SPECIAL PAPER: ECONOMIC BOTANY(M. Sc.

BOTANY) 1
PULSES
Dr. ZAFAR ULLAH ZAFAR

PULSES
Pulses are annual leguminous crops yielding from one to twelve grains or seeds of
variable size, shape and color within a pod, according to the Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Pulses are used for food and animal feed.
The term pulses, as used by the FAO, is reserved for crops harvested solely for the dry
grain. This excludes green beans and green peas, which are considered vegetable crops.
Also excluded are crops that are mainly grown for oil extraction (oilseeds like soybeans
and peanuts).
Importance of Pulses
Pulses may be defined as the dried edible seeds of cultivated legumes. They belong
to the family of peas, beans and lentils. Pulses are cultivated in all parts of the world, and
they occupy an important place in human diet. They however, make a much more
important contribution to the diet of all classes of society in the East than in the West. In
India and Pakistan especially people who are mostly vegetarian depend largely on cereals
and pulses as their staple food, which serve as the main source of dietary protein and
energy.
Food Value:
Pulses are important food crops due to their high protein and essential amino acid
content. They serve as a low-cost protein to meet the needs of the large section of the
people. They have, therefore, been justifiably described as the poor man’s meat. Their
low moisture content and hard seed-coat permit storage over long periods. In addition to
providing dry pulses, many of the crops are grown for their green edible pods and unripe
seeds. Nutritionally, immature fruits have distinctly different properties to those of the
mature seed; the protein content is lower but they are relatively richer in vitamins and
soluble carbohydrates. The leaves and shoots of some of the crops are used as pot-herbs.
In general, pulses contain 20 to 28 per cent protein per 100 gm. With the exception
of soybean which has as much as 47 percent. Their carbohydrate content is about 60
percent per 100 gm. except soybean which has about 30 per cent. Pulses are also fairly
good sources of thiamin and niacin and provide calcium, phosphorus and iron. On an
average 100gram of pulses contain energy 345 kcal, protein 24.5 gm. Calcium 140 mg,
phosphorus 300 mg, thiamin 0.5 mg, riboflavin 0.3 mg and niacin 2mg.
The nutritive properties of the pulses resemble in many respects those of the whole
cereal grains; but there are important differences. First, the pulse protein is low in sulphur
containing amino acids, but rich in lysine in which many cereals are deficient. A
combination of pulses and cereal proteins may, therefore, have nutritive value as good as
animal proteins. Secondly, pulses as a class are good sources of the B group of vitamins
except riboflavin. More important, the greater part of these vitamins present in the
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PULSES
Dr. ZAFAR ULLAH ZAFAR

harvested seeds is actually consumed. There are no losses comparable with those that
may arise in the milling and cooking of cereals. Pulses are therefore, an excellent
preventive against beriberi.
Thirdly, although pulses, like cereal grains, are devoid of vitamin C, large amount
of ascorbic acid are found on germination. Sprouted pulses are, therefore, an important
food which will protect against scurvy. Dietitians in Asian and African hospitals make
beneficial use of sprouted pulses for their menus, especially when fresh vegetables and
fruits are scarce or too expensive.
In health, the digestion of pulses and the absorption of their principal nutrients are
practically complete and nearly as effective as is the assimilation of cereals. Their
digestion, may, however, be incomplete in gastro-intestinal disorders. Only small
quantities of well cooked pulses should, therefore, be included in the diets of patients
with stomach disorders.
The practice of utilizing germinated seed or sprouting of young seedlings of pulses
as a fresh vegetable is widespread in the Orient. The storage of dried seed and their
sprouting as required enables a continuous supply of fresh vegetable material to be
produced. There is an amazing increase in nutrients in sprouted pulses when compared to
their dried embryo. In the process of sprouting the vitamins, minerals and protein
increase substantially with the corresponding decrease in calories and carbohydrate
content.
