applies. The extension of an n-place predi-
cate is a set of ordered n-tuples of entities. Cf. intension (6.5).
 Glossary 427

Extensional A definition which precisely identifies the denotation of the definiendum

definition: (2.3.1).
Felicity conditions: The conditions under which performative utterances are appropriate (3.4.2).
Figure: Any object which is distinguished from a background (the ground). A word
on a page is an example of a figure (7.2.3; 11.4.5).
Focus: The focus of a colour term is the best example of the colour to which the
term refers (11.4.2).
Frame of reference: An internally consistent system of spatial reference. Different frames of refer-
ence are the absolute frame of reference, the intrinsic frame of reference and
the relative frame of reference (11.4.5).
Generalization: A type of semantic change in which a word’s meaning changes to encom-
pass a wider class of referents. Contrasts with specialization (11.2.1).
Goal: Theta-role referring to the entity towards which motion takes place (10.1.1).
Gradable antonyms: A gradable pair of antonyms names points on a scale which contains a
midpoint (e.g. hot and cold). Gradable antonyms are open to comparison
(hotter, colder) (5.1.1).
Grammatical The traditional part of speech categories like Noun, Verb, Determiner, etc.
categories: Also known as lexical categories (9.1.1).
Grammaticalization: The process of semantic bleaching and grammatical category change by
which lexical forms develop into grammatical ones (11.2.3).
Ground: The background against which an object (the figure) stands out. The page
on which a word is written is an example of a ground (7.2.3; 11.4.5).
Holonym: A word x is the holonym of another word y if y is part of x. Arm is the hol-
onym of hand (5.1.2).
Homonymy: The situation where two unrelated meanings happen to be expressed by
the same phonological form (e.g. bank, which means both ‘edge of river’
and ‘financial institution’) (5.3.1).
Hypernym: see hyperonym.
Hyperonym: A higher term in a hyponymic hierarchy. Musical instrument and stringed
instrument are both hyperonyms of violin (5.1.3).
Hyponym: A lower term in a hyponymic hierarchy. Violin is a hyponym of musical
instrument and stringed instrument (5.1.3).
Idiom: A non-compositional expression, e.g. ‘throw in the towel’ (1.4.3).
Illocutionary force: In Austin’s theory of speech acts, the status of an utterance as a warning,
request, statement, etc. (3.4.1).
Image Schemas: In cognitive semantics, conceptual categories such as CONTAINMENT, SOURCE-
PATH-GOAL, FORCE, BALANCE and others, arising from basic patterns of repeat-
ed experience (7.2.3).
Imperfective aspect: An aspectual category emphasizing the internal temporal constituency or
duration of the situation or event, so that the distinct stages of the event
are foregrounded. Often expressed by ‘progressive’ or ‘continuous’ forms
of the verb (9.2.2).
Implicature: In Grice’s theory of communication, an utterance’s implicatures are what
it is necessary to believe the speaker is thinking, and intending the hearer
to think, in order to account for what they are saying. Often equivalent to
‘implied meaning’ (4.3).
Inchoative alternation: See causative/inchoative alternation.
Indexical: See deictic.
428 GLOSSARY

Indirect speech act: A speech act whose illocutionary force does not match the overt form of
words used. For example, a statement used as a request (4.2).
Individual constants: See singular terms.
Inheritance A structure of hyponymically related words in which each word inherits
hierarchy: the information associated with its hyperonyms (8.2.1).
Instrument: Theta-role referring to the object with which an action is performed (10.1.1).
Intension: A predicate’s intension is its meaning or definition. The intension of the
predicate eat, for example, could be described as ‘ingest solid’, or any
other appropriate definition. A predicate’s intension can be seen as the
criteria that something has to meet in order to qualify as a member of
the set denoted by the predicate. Anything that meets the criterion of
‘ingesting solid’ fulfils the intension of eat. Cf. extension (6.5).
Intentional- View of communication as a process in which hearers try to infer
inferential theory speakers’ intentions on the basis of the ‘clues’ provided by their
of communication: utterances (4.2).
Intentionality: The property a thought has of being directed to, or about, something
other than itself (3.2).
Landmark: See trajector.
Lexeme: The abstract unit which unites all the morphological variants of a single
word and which is the unit whose meaning is principally described in
lexical semantics (1.4.1).
Lexical categories: See grammatical categories.
Lexical semantics: The study of the meaning of individual words as opposed to that of phrases,
grammatical constructions and sentences (1.4.3).
Lexical synonymy: Synonymy between individual lexemes (5.1.5).
Lexicalization: A meaning is lexicalized when it is expressed by a single form in a lan-
guage (11.1).
Linguistic ideology: The set of ideas, values and attitudes that speakers have about language (2.1).
Linguistic relativity In Whorf and neo-Whorfian approaches, the proposal that our conceptual
hypothesis: categories are derived from the semantic or grammatical categories of
our native language. Also called linguistic determinism (11.5).
Location: Theta-role referring to place where the action occurs (10.1.1).
Locative alternation: The argument structure alternation exemplified by pairs like Seth loaded
the cart with hay (with variant) and Seth loaded hay onto the cart (locative vari-
ant) (10.2).
Locutionary act: In Austin’s theory of speech acts, the act of expressing the basic, literal
meanings of the words chosen (3.4.1).
Logical form: The underlying logical structure of propositions and arguments (6.1).
Logical operators: The elements &,  (inclusive or), X-OR (exclusive or), ¬ (not) and ⊃ (if . . .
then). Also called propositional connectives (6.2).
Logical test for A type of polysemy test, according to which an expression is polysemous
polysemy: if it can be simultaneously true and false of the same referent (5.3.2).
Material conditional: A logical operator symbolized by ⊃ and roughly corresponding to the
meaning of English if . . . then (6.2).
Maxim-flouting: In Grice’s theory of communication, the situation where the speaker
exploits an obvious infringement of one of the conversational maxims in
order to generate an implicature (4.4.1).
 Glossary 429

