Section A – CT 1

Q1. Define Data and Signal with example.

Data: Data is a set of variables by conveying the information into binary digital form
that is a combination of numbers by a transmitted process.
Data may be divided into two types. One is analog data that is on continuous values in
some interval. For example, voice and video. And another is Digital data that take discrete
values. For examples text and integers.

Signal: Signals are electric or electromagnetic representations of data in which data are
circulated from one point to another by means of electromagnetic signals.

An analog signal is continuously varying electromagnetic wave depending on spectrum.

For example fiber optic cable. A digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses that may
be transmitted over a wire medium. For example, a constant positive voltage level may
represent binary 1 and a constant negative voltage level may represent binary 0.

Q2. Define Communication system. Describe the basic model of it.

Communication: Communication means transfer of information from a sender to a
receiver in a suitable form. The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the
exchange of data between two parties or two systems or devices.

The key elements of a communication model

Communication Model: The device source generates the data to be transmitted. Usually,
the data generated by a source system are not transmitted directly. A transmitter
transforms and encodes the information to produce electromagnetic signals. Chanel is a
medium used to transfer signal from transmitter to receiver. This can be a single
transmission line or a complex network connecting source and destination. The receiver
accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a form that can be
handled by the destination device. Destination takes the incoming data from the receiver.

[Information is conveyed as the content of massage from which data and knowledge can be
derived]
Q3. Explain Data communication system with example.
Data communication: Electronic transmission of information that has been encoded
digitally with some standard from one network (System) to other network (System) via
a medium is called data communication.

Data Communication system: Actually data communication is a transmission of two

personal computers (one is sender and other is receiver) connected through a Public
Telecommunication Network (PTN). The Figure is an illustration of a simple data
communication system. A data communication system may collect data from remote
locations through data transmission circuits, and then outputs processed results to
remote locations.

(D) (A) (A) (D)

This figure below represents an example of data communication system between a

workstation and a server over a public telephone network. The computer is a source of
this system. A modem takes a digital bit stream from the computer and transforms that
bit stream into an analog signal. This signal is handled by the public telephone network
which works as a channel. Another modem will accept an analog signal and convert it
into a digital bit stream. And finally it handled to the server.

Computer Modem Telephone Network Modem Server

Components of data communication system: A Communication system has following

components:
 Message: Information or data to be communicated consist of text, pictures, sound,
videos, numbers etc.
 Sender: Device that generates and sends that message.
 Receiver: Device or computer that receives the message.
 Medium: Channel or physical path through which the message is carried.
 Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication.
Q4. Define analog communication. List the advantage and disadvantage of it.
Analog Communication: The modulation systems or techniques in which one of the
characteristics of the carrier is changed in proportion with the instantaneous value of
modulating signal is called analog communication system.

Advantages of Analog communications:

 Transmitters and Receivers are simple
 Low bandwidth requirement
 FDM can be used

Disadvantages of analog communication:

 Noise affects the signal quality
 It is not possible to separate noise and signal
 Repeaters can‘t be used between transmitters and receivers
 Coding is not possible
 It is not suitable for the transmission of secret information.

Q5. Define Modulation? Write the condition of perfect Modulation. Why it is used?
Modulation: To modulate means to regulate or adjust the signal. Modulation is the
process by which the transmitter modifies the message signal into a suitable form for
transmission over the channel.

Condition for perfect modulation: The condition for perfect modulation are,
 If 𝑓𝑐 is the carrier frequency and w is the frequency component of the message
signal, then 𝑓𝑐 >> w (Minimum 𝑓𝑐 = 2w).
 The carrier is always sinusoidal and can be described by the following
equation:
ec(t) = Ecmax Sin(2πfct + Φc)
where, Ecmax is the amplitude, fc is the frequency and Φc is the phase.

Why Modulation is used: Modulation is used;

 For long distance transformation.
 To reduce antenna height.
 For multiplexing process.
 Avoid mixing up of other signals.
Q6. What are the drawbacks of Baseband Transmission? Identify the solution.
There are some problem in baseband transmission actually this is a transmission without
modulation. These are,
 Excessively large antenna heights.
 Signals get mixed up.
 Short range of communication.
 Multiplexing is not possible.
 Poor quality of reception.
The above drawbacks can be overcome by means of modulation techniques. That’s why
we do modulation.

Q7. What is sampling. Drive the equation of Flat Top Sampling.

Q8. Drive the equation for converting rectangular time domain to sine wave.
Sampling: Sample is a piece of data taken from the whole data which is continuous in
the time domain. And the process of measuring the periodic values of continuous-time
signal in a discrete form is called sampling. If the more samples that are taken, the final
outcome looks like the original wave and if fewer samples are taken, then other kinds
information could be transmitted.