Sprouting of the pulses not only improves nutrition value but also digestibility.
During sprouting, starch is broken down to dextrin and maltose, and proteins are broken
down to polypeptides, peptides and amino acids. Some of the bound iron is converted to a
more readily assimilable form. Phosphorus is liberated from phytate.
The ascorbic acid or vitamin C content rises from negligible levels in the seed to 12 mg.
per 100 grams after 48 hours of germination. Riboflavin and niacin contents Increase
significantly. These changes are brought about by enzymes which become active during
germination.
India is the world's largest producer and the largest importer of pulses. Canada, Myanmar,
Australia and the United States are significant exporters, and are India's most significant suppliers, in
that order.
Dry beans (Phaseolus spp. including several species now in Vigna)
Phaseolus vulgaris (Kidney bean, haricot bean, pinto bean, navy bean)
Vigna mungo (Black gram, Urad)
Synonyms: Phaseolus mungo
Vigna radiata (Green gram, Mung bean, Moong)
Synonyms: Phaseolus aureus
Vigna acontifolia (Moth bean)
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Dr. ZAFAR ULLAH ZAFAR

Synonyms: Phaseolus aconitifolius

Pisum sativum (Garden pea)
Cicer arietinum (Chickpea, Garbanzo, Bengal gram)
Cajanus cajan (Pigeon pea, Toor, cajan pea, congo bean, Arhar)
Lens culinaris Lentil
Synonyms: Lens esculantus
Glycine max (Soybean, Soyabean)
Synonyms: Glycine whitti
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (Guar, Cluster bean)
Minor pulses include:
Lablab purpureus (Lablab, hyacinth bean)
Pulses are 20 to 25% protein by weight, which is double the protein content of
wheat and three times that of rice. For this reason, pulses are sometimes called "poor
man’s meat". While pulses are generally high in protein, and the digestibility of that
protein is also high, they often are relatively poor in the essential amino acid methionine.
Grains (which are themselves deficient in lysine) are commonly consumed along with
pulses to form a complete protein diet.
Phaseolus vulgaris L.
Kidney bean, Haricot bean, Pinto bean, Navy bean
The common bean, Phaseolus vulgaris, is an herbaceous annual plant grown
worldwide for its edible bean, popular both dry and as a green bean. The leaf is
occasionally used as a leaf vegetable, and the straw is used for fodder.
The common bean is a highly variable species with a long history. Bush varieties
form erect bushes 20–60 cm. tall, while running varieties form vines 2–3 m long. All
varieties bear alternate, green or purple leaves, divided into three oval, smooth-edged
leaflets. The flowers are white, pink, or purple. The beans are smooth, kidney-shaped,
range widely in color, and are often mottled in two or more colors.
Before they are eaten, the raw bean seeds should be soaked in water for several
hours and then boiled for at least ten minutes in new fresh water to degrade a toxic
compound - the lectin phytohaemagglutinin - found in the bean which would otherwise
cause severe gastric upset.
The common bean is high in starch, protein and dietary fiber and is an excellent
source of iron, potassium, selenium, molybdenum, thiamine, vitamin B6, and folic acid.
Phaseolus species are nutritionally very rich in 25 % protein, 1 % fat and 56 %
carbohydrates.
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Dr. ZAFAR ULLAH ZAFAR

The pinto bean (Spanish: frijol pinto, literally "painted bean") is named for its
mottled skin (compare pinto horse), hence it is a type of mottled bean. It is the most
common bean in the United States and northwestern Mexico.
The small, white navy bean, also called pea bean or haricot, is particularly popular in
Britain and the US.
Lens culinaris Medikus
(Lentil, Masoor Daal)
It is a winter crop and is grown in most of the parts of Pakistan, especially in in the
plane regions. The lentil or daal or pulse (Lens culinaris) is a bushy annual plant of the
legume family, grown for its lens-shaped seeds. The plant is a branched slender by the
end with pinnate leaves and terminal leaflets either produced into a small tendril or in the
form of small point. The flowers are produced axilary on a long stalk bearing 2-3 flowers.
