* 7 *

Stability of natural deposits during earthquakes

La stability des depots naturels lors des tre m b le m e n ts de terre

KENJIISHIHARA, Professor o f Civil Engineering, U niversity o f Tokyo, Japan

INTRODUCTION sands c o n t aining fines or c o a r s e -grained gravel.

The title subject envisaged herein embraces a Ev a l u a t i o n of true b e h a v i o r of in-situ soil d e ­

r e l a t i v e l y n e w b r a n c h in t h e f i e l d o f g e o t e c h - p o s i t s d u r i n g e a r t h q u a k e s is a l w a y s e s s e n t i a l ,
nical engineering. However, be c a u s e its c o v e r ­ more than anything else, for m aking accurate p r e ­
a g e is s o d i f f u s e d a n d b e c a u s e i t s c o n t e n t is so d i c t i o n s of the oc c u r r e n c e of liquefaction. The
c o m p r e h e n s i v e , it a p p e a r s a l m o s t u n f e a s i b l e t o s e c o n d p o i n t r a i s e d h e r e i n is, t h e r e f o r e , a s s o c i ­
touch on every facet of the recent dev e l o p m e n t s ate d w i t h the e v a l u a t i o n of soil p r o p erties based
and to give a c o m plete and c o h e r e n t d e s c r i p t i o n on l a b o ratory tests on h i g h - q u a l i t y undis t u r b e d
o n t h e s t a t e of the a r t in t h i s s u b j e c t area. samples of soils and also based on in-situ p e n e ­
It is n o t t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h i s t h e m e l e c t u r e tration tests.
p r e s e n t a t i o n to a t t e m p t to c a r r y o u t s u c h a d i f ­
f ic u lt task. T h e a i m is r a t h e r t o p o i n t o u t s o m e T h e d a m a g e to t h e g r o u n d d u e t o l i q u e f a c t i o n s u c h
o f the k e y i s s u e s of p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e and a s s a n d b o i l i n g a n d s u r f a c e f i s s u r i n g is b r o u g h t
o f c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t in t h e s u b j e c t a r e a f o r f o s ­ about w hen the surface layer c o m p o s e d of unlique-
t e r i n g f r u i t f u l a n d e x h a u s t i v e d i s c u s s i o n s in the f i a b l e s o i l s is s u f f i c i e n t l y t h i n a n d w h e n t h e
foll o w i n g sessions of this Conference. underlying sand deposit develops liquefaction
t h r oughout a sufficient depth. In o r d e r t o i d e n ­
The first subject "Soil liquef a c t i o n d u ring ea r t h ­ tify w h e t h e r a given site will suffer damage due
quakes" has bee n the focus of p r i m a r y con c e r n and t o l i q u e f a c t i o n , it b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e a
of consid e r a b l e d iscussions among engineers and g u i d e l i n e c h a r a c t e r i z i n g c o n d itions of soil s t r a t ­
i n v e s t i g a t o r s since the l i q u e f a c t i o n of s an d has ification near the ground surface. T h i s t y p e of
b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as a m a j o r c a u s e o f d a m a g e t o the p r o b l e m w i l l b e t a k e n u p as the t h i r d p o i n t of
ground and earth structures during e a r t hquakes. c o n s i d e r a t i o n in t h i s t h e m e l e c t u r e p a p e r .
W h i l e t h e e a r l y s t a g e of its d e v e l o p m e n t w a s
a p p a rently m o t i v a t e d by the dramatic occurrence W h i l e the issue of soil l i q u e f a c t i o n has been
o f l i q u e f a c t i o n d u r i n g t h e e a r t h q u a k e s in N i i g a t a d i s c u s s e d t h o r o u g h l y a n d e x h a u s t i v e l y in e v e r y
a n d A l a s k a in 1964, t h e i m p e t u s f o r p r o m p t i n g t h e respect, the problems embraced by the second title
study of liqu e f a c t i o n has been s u p plied i n c e s ­ subject "Seismic s tability of natural slopes" have
santly by a series of large earthquakes that have been left unhe e d e d and have seldom been a target
o ccu r r e d since then throughout the seismically of e x t e n s i v e i n v e s t i ga t io n . H o w e v e r , in v i e w o f
it s p o t e n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e in a s s e s s i n g s e i s m i c
active region of the world.
r i s k , it is e x p e c t e d t h a t i n c r e a s i n g a t t e n t i o n
An i mportant o v e r v i e w on the e a r l y stage of d e ­ wil l be given to this subject and future research
v e l o p m e n t s in the s t u d y of l i q u e f a c t i o n w a s m a d e e f f o r t s are s t i m u l a t e d in this d i r e c t i o n .
b y Y o s h i m i e t al. (1977) o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e
9th Tokyo Conference. A comprehensive assessment Apart from geological and hydrological details,
of the s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t in r e s e a r c h a n d p r a c t i c e one of the key issues in the stability assessment
in t h e f i e l d o f l i q u e f a c t i o n w a s m a d e b y S e e d of n a t u r a l slop e s d u r i n g e a r t h q u a k e s w o u l d be the
(1979) f o r o v e r a l l d e v e l o p m e n t s u n t i l t h e l a t e ac c urate e v a l u a t i o n of d e f o r m a t i o n and strength
1970's. T h e s u b s e q u e n t s t a g e o f d e v e l o p m e n t in c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of sl o p e - f o r m i n g soil m aterials
this subject area was critically reviewed by Finn under seismic loading conditions. T h i s a s p e c t of
( 1 9 81), w h o p u t a n e m p h a s i s o n t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f the p r o b l e m w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d s o m e w h a t in d e t a i l
based mainly on the outcome of investigations con­
r ese a r c h works r e garding the factors influencing
the liq u e f a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l of sand and also on d u c t e d at the U n i v e r s i t y of Tokyo.
the d e v e l o p m e n t of dyn a m i c effe c t i v e stress a n a l ­
Th e d e g r e e of a c c u r a c y in soil p r o p e r t y e v a l u a t i o n
ysis . should be m a t c h e d by an equ a l l y a c c urate a s s e s s ­
The state-of-the-art reviews discussed above m e n t of e x t e r n a l loads to be a p p l i e d to the soil
during earthquakes. T h i s a d d s t o d i f f i c u l t y in
dealt p r i m a r i l y w i t h the liqu e f a c t i o n of loose
c o p i n g w i t h the p r o b l e m of s e i s m i c s t a b i l i t y of
d e p o s i t s of c l e a n sands, r e f l e c t i n g the o v e r ­
natural slopes. O n e of the p o i n t s to be c o n s i d ­
w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y of r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s in this
e r e d in a s s e s s i n g t h e s e i s m i c a l l y i n d u c e d s t r e s s
direction. However, a growing interest has been
is t h a t t o p o g r a p h y o f h i l l s o r m o u n t a i n s w h e r e
c r e a t e d in r e c e n t y e a r s for e l u c i d a t i n g the
landsliding occurs could exert a profound influ­
c y c l i c b e h a v i o r o f d e n s e s a n d a n d .of s o i l s o t h e r
ence on the m o d i f i c a t i o n of mo t i o n s d u ring e a r t h ­
t h a n c l e a n sand. One of the points emphasized
quakes. Although quantitative field data on this
in t h i s p a p e r is t h u s t h e l i q u e f a c t i o n o r c y c l i c
subject are scarce some of the recent d e v e lopments
m o b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of dense sand and of