Meaning postulate: Logical statements which specify the relations that obtain between the
different lexemes of a language. For example, the synonymy between
phone and telephone can be captured in a meaning postulate that states
that ‘For every x, if x is a phone then x is a telephone’ (6.7).
Mental lexicon: The stock of words and associated meanings that are stored in long-term
memory (2.1.1).
Mental Fixed mental content which is instantiated in our minds in some stable,
representation: finite medium and manipulated in the process of thought (1.6.2).
Meronym: A term x denoting a part of another term y. Finger is a meronym of hand
(5.1.2).
Metalanguage: The language in which meanings are described (1.5).
Metalinguistic: Metalinguistic knowledge is the explicit, conscious knowledge we have
about language. It contrasts with linguistic knowledge, which is the inex-
plicit, unconscious knowledge we have of our native language (7.1.4.5).
Metaphor: An important variety of figurative language traditionally defined as the
use of an expression in a sense which resembles its literal meaning. In the
expression he is loaded down with responsibilities, loaded down is used meta-
phorically, since it does not refer to actual physical burdens, but to things
(responsibilities) resembling them. Metaphor is also a type of meaning
change based on analogy or similarity between two objects or concepts
(7.2.4; 11.2.1).
Metonymy: An important variety of figurative language traditionally defined as the
use of an expression in a sense contiguous to its literal meaning (e.g. in
the kettle is boiling, kettle is metonymic for ‘the water in the kettle’).
Metonymy is also a process of meaning change in which a word shifts to a
contiguous meaning (7.2.4; 11.2.1).
Middle alternation: The argument structure alternation which involves theme as the only
subcategorized argument of an otherwise transitive verb, e.g. the bread cuts
easily (10.2).
Model: In logic, the model of a set of formulae is a set of statements which
assigns referents or extensions to each expression of the formulae (6.5).
Monosemy: The situation where a word has a single meaning (5.3.1).
Morpheme: The minimal meaning-bearing unit (2.2.1).
Multicategoriality: The situation in which roots may appear as different parts of speech
(9.1.2.3).
Narrowing: See specialization.
Necessary and Conditions on definition or category membership. The necessary and
sufficient conditions: sufficient conditions of category membership are the minimum condi-
tions an entity must meet if it is to be counted as a member of that cate-
gory (7.1.1).
Node: In corpus linguistics, the term for word (11.3).
Nominal definition: A description of the meaning of a word. Cf. real definition (2.3.1).
Non-natural meaning Term introduced by Grice to describe the type of intention-dependent
(meaningNN): meaning characteristic of human language (3.5).
Object language: The language whose meanings are described. Cf. metalanguage (1.5).
Occurrence: Aktionsart category (opposed to state) referring to dynamic events in
which something happens (9.2.2.2).
430 GLOSSARY

Onomatopoeia: The situation in which an expression bears a phonological resemblance

to its meaning/referent (1.3).
Ostension: A means of definition which consists simply of pointing to the referent of
the word whose meaning is to be defined (1.6.1).
Ostensive-inferential View of communication in which the communicator provides
communication: a symbolic stimulus which, combined with the context, enables the
hearer to infer their meaning (3.9).
Paradigmatic The relations between expressions which determine the choice of one
relations: expression over another in any given context. All lexical relations (syno-
nymy, antonymy, etc.) are paradigmatic relations (5.1.1).
Participant roles: See thematic roles.
Path: In Talmy’s theory of motion lexicalization, Path is the route traversed by
a moving object (11.4.4).
Patient: See theme.
Pejorization: A meaning change in which a word takes on a derogatory or less favoura-
ble evaluative meaning (11.2.1).
Perfect tense: Tense usually described as denoting a past action which has some rele-
vance to the current situation. In English, formed with HAVE and the past
participle (9.2.1.2).
Perfective aspect: Aspectual category which presents the situation as an undivided whole,
without foregrounding any internal structure (9.2.2).
Performative: In Austin’s theory of speech acts, a performative utterance is one which
does not describe or state any facts, but which itself constitutes the per-
forming of an action. Typical examples are the acts of warning, promis-
ing, and guaranteeing, etc. Explicit performatives are introduced by the
words ‘I warn . . .’, ‘I promise . . .’, ‘I guarantee . . .’ and so on. The same
utterances without these introductions are implicit performatives
(4.1.1).
Perlocutionary act: In Austin’s theory of speech acts, the act of producing an effect in the
hearer by means of the utterance (4.1.1).
Phonological word: A unit which bears only a single primary stress (2.2.1).
Phrasal semantics: The study of the principles which govern the construction of phrase and
sentence meaning out of combinations of individual lexemes (1.4.3).
Phrasal synonymy: Synonymy between expressions consisting of more than one lexeme
(5.1.5).
Phrasal verb: A combination, functioning as a single unit, of one ‘full’ verb and one or
more particles, often with an idiomatic meaning. Make up (‘invent’) is a
phrasal verb (2.2.1).
Polysemy: The situation where a word has two or more related senses (5.3.1).
Pragmatics: The branch of linguistics which studies utterance meaning and the prin-
ciples of contextual language use (1.4.4; 3.1; 4.7).
Predicate: In logic, terms which represent properties or relations, such as ‘primate’,
‘hairy’ or ‘adore’. Predicates are symbolized by upper case letters (6.4). In
grammar more generally, predicate is an alternative term for ‘verb’, or for
any part of speech which attributes a property to a referent.
Predicate logic (also A branch of logic that studies the logical form of propositions
quantificational/ involving expressions of individual constants, predicates and quantifiers.
first-order logic): Predicate logic contrasts with propositional logic (6.4).
 Glossary 431

Predicative function: When an expression has a predicative function, it is non-referring and its
role is to give information about an entity which has already been identi-
fied (3.2.2.2).
Premise: An argument’s premise is its starting-point, one of the propositions from
which the conclusion follows (6.1).
Presupposition: A proposition p presupposes another proposition q if both p and the
negation of p entail q (6.6.2).
Principle of relevance: In Relevance Theory, the principle that every utterance ‘communicates a
presumption of its own optimal relevance’ (Sperber and Wilson 1995:
158). By the very act of saying something to a hearer, a speaker implies
that the utterance is the most relevant that they could have produced
under the circumstances, and that it is at least relevant enough to warrant
the hearer’s attention (4.6).
Productivity: The fact that the vocabulary of any given language can be used to con-
struct a theoretically infinite number of sentences, by varying the way in
which the words are combined (1.4.3).
Projected referents: Referents as they are subjectively present to the mind of the language
user, as distinct from how they actually are in the objective world (1.6.1).
Projectionist accounts: Theories of argument structure and alternations based on the verb’s
semantic representation, which ‘projects’ (determines) its syntactic behav-
iour (10.3).
Proposition: A premise or conclusion of an argument, capable of being true or false
(6.2).
Propositional See logical operators.
connectives:
Propositional logic: A branch of logic that studies relations between propositions (6.2).
Proto-roles: Two categories of theta-role, Proto-Agent and Proto-Patient, proposed in
Dowty’s theory of thematic structure. Each is characterized by a set of ver-
bal entailments (10.1.3).
Prototype: The prototype of a category is the central tendency of the category’s mem-
bers. Prototypical category members are those which share the most
attributes with other members of their category, and the fewest with
members of other categories. A sparrow is a more prototypical example
of the category BIRD than a penguin (7.1.3).
Proximal: A class of demonstratives, equivalent to this in English, used to refer
to objects in the immediate vicinity of the deictic centre. Cf. distal
(3.2.3).
Psych-verbs: Verbs signifying mental states (remember, know, regret, etc.) (10.1.2).
Punctual: A punctual event is a virtually instantaneous one that involves almost no
time, e.g. blink. Contrasts with durative (9.2.2.2).
Qualia structure: In Pustejovsky’s approach to semantics, an aspect of the semantics of
nouns that reflects those aspects of the referent of a noun which are cru-
cial for our common-sense understanding of how things interact in the
world. A noun’s qualia structure has four aspects, its Constitutive Role,
Formal Role, Telic Role and Agentive Role, which together constitute the
framework for the word’s meaning (8.2.3).
Quantifiers: The logical expressions ‘some’ and ‘all’, symbolized by the operators ∃
and ∀ respectively (6.4).
432 GLOSSARY