The colour of flowers may be white or pink. The fruit is slightly flatened and with two
seeds.
There are two varieties of lentil which are grown in Pakistan.
1. Variety Microspermae
2. Variety Macrospermae
In variety microspermae the seeds are small and biconvex while in variety
macrospermae the seeds arelarge and flatened but not convex. Macrosprmae variety is
cultivated in hilly regions of Baluchistan while microspermae variety is cultivated
through out Pakistan.
With 26% protein, lentils have the third highest level of protein from any plant-
based food after soybeans and hemp, and is an important part of the diet in many parts of
the world, especially in Nepal India and Pakistan which have large vegetarian
populations.
A variety of lentils exists with colors that range from yellow to red-orange to
green, brown and black. Red, white and yellow lentils are decorticated, i.e., they have
their skins removed. There are large and small varieties of many lentils. Lentils are sold
in many forms, with or without the skins, whole or split.
Lentils contain high levels of proteins, including the essential amino acids isoleucine and
lysine. Lentils are deficient in two essential amino acids, methionine and cystine.
Apart from a high level of proteins, lentils also contain dietary fiber, folate, vitamin B1,
and minerals.
Lentils are one of the best vegetable sources of iron. This makes them an important
part of a vegetarian diet, and useful for preventing iron deficiency. Iron is particularly
important for adolescents, pregnant women whose requirements for it are increased.
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Dr. ZAFAR ULLAH ZAFAR

Lentils are relatively tolerant to drought and are grown throughout the world.
About half of the worldwide production of lentils is from India, most of which is
consumed in the domestic market. Canada is the largest export producer of lentils in the
world and Saskatchewan is the most important producing region in Canada.
FAO reports that world production of lentils for calendar year 2007 is 3.874 million
metric tonnes, primarily coming from India (36%), Canada(17%) and Turkey(15%).
Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper
(Black gram, Urad, Mash)
Urad, also referred to as urad dal, udad dal, urd bean, urd, urid, black gram,
black lentil , white lentil is a bean grown in southern Asia. It is largely used to make dal
from the whole or split, dehusked seeds. It, along with the mung bean, was placed in
Phaseolus but has been transferred to Vigna. It was at one point considered to belong to
the same species as the mung bean.
Black gram originated in India where it has been in cultivation from ancient times
and is one of the most highly prized pulses of India. It has also been introduced to other
tropical areas mainly by Indian immigrants.
It is an erect, sub-erect or trailing, densely hairy annual herb. The tap root produces
a branched root system with smooth, rounded nodules. Plants have large trifoliate leaves
and 5-8 flowers are produced in th axial of leaves on long stalk. The flowers are yellow in
colour and are cleistogamous (closed) and hence self fertilization. The pods are narrow,
cylindrical and up to 6 cm long. The bean is boiled and eaten whole or after splitting into
dal; prepared like this it has an unusual mucilaginous texture. It is very nutritious and is
recommended for diabetics, as are other pulses. It is very popular in Punjabi cuisine of
India and Pakistan where it is known as "mash".
The product sold as "black lentil" is usually the whole urad bean or urad dal. The product
sold as "white lentil" is the same lentil with the black skin removed.
Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek
Synonyms: Phaseolus aureus
(Mung bean, Green gram)
Mung bean, also known as green bean, mung, moong, mash bean, munggo or
monggo, green gram, golden gram, and green soy, is the seed of Vigna radiata which
is native to Pakistan and India. The split bean is known as moong dal, which is green
with the husk, and yellow when dehusked. The beans are small, ovoid in shape, and green
in color. The English word "mung" derives from the Hindi moong. The mung bean is one
of many species recently moved from the genus Phaseolus to Vigna and is still often seen
cited as Phaseolus aureus or Phaseolus radiatus. These are all the same plant.