Continuous Time Signal

Sampled signal

Flat Top Sampling Equation: The waveform of a PAM signal is illustrated in figure. The
dashed curve represents the waveform of the message signal m(t) and the sequence of
amplitude-modulated rectangular pulses shown as solid lines represents the
corresponding PAM signal s(t).
Instantaneous sampling of the message signal m(t) every Ts seconds, where the sampling
rate fs is chosen in accordance with the sampling theorem.
fs = 1/ Ts

Let, s(t) denote the sequence of flat-top pulses and h(t) Hence, we may express the PAM
signal as,
𝛼
s(t) = ∑𝑛=−𝛼 𝑚(𝑛𝑇𝑠)ℎ(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇𝑠) ……………………..(i)

𝑇 1 0<𝑡<𝑇
𝑡− 1
h(t) = { 2
} = {2 𝑡 = 0, 𝑡 = 𝑇 …………………….(ii)
𝑇
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Where, Ts is the sampling period and m(nTs) is the sample value of m(t) obtained at
time nTs. By definition, the instantaneously sampled version of m(t) is given by,
𝛼
𝑚𝛿 (t) = ∑𝑛=−𝛼 𝑚(𝑛𝑇𝑠)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇𝑠) ……………………(iii)

where δ(t – nTs) is a time-shifted delta function. Now, Using shifting property of delta
function,
𝛼
𝑚𝛿 (t) ∗ ℎ(𝑡) = ∫−𝛼 𝑚(ℸ) 𝛿(𝑡 − ℸ) 𝑑ℸ
𝛼 𝛼
= ∫−𝛼 ∑𝑛=−𝛼 𝑚(𝑛𝑇𝑠) 𝛿(ℸ − 𝑛𝑇𝑠) ℎ(𝑡 − ℸ) 𝑑ℸ
𝛼
= ∑𝛼𝑛=−𝛼 𝑚(𝑛𝑇𝑠) ∫−𝛼 𝛿(ℸ − 𝑛𝑇𝑠) ℎ(𝑡 − ℸ) 𝑑ℸ

= ∑𝛼𝑛=−𝛼 𝑚(𝑛𝑇𝑠) ℎ(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇𝑠) …………………(iv)

From equation (i) & (iv) we have; 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑚𝛿 (t) ∗ ℎ(𝑡) ……………………(v)

Equation (iv) says that, The PAM signal s(t) is mathematically equivalent by convolution
of 𝑚𝛿 (t) the instantaneously sampled version of m(t) and the pulse h(t).

Taking the Fourier transform of both sides of equation and recognizing that the
convolution of two time functions is transformed into the multiplication of their
respective Fourier transforms, we get

𝑆(𝑓) = 𝑀𝛿 (f)𝐻(𝑓)

Starting with (ii) show that the Fourier transform of the rectangular pulse is given by

H(f) = T sinc(fT) exp ( -jπfT)

Q9. What happens to H(f)/T as the pulse duration T approaches zero?
The Fourier transformation of PAM signal s(t) is S(f). If we may pass through a low-pass
filter whose frequency response is assumed that the message signal m(t) is limited to
bandwidth W and the sampling rate fs is larger than the Nyquist rate 2W. And the
spectrum of the resulting filter output is equal to M(f)H(f) this output is equivalent to
passing the message signal m(t) through another low-pass filter of transfer function H(f).
The message signal requires the use of equalization.

Q10. Define Pulse Modulation. Write the property of Pulse Amplitude Modulation.
Pulse Modulation: Converting the samples of analog information signal into discrete
pulses over physical transmission medium is called Pulse Modulation.

Property of PAM: The property of Pulse Amplitude Modulation are;

 This is the simplest and most basic form of analog pulse modulation
techniques.
 In PAM, the amplitudes of regularly spaced pulses are varied in proportion
to the corresponding sample values of a continuous message signal.
 In PAM each pulse corresponds to the amplitude of the signal at the
corresponding sampling time. The signal is modulated in amplitude and hence
the name Pulse Amplitude Modulation.
 If the pulses can be of a rectangular form or some other appropriate shape.
It will be natural sampling, where the message signal is multiplied by a
periodic train of rectangular pulses.
 There are two operations involved in the generation of the PAM signal,
Instantaneous sampling and lengthening.
 Block diagram are shown in figure.
Q11. How to drive the waveform of PAM. Why we use PAM?
Let an unmodulated carrier wave sc(t), a representative information signal s(t) are shown
in figure. As we know that in PAM, the pulse shape remain unchanged but the amplitude
of the carrier pulse will be vary with the corresponding sample values of a continuous
message signal that resulting the waveform of PAM shown in figure. The resulting
modulation is called PAM with instantaneous sampling or sometimes called flat-top
modulation.