Radial category: Type of lexical category in which the expression’s central meaning is
associated with a number of extended (metaphorical/metonymic) mean-
ings which cannot be predicted by general rules (7.2.5).
Real definition: A summation of the essence or inherent nature of a thing. Cf. nominal
definition (2.3.1).
Reductive paraphrase: Form of definition in which the meaning of an expression is exhaustively
described through paraphrase into a finite set of semantic primitives
(2.5).
Reference: (i) The objects to which a expression refers. In this use it is a synonym
of ‘referent’; (ii) the act by which a speaker refers to a referent (1.4.2;
3.2).
Register: A particular style of language used for a certain social function or situa-
tion (2.4).
Resultative Construction realizing the meaning X CAUSES Y TO BECOME Z, e.g in Sam bent
construction: the wire straight (10.3).
Satellite: In Talmy’s approach to motion lexicalization, an element (other than
inflections, auxiliaries or nominal arguments) which combines immedi-
ately with a verb to form a verbal complex. In Helen ran away, away is a sat-
ellite (11.4.4).
Satellite-framed Languages (like English) in which the path component of motion
languages: expressions is expressed in a satellite element (11.4.4).
Scalar implicature: A class of implicature which depends on the existence of a scale or
ordered set of increasingly stronger meanings with relations of entail-
ment between them. For example, some and all are members of a scale of
quantity, in which some is weaker than all and all entails some. Thus use of
some typically gives rise to the scalar implicature not all (4.3.1).
Semantic primitives: Hypothesized fundamental units of meaning which cannot be broken
down into anything conceptually simpler (2.5).
Semantic roles: See thematic roles.
Semelfactive: Aktionsart category referring to punctual, single-instance events like
cough, knock, blink, flap (a wing) (9.2.2.2).
Sense: For Frege, the way in which we grasp/understand the object denoted by a
linguistic expression. One way of thinking of an expression’s sense is as
the mode of presentation of its referent: the way in which the referent is
presented to our understanding (3.2.1). More generally, a lexeme’s sense is
its general meaning which would be translated from one language to
another; the concept or essential idea underlying the word (1.4.2).
Sentence meaning: The compositional meaning of the sentence as constructed out of the
meanings of its individual component lexemes (1.4.3).
Singular terms (also In logic, terms referring to individuals, usually symbolized as
individual constants): lower case letters (6.4).
Sound arguments: Valid arguments which have true premises (6.1).
Source: Theta-role expressing the entity from which motion takes
place (10.1).
Span: In corpus linguistics, the number of words taken into account before and
after the node (11.3).
Specialization: A type of meaning change in which a word narrows its range of reference.
Opposite of generalization (11.2.1).
 Glossary 433

State: Aktionsart category (opposed to occurrence) referring to situations

viewed as steady and unchanging, without any sequence of internal
phases/changes. States exist or obtain, whereas events happen (9.2.2.2).
Subcategorization: The relationship between a verb and its (obligatory) arguments, usually
described in theta-role terms. Hug subcategorizes an agent and a theme;
put subcategorizes an agent, theme and goal (10.1.1).
Subcontraries: Pair of propositions whose two members cannot be simultaneously false,
but can be simultaneously true. Some people are happy and some people are
not happy are subcontraries (6.6.3).
Subjectification: The tendency for meanings to ‘become increasingly based in the speaker’s
subjective belief state/attitude toward the proposition’ (Traugott) (11.2.2).
Syllogism: In logic, an argument in which a conclusion is deduced from premises.
All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore Socrates is mortal is an example
of a syllogism (6.1).
Synonymy: The situation where two expressions have the same meaning (5.1.5; 2.3.3).
Target: A metaphor’s target is the concept which is being understood metaphori-
cally. In the metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY the target concept is love (7.2.4).
Taxonymy: A type of hyponymy, relevant to biological classification, in which each
hyponym is understood as a strict biological subclass of the hyperonym
(5.1.4).
Telic: Telic events have an inherent final point beyond which they cannot con-
tinue. Reading a novel, shaving one’s head, and changing a light bulb are
all telic events (9.2.2.2).
Tense: The name of the morphological category used to signal the location of sit-
uations in time (9.2.1).
Thematic roles Categories such as agent, experiencer, goal, theme, etc., used to describe
(theta-roles): the underlying semantics and argument structure of verbs (10.1).
Theme: Theta-role referring to the entity that undergoes an action, undergoes
motion, is experienced or perceived (10.1).
Trajector: A moving or conceptually movable object whose path or site is at issue. Its
location is specified with respect to a landmark (7.2.3).
Transitivity: (i) The verbal property of taking both subject and object arguments; (ii) A
transitive relation is one such that if it holds between A and B, and
between B and C, it also holds between A and C. Some examples of transi-
tive relations are identity and meronymy: If A is B, and B is C, then A is C;
if A is a meronym of B, and B is a meronym of C, then A is also a mero-
nym of C (5.1.2).
Transverse relations: Left–right relations (11.4.5).
Trigger: The sentence whose presuppositions are in question. The fourth Monday in
September is a holiday is the trigger for the presupposition ‘there is a
fourth Monday in September’ (6.6.2).
Truth-functional The view that knowing the meaning of an expression consists
view of meaning: in knowing the conditions under which it is true (4.3.1).
Truth-functionality: A logical operator is truth-functional if the truth of the complex proposi-
tion of which it forms part depends solely on the truth of the original
simple proposition to which the operator was added. The logical opera-
tors &,  (inclusive or), X-OR (exclusive or), ¬ (not) and ⊃ (if . . . then) are all
truth-functional (6.2).
434 GLOSSARY