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Dr. ZAFAR ULLAH ZAFAR

Mung beans are mainly cultivated in India, Pakistan, Indonesia, China, Burma, and
Bangladesh. They can also be cultivated in other hot and dry regions of South Europe and
Southern USA. In India and Bangladesh, they are grown during two seasons. One is the
Rabi season (starting November), and the other is the Kharif season (starting March).
Mung beans are tropical (or sub-tropical) crops, and require warm temperatures (optimal
at 30-35°C). Loamy soil is best for pusap cultivation.
Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Marechal
Synonyms: Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq.
(Moth bean)
The moth bean (pronounced "moat bean"), also called mat bean or Turkish gram, is a
small, drought-resistant annual trailing herb with small yellow flowers and deeply lobed
leaves, grown especially in dry parts of South Asia for its tiny (3-4 mm) edible beans,
which range in color from light brown to dark reddish brown. Flowers are borne on a
short stalk in theleaf axial bearing 3-5 flowers. The pods are long narrow containing 3-5
small oblong seeds usually brown in colour.
The plant is usually used as fodder crop. The seed contains 25 % protein, 1 % fats
and 58 % carbohydrates.
Pisum sativum L.
(Garden Pea)
P. sativum is an annual plant, with a life cycle of one year. It is a cool season crop
grown in many parts of the world; planting can take place from winter through to early
summer depending on location. The species is used as a fresh vegetable, frozen or
canned, but is also grown to produce dry peas like the split pea. These varieties are
typically called field peas.
The pea is a green, pod-shaped fruit, widely grown as a cool-season vegetable
crop. The seeds may be planted as soon as the soil temperature reaches 10°C, with the
plants growing best at temperatures of 13-18°C. They do not thrive in the summer heat of
warmer temperate and lowland tropical climates but do grow well in cooler high altitude
tropical areas. Many cultivars reach maturity about 60 days after planting. Generally,
peas are to be grown outdoors during the winter, not in greenhouses.
Peas have both low-growing and vining cultivars. The vining cultivars grow thin
tendrils from leaves that coil around any available support and can climb to be 1-2 m
high. Pea plants do not need pollination from other plants as they have special properties
that allow them to pollinate themselves and make more genetic copies. This is the reason
Gregor Mendel experimented on these fascinating plants.
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Dr. ZAFAR ULLAH ZAFAR

Fresh peas are often eaten boiled and flavored with butter. Salt and pepper are also
commonly added to peas when served. In India and Pakistan fresh peas are used in
various dishes such as aloo matar (curried potatoes with peas) or matar paneer (paneer
cheese with peas).
Dried peas are often made into a soup or simply eaten on their own. In Japan,
China, Taiwan and some South-east Asian countries, including Thailand and Malaysia,
the peas are roasted and salted, and eaten as snacks. In the UK, dried yellow split peas are
used to make pease pudding (or "pease porridge"), a traditional dish. In North America a
similarly traditional dish is split pea soup.
Processed peas are mature peas which have been dried, soaked and then heat
treated (processed) to prevent spoilage — in the same manner as pasteurising.
Bioplastics can be made using pea starch.
Peas in science
In the mid-1800s, Gregor Mendel's observations of pea pods led to the principles
of Mendelian genetics, the foundation of modern genetics.
Cicer arietinum L.
(Chickpea, Chana)
The chickpea (Cicer arietinum) (also garbanzo bean, Indian pea, bengal gram,
chana) is an edible legume of the family Fabaceae. Chickpeas are high in protein and one
of the earliest cultivated vegetables.
The crop is sown in winter season all over in Pakistan but the favourable soil for
successive crop is sandy loam. As the crop can tolerate drought and is sensitive to
waterlogging hence most of gram crop is found in drier regions of the Pakistan such as
Bahawalpur, Thal, Mianawalli and Chakwal districts.