If the product Sm(t) of s(t) with sc(t) were the case that the heights of the various pulse
would not constant, but would follow the curve of s(t) then the PAM is called PAM with
natural sampling. The waveform is shown in figure below.

The pulse amplitude modulation is one of the modulation techniques used to transmit
the signal to a far distance.
Q12. Discuss pulse width modulation. Explain why it is a non-liner modulation?
In pulse width modulation, the width of each pulse varies with the instantaneous of
sample value of s(t). The larger the sample value is the wider the corresponding pulse.
Since the pulse width is not constant, power of the waveform is not constant. Let an
unmodulated carrier wave sc(t), a representative information signal s(t) are shown in
figure that’s results the waveform of PWM shown in figure.

A simple example illustrates below. This is a nonlinear form of PWM. Actually if the
information signal is constant say, s(t) = 1, then the PWM wave consists of equal pulse.
Because each sample value is equal to every other sample value. Now if s(t) = 2 is
transmitted, the pulse train will be equal-width pulse but the pulse would be wider than
those used to s(t) = 1. The principle of linearity indicates that if this modulation is linear
than the second modulated waveform should be twice the first. But in this case this is
not. This is the non-linear form of PWM shown below.
Q13. Draw & discuss block diagram and waveforms at difference step of PWM modulator.
An information signal s(t) are shown in figure that’s results the waveform of PWM shown
in figure according to the PWM modulator. The block diagram of the modulator is
illustrated below. In this modulator a saw-tooth waveform is used to convert between
time and amplitude.

We start with an information signal s(t). This is put through a sample and hold circuit
to yields s1(t). The saw-tooth is shifted down by 1 unit to form s2(t). The sum of s1(t) &
s2(t) results s3(t). The times for which s3(t) is positive represent intervals whose width is
proportional to the original sample values. Actually the shifting saw-tooth is put into a
comparator with output of 1 for positive input and 0 for negative input. This results in
s4(t), the PWM waveform.
Q14. Explain the application of PWM.
The application of PWM:
 PWM signal is used for generating an analog signal using a digital source.
 Their main use is for controlling DC motors.
 PWM signals are used for a wide variety of control applications including
sophisticated control circuitry.
 It is also used to control valves, pumps, hydraulics, and other mechanical parts.

Q15. Show the PPM wave for the following informational signal.

Q16. What is cross talk?

A disturbance caused by the electric or magnetic fields of one telecommunication signal
affecting by the interference of unwanted signals in a communication channel called
cross talk. The phenomenon that causes crosstalk is called electromagnetic interference
(EMI).

For example, in a telephone circuit, crosstalk can result in your hearing part of a voice
conversation from another circuit.
Q17. Show that PPM wave can be derive form PWM.
A PPM wave from can be drive from a PWM waveform. The relationship between the
two is that, while the position of the pulse varies in PPM, the location of leading edge
of the pulse varies in PWM waveform. Now differentiate and look for large negative
pulse. If a constant width pulse is placed at those point then a PPM waveform is be
derived. This procedure shown in figure below.

Conversation of PPM form PWM

[PWM have a problem of using the variable power. PPM solve this problem using the
constant power. The noise immunity in PAM is more. It also solve in PPM]
Q18. What is Time Division Multiplexing? Describe with example.
Time Division Multiplexing: We know that signals can be separated from each other if
they are not over-lapping in either time of frequency. Since the bandwidth of the pulse
modulated waveform is extremely high, frequency separation is not usual in practical. If
the pulse modulation waveform is characterized with the portion of time axis, it is
possible of time separation. The process of adding signals together such that they do not
overlap to each other in time is called time division multiplexing.

Time division multiplexing signals with identical (Time distance equal) sampling rate is
viewed in figure for two signals. Note that, the switches alternate between each of two
position to ensure that to complete the entire cycle one sampling period do not take
longer time. As two pulse sent their each sampling period, the pulse rate on the channel
will twice of the sampling rate.

If the channels are increased to 10 the switch becomes a commutator. This switch make
one complete rotation fast enough so that it arrives at channel 1 in time. The receiver
switch must rotate in synchronization with that at the transmitter. This synchronization
is called frame synchronization. That why, if we knew exactly what is sent on of the
channels, we could identify its samples at the receiver.

The only thing that limits how fast the switch can rotate, how many channels can be
multiplexed and is the fraction of time required.