FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

Pitot/Static Systems

- Pitot pressure, or impact air pressure, is sensed through an open-end tube pointed directly into the
relative wind flowing around the aircraft. The pitot tube connects to the ASI or an air data computer
depending on your aircraft's configuration.

Static Pressure - also used by the ASI as well as the other pitot static instruments for determining
altitude and vertical speed.

- may be sensed at one or more locations on an aircraft.

- Some may be flush mounted on the fuselage or integrated into the electrically heated
pitot tube.

A typical electrically heated pitot-static head

Three basic pressure-operated instruments flown under IFR:

- ASI Air Speed Indicator

- Sensitive altimeter

- vertical speed indicator (VSI)

* All three instruments receive static air pressure for operation with only the ASI receiving both pitot

and static pressure.

A typical electrically heated pitot-static head

Blockage of the Pitot-Static System - Errors in the ASI and VSI almost always indicate a blockage of
the pitot tube, the static port(s), or both.

- Moisture (including ice), dirt, or even insects can cause a

blockage in both systems.
 Blocked Pitot System

- If the pitot tube drain hole becomes obstructed, the pitot

system can become partially or completely blocked.

- When dynamic pressure cannot enter the pitot tube opening, the ASI
no longer operates.

- If the drain hole is open, static pressure equalizes on both sides of the diaphram in the
ASI and the indicated airspeed slowly drops to zero.

- If the pitot tube ram pressure hole and drain hole become obstructed, the ASI operates
ike an altimeter as the aircraft climbs and descends.

Blocked Static System

- When a static system becomes blocked but the pitot tube remains clear the ASI
continues to operate but is inaccurate.

- When the aircraft is operated above the altitude where the static ports became
blocked the airspeed indicates lower than the actual airspeed because the trapped
static pressure is higher than normal for that altitude.

- Trapped static pressure causes the altimeter to freeze at the altitude where the
blockage occurred.

- For VSI, a blocked static system produces a continuous zero indication.

When the alternate static source pressure is used, the following instrument indications are observed:

1. The altimeter indicates a slightly higher altitude than actual.

2. The ASI indicates an airspeed greater than the actual airspeed.

3. The VSI shows a momentary climb and then stabilizes if the altitude is held constant.
Pitot/Static Instruments

Sensitive Altimeter - is an aneroid barometer that measures the absolute pressure of the ambient
air and displays it in terms of feet or meters above a selected pressure level.
- is one with an adjustable barometric scale (Kollsman window) allowing the
pilot to set the reference pressure from which the altitude is measured.
- range of the scale is from 28.00 to 31.00 inches of mercury ("Hg), or 948 to
1,050 millibars.

Principle of Operation

- The sensitive element in a sensitive altimeter is a stack of evacuated, corrugated bronze

aneroid capsules.
- Air pressure acting on these aneroids tries to compress them against their natural springiness,
which tries to expand them.
- The result is that their thickness changes as the air pressure changes.
- Stacking several aneroids increases the dimension change as the pressure varies over the
usable range of the instrument.

Sensitive altimeter components

 - Below 10,000 feet, a striped segment is visible. Above this altitude, a mask begins to cover it,
and above 15,000 feet, all of the stripes are covered.

Three pointer altimeter

Drum-type altimeter have only one pointer that marked in thousands of feet, is geared to the
mechanism that drives the pointer.

Altimeter Errors

1. Mechanical Altimeter Errors - If the indication is off by more than 75 feet from the surveyed
elevation, the instrument should be referred to a
certificated instrument repair station for recalibration.

- Differences between ambient temperature and/or pressure

causes an erroneous indication on the altimeter.
 2. Inherent Altimeter Error - When the aircraft is flying in air that is warmer than standard,
the air is less dense and the pressure levels are farther
apart.
- When the aircraft is flying at an indicated altitude of 5,000
feet, the pressure level for that altitude is higher than it
woul be in air at standard temperature, and the aircraft is higher
than it would be if the air were cooler.
- If the air is colder than standard, it is denser and the pressure
levels are closer together.
- When the aircraft is flying at an indicated altitude of 5,000
feet, its true altitude is lower than it would be if the air
were warmer.

