AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS

Automatic controller is used as a system compensation process in order to meet the

desired system performance. The controller compares the actual output signal with the
reference input signal and determines the deviation or error. The transfer function of the
controller is described by the following equation
U ( s)
 GC
E (s)
The manner in which the controller produces the controller signal U(s) is called control
action. The sensor or transducer element H(s) is a device that converts the output signal
variable into a same unit as the reference input signal.

Gp(s) is the process or plant transfer function and H(s) is the feedback transfer function.

D(s), disturbance
Automatic Controller
Reference
+
input, R(s) E(s) U(s) + Output, C(s)
+ Gc(s) Gp(s)
-

B(s)
Measured
Output H(s)

Block diagram of closed-loop control system with disturbance

Common types of Automatic Controllers or Control Actions

 Two-position or on-off controllers

 Proportional Controller
 Integral Controller
 Proportional Derivative Controller
 Proportional Derivative Integral Controller

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 e(t) u(t)
Gc(s)

Block diagram of a controller

The output signal from the controller Gc be u(t) and the actuating error signal be e(t).

Two-position or on-off controllers

In two-position controller, the signal u(t) remains at either a maximum or minimum

value, depending on whether the actuating signal error is positive or negative, so that

u(t)= U1 maximum for e(t) > 0 on position

u(t)= U2 minimum for e(t) < 0 off position

where U1 and U2 are constants.

Sometimes, differential gap is used to prevent too frequent operation of the on-off
mechanism. Two-position controller is widely used in both industrial and domestic
control system because it is relatively simple, and inexpensive.

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 U1

+ e(t) u(t)

- U2

Block diagram of on-off controller

U1

+ e(t) u(t)

- U2

Block diagram of on-off controller with differential gap

Proportional Controller, Gc = Kp

A proportional controller is defined to be one in which the output is simply proportional

to the input.

e(t) u(t)
Kp

The relationship between the output and the input can be describes as follows
u(t) = Kpe(t), where Kp is the proportional gain.

The proportional controller is essentially an amplifier with adjustable gain.

Proportional controllers with very high gains Kp act as two-position controllers.

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 1
If plant transfer function, is the first order system, i.e. G p  and H(s) = 1, the
1  s
closed loop transfer relating the output to the input R and disturbance D can be evaluated
as follows

K 1
C (1  K ) C (1  K )
 and 
R 1  s D 1  s
(1  K ) (1  K )

If the input R(s) and the disturbance D(s) are a unit step input, the corresponding steady-
sate outputs respectively becomes

K 1
C ss  and C ss 
1 K 1 K
If proportional gain is made large value, then the output (when R=1/s and D=0) will
approaches unity and steady state error will become zero. While the output will approach
zero when R=0 and D=1/s. This is a good result but it is impossible to practically to have
very large value of gain K. Hence, proportional controller does not give good
performance in term of steady state error, and disturbance rejection.

Next, consider the plant transfer function, is the second order system which consists of
1
moment of inertia J and viscous friction b. [i.e. G p  and H(s) = 1]. The closed
s( Js  b)
loop transfer relating the output to the input R and disturbance D can be evaluated as
follows

C K C 1
 2 and  2
R Js  bs  K D Js  bs  K

If the input R(s) and the disturbance D(s) are a unit step input, the corresponding steady-
sate outputs respectively becomes

1
C ss  1 and C ss 
K
The steady state output (when R=1/s and D=0) will approaches unity and steady state
error will become zero which is good. However the steady-state output (when R=0 and
D=1/s) will approach zero only when K is very large but it is impossible to practically to
have very large value of gain K. Another problem is that large value of K will cause the
roots of the open-loop transfer function, which are s=0 and 1/τ to be shifted to the right.
This will produce a small damping ratio, hence it causes oscillatory response.

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 Im

-1/τ Re

Overall, proportional controller does not give good performance in term of steady state
error, and disturbance rejection as well as transient response.

Ki
Proportional –Plus –Integral Controller, Gc  K p 
s
The controller action of the PID controller is defined by

t
Kp
u (t )  K p e(t ) 
Ti  e(t )dt
0

The transfer function of the controller is of the form

U ( s) 1 K
 K p (1  )  Kp  i
E ( s) Ti s s

e(t) Ki u(t)
Kp 
s

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 1
If the Gp is the first order system, in which G p ( s)  and with unity feedback
1  s
H(s)=1, the new transfer function relating the output the two inputs become

C ( s) K p s  Ki C ( s) s
 2 and  2
R( s) s  s(1  K p )  K i D( s) s  s(1  K p )  K i

The steady-state outputs C for a unit step input of R while D=0, and for a unit step input
of D while R=0 becomes respectively as follows

Css (t) = 1 and Css (t) = 0

For the first order system, PI controller has reduced the steady state error to zero and
completely rejected the external disturbance.