The plant grows between 20 and 50 cm high and has small feathery leaves on
either side of the stem. One seedpod contains two or three peas. The flowers are white or
sometimes reddish-blue. Chickpeas need a subtropical or tropical climate with more than
40 centimetres (16 in) of annual rain. They can be grown in a temperate climate but
yields will be much lower.
There are two main kinds of chickpea:
Desi, which has small, darker seeds and a rough coat, cultivated mostly in the
Indian subcontinent, Ethiopia, Mexico and Iran.
Kabuli, which has lighter coloured, larger seeds and a smoother coat, mainly
grown in Southern Europe, Northern Africa, Afghanistan and Chile, also introduced
during the 18th century to the Indian subcontinent).
The Desi (meaning country or local in Hindi) is also known as Bengal gram or kala
chana. Kabuli (meaning from Kabul in Hindi, since they were thought to have come from
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Afghanistan when first seen in India) is the kind widely grown throughout the
Mediterranean. Desi chickpeas have markedly higher fiber content. The desi type is used
to make Chana Dal, which is a split chickpea with the skin removed.
Chickpeas are grown in the Mediterranean, western Asia and the Indian
subcontinent. Mature chickpeas can be cooked and eaten cold in salads, ground into flour
called gram flour (also known as besan and used primarily in Indian and Pakistan
cuisine). Chick peas are used to make curries and are one of the most popular vegetarian
foods in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and the UK.
Many popular Indian dishes are made with chickpea flour. In India unripe
chickpeas are often picked out of the pod and eaten as a raw snack and the leaves are
eaten as a green vegetable in salads. The flour is also used to coat various vegetables and
meats before frying.
Dried chick peas need a long cooking time (1-2 hours) but will not easily fall apart when
cooked longer. If soaked for 12-24 hours before use, cooking time can be considerably
shortened (30 mins).
India is the world leader in chickpea production followed by Pakistan and Turkey.
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.
(Pigeon pea, Arhar)
The pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan, syn. Cajanus indicus) is a perennial member of
the family Fabaceae. Other common names are arhar, red gram, Congo pea and no-eye
pea.
The cultivation of the pigeon pea goes back at least 3000 years. The centre of
origin is most likely Asia, from where it travelled to East Africa and by means of the
slave trade to the American continent. Today pigeon peas are widely cultivated in all
tropical and semi-tropical regions of both the Old and the New World.
Pigeon pea is a perennial which can grow into a small tree. There are two varieties of
chick pea cultivated in Pakistan.
1. Variety Typicus
2. Variety Flavis
These two varieties are differing in the size of plant, which is much larger in
variety typicus and shorter and bushy in variety flavis. In variety typicus the standard is
yellow and has red veins. In variety flavus standard is only yellow in colour. In variety
typicus the fruit is hairy and has three to five seeds. In variety flavus the fruit is glabrous
and has 2-3 seeds. The crop is cultivated as a summer crop in the beginning of July. Most
of the crop is produced in Sind province. The seeds in dry conditions contain about 20%
protein, 60 % carbohydrates and 2 % fats.
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Dr. ZAFAR ULLAH ZAFAR

Pigeon pea is an important grain legume crop of rainfed agriculture in the semi-
arid tropics. The Indian subcontinent, Eastern Africa and Central America, in that order,
are the world's three main pigeon pea producing regions. Pigeon pea is cultivated in more
than 25 tropical and sub-tropical countries, either as a sole crop or intermixed with such
cereals as sorghum (Sorchum bicolor), pearl millet (Pennisetium glaucum), or maize (Zea
mays), or with legumes, e.g. peanut (Arachis hypogaea). Being a legume, pigeon pea
enriches soil through symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
Pigeon peas are both a food crop (dried peas, flour, or green vegetable peas) and a
forage/cover crop. The dried peas may be sprouted briefly, and then cooked, for a flavor
different from the green or dried peas. Sprouting also enhances the digestability of dried
pigeon peas via the reduction of indigestible sugars that would otherwise remain in the
cooked dried peas.