Truth-table: A table which displays the way in which logical operators affect the truth
of the propositions to which they attach (6.2).
Truth-value: A proposition’s status as true or false (3.2.1).
Underspecification: The idea that an expression’s sense is vague over values which are speci-
fied contextually (3.3.1).
Universal The logical operation which applies a predicate to every entity in the
quantification: domain in question. Universal quantification is symbolized by ∀ and con-
veyed in English by such expressions as all, every, everything, and each and
every (6.4).
Utterance meaning: The meaning which an expression has on a particular occasion of use in
the particular context in which it occurs. Sometimes called speaker
meaning. Contrasts with sentence meaning (1.4.4).
Validity: A valid argument is one in which, if the premises are true, the conclusion
must necessarily also be true (6.1).
Vehicle: A metaphor’s vehicle is the concept which is used to conceptualize the
metaphor’s target. In the metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY the vehicle concept is
journey (7.2.4).
Verb-framed Languages (like Spanish) in which the path component is lexicalized in
languages: the verb root itself (11.4.4).
X-or: Exclusive disjunction (6.2).
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Index
Aarts, B. 224 Aristotle 28, 46, 63, 67, 94, 163, 174, 206, 246, 295, 319
accomplishments 321 Arrernte 105, 399, 400, 411
feature analysis 324 articles 295
vs activities 322, 323 artificial intelligence 76, 270
achievements 320, 321, 323–329 Ashby, W. 386
feature analysis 324 Aspect 54, 314–319, 412
onset and coda phases 325 in discourse 316
vs activities/accomplishments 322, 326 interaction with tense 329
activities 321 perfective vs imperfective 315–319, 320
feature analysis 324 assertion 108
vs accomplishments 322, 323 Assiniboine 328
activities, scheduling of 265, 266 Atran, Scott 146, 147, 150
Adelaar, K. A. 270 Atsugewi 401
adjectives 289, 291, 293, 302 attention 238
and properties 297 Auroux, Sylvain 49
adjuncts 337, 340, 361 Austin, John L. 108, 109, 111–114, 122
adverbs 289 Australian Aboriginal languages 382, 383
temporal 208 Australian English 375
Adzera 377 Austronesian languages 99, 147, 149, 270, 303, 306, 375, 377,
Afro-Asiatic languages 138, 301 391, 400, 401
Afro-Iberian creole 403 autoantonymy 139
agent theta-role 338, 340, 342, 345 autonomy of linguistic meaning 112
aggregates 268
Aikhenvald, A. Y. 50–52, 144, 145 Bach, Kent 186
Aitchison, Jean 71 Bache, C. 324
Aktionsart 319–329 Bakhtin, M. M. 122
Algic languages 150 Baldinger, Kurt 156
Algonquian languages 145 Barclay, J. R. 234
all (logic), see quantification, universal Bare 52
Allan, Keith 71, 143, 144 Barsalou, L.W. 179, 216, 230
allatives 379 Barwise, J. 92, 189
Allwood, Jens 167, 195, 198 basic colour terms 393
Alpher, Barry 154 Basque 402
Altaic languages 138 Battig, W. F. 232
alternations, see argument structure Baugh, John 186
ameliorization 375, 377 behaviourism 36
American English 374 beneficiary theta-role 338, 340
American languages 56, 57 Berlin, B. 143, 147, 148
American Sign Language 391 Berlin, Brent 392, 395–398
anaphora 165 binarity of features 155
and (logic), see operators, logical binomial labels 148
animal terms 375 Blakemore, Diane 110
antecedent 183, 184 Bloomfield, Leonard 36, 37, 51, 63, 64
antonymy 137–140, 153, 210, 275 Bloor, M. 299
Apalai 99 Bloor, T. 299
apologies 215 body-part possessor ascension alternation 354, 356
Apresjan, Juri 76 body-parts
Arabic 138, 317, 326 polysemy 140
Arabic (Egyptian) 326 typology 370, 390–392
Arawak languages 52 Boguraev, Branimir 280, 281
argument structure 336–353, 361 Bohnemeyer, Jürgen 74
alternations 352–358 Bolinger, Dwight 152
Jackendoff’s theory of 348–350 Boroditsky, Lera 255, 413, 417
arguments 191, 263 borrowings, see coinages
semantic 349 Botne, Robert 325–329
452 INDEX

boundedness, see telicity communication 30, 130, 142

Bourciez, E. 375, 386 cross-cultural 142
brain states 32–36 intentional-inferential 115, 116, 119, 124, 125
break verbs 355 ostensive-inferential 124
Bréal, Michel 4, 129, 373 strong 130
Brecht, Bertolt 401 comparison 137, 138
Breedlove, D. 147 complements 337
Breheny, Richard 125 completion, relevance to aspect 315–317
Brentano, Franz 90 componential analysis 154–160, 210
Bright, J. O. 150 composite coour categories 395
Bright, W. 150 compositionality 19–21, 29, 38
brightness 397 compounds 54
broadening, see generalization computation 270–272, 283
Brown, Cecil H. 140, 148 computational theories 174, 216
Brugman, Claudia 244 computers 270
Bunaq 149 Comrie, Bernard 312
Burenhult, Niclas 390–392 conative, English 353–356, 362
Burmese 145 concepts 27–32, 46, 71, 74, 79, 157
Bybee, Joan 376, 378, 379 collective 159, 210
primitive 28, 72
Cadiot, Pierre 404–407 conclusion (logic) 175
Carib languages 99 conditions, necessary and sufficient 224–228
Carnap, Rudolph 129, 210 conduit metaphor 28, 167
Carnie, Andrew 299, 337, 338 conjunction 116, 117, 181, 182, 186
case 336, 337 Conklin, H. C. 147, 398
categorization 224–237 connotation 19, 90, 153, 388, 389
classical theory of 224–228 consequent 183, 184
colour 226 constants, individual, see singular terms
exemplar theories of 235 constative function 109, 112, 113
prototype theory of 228–237 constituent, conceptual 263
radial structures in 253, 254 constructions 360
causative 267, 349 content words 384
causative-inchoative alternation 356 context, immediate 279, 280
caused motion construction 361, 362 contradictions 204–209
Celtic languages 401 contradictories 205–207
Chaffin, Roger 141 contraries 205, 206
Channell, Joanna 388, 389 conventionalization 253, 254
chemistry 39 conversives 139
Chickasaw 289 cooperative principle 119–122
Chidambaram, V. 364 Copernicus 358, 359
Chierchia, Gennaro 196 Cordilleran languages 55
Chinese 13, 51, 74, 98, 138, 139, 317–319, 387 core meaning 255
Chomsky, Noam 37, 155, 238, 270, 337 corpora 271, 387
Chor, W. 12 corpus linguistics 387
Chung, Sandra 311, 312 corpus semantics 386–389
citation form 17 Coseriu, E. 156, 159
Clark, Eve V. 139 Cree 145
Clark, Herbert H. 139 Croft, William 289
Clarke, David 377 Cruse, D. Alan 57, 138, 139, 143, 147, 151, 152, 235
classifier languages 144–146 Cuartero Otal, Juan 404
noun classifiers 144, 145 Culicover, Peter W. 344, 352
verb classifiers 145 Cup’ik 17
Claudi, Ulrike 385 Curme, G. O. 296
Cocama 312 cut verbs 355
cognitive science 76
coinages 414 Dagbani 52
Coleman, Linda 232 Dahl, Östen 328
collocation 57, 60–62, 387–389 Dasher, Richard B. 374, 380, 381
colour terminology 157 Davidson, Donald 112
typology of 392–399 Davis, H. 303
Comanche 57 de dicto contexts, see opaque contexts
commands 215 declaratives 215, 216, 288
committedness 138, 139 decomposition, semantic 262–270, 348
 Index 453