321
w i l l be i n t r o d u c e d in this paper. Viewed overall, Upon occurrence of liquefaction, individual p a r ­
the subject of seismic stab i l i t y of natural slopes t i c l e s o f t h e s a n d s t a r t t o s e t t l e in w a t e r ,
a p p e a r s s t i l l to be in its i n f a n c y of d e v e l o p m e n t . thereby e x pelling pore water towards the surface
The w r i t e r hopes this p r e s e n t a t i o n wil l be of some of the s a n d d e p o s i t a n d w h e n the s e d i m e n t a t i o n has
h e l p in e n h a n c i n g r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s o n this c h a l ­ ta ke n p l a c e t h r o u g h o u t the d e p t h of the deposit,
lenging subject. t h e s a n d is n o w d e p o s i t e d i n a s o m e w h a t d e n s e r
s t a t e , a s s h o w n i n F i g . 1(c). T h e t r a n s f e r o f the
state of s a nd f r o m the i n it i al d e p o s i t i o n to the
final dense state via the process of l i q u e faction
SOIL LIQUEFACTION DURING EARTHQUAKES is i l l u s t r a t e d s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g . 1, i n w h i c h
t h e s c a l e i n s i d e t h e b o x is a s s u m e d t o i n d i c a t e
the e f fective stress and the outside scale s u p ­
I DEFINITIONS AND MECHANISM p o r ting the s and-filled box indicates the total
stress. The length of time for wh i c h the l i q u e ­
1.1 M e c h a n i s m of L i q u e f a c t i o n f i e d s t a t e c o n t i n u e s to e x i s t d e p e n d s u p o n d r a inage
con d i t i o n s of the dep o s i t and also on the d u r ation
I t is w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e b a s i c m e c h a n i s m of c y c l i c s h e a r s t r e s s a p p l i c a t i o n f o l l o w i n g the
of l i q u e f a c t i o n in a d e p o s i t o f l o o s e s a t u r a t e d o n s e t of liquefaction. The longer and the stronger
s a n d d u r i n g e a r t h q u a k e s is t h e p r o g r e s s i v e b u i l d ­ t h e c y c l i c s h e a r s t r e s s a p p l i c a t i o n , t h e l o n g e r the
u p of e x c e s s p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e d u e to t h e a p p l i ­ s t a t e o f l i q u e f a c t i o n p e r s i s t s ; a n d t h e t h i c k e r the
c a t i o n of cyclic shear stresses induced by the deposit and the finer the sand c o mposing the d e p o s ­
u p w a r d p r o p a g a t i o n of shear waves fro m the u n d e r ­ it, t h e l o n g e r t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d t o d r a i n t h e d e ­
lying rock formation. Under ordinary conditions veloped excess pore water pressure and therefore
p r i o r to a n e a r t h q u a k e , a soil e l e m e n t in l evel t h e l o n g e r is t h e s t a t e o f l i q u e f a c t i o n .
g r o u n d is s u b j e c t e d t o a c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s d u e t o
the w e i g h t of the o v e r l y i n g soils. When a series
o f c y c l i c s t r e s s is a p p l i e d d u r i n g a n e a r t h q u a k e , 1.2 Initial Liquefaction and Cyclic Mobility
the e l e m e n t o f l o o s e s a n d t e n d s to r e d u c e its
volume. However, since the d u r a t i o n of the cyclic The above considerations have been concerned with
s t r e s s a p p l i c a t i o n is s o s h o r t a s c o m p a r e d t o t h e an o v e r a l l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o n the m e c h a n i s m of l i q ­
time r e q u i r e d for d r a i n a g e of water, the v o l u m e uefaction. A m ore in-depth u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the
contraction can not occur immediately. In o r d e r liquefaction phenomenon can be gained from ob s e r ­
to keep the contra c t i n g loose sand at a constant v a t i o n of b e h a v i o r of sand samples un d e r g o i n g
v o lume, some c h a n g e in the e x i s t i n g s t r e s s s y s t e m c y c l i c s t r e s s a p p l i c a t i o n in the l a b o r a t o r y t e s t
must take place. T h i s s t r e s s c h a n g e is a c h i e v e d apparatus. T h i s a s p e c t of a p p r o a c h w a s f i r s t
in t h e f o r m o f a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e e x i s t i n g c o n f i n ­ e x p l o r e d by Seed and Lee (1966) u s i n g a c y c l i c
ing stress and a consequent increase of equal triaxial test device. Samples of satu r a t e d sand
m a g n i t u d e in t h e p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e . Therefore, were consolidated under a confining pressure and
the d e gree of pore w a t e r p r e ssure increase d e ­ subj e c t e d to a s e q uence of c o n s t a n t - a m p l i t u d e
pends, on one hand, upo n the state of p a c k i n g in ­ cyclic axial stress under undrained conditions,
d i c a t i v e of pote n t i a l of the volu m e d e c r e a s e t e n ­ u n t i l t h e y d e f o r m e d to a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of p e a k to
d e n c y and, o n the o t h e r hand, u p o n h o w far the peak axial strain. Similar types of cyclic load­
s a n d is s h e a r e d t o e x t r a c t t h e i n h e r e n t v o l u m e ing t es t s h a v e b e e n p e r f o r m e d since t h e n by a
decrease characteristics. W hen the state of sand n u m b e r of investigators. The r esults of the l a b o ­
p a c k i n g is l o o s e e n o u g h a n d t h e m a g n i t u d e o f r a t o r y t e s t s as a b o v e u n v e i l e d s e v e r a l c o m m o n f e a ­
c y c l i c s h e a r s t r e s s is g r e a t e n o u g h , t h e p o r e t u r e s of c y c l i c b e h a v i o r of s a n d as s u m m a r i z e d
w a t e r p r e s s u r e b u i l d s u p to a full e x t e n t in w h i c h below.
it b e c o m e s e q u a l t o t h e i n i t i a l l y e x i s t i n g c o n ­
fining stress. At this state, no e f f e c t i v e stress A set of typical laboratory test records on sand
o r i n t e r g r a n u l a r s t r e s s is a c t i n g o n t h e s a n d a n d w i t h t w o d i f f e r e n t d e n s i t i e s is d e m o n s t r a t e d in
individual particles released from any confinement F i g . 2. The tests were conducted on hollow cylin­
e x i s t a s if t h e y w e r e f l o a t i n g i n w a t e r , a s i l l u s ­ drical samples using a torsion shear test apparatus
t r a t e d i n F i g . 1 ( b ) . S u c h a s t a t e is c a l l e d l i q ­ (N a g a s e , 1 9 8 5 ) . The sand used was secured from
uefaction . the b e d o f the F u j i r i v e r in J a pan. The mean p a r ­
t i c l e s i z e o f t h i s s a n d is 0 . 3 8 m m a n d t h e u n i f o r ­
Increase in pore
m i t y c o e f f i c i e n t is 2 . 2 1 . The maximum and minimum
water pressure 1 v o i d r a t i o s a r e 1.08 a n d 0.53, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The
r e c o r d s o f the t e s t s s h o w n in Fig. 2 i n d i c a t e g e n ­
oooo*ao'o e r a l l y that the pore w a t e r p r e s s u r e buil d s up
o„o0 °oo„
s t e a d i l y as the c y c l i c s t r e s s is a p p l i e d , a n d
e v e n t u a l l y ap p r o a c h e s a va l u e equal to the initial­
m
0°oo°oo°o ly a p p l i e d c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e , t h e r e b y p r o d u c i n g
ip o ° O Op large cyclic torsional deformations. H o w e v e r , the
£t>cS0§n9 m a n n e r o f d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e l a r g e d e f o r m a t i o n s is
di fferent d e pending upon the looseness and d e n s e ­
ness of the sand. I f t h e s a n d is l o o s e , t h e p o r e
water pressure increases suddenly to a value equal
to the c o n f i n i n g p r es s ur e , and the large d e f o r m a ­
t i o n s o c c u r r a p i d l y w i t h a s h e a r s t r a i n a s h i g h as
± 20 %. When the sand will undergo unl i m i t e d d e ­
(a) Deposit prior ( b) State of suspension (c) Deposit after formations without mobilizing significant resis­
to liquefaction during liquefaction liquefaction t a n c e t o d e f o r m a t i o n , t h e s a n d is s a i d t o h a v e
liquefied. The m a n n e r in w h i c h it o c c u r s s u d d e n l y
Fig. 1 Transfer of state of deposition via a n d it is a c c o m p a n i e d b y u n l i m i t e d l y l a r g e d e f o r ­
liquefaction m a t i o n is t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f t h e e a r t h -

322
 n i z e a s t a t e of c y c l i c i n s t a b i l i t y in the d e n s e
sand.

Fig. 2 R e c o r d s of c y c l i c t o r s i o n a l s h e a r t e s t s
Fig. 3 S t r e s s p a t h a n d s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e for
loose sand o b t a i n e d form the cyclic
torsion shear test
quake-induced liquefaction. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , if
t h e s a n d is d e n s e , t h e p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e i n ­
creases more slowly wit h cyclic fluctuation, and
a f t e r its p e a k v a l u e b e c o m e s e q u a l to the i n i t i a l
c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e , i t s c y c l i c v a r i a t i o n c o m e s to
t a k e a s t e a d y - s t a t e f o r m as c a n b e s e e n in Fig.
2 (b) in w h i c h t h e p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e is c y c l e d
w i t h a f r e q u e n c y t w i c e t h a t of the a p p l i e d load.
T h e t o r s i o n a l s h e a r s t r a i n in the d e n s e s a n d i n ­
creases steadily wit h p r o g r e s s i o n of the cycle,
b u t it n e v e r b e c o m e s l a r g e r t h a n a c e r t a i n l i m i t .
T h e c y c l i c b e h a v i o r o f d e n s e s a n d a s a b o v e in
which a peak cyclic pore water pressure becomes
equal to the initial c o n f i n i n g p r e ssure as a r e ­
sult of cycl i c loading and sub s e q u e n t cyclic
s t r e s s a p p l i c a t i o n s c a u s e s l i m i t e d s t r a i n s to
d e v e l o p is c a l l e d " c y c l i c m o b i l i t y " b y C a s t r o
(1975) o r " p e a k c y c l i c p o r e p r e s s u r e r a t i o of
100 % w i t h l i m i t e d s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l " b y S e e d % •
(1979) . Torsional shear test j 06
% ' = 0-717
Dr =75*/. .
W h e t h e r a s a n d is l o o s e o r d e n s e , t h e p o r e w a t e r (X =9 8 l<N/m2

p r e s s u r e b u i l d s u p s t e a d i l y in the c o u r s e of Fuji riv e r sand

c y c l i c s t r e s s a p p l i c a t i o n s a n d a s t a t e is r e a c h e d 02

a f t e r some n u m b e r of c y c l e s in w h i c h a p e a k p o r e
w a t e r p r e s s u r e in the c y c l i c f l u c t u a t i o n b e c o m e s
mo m e n t a r i l y equal to the initial c o n f i n i n g p r e s ­
sure. S u c h a s t a t e h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d to as " i n i ­
tial liquefaction". For loose sand, the initial
liquefaction coincides wit h the incipient c o n d i ­
tion for a state of liqu e f a c t i o n a c c o m p a n i e d by
large deformations, and accordingly, both termi­ ( b ) Stress stra in curve

nologies have been used interchangeably. For

d e n s e sand, a st a te of initial l i q u e f a c t i o n does
not pro d u c e large deformations, but since some
d e g r e e of s o f t e n i n g t a k e s p l a c e a c c o m p a n i e d b y a Fig. 4 S t r e s s p a t h a n d s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e for
seizable a m ount of cyclic strain, onset of initial dense sand obtained from the cyclic
liq u e f a c t i o n may be taken as a mea s u r e to recog- torsion shear test