In India and Pakistan, split pigeon peas (toor dal) are one of the most popular
pulses—along with chickpeas (chana), urad and mung. Pigeon peas are nutritionally
important, as they contain high levels of protein and the important amino acids
methionine, lysine, and tryptophan. In combination with cereals, pigeon peas make a
well-balanced human food.
The woody stems of pigeon peas are used as firewood. In Thailand, pigeon peas
are grown as a host for scale insects which produce lac. Pigeon peas are in some areas an
important crop for green manure.
It is useful in the swelling of internal organs. Some herbal practitioners/researchers
are of the opinion that it diminishes the swelling of internal organs like stomach, liver,
intestines etc. In case of wound or cancer of these organs it is helpful in reducing them.
Its recommended usage is: Green leaves of Pigeon peas around 10 grams along with 7
black peppers should be finely ground and mixed in water and then taken as a drink.
Green leaves of Pigeon peas ground in water and added to half boiled water should be
applied externally on the affected body part.
Pigeon peas are very drought resistant and can be grown in areas with less than 650
mm annual rainfall.
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba(L.) Taub.
(Guar, Cluster bean)
The guar bean or cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba), an annual legume, is the
source of guar gum. It grows best under conditions with frequent rainfall, but tolerates
arid conditions well. 80% of world production is in India, but due to strong demand, it is
being introduced into new areas.
For best growth, the guar bean requires full sunshine, flashing rainfalls that are
moderately frequent and well drained soil. However, it is extremely drought tolerant and
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thrives in semi-arid regions. Too much precipitation can cause the plant to become more
"leafy" thereby reducing the number of pods and/or the number of seeds per pod that
affects the size and yield of seeds. The crop is sown after the first rains in July and
harvested in late October. It is grown principally in northwestern India, and Pakistan,
with smaller crops grown in the semi-arid areas of the high plains of Texas in the USA,
Australia and Africa.
Guar can be fed to cattle, or used as a green manure.
Guar can be eaten as a green bean, but is more important as the source of guar
gum. Guar beans have a large endosperm that contains galactomannan gum, a substance
which forms a gel in water. This is commonly known as guar gum and is used in dairy
products like ice cream and as a stabilizer in cheese and cold-meat processing.
Another use is as a fiber supplement. After being partially hydrolyzed, guar gum is
completely soluble in water and soft food. Being approximately 75% dietary fiber, it
allows fiber to be added to a food with a minimal effect on taste and texture.
Partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG) is produced by the partial enzymatic
hydrolysis of guaran, the galactomannan of the endosperm of guar seeds (guar gum). It is
a neutral polysaccharide consisting of a mannose backbone chain with single galactose
side units occurring on almost two out of every three mannose units. The average
molecular weight is about 25,000 Daltons.
Derivatives of Guar gum that has been further reacted is also used in industrial
applications such as the paper and textile industry.
Glycine max (L.) Merr.
(Soybean,Soyabean)
The soybean (U.S.) or soya bean (UK) (Glycine max) is a species of legume
native to East Asia. It is an annual plant that has been used in China for 5,000 years as a
food and a component of drugs. Soya contains significant amounts of all the essential
amino acids for humans, and so is a good source of protein. Soybeans are the primary
ingredient in many processed foods, including dairy product substitutes.
Beans are classed as pulses whereas soyabeans are classed as oilseeds. It is a versatile
bean, having a diverse range of uses.
Soya varies in growth, habit, and height. It may grow prostrate, not higher than 20
cm (7.8 inches), or grow up to 2 meters (6.5 feet) high. The pods, stems, and leaves are
covered with fine brown or gray hairs. The leaves are trifoliolate, having 3 to 4 leaflets
per leaf. The leaves fall before the seeds are mature. The big, self-fertile flowers are
borne in the axil of the leaf and are white, pink or purple.