defeasibility 93, 101 East Papuan languages 392

definiendum 66 Eastern Mediterranean languages 52
definiens 66 Egbokhare, Francis 55
definiteness 412 Einhorn, E. 385
definition 23, 24, 62–80, 136, 155, 157 Ejagham 396
by context 159, 211, 236 Ellen, R. 149, 150
by exemplar 66 Emai 55
by genus and differentia 67 embodiment 241, 406
circular 67–69 embryology 39
cognitive 23–26, 70, 71 emotion 14
disjunctive 64, 66, 67, 68, 75, 79 encyclopedia 100–105, 114, 240, see also dictionary
extensional 163 Enfield, N. 391
inadequacy of 64, 66, 67, 75, 79 English 13
in law 225, 226 antonymy in 138, 139
nominal 79 as a metalanguage 23
ostensive 63, 64, 79 basic colour terms 393
real 65 categorization 232
scientific 63, 64 deixis 98, 99
deictic centre 99, 310, 399 homonymy in 161, 162
deictic motion 399, 400 hyponymy in 143
deixis 98–100, 178 logical operators in 155, 263
demonstratives 99, 100 meaning in 2, 7–9, 17, 23, 25, 38, 56–58, 250, 252, 253
distal 99 meronymy in 141
proximal 99 morphology of 51, 54, 137
Denny, J. Peter 99 multicategoriality 302
denotation 18, 19, 25, 26, 92, 100, 103, 104, 153 nouns 96, 337
descriptions, definite 213, 214, 203 parts of speech in 288, 289, 290–295, 296–299, 302, 304
determiners 48, 288 phonemes 155, 263
Deutsche Gebärdensprache 303 semantic change in 179–183, 187, 209, 372, 374–378
Dewell, Robert 256 sound symbolism in 54, 55
Dhegihan 17 square of opposition 207, 208
dictionary 3, 46–50, 62, 100–105, 274, 280 synonymy in 154, 273, 275, 276
vs encyclopedia 100–103, 130, 239 taxonomy in 146–148
history 49 tense and aspect 308–310, 313, 315, 319
Diderot, Denis 63 verbs 17, 336, 340, 376, 402
Diessel, Holger 99 English-based Creole 143, 144
Diller, Anthony 74 entailment 113, 201, 202, 326, 345, 357
dimensionality, representation of 267, 268 equipollent motion coding 403
diminutives 14 equipollent oppositions 138
direct access view, see interpretation Eskimo-Aleut languages 99
directional opposition 139 ethnobiology 147–150
disambiguation, word sense 60, 89, 115, European languages 384, 387, 407
277–280 evaluative words 14
discourse function 304–308 Evans, Nicholas 289, 303, 382–384
disjunction 182, 183 Evans, Vyvyan 239, 256
exclusive 182 Evens, Martha 141
inclusive 182, 183 event structure 355
displacement 404 event type 363
distinctive features 155, 157–159, 288, 358 Ewe 384
ditransitive construction 339, 364 exaggeration 95
Dixon, R. M. W. 50–52 exclamation 14
Dobson, V. 105 exclusionary fallacy 62
domains, semantic 265, 266, 276 existence clause 214
Donatus 295, 296 experiencer theta-role 338–340, 343, 344
Donnellan, K. S. 91 explanation
Dowty, David 324, 342–344, 351 causal 39, 377
Dravidian languages 149 vs classification 378
Dreyfus, Hubert 271 explanation, levels of 34–36
Dummett, Michael 90, 92 algorithmic 34, 39
Dunbar, George 163 implementational 34, 35, 39
duration, relevance to aspect 315, 316 intentional 34, 39
Dutch 23, 374, 382 extension (logical) 196–200
Dwyer, P. 148 extension, semantic 161, 252, 255
454 INDEX

Fabricius-Hansen, Catherine 312, 313 Greece, ancient 4

facts, relation of to theory 358, 359 Greek, ancient 4, 16, 51–53, 137, 187, 289, 292, 293, 295, 306,
family resemblance 229 373, 376, 382, 383, 392, 411
felicity conditions 111 Greek, modern 51, 377, 380–383, 402
Fellbaum, C. 272, 275 Green, Melanie 239
field, semantic, see semantic domain Greimas, Algirdas Julien 157
figure 242, 380, 381, 401, see also trajector Gribbin, John 25
Fillmore, Charles J. 71, 240, 338, 362 Grice, H. P. 114, 116–122, 124–128, 130, 187, 188
Finnish 336, 337 Gricean maxims, see conversational maxims
Finno-Ugric languages 208, 306, 336, 396, 401 ground 243, 408, see also landmark
first language acquisition 412 Gruber, J. S. 265, 338
flying machines 271 Guerssel, M. 355
focal colours 393 Gur language family 52
Fodor, J. A. 71, 76, 78, 103, 163, 226, 238 Guugu-Yimidhirr 311, 382, 383
Foley, W. A. 289
form, logical 176–185 Hale, Kenneth 95, 353, 355
formal theories 175, 262, 270 Halle, Morris 155
frames of reference, spatial 407, 415 Halliday, M.A.K. 215, 239
absolute 409, 410, 415, 416 Hanunóo 147, 398
intrinsic 410, 416 Harris, Alice 53
relative 408, 410, 415, 416 Harrison, Sheldon 306
Francis, E. 308 Hausa 326
Frege, Gottlob 90–94, 108, 111, 180, 189, 213, 224 Haviland, John 311
French 10, 11, 13, 17, 65–67, 111, 138, 154, 160, 162, 163, 277, Haya 313
306, 326, 374, 376, 378, 383, 385, 386, 404–406 Hebrew, modern 307
fricatives 55 Heine, Bernd 384, 385
Friedberg, Claudine 149 Henderson, J. 105
function words 27, 30, 384 Hengeveld, Kees 289
Herder, J. G 411
Gaby, Alice R. 390 Herrmann, Douglas 141
Garman, M. 47 Hills, D. 398
Geeraerts, Dirk 78, 163, 166, 167, 169, 375 Hirst, Graeme 278
generality, semantic 161 hit verbs 355
generalization 374 Hock, H. H. 376
generic level 148 Hockett, Charles F. 291, 292
genetics 25 Hokan languages 401
Gentner, Dedre 413, 417 Holmes, Jasper 153
Georgian 53 holonyms 140
German 17, 51, 67, 156, 303, 310, 319, 320, 374, 376, 382, 384, 401 homonymy 161–163, 276, 277, see also troponymy
German Sign Language, see Deutsche Gebärdensprache Hopper, Paul J. 297, 304–308, 316
Germanic languages 401 Horn, Laurence R. 117, 207, 209
Gibbs, Raymond W, Jr. 127 Horrocks, Geoffrey C. 187
Girle, Roderick A. 187, 206 Hovav, Malka Rappaport 343, 353, 357–359
Gisborne, Nikolas 153 Huambisa 148
Givón, T. 97, 108, 216, 297, 307 Huddleston, Rodney 186, 187, 290, 291, 296
Gleitman, Lila 416 Hudson, Richard 151, 153
Glucksberg, Sam 127 Hungarian 98, 208, 306, 307, 396
goal theta-role 338–340 Hunn, E. 149
Goddard, Cliff 71, 72, 74, 75 Hünnemeyer, Friederike 385
Gödel, Kurt 189 hypernymy 274, 278
Goldberg, Adele E. 360–364 hyperonyms 142, 202
Goodenough, W. H. 155, 157 hyponymy 142–146, 202, 210, 274, 275
Goodwin, W. 306
gradability 137–139 Ibarretxe-Antuñano, Iraide 402
grammar Icelandic 384
classical 295 idealized cognitive models 240–241, 250–254
cognitive 238–256, 378 ideophony, see sound symbolism
generative 262, 337 idioms 20, 54, 56, 57, 253, 361, see also conventionalization
systemic-functional 215, 239 sublexical 56
traditional 290, 291 illocutionary acts 109
universal 341, 342 illocutionary force 89–91, 108–114, 116
grammatical relations 336, 337 Ilocano 55
grammatical words, see function words image schemas 241–246
grammaticalization 384–386 ambiguity of diagrams 254, 255
 Index 455