323
T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b e h a v i o r of s a n d as a b o v e w i l l
b e m o r e c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d , if t h e c y c l i c b e h a v i o r
is e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s a n d
a l s o i n t e r m s o f s t r e s s p a t h s d e p i c t e d in t h e
stress space. The data o b t a i n e d from the same
t e s t s a s t h o s e s h o w n in F i g . 2 a r e r e p r e s e n t e d in
t h i s f a s h i o n i n F i g s . 3 a n d 4. F i g s . 3(a) a n d 4
(a) a r e t h e s t r e s s p a t h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in w h i c h
the c y c l i c s t r e s s ratio, Td/oo', d e f i n e d as the
ratio b e t w e e n the cycl i c t orsional shear stress,
id, a n d t h e i n i t i a l c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e , o 0 1 , is
p l o t t e d in the o r d i n a t e v e r s u s the e f f e c t i v e c o n ­
f i n i n g s t r e s s , a o '. F i g s . 3(b) a n d 4(b) a r e t h e
stress strain type representation. The result of
s u c h a p l o t s h o w n i n F i g . 3(a) f o r t h e l o o s e s a n d
indicates that the effective c o nfining pressure Fig. 5 I l l u s t r a t i o n for cy c l i c m o b i l i t y
d e c r e a s e s s t e a d i l y as the c y c l i c s t r e s s a p p l i c a ­ b e h a v i o r of dense sand
tion p r o c e e d s and after the peak po i n t of cyclic
shear stress touches a po i n t on a line of what
is c a l l e d p h a s e t r a n f o r m a t i o n l i n e i n t h e s t r e s s stress applications. The peak shear strains can
s p a c e , t h e s t r e s s p a t h is t u r n e d r i g h t u p w a r d s be simi l a r l y read off from r esults of ot h e r tests
d u r i n g l o a d i n g a n d d i r e c t e d l e f t d o w n w a r d s in conducted with different amplitudes of cyclic
unloading process. The line of phase t r a n s f o r ­ stress ratio. Thus, for eac h stage of cyclic
m a t i o n a s d e f i n e d b y I s h i h a r a e t al. (1975) is a loadi n g , p a i r s of d a t a c a n b e a s s e m b l e d on the
s t r a i g h t line in the s t r e s s s p a c e s e p a r a t i n g two p eak shear strain and cyclic stress ratio. When
z o n e s i n w h i c h s a n d b e h a v i o r d u r i n g s h e a r is s u c h p a i r s o f d a t a a r e p l o t t e d , it is p o s s i b l e to
d i l a t a n t or contracting. T h i s l i n e is t h e s a m e o b t a i n a set of curves for e ach n u mber of cycles
as w h a t is c a l l e d c r i t i c a l l i n e b y L u o n g (1980). as s h o w n in F i g . 6 . B e c a u s e o f t h e s y m m e t r i c a l
The stress-strain curves during cyclic stress a p ­
p l i c a t i o n f o r t h e l o o s e s a n d s h o w n i n F i g . 3(b)
indicate that as the stress c y c l e p roceeds, the
s a n d d e f o r m s l a r g e l y p r o d u c i n g a s h e a r s t r a i n as
h i g h a s 5 %.

The t e s t d a t a o n d e n s e s a n d s h o w n in Fig. 2 are

p r e s e n t e d in Fig. 4 in t e r m s of s t r e s s p a t h and
stress-strain curves. It m a y be s e e n in the
stress space representation that after the stress
p a t h p a s s e s the line of p h a s e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , the
s t r e s s p a t h g o e s u p to the r i g h t a l o n g the f a i l u r e
l i n e in t h e c o u r s e o f i n c r e a s i n g s h e a r s t r e s s a n d
c o m e s d o w n to the left d u r i n g u n l o a d i n g p r o c e s s ,
eventually reaching a state of near-zero effec­
tive c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e u p o n c o m p l e t e r e m o v a l of
shear stress. Fro m this state onwards the shear
s t r a i n i n c r e a s e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y as c y c l i c s t r e s s
a p p l i c a t i o n s c o n t i n u e , b u t it e v e n t u a l l y r e a c h s
a certain limiting value. The b e h a v i o r of the
dense sand after reaching the state of n e ar-zero Fig. 6 S t r e ss-strain relations of dense sand
effective c o nfining stress c h a r a cterizes the state for d ifferent numbers of cycles
of cyclic m o b i l i t y or a state of pea k cycl i c pore
p r e s s u r e r a t i o of 100 % w i t h l i m i t e d s t r a i n p o ­
te n tial, as d e f i n e d in the f o r e g o i n g . The stress
p a t h a n d s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e in the c o u r s e of one natu r e of such c u rves w i t h res p e c t to the origin,
c yc l e of str e ss a p p l i c a t i o n w e r e t a ke n o u t of the onl y the test data on one side of cyclic loading
c l u s t e r o f t h e c u r v e s s h o w n in F i g . 4(b) a n d d e m ­ are d e m o n s t r a t e d in Fig. 6 . T h e c u r v e as a b o v e
o n s t r a t e d in F i g . 5. It c a n be s e e n t h a t w h i l e m a y be d e e m e d to r e p r e s e n t a st r e s s - s t r a i n c h a r ­
t h e s h e a r s t r e s s is s m a l l , k e e p i n g t h e s t r e s s acteristics of sand under cyclic loading c o n d i ­
point w i t h i n the two lines of p h a s e t r a n s f o r m a ­ t i o n s a n d w i l l be r e f e r r e d to as c y c l i c p e a k
t i o n , t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e is n e a r l y f l a t , b u t s t r e ss-strain curve. The results of a series of
o n c e t h e s h e a r s t r e s s is i n c r e a s e d a b o v e t h i s cyclic torsion shear tests on Fuji river s^nd
level, the s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e b e c o m e s i n c r e a s ­ similarly c o nducted wi t h dif f e r e n t densities are
ingly steeper. Therefore, the s tiffness of the s u m m a r i z e d i n F i g . 7. It m a y b e o b s e r v e d that,
d e n s e s a n d d u r i n g c y c l i c l o a d i n g is v e r y s m a l l v ir t u a l l y for all relative densities, there exists
until a certain amount of shear strains develop, a c o n v e x p a r t in the r a n g e o f s m a l l s t r ains, b u t
b u t it b e g i n s t o i n c r e a s e s h a r p l y t h e r e a f t e r in i t is f o l l o w e d b y a c o n c a v e p o r t i o n w i t h i n c r e a s ­
u n i s o n w i t h the i n c r e a s e in t h e e f f e c t i v e c o n f i n ­ ing level of shear strains. Fig. 7 a l s o i n d i c a t e s
i n g p r e s s u r e a s c a n b e s e e n in t h e s t r e s s p a t h in that for dense sand there a ppears to be a cyclic
Fig. 5 ( a ) . s t r a i n l e v e l b e y o n d w h i c h t h e s a n d is u n a b l e t o
d e f o r m in the g i v e n n u m b e r o f c y c l e s w i t h o u t m o b i ­
1 .3 E v a l u a t i o n o f L i q u e f a c t i o n a n d C y c l i c M o b i l i t y l i z i n g a n e x t r e m e l y l a r g e a m o u n t o f r e s i s t a n c e .
T h i s is t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b e h a v i o r o f d e n s e s a n d
In t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e a s s h o w n in Fig. i n t h e s t a t e o f c y c l i c m o b i l i t y . In e a c h o f the
4, i t is p o s s i b l e t o r e a d o f f p e a k v a l u e s o f d e ­ c y c l i c p e a k s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s s h o w n i n F i g . 7,
v e l o p e d shear strain at each stage of the cyclic a n a p p r o x i m a t e p o r t i o n is i n d i c a t e d a t w h i c h t h e
developed pore water pressure becomes nearly equal

324
 However, a recent trend which has found relatively
w i d e r e c o g n i t i o n is t h e u s e o f t h e 3 % s i n g l e ­
a m p l i t u d e c y c l i c s h e a r s t r a i n as a c r i t e r i o n to
d e f i n e the fail u re state of de n s e sand. It m a y be
r e c a l l e d that the d e v e l o p m e n t of about 3 % cyclic
s t r a i n in d e n s e s a n d i n d u c e s c o n c u r r e n t l y t h e s t a t e
o f i n i t i a l l i q u e f a c t i o n o r 100 % p o r e w a t e r p r e s ­
sure b u i l d - u p a n d in t h i s r e s p e c t it m a y w e l l be
a c c e p t e d that the o n s e t of initial l i q u efaction
ca n be u s e d as a c r i t e r i o n to d e f i n e the s t a r t of
cyc l i c m o b i l i t y and he n c e a state of f a i l u r e for
the d e n s e s a n d as w e l l as a c r i t e r i o n to s p e c i f y
the o n s e t of l i q u e f a c t i o n for the l o o s e sand.
For the above reasons, the 3 % cyclic shear strain
w i l l be a d o p t e d in t h i s p aper, u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e
stated, as a c r i t e r i o n to c o n s i s t e n t l y define
liqu e f a c t i o n and cyclic m o b i l i t y of any density
of s and f r o m loose to de n s e state.

In o r d e r to r e p r e s e n t t h e l i q u e f a c t i o n a n d c y c l i c
m o b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s a n d in a c o n s i s t e n t
m a n n e r , it w i l l b e u s e f u l t o r e a d o f f v a l u e s o f
c y c l i c s t r e s s r a t i o r e q u i r e d to c a u s e a s t a t e of
i n i t i a l l i q u e f a c t i o n or a c e r t a i n m a g n i t u d e of
cyclic shear strain and to p lot these values
ag a i n s t the numb e r of cycles. Such a data a r ­
rangement was c a r ried out for the test data p r e ­
s e n t e d in F i g . 7, a n d t h e r e s u l t s a r e p l o t t e d in
Fig. 8 for the s a n d w i t h a r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y of
8 8 %. T h i s t y p e of p l o t t i n g w i l l f r e q u e n t l y be

Fig. 7 Stress-strain relations of sand with

different densities

to the initial conf i n i n g pressure for the first

ti m e in the c o u r s e o f c y c l i c s t r e s s a p p l i c a t i o n s .