The fruit is a hairy pod that grows in clusters of 3–5, each pod is 3–8 cm long and usually
contains 2–4 (rarely more) seeds. Soybeans occur in various sizes, and in many hull or
seed coat colors, including black, brown, blue, yellow, green and mottled. The hull of the
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mature bean is hard, water resistant, and protects the cotyledon and hypocotyl from
damage. If the seed coat is cracked, the seed will not germinate. The scar, visible on the
seed coat, is called the hilum (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at
one end of the hilum is the micropyle, or small opening in the seed coat which can allow
the absorption of water for sprouting. Remarkably, seeds such as soybeans containing
very high levels of protein can undergo desiccation yet survive and revive after water
absorption.
The oil and protein content together account for about 60% of dry soybeans by
weight; protein at 40% and oil at 20%. The remainder consists of 35% carbohydrate and
about 5% ash.
The principal soluble carbohydrates, saccharides, of mature Soybeans are the
disaccharide sucrose (range 2.5–8.2%), the trisaccharide raffinose (0.1–1.0%) composed
of one sucrose molecule connected to one molecule of galactose, and the tetrasaccharide
stachyose (1.4 to 4.1%) composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of
galactose. While the oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose protect the viability of the
Soy bean seed from desiccation. They are not digestible sugars and therefore contribute
to flatulence and abdominal discomfort in humans and other monogastric animals.
Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by native microbes
producing gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane, etc.
The insoluble carbohydrates in Soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides
cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. The majority of Soybean carbohydrates can be
classed as belonging to dietary fiber.
Soybeans are an important global crop, providing oil and protein. Cultivation is
successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean
temperatures of 20 °C to 30 °C. Soybeans grow throughout Asia and North and South
America.
Soybeans are the primary ingredient in many processed foods, including dairy
product substitutes (e.g., margarine, soy ice cream, soy milk, soy yogurt, soy cheese and
soy cream cheese). Soybeans are also used in industrial products including oils, soap,
cosmetics, resins, plastics, inks, crayons, solvents, and clothing. Soybean oil is the
primary source of biodiesel in the United States, accounting for 80% of domestic
biodiesel production.
Soybeans are considered by many agencies, including the US Food and Drug
Administration, to be a source of complete protein A complete protein is one that
contains significant amounts of all the essential amino acids that must be provided to the
human body because of the body's inability to synthesize them. For this reason, soy is a
good source of protein.
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Dr. ZAFAR ULLAH ZAFAR

Consumption of soy may also reduce the risk of colon cancer, possibly due to the
presence of sphingolipids.
Omega-3 fatty acids, for example, alpha-linolenic acid C18-3, all cis, 9,12,15
octadecatrienoic acid (where the omega-3 refers to carbon number 3 counting from the
hydrocarbon tail whereas C-15 refers to carbon number 15 counting from the carboxyl
acid head) are special fat components that benefit many body functions. However, the
effects which are beneficial to health are associated mainly with the longer-chain, more
unsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic (20:5n-3, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid
(22:6n-3, DHA) found in fish oil and oily fish. For instance, EPA and DHA, inhibit blood
clotting, while there is no evidence that alpha-linolenic acid (αLNA) can do this. Soybean
oil is one of the few common vegetable oils that contain a significant amount of aLNA;
others include canola, walnut, hemp, and flax. However, soybean oil does not contain
EPA or DHA. Soybean oil does contain significantly greater amount of omega-6 fatty
acids in the oil: 100g of soybean oil contains 7g of omega-3 fatty acids to 51g of omega-
6: a ratio of 1:7. Flaxseed, in comparison, has an omega-3:omega-6 ratio of 3:1.
Soybeans also contain the isoflavones genistein and daidzein, types of
phytoestrogen, that are considered by some nutritionists and physicians to be useful in the
prevention of cancer and by others to be carcinogenic and endocrine disruptive.