imperatives 14, 111, 288 Kneale, Martha 174

implicature 118, 119, 130 Kneale, William 174
conventional 118 Kom 312
conversational 116, 118–122, 187 Kopecka, Anna 404
scalar 117 Korean 384, 402
inceptive type coding 326 Kreitzer, A. 256
inchoative 267, 349 Krifka, M. 346
incremental theme 346 Kripke, Saul 91
indexicals, see deixis Kukatja 164
Indo-European languages 52, 73, 138, 289, 311, 372–373, 380, Kurdish 382
382, 383, 391, 396 Kuteva, Tania 384
inference 114, 115, 121, 379 Kwerba 396
inflections, see morphology
inheritance hierarchy 274, 275 Labov, W. 226
inner speech 414 Lakoff, George 165, 232, 238, 240, 241, 244–249, 253, 256
instrument theta-role 338, 340, 341 Lakota 57, 312
intensifiers 374 Landau, Sidney 46, 69
intension 197 landmark 242
intention, communicative 5, 7–9, 114, 115 Langacker, Ronald 62, 104, 234, 238, 239, 244, 246
intentional-inferential framework, see communication Latin 49, 292, 293, 295, 296, 374–376, 382, 383
intentionality 33, 34, 90 Latin, medieval 161
intermediate level 148 Lavukaleve 392
interpretation, direct access view 127 Lehrer, Adrienne J. 138, 233, 235
interrogatives 288 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm 69, 70, 156
intransitive constructions 339 levels of description, see explanation, levels of
intransitive motion construction 360, 362 Levelt, W. J. M. 412–414
introspection 388, 389 Levin, Beth 343, 353, 355, 357–359
Inuktitut 99 Levinson, Stephen C. 101, 122, 397, 407, 415, 416
Iris, Madelyn Anne 141 lexeme 47, 50, 160
Irish 382 as construction 364
irony 95 primary 148
isolate languages 391, 397, 402 secondary 148
Italian 187, 343, 374 lexical entry 338, 339
iterativity 267, 270, 325 lexical semantics 21
Itza’ 147 lexicalization 371, 391, 417
lexicography 46, 101, 156
Jacaltec 144
lexicon 46
Jackendoff, Ray 47, 71, 146, 239, 250, 261, 342, 344, 351, 352,
generative 280–283
357, 361–363, 371
mental 47, 60–62
Jahai 390, 392
Li, Peggy 416
Jakobson, Roman 155
Liddell, H. G. 392
Japanese 327, 384, 387, 402
life-form level 147
Jivaroan languages 148
lightness 397
Johnson, M. 238, 241, 242, 244, 246, 247
Lily, William 296
Jones, Alex 302
linguistic relativity hypothesis 392, 412–417
Jurafsky, D. 278, 279
linguistics, cognitive 62
Kalam 148, 396 linguistics, computational 271, 272
Kamp, Hans 93, 255 linking problem, see argument structure
Kant, Immanuel 175, 407 literal language 95, 122, 127
Károly, Sándor 306 Lithuanian 311
Kartvelian languages 53 Litowitz, Bonnie E. 141
Kasher, Eva 123, 124 loan words 154, 414
Katz, Jerrold J. 103 location theta-role 338
Kay, Paul 232, 301, 392, 395–398, 396 locative alternation 356, 357, 359
Keenan, Elinor Ochs 122–124 Locke, John 94
Kemp, Alan 295 locutionary acts 109, 114, 115
Kempson, Ruth 204 logic 224
Keyser, S. J. 353, 355 centrality to thought 117
Khalidi, Muhammad Ali 234 first-order, see predicate logic
Khasi 99 predicate 190–196
Kilgarriff, Adam 160 propositional 178–185, 189
kinship terminology 157 quantificational, see predicate logic
Kiparsky P. 336 two-valued 224
Klein, W. 313 logical form 176, 177
456 INDEX

Longgu 399, 400 Miller, G. 272–275

Lounsbury, F. G. 156, 157, 159 mind as body metaphor 383, 384
Lucy, John 397–398 modality 312
Ludlow, Peter 352 epistemic 380, 381
luminosity 397 mode of presentation 91
Luo 382 model 196–200
Lyons, John 93, 139, 141, 151, 153, 211, 298 modularity 238, 239
modulation, contextual 57
Macedonian 138 modus ponens 184
machine translation 271 Mokilese 306
MacLaury, Robert E. 236, 395, 396, 397 Mon-Khmer languages 99, 390, 391
Maffi, Luisa 395–398 monosemy 161, 162, 167–169
Malapandaram 149 Montague, W. E. 232
Malmqvist, Goran 49 Mopan 409
Malt, Barbara C. 417 morpheme 53, 54
Mandarin, see Chinese morphology 137, 239
manner of motion 400 inflectional 292, 293
Manning, C. 279 morpho-syntax 95
mapping, conceptual 248, 249 motion verbs, typology 400
Marr, D. 34, 35 Motu 377
Martin, J. H. 278, 279 multicategoriality 302–304
Martínez, Ignacio M, Palacios 186, 187 multilingualism 154
Masaai 398 Munro, Pamela 289
material conditional 183, 187 Munsell colour system 393
mathematics 174, 189 Murphy, M. Lynne. 137, 139, 140, 152, 210, 277
Matlock, Teenie 255 Muskogean languages 289
Matoré, G. 49 Muysken, P. 403
Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. 215, 239
maxims, conversational 119–125 narrowing, see specialization
clashes 120 nasals 370
flouts 120, 121 Nash, David 154, 289
Manner 120 negation 179–181, 186, 203, 205, 206, 307
opt-outs 120 French 385
Quality 119, 121 Nerlich, Brigitte 377
Quantity 119, 121–124 Newmeyer, F. 342, 344
Relevance 120, 121, 124 Niger-Congo languages 51, 55, 313, 382, 384, 396
violations 120 Niger-Kordofanian languages 289
universality 122–124 Nilo-Saharan languages 382, 398
Mayali 382 nodes 387
Mayan languages 74, 143, 144, 147, 410 nominalization 288
McCawley, James D. 178, 188 non-literal language 21
McConnell-Ginet, Sally 196 non-natural meaning 115
meaning postulates 210–213 Nootka, see Nuu-chah-nulth
meaningNN, see non-natural meaning Nordlinger, Rachel 310
men and tree game 407 Northern Sotho 51
Mendel, Gregor 25 not (logic), see negation
meronymy 140–142 noun phrases 96, 298, 299
Merrifield, William 395–398 nouns 291, 293, 296
Mervis, C. 226, 228, 232, 236 as prototype category 305
Meschonic, Henri 63 concrete 413
metalanguage 22, 70, 127, 157, 164, 371, 372 distinguished from verbs 289, 293, 294, 296, 297
metalexical knowledge 140 grammatical features of 304
metaphor 95, 160, 246–249, 279, 404 incorporation 56
conceptual theory of 239, 243, 247–250, 252 mass 268, 322
in semantic change 376 referential function of 298, 299
similarity as basis of 376, 377 Noveck, Ira 125, 128
metonymy 249, 250, 252, 253, 279 Nuaulu 149, 150
contiguity as basis of 249, 375, 377 Nuu-chah-nulth 303
in semantic change 375, 376 Nyckees, V. 136
Mey, Jacob 128
Michael, I. 295, 296 object 337
middle alternation, English 321, 352, 353, 355 object language 22, 70
Middle English 375, 376, 381 Ockham’s Razor 352
Middle Japanese 374 Ogden, C. 13–16
 Index 457