F o r i n s t a n c e , if t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s is t o b e a p ­
plied ten times for a sample wit h a relative d e n ­
s i t y o f 7 7 %, t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s r a t i o r e q u i r e d t o
c a u s e 1 0 0 % p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e b u i l d - u p is s o m e ­
wh e r e b e t w e e n 0.50 and 0.58 and the peak cyclic
s t r a i n p r o d u c e d r a n g e s b e t w e e n 2.5 a n d 3 . 5 % a s r e a d
of f f r o m Fig. 7(a). I n t e r p r e t e d in t h i s m a n n e r ,
it b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t f r o m F i g . 7 t h a t t h e m a g n i t u d e
o f t h e p e a k s t r a i n a t w h i c h 100 % p o r e w a t e r p r e s ­
sure b u i l d - u p takes place lies w i t h i n a relatively Fig. 8 Cyclic stress ratio versus number of cycles
n a r r o w r a n g e b e t w e e n 2 .5 a n d 3 . 5 % i n t e r m s o f
single amplitude, i r r e s pective of w i d e l y diff e r e n t
c y c l i c b e h a v i o r d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e d e n s i t y o f sand. u s e d in the f o l l o w i n g p a ges. A n o t h e r m e t h o d of
In t h e c a s e o f l o o s e s a n d , i n t o l e r a b l y l a r g e d e ­ d a t a p r e s e n t a t i o n is t o p l o t t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s
f o r m a t i o n is p r o d u c e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e i n ­ r a t i o c a u s i n g a c e r t a i n m a g n i t u d e s h e a r s t r a i n in
d u c e m e n t of about 3 % cyclic shear strain a c c o m ­ a given number of cycles against the relative d e n ­
p a n i e d b y th e d e v e l o p m e n t of 100 % p o r e w a t e r sity of the sand. S u c h a p l o t w a s a l s o m a d e for
pr e s s u r e or initial liquefaction. Therefore, t h e a b o v e t e s t d a t a a n d t h e r e s u l t s a r e s h o w n in
failure of loose sand under cycl i c loading c o n d i ­ F i g . 9. As m ay be seen from this figure, the c y ­
tions m a y be d e f i n e d on the basis of d e v e l o p m e n t clic stress ratio cau s i n g a cer t a i n m a g n i t u d e of
of eith e r 2 to 3 % s i n g l e - a m p l i t u d e cyclic shear s h e a r s t r a i n i n 20 c y c l e s i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s ­
s t r a i n o r 100 % p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e . This crite­ ing r a t e as the r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y o f s a n d increases.
r i o n has b e e n w i d e l y u s e d for d e f i n i n g a s t a t e of I t is a p p a r e n t f r o m t h e d a t a i n F i g . 9 t h a t if a
f a i l u r e in l o o s e s a n d d u e to l i q u e f a c t i o n , and v a l u e o f c y c l i c s h e a r s t r a i n g r e a t e r t h a n 3 % is
w i l l be a c c o r d i n g l y a d o p t e d in t h i s p a p e r in the a d o p t e d as the c r i t e r i o n to d e f i n e l i q u e f a c t i o n or
same context. In t h e c a s e o f d e n s e s a n d , t h e d e - c y c l i c m o b i l i t y , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s t r e n g t h in
development of about 3 % cyclic shear strain does t e r m s o f t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s r a t i o is e v a l u a t e d s i g ­
not bring ab o u t any state of insta b i l i t y i nvolving nificantly higher. T h e r e f o r e , s p e c i f i c a t i o n of
intolerably large deformations. Therefore, any the c y clic strain and numb e r of cycles use d for
level of cyclic shear strain other than 3 % m a y be defining liquefaction and cyclic mobility should
c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o p r i a t e to defi n e a state of f a i l ­ b e c l e a r l y s t a t e d p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n t h e s a n d is
ure for the d e n s e sand u n d e r g o i n g c y cl i c loads. dense.

325
 z, w e r e a s s u m e d t o m o v e h o r i z o n t a l l y a s a r i g i d
b o d y a n d if t h e m a x i m u m h o r i z o n t a l a c c e l e r a t i o n
o n t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e is, am a x the m a x i m u m s h e a r
stress, Tmax, a c t i n g at the b o t t o m of the soil
c o l u m n w o u l d be

t amax Y . .
m a x - --- ----- 't • Z ..... U I

where is t h e u n i t w e i g h t o f t h e s o i l a n d g is
the g r a v i t y a cc e l e r a t i o n . Since the soil column
m o v e s as a d e f o r m a b l e body, the a c t u a l s h e a r
s t r e s s w i l l b e l e s s t h a n t h a t g i v e n b y Eq. (1)
and mi g h t be e x p r e s s e d by

t m a x t* v /tv
m a x = ---- g ----r d - Yt - ? .......(2 )

w h e r e r ,j is a s t r e s s r e d u c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t w h i c h
takes a value less than unity. Seed and Idriss
e x p r e s s e d v a l u e s o f rd i n j r a p h i c a l f o r m b u t
I w a s a k i e t al. (1978) s u b s e q u e n t l y r e c o m m e n d e d t h e
use of the e mpirical formula
Fig. 9 Relationship between cyclic stress ratio
and den s i t y cau s i n g d i f f e r e n t levels of
shear strains rd = 1 - 0.015Z ..... (3)

w h e r e Z is in m e t e r s . By d i v i d i n g b o t h s i d e s of
II C Y C L I C S H E A R S T R E S S E S I N D U C E D B Y M O T I O N S Eq. (2) b y t h e e f f e c t i v e v e r t i c a l s t r e s s , a v ' ,
DURING EARTHQUAKES Eq. (2) is m o d i f i e d t o r e a d ,

T h e s h e a r s t r e s s e s i n d u c e d a t a n y p o i n t in t h e
level grou n d d u ring an ea r t h q u a k e are due p r o b a ­ Tmax = amax ,r j CTv ..... (4)
b l y t o t h e u p w a r d p r o p a g a t i o n o f s h e a r w a v e s in ov' g av '
the deposit from an u n d erlying rock formation.
If a s o i l p r o f i l e is a s s u m e d t o b e c o m p o s e d o f a
series of ho r i z o n t a l layers, the grou n d m otions w h e r e av d e n o t e s the t o t a l v e r t i c a l stress. The
due to a seismic e x c i t a t i o n at the bas e are c o n ­ above e q u a t i o n has b e e n u s e d w i d e l y to ass e s s the
s i d e r e d to r e s u l t o n l y in s h e a r d e f o r m a t i o n and m a g n i t u d e of s h e a r s t r e s s i n d u c e d in a soil e l e ­
the t h e o r y of o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l w a v e p r o p a g a t i o n ment during an earthquake. One of the advantages
t h r o u g h l a y e r e d m e d i a c a n be u s e d to c o m p u t e the f o r u s i n g Eq. (4) is t h a t t h e v a s t a m o u n t o f i n ­
r e s p o n s e of the g r o u n d a n d h e n c e t h e t i m e h i s t o ­ form a t i o n on the ac c e l e r a t i o n s ever r e c o r d e d on
ries of s h e a r s t r e s s e s at a n y d e p t h in the soil the g r o u n d surface can be use d d i r e c t l y to assess
deposit. the s h e a r s t r e s s e s in t h e ground.

W i t h o u t r e c ourse to such a ref i n e d a n a l ytical It is a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e t y p e o f r e l a t i o n e x p r e s s e d

p r o c e d u r e , h o w e v e r , t h e s h e a r s t r e s s e s in t h e b y Eq. (4) c a n h o l d v a l i d a t a n y i n s t a n t o f t i m e
soil d e p o s i t at s h a l l o w d e p t h w h e r e l i q u e f a c t i o n th r o u g h o u t the time d u r a t i o n of ea r t h q u a k e motions.
is m o s t l i a b l e t o o c c u r c a n b e a s s e s s e d b y m e a n s T h i s i m p l i e s t h e f a c t t h a t a n y t i m e c h a n g e in the
of a s i m p l e r p r o c e d u r e p r o p o s e d b y S e e d a n d I dris s h e a r s t r e s s in the soil d e p o s i t at s h a l l o w d e p t h s
(1971). C o n s i d e r a s o i l c o l u m n t o a d e p t h , z, as t a k e s p l a c e in u n i s o n w i t h t i m e v a r i a t i o n o f the
s h o w n in F i g . 10. If t h e s o i l c o l u m n t o a d e p t h , a c c e l e r a t i o n on the g r ound surface, the d i f f erence
b e i n g o n l y in the r e l a t i v e m a g n i t u d e . Therefore,
a t i m e h i s t o r y of s h e a r s t r e s s in the s o i l h a s the
same g e n e r a l s h a p e as t h e t i m e h i s t o r y of a c c e l e r ­
ation at the ground surface. W h e n p e r f o r m i n g soil
t e s t s in the l a b o r a t o r y s i m u l a t i n g t h e l o a d i n g
c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g an e a r t h q u a k e , it m i g h t be w a r ­
ranted, therefore, that the time histories of
s h e a r s t r e s s h a v i n g t h e s a m e p a t t e r n as t h o s e of
recorded accelerations are applied to soil samples
in t h e t e s t a p p a r a t u s .

Ill L I Q U E F A C T I O N A N D C Y C L I C M O B I L I T Y IN I R R E G U ­
LAR LOADING

3.1 Eff e c t s of Load Irre g u l a r i t y of L i q u e f a c t i o n

Potential of Loose Sand

Fig. 10 Relationship between the ground accel­ I t is w e l l - k n o w n t h a t t h e t i m e h i s t o r y o f s h e a r

e r a t i o n a n d the i n d uc e d shear stress stresses induced on a soil el e m e n t due to motions