1
For the plant transfer function of the second order system, i.e. G p  and H(s) =
s( Js  b)
1, the closed loop transfer relating the output to the input R and disturbance T can be
evaluated as follows

C K p s  Ki C s
 3 and  3
R Js  bs 2  K p s  K i D Js  bs  K p s  K i
2

If the input R(s) and the disturbance T(s) are a unit step input, the corresponding steady-
sate outputs respectively becomes

C ss  1 and C ss  0
Again, for the second order system, the disturbance is completely rejected and the steady-
state error is zero without using high forward-path gains.

The open-loop transfer function is given as follows

K p s  Ki
GH ( s) 
s 2 ( Js  b)

In order for the system to be stable,  a 

 p z
i i
< 0, the zero must be closer the
nm
imaginary axis than the system pole.

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 b K
 i
J Kp

Im

ω—» ∞

Re

b/J Ki/Kp

Root locus of PI-controlled second order system

This places some restrictions on the selection of the value of Kp and Ki. The system may
also suffer from small amount of damping if the system pole is close to the imaginary
axis.

Proportional –Plus –Derivative Controller, Gc  K p  K d s

The controller action of the PID controller is defined by

de(t )
u (t )  K p e(t )  K d
dt
The transfer function of the controller is of the form

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 e(t)
K p  Kd s u(t)

Example of PD controller for controlling a second order is shown below

D(s)

+
R(s) + + 1 C(s)
K p  Kd s
Js  Cs
2

If T(s) = 0, the transfer function relating C and R is as follows

C ( s) K p  Kd s
 2
R( s) Js  s(C  K d )  K p

When the input R is a unit step, the steady-state output C becomes css(t) = 1 and therefore
the steady state error due to unit step input is zero. ( ess(t) = 0 )

If R(s) = 0, the transfer function relating C and D is as follows

C ( s) 1
 2
D( s) Js  s(C  K d )  K p

The steady-state output for unit step disturbance T is css(t)= 1/Kp.

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The above values of steady state error and disturbance rejection for simple P ( i.e. Kd = 0
) and PD controller are the same. For proportional controller, the steady-state output due
to disturbance rejection can be reduced by making Kp large but the transient response
may also be affect and become more oscillatory.

However, for PD controller, comparing the characteristic standard form of second order
system with the characteristic equation of the transfer function,

c  K d  Kp
s 2  2 n s   n2  s 2  s
J J

c  K d  Kp
In which 2 n  and  n2 
J J

Therefore, for PD controller, Kp can be made as large as necessary to reject any

disturbance because the damping coefficient is C + Kd allowing control over the
damping ratio through Kd. The closed-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) has zero that must
be taken into consideration when selecting the transient response.

Velocity feedback controller: Another form of derivative controller is a velocity feedback

controller for controlling position of inertia load using tachometer as shown below.

D(s)

+
R(s) + + + 1 1 C(s)
Kp
Js  C s
- -
KT

Evaluating the transfer function yields

C ( s) Kp
 2
R( s) Js  s(C  K T )  K p

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 C ( s) 1
 2
D( s) Js  s(C  K T )  K p
From the characteristic of equation of the transfer functions show that the effect of the
tachometer feedback is the same as PD control. However, there is no closed-loop pole
that makes the prediction of the transient response somewhat easier.

Derivative control is never used alone because of noise of error signal e(t). Figure bolow
de(t )
shows the derivative of signal error  e, which magnifies significantly the noise of
dt
the error. Without the noise the derivative of error signal is a horizontal line.

e e

t t

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 U ( s)
 K p (1  Td s)
E ( s)

Ki
Proportional –Plus –Integral-Plus- Derivative Controller, Gc  K p   Kd s
s

Proportional –Plus –Integral-Plus- Derivative Controller or PID controller is a

combination of three modes of controller. The transfer function can be written as

Kp
+
e(t) Ki u(t)
+
s
+
Kd s

e(t) 1 u(t)
Gc  K p (1   Td s)
Ti s

The individual setting of the parameters setting of Kp, Ki and Kd is needed to tuning the
controller so that it meet the required performance of the controlled system.

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