Ojibway 145 Portuguese 187, 374, 375

Olawsky, Knut 52 Posner, Rebecca 374
Old English 161, 293, 375, 377, 380 possession 265
Old French 161, 376, 385 possessive 88
onomasiology 49, 50 Pottier B. 157
onomatopoeia, see sound symbolism pragmatics 2, 4, 22, 89, 101, 129, 130, 188
opaque contexts 153 Experimental 128
operators, logical 179–215, see also conjunction, disjunction, vs semantics 239
negation, material conditional, quantification predicate, logical 190–200
oppositeness, see antonymy one-place 192
optimality theory 279 two-place 192
orthography 50, 51 three-place 192
Osada, T. 289, 303 predicates, relational 413
ostension 25, 26, 65 predicates, symmetrical 343
predication 96, 97, 101, 298, 300
Pagliucca, William 376, 378, 379 predicators 300
Pama-Nyungan languages 9, 74, 105, 164, 289, 311, 316, 370, primary vs secondary 301
383, 390, 399, 409 premise 175
Pangasinan 99 prepositions, meaning of 244
Papafragou, A. 417 prescription, linguistic 186, 237
Papiamentu 403 presupposition 113, 203, 204, 214
Papuan languages 390, 391 Prinz, Jesse 28
paraphrase, reductive 72 productivity 19
Parkinson, G. 70 profiling 238
participant discourse function 305–308 progressive
participant roles, see thematic roles English 314, 315, 318, 320
particles 99 projectionist theories 359, 364
Partington, A. 389 pronouns 74
parts of speech 263, 288 prop discourse function 305–308
cross-linguistic variation 289 properties, ascription of 265
distributional criteria for 294, 295 proposition 178–207, 209, 212, 216
morphological criteria for 292, 293 propositional connectives, see logical operators
origins 295, 296 proto-agent 345, 347
semantic criteria for 296–301 Proto-Indo-European 382
path of motion 400 Proto-Pama-Nyungan 384
patterning assumption 272 proto-patient 345, 347
Payne, D. L. 398 Proto-Romance 374
Pederson, Eric 407–410, 416, 417 prototype 59, 78, 297, 304, 308, 309, 345
Peirce, Charles Sanders 4 effects 239, 240, 364
Peirsman, Yves 375 see also categorization
pejorization 374, 376, 377, 378 psych-verbs 344, 352
Penutian languages 311 Pullum, Geoffrey 186, 187, 291
perception and cognition, verbs of 381–384 Pulman, S. 232
perfect 313, 314, 384 punctuality 324
performatives 109, 112, 113, 310 Punjabi 391
Perkins, Revere 376, 378, 379 Pustejovsky, James 261, 280–282
perlocutionary acts 109
Perry, J. 92, 189 qualia structure 283
philology 373 quantification 190, 191, 207, 209
phoneme 263, 288 and Aktionsart 213
phonetics 370 binary 322
phonology 95, 158, 239, 262, 263, 279, 358 existential 208
structuralist 155 multiple 117, 191, 194, 195, 208, 209
phrasal semantics 21 universal 117, 189, 191, 194, 195, 208, 209
Pitjantjatjara 74, 383 questions 138, 215
Plato 187, 295, 411 Quine, W. V. O 24, 25, 164
plural 267, 293
polysemy 140, 160–169, 239, 272, 276, 277, 280, Radford, Andrew 291, 294, 299
360, 362, 364, 370–371 Ramscar, M. 255
definitional test 163, 164 Rankin, Robert 17, 57
in semantic change 372–373, 376, 379–380, 382–384 Rappaport, M 357
linguistic test 165–167 Raven, P. 147
logical test 164–165 Recanati, François 112
see also word sense disambiguation recipient theta-role 338
458 INDEX