326
of an e a r t h q u a k e c o n s i s t s of an e r r a t i c s e q u e n c e factor. T h e v a l u e o f C 2 is a l s o i n d i c a t e d in
of s i m p l e s h e a r m o d e of s t r e s s a l t e r a t i o n in the T a b l e 1.
h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e in t h e soil d e p o s i t . On the
o t h e r hand, m o s t of the l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s u s e d to
i n vestigate the liq u e f a c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Table 1 LOAD IRREGULARITY F A C T O R F OR LO O S E SAND
soils under seismic loading conditions have been
carried out by applying a sinusoidal or pulsating
Shock type vibration type
p a t t e r n of shear stresses w i t h c o n s t a n t amplitude.
B ec a u s e of the wid e a v a i l a b i l i t y of the loading
s y s t e m a n d t h e e a s e in o p e r a t i n g t h e a p p a r a t u s , T S - A m a x ,i 0.55 0.70
the test w i t h u n i f o r m cyclic stress appl i c a t i o n s
wil l c o n t i n u e to be a most c o m m o n l y use d proc e d u r e -2 = T m a x , H/tj 1 1 .82 1 .43
for s t u d y i n g soil c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in the l a b o r a ­
tory. In v i e w o f t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t is
necessary to establish a rule of correspondence
in w h i c h s t r e n g t h d a t a f r o m u n i f o r m c y c l i c l o a d ­ Using the load irregularity factor, the cyclic
ing t e s t c a n be c o n v e r t e d to a s t r e n g t h p a r a m e t e r strength of any sand d e t e r m i n e d by the cyclic
i n d i c a t i v e of l i q u e f a c t i o n o r c y c l i c m o b i l i t y of triaxial tests can be c o n v e r t e d to the strength
soils under actual seismic loading conditions. w h i c h w o u l d b e e n c o u n t e r e d if t h e s a n d is s u b j e c t ­
e d to a n i r r e g u l a r load. Let the cyclic stress
In o r d e r to e v a l u a t e the e f f e c t of r a n d o n m n e s s on r a t i o c a u s i n g l i q u e f a c t i o n o r 3 % a x i a l s t r a i n in
t h e l i q u e f a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l o f l o o s e s a n d , m u l t i p l e 2 0 l o a d c c y l e s b e d e n o t e d b y , [ a d l / 2 ao' > 2 0 , w h e r e
series of dynamic triaxial and torsional shear a d p denotes the amplitude of cyclic axial stress
tests were carried out by Ishihara and Yasuda i n d u c i n g f a i l u r e in t h e s a m p l e . Then, the m a x imum
(1973, 1975) b y e m p l o y i n g s e v e r a l w a v e f o r m s o f s t r e s s r a t i o , Tm a x , S./ao' » g r e a t e n o u g h t o i n d u c e
a c c e l e r a t i o n r e c o r d s o b t a i n e d d u r i n g r e c e n t l a r g e - l i q u e f a c t i o n o r 3 % s h e a r s t r a i n in i r r e g u l a r
scale earthquakes. The out c o m e of these tests was loading may be a s s e s s e d thr o u g h the foll o w i n g f o r ­
s u m m a r i z e d in a f o r m of l o a d i r r e g u l a r i t y f a c t o r mula ,
d e f i n e d as the ratio bet w e e n the ampl i t u d e of u n i ­
f o r m c y c l i c s t r e s s c a u s i n g l i q u e f a c t i o n i n 20
c y c l e s , tj,, a n d t h e m a x i m u m s h e a r s t r e s s , Tm a x , l , Tmax,Jl ^ , °<H > ..... /c;\
in i r r e g u l a r l o a d s e q u e n c e g r e a t e n o u g h t o i n d u c e
l i q u e f a c t i o n in t h e s a m p l e s u b j e c t e d t o t h e s a m e
initial c o nfining stress. It w a s a l s o s h o w n t h a t
the r e s ponse of loose sand to pore w a t e r p r e ssure
b u i l d u p u n d e r i r r e g u l a r l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s d i d n o t 3.2 Eff e c t s of M u l t i - D i r e c t i o n a l S haking on the
differ apprec i a b l y although the load patterns are Liquefaction Resistance of loose Sand
i n f u l l v a r i e t y in d e t a i l , a n d t h e r e s p o n s e c o u l d
be c l a s s i f i e d r o u g h l y into two g r ou p s a c c o r d i n g In the p r e c e d i n g s e c tion, the m o t i o n s in a h o r i ­
to w h e t h e r the i r regular load time his t o r y has an zontal soil d e p o s i t due to an u p w a r d p r o p a g a t i o n
app e a r a n c e of a c o n s t a n t - a m p l i t u d e v i b r a t i o n or a of s h e a r w a v e s d u r i n g a n e a r t h q u a k e w e r e a s s u m e d
single impulse. A simple procedure was then sug­ to t a k e p l a c e u n d e r t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l p l a n e s t r a i n
g e sted to identify a gi v e n time his t o r y w h e t h e r c o n d i t i o n s and, a c c o r d i n g l y , the i n d u c e d c y c l i c
it is o f t h e s h o c k t y p e o r o f t h e v i b r a t i o n t y p e . s t r e s s e s r e c i p r o c a t e in o n e d i r e c t i o n a l o n e , H o w ­
In t h i s p r o c e d u r e , o n l y t h e w a v e s h a p e p r i o r t o ever, actual earthquakes generate mu c h more c o m p ­
the a d vent of the m a x i m u m shear stress was c o n s i d ­ licated p a t terns of mot i o n s invo l v i n g changes not
e r e d b e c a u s e the w a v e s h a p e a f t e r the p a s s a g e of o n l y in a m p l i t u d e b u t a l s o i n d i r e c t i o n . There­
the pea k exerts no subst a n t i a l i n fluence on the fore, the r e s u l t i n g m o d e of s he a r stress a l t e r a ­
pore water pressure build-up. Als o only the part t i o n is a n i r r e g u l a r e x c u r s i o n o f s h e a r s t r e s s
of the time h i s t o r y on the side of the p eak was over the horizontal plane w i t hout any restriction
c o n sidered for i d entification purposes. If the in the d i r e c t i o n of m o t i o n s . The effects of such
wave form has one or two spikes, b e f o r e the advent m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l loading on the liqu e f a c t i o n p o ­
o f t h e p e a k , w h o s e a m p l i t u d e is g r e a t e r t h a n 60 % t e n t i a l o f s a n d w e r e i n v e s t i g a t e d b y P y k e e t al.
o f t h e p e a k , t h e w a v e f o r m is i d e n t i f i e d a s b e i n g (1975) a n d S e e d e t al. (1978) u s i n g b o t h r a n d o m
of the shock type. If m o r e t h a n t h r e e s p i k e s loading patterns and almost circular excursions
h a v i n g t h e a m p l i t u d e g r e a t e r t h a n 60 % o f t h e p e a k o f c o n s t a n t - a m p l i t u d e c y c l i c s h e a r s t r e s s o n t h e
e x i s t in t h e t r a c e of the t i m e h i s t o r y on the same h o r i z o n t a l p lane. The results of their studies
s i d e o f t h e m a x i m u m s t r e s s , t h e n t h e w a v e is i d e n ­ i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o l i q u e f a c t i o n o f
t i f i e d as b e i n g of the v i b r a t i o n type. Although loose sand un d e r e i ther type of m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l
t h e a b o v e r u l e is e m p i r i c a l , i t h a s b e e n f o u n d s h a k i n g is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 15 % s m a l l e r t h a n t h e
s a t i s f a c t o r y to i d e n t i f y m a n y e x i s t i n g t i m e h i s t o ­ l i q u e f a c t i o n r e s i s t a n c e o b t a i n e d in u n i - d i r e c t i o n a l
ries of ea r t h q u a k e mot i o n s into two families, h a v ­ l o a d i n g .
ing g e nerally similar pore wa t e r pressure re­
s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . F o r e a c h t y p e of w a v e f o r m In a n e f f o r t to s t u d y the s a m e a s p e c t of t h e p r o b ­
as c l a s s i f i e d above, the load i r r e g u l a r i t y f a c t o r lem, I s h i h a r a a n d Y a m a z a k i (1980) c o n d u c t e d a s e ­
was es t a b l i s h e d on the basis of a number of test ries of m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l simple shear tests on
d ata on loose sand empl o y i n g a v a r i e t y of wave loose saturated sand by e m ploying circular and
forms. The load i r r e g ularity factor thus o b t a i n e d e l l iptic load paths ove r the plane of shear stress
is s h o w n i n T a b l e 1. In the J a p a n e s e c o d e of application. The results of the tests i ndicated a
b r i d g e f o u n d a t i o n d e s i g n in w h i c h the m e t h o d of r e d u c t i o n in the c y c l i c r e s i s t a n c e u n d e r m u l t i ­
l i q u e f a c t i o n a n a l y s i s is s p e c i f i e d , t h e e f f e c t s d i r e c t i o n a l l o a d i n g , o f 35 % a t m o s t , a s c o m p a r e d
of load irregularity are taken into account to t h e c y c l i c r e s i s t a n c e in the o n e - d i r e c t i o n a l
t h r o u g h a m u l t i p l y i n g c o e f f i c i e n t , C 2 , w h i c h is loading tests. It is a p p a r e n t t h a t w h e n g y r a t o r y
equal to the r e c i procal of the load irregularity s i m p l e s h e a r is a p p l i e d to s o i l w i t h a c o n s t a n t

327
amplitude, the axis of the ma j o r prin c i p a l stress
is s p i n n i n g w i t h a n a p e x a n g l e o f 90 d e g r e e s , as
i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig. 11(a). Since the continuous
r e v o l u t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n is
l i k e l y to e x e r t a d i s t u r b i n g i n f l u e n c e on the
internal structure of sand more d r a s t ically than
does the cyclic shear w i t hout the revolution
(Fig. 11b), it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e l i q u e ­
f action r e s i stance was re d u c e d to some e x tent by
the r e v o l u t i o n o f the p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s in the
e xecution of the cyclic stress applications.

water
pressure /
=0-134
Dr =45*/. -
Fuji river sand
Fig. 11 Mode of cycl i c stress changes in s i m p l e
shear

In o r d e r to e v a l u a t e the e f f e c t s of a n i r r e g u l a r Fig. 12 Recorded pore pressure and shear strains

p a t t e r n of g y r a t o r y shear stresses, several series in the m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l i r r e g u l a r l o a d ­
of m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l u n d r a i n e d s i m p l e s h e a r t e s t s ing simple shear test on loose sand
h a v e b e e n r e c e n t l y c o n d u c t e d b y N a g a s e (1985) a t
the Un i v e r s i t y of Tokyo on satu r a t e d samples of
Fuji river sand by me a n s of a simple shear test
device incorporating two pneumatic cyclic loaders
in m u t u a l l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n s . (Kawagishi-cho) Niigata earthquake of 1964
A sample, 3 . 0 c m in h e i g h t a n d 7.0 c m in d i a m e t e r ,
was c o n s o l i d a t e d i s o t r o p i c a l l y , and t hen a set of
two components of a c celeration time h i stories o b ­
t a i n e d d u r i n g r e c e n t e a r t h q u a k e s w e r e a p p l i e d as
a n i n p u t l o a d in t h e t w o c y c l i c l o a d e r s i n s t a l l e d
in m u t u a l l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n s ( I s h i h a r a -
Y a m a z a k i , 1980). In c o n d u c t i n g the tests, the
time scale of irregular shear stress app l i c a t i o n s
w a s e n l a r g e d 8 t i m e s t h e a c t u a l t i m e h i s t o r i e s in
o r d e r to a c c u r a t e l y r e p r o d u c e the r e c o r d e d t i m e
h i s t o r i e s in the p n e u m a t i c loaders. Since the
e f f e c t o f f r e q u e n c y o f c y c l i c l o a d i n g is k n o w n t o
be i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l , the a p p l i c a t i o n of i r r e g u l a r
simple shear stress w i t h an e n l a r g e d time scale
w o u l d appear not to exert any adverse influence
in e v a l u a t i n g t h e l i q u e f a c t i o n a n d c y c l i c m o b i l i t y
o f s and.