The loss of altitude experienced when flying into an area where the air is colder (more dense)
than standard.

Cold Weather Altimeter Errors

Under extremely cold conditions, pilots may need to add an appropriate temperature correction
to charted IFR altitudes to ensure terrain and obstacle clearance with the following restrictions:

• Altitudes specifically assigned by Air Traffic Control (ATC), such as “maintain 5,000 feet” shall
not be corrected. Assigned altitudes may be rejected if the pilot decides that low
temperatures pose a risk of inadequate terrain or obstacle clearance.

• If temperature corrections are applied to charted IFR altitudes (such as procedure turn
altitudes, final approach fix crossing altitudes, etc.), the pilot must advise ATC of the applied
correction.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) cold temperature error table

Nonstandard Pressure on an Altimeter

As the aircraft moves to an area of lower pressure, and the pilot fails to readjust the altimeter setting
(essentially calibrating it to local pressure), then as the pressure decreases, the true altitude is lower.

“When flying from hot to cold or from a high to a low, look out below.”

Effects of nonstandard pressure on an altimeter of an aircraft flown into air of lower than standard
pressure (air is less dense).
Altimeter Enhancements (Encoding)

- When the ATC transponder is set to Mode C, the encoding altimeter supplies the transponder with a
series of pulses identifying the flight level (in increments of 100 feet) at which the aircraft is flying.
- This series of pulses is transmitted to the ground radar where they appear on the controller’s scope as
an alphanumeric display around the return for the aircraft.
- The transponder allows the ground controller to identify the aircraft and determine the pressure
altitude at which it is flying.

Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)

- Below 31,000 feet, a 1,000 foot separation is the minimum required between usable flight levels.
- Flight levels (FLs) generally start at 18,000 feet where the local pressure is 29.92 "Hg or greater.
- All aircraft 18,000 feet and above use a standard altimeter setting of 29.92 "Hg, and the altitudes are in
reference to a standard hence termed FL
- Between FL 180 and FL 290, the minimum altitude separation is 1,000 feet between aircraft.
- for flight above FL 290 (primarily due to aircraft equipage and reporting capability; potential error) ATC
applied the requirement of 2,000 feet of separation.

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

- is also called a vertical velocity indicator (VVI), and was formerly known as a rate-of-climb indicator.
- It is a rate-of-pressure change instrument that gives an indication of any deviation from a constant
pressure level.
Rate of climb or descent in thousands of feet per minute

Dynamic Pressure Type Instruments

Airspeed Indicator (ASI) - is a differential pressure gauge that measures the dynamic pressure of the air
through which the aircraft is flying.

Dynamic pressure is the difference in the ambient static air pressure and the total, or ram, pressure
caused by the motion of the aircraft through the air. These two pressures are taken from the pitot-
static system.

Mechanism of an ASI
Types of Airspeed

1. Indicated Airspeed (IAS) - is shown on the dial of the instrument, uncorrected for instrument or
system errors.

2. Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) - is the speed at which the aircraft is moving through the air, which is found
by correcting IAS for instrument and position errors.

3. Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) - is CAS corrected for compression of the air inside the pitot tube.
- EAS is the same as CAS in standard atmosphere at sea level.
- As the airspeed and pressure altitude increase, the CAS becomes
higher than it should be, and a correction for compression must be
subtracted from the CAS.

4. True Airspeed (TAS) - is CAS corrected for nonstandard pressure and temperature.
- TAS and CAS are the same in standard atmosphere at sea level.
- Under nonstandard conditions, TAS is found by applying a correction for
pressure altitude and temperature to the CAS.

A true ASI allows the pilot to correct IAS for nonstandard temperature and pressure.