Reddy, Michael 28 Segre, C. 386

reduction, theoretical 32–36 selectional restrictions 350, 351
reduplication 316 semantic change
reference 14–16, 17–19, 25–27, 31, 90–105, 166, 196, 201, 213 conventionalization of 372–384
successful vs correct 93, 96 implicature theory of 378–380
universals of 390 semantic internalization 380
variation of 370, 371 semantic primitives 46
referent, see reference abstraction of 269
Regier, Terry 396 justification of 269, 270
register, sociolinguistic 71, 74, 90 semantic roles, see thematic roles
relations, lexical 136–154, 272 semantic typology 370, 390–417
relations, paradigmatic 136, 153 semantics, cognitive 238–256
Relevance Theory 128 semantics, conceptual 262–270
comprehension procedure 126, 127 semantics, formal 174, 188
principle of relevance 125–128 semantics, Pustejovskian, see generative lexicon
relevance, in perfect tenses 313, 314 semasiology 49, 50
representation, mental 15, 30, 262, 270 semelfactives 324
explanatory role 255 semiology, see semiotics
requests 215 semiotic triangle 13–16
Resnik, P. 279 semiotics 4
restrictions, selectional 278, 279 Semitic languages 402
resultative 318 Sense 90–103, 166, 197, 213, 272, 281
resultative type coding 327 universals of 390
reversives 139, 140 variability of 370, 371
Rey, Alain 49, 161, 162 sentence 92, 201, 288
Reyle, Uwe 93, 255 sentence meaning 21, 22, 116
rhetoric 376 Sepik-Ramu languages 99
Richards, I. 13–16 serial verbs 403
Ricœur, P. 246 sign languages 303
Riegel, M. 79 signed languages 391
Riemer, N. 73, 166, 169 significance 8
Rofaifo 147 signs 4–5
roles, Pustejovskian simple past tense, see preterite
agentive 282 simplicity, theoretical 352
constitutive 281 Sino-Tibetan languages 138, 317
formal 281–282 Siouan languages 17, 57, 312, 328
telic 282 Siraya 270
Romance languages 374, 375, 401 Sirionó 396
Romanian 374–376 Skinner, Burrhus Frederic 36
Romero-Figeroa, Andrés 289 Slavic languages 401
Rosch, Eleanor 226, 228–230, 232–236, 241, 345–348 Slobin, Dan I. 403, 412, 413
Rosta, Andrew 153 Smaragdus 296
Rothstein, Susan 300, 301 Smith, Carlota 317–319, 324
Rubino, Carl 55 Somali 301
Russell, Bertrand 91, 189, 213–215 some (logic), see quantification
Russian 329, 364, 382, 396 sound change 373, 377
Ruyer, Bernard 190 sound symbolism 15, 54–56
soundness, logical 177
Sadler, Louise 310 source theta-role 338, 340
Sadock, Jerry 165 Southern Sotho 51
Saint Augustine 308 space to time meaning shifts 376
Salishan languages 303, 397 space, representation of 265
San Lucas Quiavini Zapotec 289 span 387
satellite 400 Spanish 162, 187, 317, 374, 375, 401–404
satellite-framed languages 401–407 spatial reasoning tasks 415
Saussure, Ferdinand de 4, 46, 155 spatial reference, typology 407–411
Schaefer, Ronald P. 55 speaker meaning 21
Schiffer, Stephen 115 specialization 154, 374
Schütze, Hinrich 163, 279 speech acts 108, 109, 129
Schwager, Waldemar 303 role of convention in 112–114, 122
scope 194, 195 indirect 111, 112
Scott, R. 392 see also illocutionary force
Searle, John R. 94, 108, 110, 112, 122, 271 spell-checking 271
second language acquisition 414 Sperber, Dan 115, 124–128, 130
 Index 459

square of opposition 206–209 thematic roles 344

St Jerome 295 theme theta-role 338, 340–344
St’á’imcets 303 thesaurus 50, 100, 273, 275
statements, see constatives theta-grid 339
states thinking for action 414
feature analysis 324 thinking for speaking 412–414
vs occurrences 320 Thompson, S. 304–308
vs properties 297 thought, relation to language 411
Storms, Gert 235 Thrax, Dionysus 295
Strawson, P. F. 114, 129, 203, 214, 215 Tibeto-Burman 145
structure, conceptual 239, 262 Tidore 390, 391
lexical 264 Timberlake, Alan 311, 312
Stubbs, Michael 386–389 time
subcategorization 339 conceptual representation of 268
subcategorization frame, see theta-grid lexical markers of 310
subcontraries 205–207, 209 stability continuum 297
subject 337 Tiwi 312
subjectification 380, 381 Tobelo 147
substitutability 69, 70, 78 Tok Pisin 143, 144
salva veritate 70, 76 Tolai 375
salvo sensu 70 tone 90, 91
Swahili 382 touch verbs 355
Sweetser, Eve 383 trajector 242
syllogism 174, 176 transitivity
synonymy 30, 66, 150–154, 210, 273 of containment 242
in WordNet 273, 275 of lexical relations 140–142
lexical 150, 152, 153, 154 translatability 372
phrasal 150 Trans-New Guinea languages 148, 149, 396
sense 151, 152 transverse relations 408, 410
synset 272 Traugott, Elizabeth C. 374, 380, 381
syntax 4, 279, 336, passim Tredennick, Hugh 63, 67
generative 262, 338, 339, 350 triggers, presuppositional 203, 204
vs semantics 239, 262, 264 troponymy 275
syntax-semantics interface 337 Trubetzkoy, Nikolai 155
truth 9, 177, 196–200, 215
taboo words 375 conditions 116–118, 129, 196
Tagalog 303 relevance to meaning 93, 101, 111
Tai languages 74–75 tables 180–185
Takelma 311 value 92, 93, 185, 196, 203
Talmy, Leonard 243, 400–407, 417 truth-functionality 179, 180, 184, 186, 187
target, metaphorical 247 Tryon, Darrell T. 375, 377
Tarski, Alfred 189 Tswana 51
tautology 91 Tuggy, David 166, 167, 168
Tawala 377 Tupí languages 148, 312, 396
taxonomy 146–150, 142 Turkic languages 402
Taylor, John 167, 277 Turkish 138
technology, history of 271 Tyler, Andrea 256
telicity 321, 324 Tzeltal 143
tense 54, 308–314
bipartite vs tripartite systems 311, 312, 316 Ullmann, Stephen 152
deictic character of 316 underspecification 101–103
English future 309 unique beginner level 147
English preterite 313, 314 uniqueness clause 214
English present tenses 309, 310 unobservables 31, 36, 370
future tenses 312 use 9, 216
past tenses 312, 313 literary 246
present tenses 310 use theory of meaning 36–38
terms, singular 190, 192, 196 Uto-Aztecan languages 57
Terrill, Angela 392 utterance meaning 21, 22, 111, 116
Thaayoore 390
Thai 74—75 validity 174–178, 189
Thelin, Nils B. 316 Valiquette, H. 164
thematic hierarchy 340 Van der Henst, Jean-Baptiste 128
and cross-linguistic evidence 341, 342 van Staden, Miriam 390, 391, 392
460 INDEX

Van Wyk, E. B. 51 Wilks, Yorick A. 280

Vandeloise, Claude 256 Wilson, Deidre 115, 124–128, 130
Vanhove, Martine 384 Winston, Morton E. 141
Veenstra, T. 403 Winters, Margaret E. 386
vehicle, metaphorical 248 Witkowski, Stanley R. 140
Vendler, Zeno 319–323 Wittgenstein, Ludwig 36, 180, 188, 229, 230
verb-framed languages 401–407 Wolof 289
verb phrase 288 Word
verbs 291, 413 phonological 52, 53
phrasal 54 grammatical 52–53, see also lexeme
predicating function of 299–301 WordNet 272–277
tense-mood-aspect markers 307
vernaculars 296 Xhosa 51
Viberg, Ake 381
Yandruwhandha 312
Wakashan languages 303 Yélî Dnye 392, 397
Walmajarri 164 Yimas 99
Warao 289 Yukatek Maya 74
Warlpiri 9, 10, 13, 17, 66, 95, 101–103, 137, 154, 289, 300, 301, Yup’ik languages 17
316, 370, 371 Yurok 150
Wayampi 148
West Papuan languages 147 Zapotec languages 289
Whitehead, Alfred North 189 Zeno of Citium 295
Whorf, Benjamin Lee 411, 412 Zeshan, Ulrike 303
Wierzbicka, Anna 71–73, 77, 78, 140, 143, 226, 235, 236, zeugmatic interpretations 165, 166
263, 371 Zulu 51
Wilkins, David 382–384 Zwicky, Arnold 165