One of the results of these tests on loose sand

e m p l o y i n g the NS- and E W - c o m p o n e n t s of a c c e l e r a ­ F i g . 13 T r a j e c t o r y of a c c e l e r a t i o n s r e c o r d e d in
t i o n t i m e h i s t o r i e s r e c o r d e d in t h e N i i g a t a e a r t h ­ Niigata
q u a k e (1964) is d e m o n s t r a t e d i n F i g . 12. Although
the tests were c o nducted wit h the enlarged time
scale, the time scale of the r e c o r d e d d a t a was
s hortened to c o i n c i d e w i t h the real scale of the
original time histories of acceleration. The test
d a t a d i s p l a y e d in F i g . 12 w e r e t h o s e o b t a i n e d the larger value of the two m a x i m u m shear stresses
through such data processing. S h o w n in F i g . 13 w i l l be a d o p t e d for this purpose. The maximum
is a t r a j e c t o r y t r a c e d o n a h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e b y s h e a r s t r e s s t h u s d e f i n e d w i l l b e d e n o t e d b y Tm a x
a c o m b i n a t i o n of the two com p o n e n t s of a c c e l e r a ­ a n d t h e m a x i m u m s t r e s s r a t i o is d e f i n e d a s T m a x / a c
t i o n time h i s t o r i e s o b t a i n e d in N i i g a t a . The w h e r e a 0' is t h e e f f e c t i v e c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s a p p l i e d
irregular pa t t e r n of simple shear stress changes to the sample d uring isotropic consolidation. The
a s d i s p l a y e d in t h i s t r a j e c t o r y w a s a p p l i e d t o ti m e h i s t o r i e s of s h e a r s t r a i n s in t w o d i r e c t i o n s
loose s p e c i m e n s o f s a n d in the s i m p l e s h e a r test a n d p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e o b t a i n e d f r o m the t e s t are
device. Since there exist two maximum shear s h o w n i n F i g . 12. These are the results obtained
s t r e s s e s e a c h i n t h e E W - a n d N S - d i r e c t i o n s , it is i n t h e l a s t s t e p in a s e r i e s o f t e s t s i n w h i c h t h e
n e c e s s a r y to s t i p u l a t e w h i c h of t h e s e t w o m a x i m u m s a m p l i t u d e o f t h e i r r e g u l a r s t r e s s h i s t o r i e s h a d
a r e u s e d to r e p r e s e n t the r e l a t i v e m a g n i t u d e of been stepwise increased. In the l a s t s t e p in this
the combined time histories. In the f o l l o w i n g , s e r i e s , t h e t e s t w a s c o n d u c t e d b y e m p l o y i n g a maxi-

328
mu m stress ratio of 0.134 w h i c h was great enough t e d i n F i g . 15. F i g . 14 s h o w s t h a t , w h i l e t h e
to p r o d u c e a s t a t e o f l i q u e f a c t i o n in the sample. s h e a r s t r a i n a t l i q u e f a c t i o n r e m a i n s l i m i t e d , it
A s s h o w n i n F i g . 12, t h e p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e b e ­ g r o w s a l m o s t i n d e f i n i t e l y l a r g e in t h e c o u r s e o f
came equal to the initial c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e a l ­ cyclic stress alteration following the peak stress
most concur r e n t l y wit h the advent of the peak application. A l s o s h o w n i n t h i s f i g u r e is t h e
shear stress and remained stationary thereafter result obta i n e d from the uni - d i r e c t i o n a l cyclic
e v e n t h o u g h t h e s a m p l e is s t i l l u n d e r g o i n g s t r e s s te s t s w i t h 20 c y c l e s of c o n s t a n t - a m p l i t u d e s h e a r
changes. T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b e h a v i o r is e x a c t l y stress applications using the same simple shear
the same as t h a t o b s e r v e d in the t e s t o f u n i ­ test apparatus. I t m a y b e s e e n i n F i g . 14 t h a t
d irectional irregular loading. T i m e c h a n g e s in t h e c y c l i c s t r e n g t h is l a r g e r f o r t h e m u l t i - d i r e c -
s h e a r s t r a i n s in t w o d i r e c t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t the tional irregular loading than for the conventional
sam p l e d e f o r m e d l a r g e l y a f t e r the o n s e t of l i q u e ­ t y p e u n i f o r m l o a d i n g w i t h 20 c y c l e s .
f a c t i o n p r o d u c i n g a s h e a r s t r a i n a s m u c h a s 12 %.
T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e t e s t s in t h i s s e r i e s a r e s u m m a ­ Similar series of multi-directional loading tests
r i z e d i n F i g . 14 i n t e r m s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e ­ were conducted on dense Fuji river sand by employ­
t w e e n the m a x i m u m s t r e s s ratio, Tm a x / o 0' a n d the ing t h e t i m e h i s t o r i e s o f a c c e l e r a t i o n o b t a i n e d at
s h e a r s t r a i n , Y- In t h e a b s c i s s a of t h i s d i a g r a m ,
t w o s t r a i n s o b s e r v e d at t w o d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s of
strain development are plotted. O n e is t h e s t r a i n
o c c u r r i n g at the time of initial liquefaction.
y h a n d t h e o t h e r is t h e m a x i m u m s h e a r s t r a i n .
Y m a x , w h i c h is e n c o u n t e r e d a t a l a t e r t i m e . These
two s t r a i n s are d e f i n e d as t h e m a g n i t u d e of v e c ­
t o r s in t h e p l o t o f s t r a i n t r a j e c t o r y a s i l l u s t r a -

---------- 1--------- I 1 1----------- ---------- 1-----------1----------T 1

M u lti- d ir e c tio n a l Irre g u la r wave fo rm fro m

^ 04| s im ple shear test records a t K a w agishi-cho,
on Loose sand N iig a ta . (N iig a ta Eq.1964)
Oo,= 196 k N /rn *
Dr = 44 ~ 49 */• (47*/.)
0-3 Fuji r iv e r sand

From s tra in s a t From maximum

the in s ta n t of Tmax s t r a in s , Ymax
-
\
-----------------

0-1

\U n i-d ire c tio n a l unifo rm loading

\ t e s t w ith 20 cycles
.. _i-----------1-----------1--------- _J_______ 1
_______ 1-----------1-----------1-----------L_ -i—
40 6-0 8-0
Shear s tra in (•/•)
Time (sec)
Fig. 14 Relationships b e t ween the m a x i m u m shear
s t r e s s r a t i o a n d s t r a i n s in m u l t i - d i r e c ­ 16 Recorded pore pressure and shear strains
Fig.
tional irregular loading in t h e m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l i r r e g u l a r l o a d ­
ing simple shear test on dense sand

Strain point where pore

pressure becomes firs t equal
Tokachi - oki earthqake
(H achinohe) o fl9 6 8

Strain point where the

maximum shear strain
occurs some time after

Fig. 15 D e f i n i t i o n s of s h e a r s t r a i n at i n i t i a l
l i q u e faction and the m a x i m u m shear ^ . .. j j •
. . . .» ,. . ,. .. , Fia. 17 T r a n e c t o r v of a c c e l e r a t i o n s r e c o r d e d in
s t r a i n in t h e m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l i r r e g - y u u- k
ular loading simple shear test Hachinone

329
H a c h i n o h e d u r i n g the T o k a c h i - O k i e a r t h q u a k e of
M u lti d ire c tio n a l
1 968. T h e t i m e h i s t o r i e s u s e d as the loads in two irre g u la r loading
®----- 9 : Kaw agishi-cho
N iiga ta Eq.(1964)
d i r e c t i o n s in t h e s i m p l e s h e a r t e s t a p p a r a t u s a r e to r loose sand
d i s p l a y e d i n F i g . 16 a n d t h e i r t r a j e c t o r y o n t h e (Dr = 47 */.) Bucharest
Vrancea Eq.(1977)
h o r i z o n t a l plane for a cer t a i n time span of mai n Owi No.1 Island
s h a k i n g is d e m o n s t r a t e d i n Fig. 1 7. O n e of the M id-C hiba Eq.(1980)
r e s u l t s i n t h i s t e s t s e r i e s is a l s o s h o w n i n F i g .
16. The m a x i m u m stress ratio, employed
in t h i s t e s t w a s 0 . 2 2 3 w h i c h o c c u r s in t h e t i m e
h i s t o r y of the N S - c o m p o n e n t . It m a y b e s e e n t h a t
: 1 Average
the pore wa t e r pressure jumped up almost s i m u l t a ­
IZ Z 5 Z 5 " J if 0-65
neo u s l y w i t h the a p p l i c a t i o n of pea k stress and
r e m a i n e d n e a r l y s t a t i o n a r y t h e r ea f te r , w h e r e a s the
shear strain began to fluctuate considerably,
r e a c h i n g a v a l u e a s l a r g e a s 5 %. I t is o b v i o u s o — G : Hachinohe
that the d e v e l o p m e n t of shear str a i n a f t e r the Tokachi-oki Eq.(1968)
B----- o : Kaihoku
a t t a i n m e n t o f s t a t i o n a r y p o r e p r e s s u r e is a c o n s e ­ M iyagiken-oki Eq.(1978)
q u ence of the cycl i c mobility. The relationship
between the m a x i m u m stress ratio and the shear _L_
2.0 40 60 80
s t r a i n o b t a i n e d f r o m t h i s t e s t s e r i e s is s h o w n in Maximum shear s tra in , Ymax (•/•)
F i g . 18. It m a y b e s e e n t h a t t h e d a t a p o i n t s c o r ­
r e s p o n d i n g to the m a x i m u m shear s t rains lie some Fig. 19 L o a d i r r e g u l a r i t y f a c t o r for loose sand
in m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l i r r e g u l a r l o a d i n g
■--1-----------1-----------1----------1 T i i I I

M ulti -d ir e c tio n a l Irre g u la r wave form from

sim p le shear te st records at Hachinohe -
on dense sand (Tokachi-oki EQ. of 1968) t h e s e r e c o r d s , t i m e h i s t o r i e s in b o t h N 3 - a n d E W -
F u ji riv e r sand c o m p o n e n t s h a v e a w a v e f o r m w h i c h is c l a s s i f i e d as
<X'= 196 kN/m2 t h e s h o c k t y p e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e m e n t i o n e d in
Dr = 69 ~75*/#(73%) the foregoing section. Therefore, when these rec­
From stra in s ^ o r d s a r e t r a n s f e r r e d as the t i m e h i s t o r i e s of shear
at the in tan t s t r e s s a l t e r a t i o n in the s i m p l e s h e a r t e s t device,
of Tmax ✓
t h e r e s u l t i n g r e s p o n s e o f t h e s a n d is e x p e c t e d t o
_ be i n f l uenced s i g n i f i c a n t l y by the peak. For each
----- ” \ From maximum set of the time h i s t or i es , the m a x i m u m s he a r stress
\ s tra in s , Ymax
r a t i o v e r s u s s t r a i n c u r v e s s u c h a s t h o s e s h o w n in
F i g s . 14 a n d 18 w e r e o b t a i n e d f o r b o t h l o o s e a n d
\ U n i-d ire c tio n a l
0-1 / \ u n ifo rm loading d e n s e s a m p le s of F u ji r i v e r sand. Then the maximum
/ \ test w ith 20 cycles shear stress ratio r e q u i r e d to p r o d u c e a given
a m o u n t o f t h e m a x i m u m s h e a r s t r a i n , Yraaxf i n t h e
/ , 1 l 1 . 1 --------1---------- 1-----------L_ i multi-directional loading test was compared with
40 60 &0 10-0 t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s r a t i o c a u s i n g t h e s a m e a m o u n t of
Shear s tra in C/.) s h e a r s t r a i n a t t h e e n d o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f 20
c y c l e s in t h e u n i - d i r e c t i o n a l l o a d i n g test. The
F i g . 18 Relationships between the ma x i m u m shear o u t c o m e o f s u c h c o m p a r i s o n is e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s
s t r e s s r a t i o a n d s t r a i n s in m u l t i - d i r e c ­ o f t h e l o a d i r r e g u l a r i t y f a c t o r w h i c h is d e f i n e d
tional irregular loading as the r a t i o b e t w e e n t h e a m p l i t u d e of u n i f o r m c y ­
clic stress and the m a g n i t u d e of the m a x i m u m shear
st r es s r e q u i r e d to p r o d u c e the same a m o u n t of shear
d i s t a n c e to the right of the data p o ints p l o t t i n g strain. T h e l o a d i r r e g u l a r i t y factor, T d / Tmax»
the s h ea r st r a i n a t t a i n e d at the i n s ta n t of p ea k thus o b t a i n e d for eac h of the test series e m p l o y ­
shear stress applications. This fact indicates i n g d i f f e r e n t t i m e h i s t o r i e s is s u m m a r i z e d i n Figs.
that even after the pea k shear stress p a ssed by 19 f o r l o o s e s a n d a n d i n F i g . 20 f o r d e n s e s a n d .
w i t h 1 0 0 % p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e b u i l d - u p , a s i g n i f ­ F i g . 19 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e l o a d i r r e g u l a r i t y f a c t o r
i c a n t a m o u n t o f s h e a r s t r a i n s c o u l d b e p r o d u c e d in f o r t h e f i v e c a s e s o f m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l l o a d i n g
the s p e cimen due to the effe c t of c y clic mobility. stays w i t h i n a r e l a t i v e l y n a r r o w range b e t w e e n o .6
The results of u n i - d i r e c t i o n a l u n i f o r m loading a n d 0.7 for l o o s e sand, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the v a r i e t y
tests on the samples with identical density using in d e t a i l o f t h e w a v e f o r m s u s e d in the test. It
t h e s a m e s i m p l e s h e a r t e s t a p p a r a t u s a r e a l s o s h o w n c a n a l s o b e s e e n i n F i g . 19 t h a t t h e l o a d i r r e g u ­
i n F i g . 18. I t is t o b e n o t e d t h a t , i n t h e s a m e larity factor remains practically unchanged irre­
f a s h i o n as for l o o s e sand, t h e c y c l i c s t r e n g t h of s p e c t i v e of t h e m a g n i t u d e of the s h e a r s t r a i n at
dense sand under the multi-directional irregular w h i c h the e ffects of load irr e g u l a r i t y are e v a l u ­
l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s is g r e a t e r t h a n t h e c y c l i c ated. For the case of loose sand with a relative
s trength obta i n e d from the u n i - d i r ectional cyclic d e n s i t y o f a b o u t 47 %, t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e o f t h e
l oading tests. l o a d i r r e g u l a r i t y f a c t o r m a y b e t a k e n a s 0 . 6 5 , as
i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 19.
F o r the p r u p o s e of i n v e s t i g a t i n g the e f f e c t s of
m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l nature of i rregular loading on The o u t c o m e of the m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l loading tests
the c y c l i c s t r e n g t h of sand, m u l t i p l e s e r i e s of o n d e n s e s a n d s u m m a r i z e d i n F i g . 20 i n d i c a t e s
s i m p l e s h e a r t e s t s w e r e c o n d u c t e d b y N a g a s e (1985) t r e n d s o f v a r i a t i o n i n l o a d i r r e g u l a r i t y f a c t o r ,
by e m p l o y i n g five sets of t i m e h i s t o r i e s of a c c e l ­ w h i c h are s i m i la r to th o se for lo o se sand, w i t h
e r a t i o n s r e c o r d e d in r e c e n t m a j o r e a r t h q u a k e s . r e s p e c t t o c h a n g e s in l o a d t i m e h i s t o r y a n d t h e
The names of the e arthquakes and locations where s h e a r s t r a i n a t w h i c h t h e f a c t o r is e v a l u a t e d .
e a c h a c c e l e r a t i o n r e c o r d w a s o b t a i n e d a r e s h o w n in A l t h o u g h t h e s c a t t e r i n t h e r e s u l t s is l a r g e r in
t h e i n s e t i n F i g s . 19 a n d 20. In all sets of this case, an av e r a g e value of 0.70 m a y be assigned

330
to the load i r r e g u l a r i t y factor for the dense r ect l y indicative of the c o m b i n e d effects, may be
sand. use d to o b t a i n the m u l t i p l y i n g coefficient. Thus,
for the dense sand wit h a relative density of about
70 %, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t is g i v e n b y
<*-•—» : Kaw agishi-cho
M u ltl-d ire c tio n a l N iig a ta Bq.(1964) -
ir r e g u la r loading C z - C 5 = 1 / 0 . 7 0 H 1 .45 (9)
to r dense sand a----- a Bucharest -

(D r =73 •/.) Vrancea Eq.(1977)

a ------a : Owi No.1 Island

£ 10 M id-C hiba Eq.(1980) -

IV LIQUEFACTION POTENTIAL OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS

4.1 General Considerations

L i q u e f a c t i o n is a s t a t e o f p a r t i c l e s u s p e n s i o n r e ­
sulting from a release of c o n tacts b e t w e e n p a r t i ­
cles of soil c o n s t i t u t i n g a deposit. Therefore,
o----- o : Hachinohe t he t y p e of soil m o s t s u s c e p t i b l e to l i q u e f a c t i o n
Tokachi-oki Eq.(1968) is o n e i n w h i c h t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o d e f o r m a t i o n is
B----- B : Kaihoku m o b i l i z e d by f r i c t i o n b e t w e e n p a r t i c l e s u n d e r the
M iyaglken-okl Eq.(1978)
influence of confining pressures. I t is a w e l l -
20 4.0 6-0 BO 10-0
known fact that the contri b u t i o n from the friction
Maximum shear s tr a in r Ymax (*/•) to r e s i s t d e f o r m a t i o n g e n e r a l l y t a p e r s o f f as the
g r a i n size of soils bec o m e s smaller. It a p p e a r s
F i g . 20 Load irregularity factor for dense sand l i k e l y , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e r e is a b o u n d a r y in
in m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l i r r e g u l a r l o a d in g terms of the g r a i n size s e p a rating p o t e n t i a l l y
liquefiable sandy soils from fine-grained soils
which are not vulnerable to liquefaction. Such a
For the case of u n i - d i r e c t i o n a l loading on loose b o u n d a r y c u r v e w a s p r o p o s e d b y T s u c h i d a (1970) in
sand, the a s s e s s m e n t of the s t r e n g t h in i r r e g u l a r terms of a g r a i n size d i s t r i b u t i o n curve as shown
l o a d i n g w a s m a d e u s i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t , C 2 , in in F i g . 21, o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e r e s u l t s o f s i e v e
Eq. (5). W h e n the m u l t i p l i c i t y in l o a d i n g d i r e c ­ analy s e s mad e on a n u mber of soils that wer e known
t i o n s is t o b e c o n s i d e r e d , a n o t h e r c o e f f i c i e n t to h a v e l i q u e f i e d o r n o t t o h a v e l i q u e f i e d d u r i n g
n e e d s t o b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n Eq. (5). The Japa- past earthquakes. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t is a l s o
nee design code for bridge foundation d esign in­ widely accepted that coarse-grained materials such
troduces a m u l t i plying coefficient, C 5 , to allow as g r avel and cru s h e d stones are immune to l i q u e ­
f o r t h i s e f f e c t b y r e w r i t i n g Eq. (5) a s f o l l o w s , faction, b e c a u s e of the small a m ount of v o lume d e ­
crease potential during shear for one thing and
because of a rapid d i s s i pation of pore wa t e r p r e s ­
max,;, _ , a dl s u r e , if a n y , f o r t h e o t h e r . Therefore, a bounda­
;— - L 2 -C s ( (6 )
2a r y m a y w e l l e x i s t in t h e c h a r t o f g r a i n s i z e d i s ­
t r ibution divi d i n g zones of high and low l i q u e f a c ­
tion susceptibility. S u c h a b o u n d a r y is a l s o s h o w n
The results of inve s t i g a t i o n s on loose sand by i n t h e c h a r t o f F i g . 21. S i n c e i t is d i f f i c u l t t o
S e e d e t al. (1978) a n d I s h i h a r a a n d Y a m a z a k i
(1980) s u g g e s t e d t h e u s e o f 0 . 8 t o 0 . 9 f o r t h e
c o e f f i c i e n t , Cs. Thus, for the shock type l o a d ­ S ilt Sand Gravel
ing, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h c o m b i n e d e f f e c t s o f l o a d
irregularity and m u l t i p l i c i t y for loose sand may
be gi v e n by

C 2 - C 5 = 1 .82x ( 0 . 8 - 0 . 9 ) = 1 .46-1 .64 (7)

On the ot h e r hand, the o u t c o m e of the m u l t i - d i r e c ­

t i o n a l i r r e g u l a r l o a d i n g t e s t s a s s u m m a r i z e d in
F i g . 19 m a y b e r e g a r d e d a s a d i r e c t i n d i c a t o r o f
the combined effects. Thus, by t a king the r e c i p ­
ro ca l of the a v e r a g e load i r r e g u l a r i t y factor,
t h e c o e f f i c i e n t m a y b e g i v e n as,
Grain size (m m )

C 2 - C 5 = 1/0.65 = 1.55 Fig. 21 L i m i t s in the g r a d a t i o n c u r v e s s e p e r a t i n g

liquefiable and unliquefiable soils
( T s u c h i d a , 1970)
T h e c o e f f i c i e n t t h u s o b t a i n e d is s h o w n t o b e in
good a g r e e m e n t w i t h the net effe c t of two m u l t i ­
p l y i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s u s e d in t h e J a p a n e s e code. e s t a b l i s h c l e a r - c u t b o u n d a r i e s in the a b o v e c o n ­
text, two b o u n d a r y lines are p r o v i d e d for b o th the
W i t h r e s p e c t to the de n s e sand, li tt l e has b e e n f i ne-grained p o r tion and for the c o a r s e -grained
r eported on the separate effect of load i r r e g u ­ p art of the g r a d a t i o n chart. The set of two inner
l a r i t y a n d m u l t i p l i c i t y in l o a d i n g d i r e c t i o n . c u r v e s i n F i g . 21 is u s e d t o i d e n t i f y a s o i l m o s t
T h e r e f o r e , the r e s u l t s of m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l s i m p l e likely to liquefy, and the soil wi t h a gradation
s h e a r t e s t s s u m m a r i z e d i n F i g . 20, w h i c h is d i - c u r v e f a l l i n g in the z ones b e t w e e n the o u t e r a n d

331
i n n e r c u r v e s is i d e n t i f i e d a s b e i n g a s o i l t y p e
w h i c h is l e s s l i k e l y t o l i q u e f y .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n n e r c u r v e o n t h e l e f t i n Fig.
21, a s o i l c o n t a i n i n g 40 % f i n e s is i d e n t i f i e d a s
b e i n g v u l n e r a b l e t o l i q u e f a c t i o n , w h e r e f i n e s is
d e f i n e d as the f i n e - g r a i n e d f r a c t i o n p a s s i n g the
No. 2 0 0 s i e v e w i t h a m e s h s i z e o f 0 . 0 7 4 mm.
W h e t h e r or not a soil c o n t a i n i n g such a large
p e r c e n t a g e of fines can d e v e l o p liq u e f a c t i o n w o u l d
be a s ubject of c o n c e r n r e q u i r i n g further i n v e s t i ­
gations. H o w e v e r , it w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h e l i q u e -
f iability of soils w i t h hig h fines c o n tents will
depe n d on the p h y sical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
fines themselves. In f a c t , if t h e f i n e s h a v e a
s t r o n g c o h e s i o n , it w i l l i n h i b i t s e p a r a t i o n o f
i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s w h e n t h e s o i l is a b o u t t o
liquefy. Consequently, such a soil will exhibit Fig. 22 Gradation curves and plasticity index
a strong resistance to liquefaction. In c o n t r a s t of rock flours and a clay (Casagrande,
t o t h i s , if t h e f i n e s c o n s i s t of minerals with 1933)
d r y s u r f a c e t e x t u r e f r e e f r o m a d h e s i o n , it w i l l
e a sily p e rmit separation of individual grains,
and therefore the sand c o n taining such fines will
Ranges of g ra in s iz e
exhibit a large potential of liquefaction. fo r t a ilin g s slim es
used in t h is s tu d y
It h a s b e e n a c o m m o n r e c o g n i t i o n in t h e e x p e r t i s e
of soil m e c h a n i c s that the c o h e s i v e n e s s of fines
------------------ ^
c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d in t e r m s o f t h e p l a s t i c i t y index. B o undary fo r
p o te n tia lly
The u s e of the p l a s t i c i t y i n d e x o f s o i l s as a m e a ­
liq u e fia b le s o il
sure to identify the liqu e f i a b i l i t y of fine-grained
s o i l s w a s a d d r e s s e d b y I s h i h a r a e t al. (1980) in
Boundary for most
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of the f a i l u r e of liq e fia b le s o il
tailings dams during earthquakes. It is w e l l
known that the esse n t i a l i n g r edient of the t a i l ­
i n g s f r o m m i n e s is g r o u n d - u p r o c k . Since country
rocks do not generally undergo weathering or other 0001 001 01
natural deteriorating processes, individual parti­ Grain siz e (mm)
cles of rock flour produced by grinding still p r e ­
serve the hardn e s s of pare n t rocks w i t h dry s u r ­
face textures free fro m adhesion. Therefore, the
r o c k flour, in its w a t e r s a t u r a t e d c o n d i t i o n , d o e s Fig. 23 C o m p a r i s o n of t h e g r a d a t i o n c u r v e s of
not possess significant cohesion and exhibits tailings slimes with the boundary curves
s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e m a i n l y b y the m o b i l i z a t i o n of
internal friction. Hence, although a rock flour
m a y b e c l a s s i f i e d a s c l a y o r s i l t i n t e r m s o f its
g r a i n size, its s t r e n g t h a n d d e f o r m a t i o n c h a r a c ­
t e r i s t i c s w i l l c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e t h o s e of a sand. p otential to liquefaction. The waste materials
T h e f a c t t h a t t h e r o c k f l o u r b e h a v e s a s if i t w e r e d e p o s i t e d in t a i l i n g s d a m s a r e t y p i c a l o f t h o s e
c o h e s i o n l e s s m a t e r i a l is r e p r e s e n t e d b y a l o w s a t i s f y i n g the above c o n d i t i o n and hence should be
value of p l a s t i c i t y index. C a s a g r a n d e (1933) in c o n s idered as substances w i t h a high d egree of s u s ­
his original paper on the A t t e r b e r g limits pointed ceptibility to liquefaction. S h o w n i n F i g . 23 is
out the d i f f i c u l t y of p e r f o r m i n g the c o n s i s t e n c y the r a n g e of g r a i n size d i s t r i b u t i o n c ur v e s for
test on some kinds of rock flour and i d e n tified the fine-grained tailings obtained from several
t h e m as n o n - p l a s t i c silt. The grain size d i s t r i ­ disposal ponds. The gradation curves indicating
b u t i o n cur v e s of the rock flours that he u s e d for t h e b o u n d a r i e s o n t h e l e f t i n t h e c h a r t o f F i g . 21
t h e c o n s i s t e n c y t e s t a r e s h o w n in F i g . 22, t o g e t h ­ a r e a l s o c i t e d i n F i g . 23. C o m p a r i s o n of these
er wit h the values of A t t e r b e r g limits obtained two kinds of curves indicates that the grain size
for these materials. It c a n b e s e e n t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n c u rves of tailings slime do not fall
p o w d e r of h a r d r o c k s s u c h as q u a r t z a n d f e l d s p a r w i t h i n the d o m a i n in w h i c h a m a t e r i a l h a s b e e n
showed no plasticity, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the p r e s ­ c l a imed to be vul n e r a b l e to liquefaction. It
e n c e o f a s m u c h a s 95 % f i n e s s m a l l e r t h a n 0 . 0 0 5 s h o u l d be r e m e m b e r e d h e r e i n t h a t t h e k i n d s of
m m in g r a i n s i z e . The p o wder of nic a h a v i n g in­ s o i l s i n v e s t i g a t e d b y T s u c h i d a (1970) f o r e s t a b ­
h e rent cohe s i v e n e s s showed a p l a s t i c i t y index of lishing the above rule were of alluvial and
21 a l t h o u g h t h e g r a i n s i z e c u r v e is a l m o s t i d e n t i ­ diluvial origin and did not include any particular
cal to t h a t of the q u a r t z a n d f e l d s p a r p o wder. m a t e r i a l s s u c h as the t a i l i n g s f r o m m i n e industry.
Th e B o s t o n clay, in s h a r p c o n t r a c t , s h o w e d a p l a s ­ Therefore, the use of the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n rule by
t i c i t y i n d e x o f 16 e v e n t h o u g h i t w a s c o m p o s e d o f Ts u c h i d a ou g h t to be U n i t e d to soils c o n t a i n i n g
m u c h c o a r s e r m a t e r i a l s w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y 45 % fines w i t h m e d i u m to h i g h p l a s t i c i t y index.
f ines s m a l l e r t h a n 0.005 m m in g r a i n size.

F r o m the a b o v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s it w o u l d a p p e a r 4.2 Cyclic Strength Characteristics of Fine-

l i k e l y t h a t c l a y - o r s i l t - s i z e d m a t e r i a l s s u c h as Grained Soils with Low Plasticity Index
rock flour having a low plasticity index will e x ­
h i b i t p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e s e m b l i n g t h o s e of In v i e w o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s d e s c r i b e d a bove, a
coh e s i o n l e s s soils, and hence a h i g h d e g r e e of laboratory testing program was implemented, using

332
a c y c l i c t r i a x i a l t e s t a p p a r a t u s , in w h i c h s e v e r a l
silt-sized m a terials wi t h low p l a s ticity index
w e r e t e s t e d a t v a r y i n g d e n s i t i e s ( I s h i h a r a e t al.
1980). The grain size d i s t r i b u t i o n curves of the
m a t e r i a l s u s e d in t h e s e t e s t s a r e s h o w n in F i g .
24. T h e r e s u l t s of t e s t s on o n e of t h e s e m a t e r i ­
a l s a r e s h o w n in F i g . 25 in w h i c h t h e c y c l i c
stress ratio causing initial liquefaction, 5 %
a n d 10 % d o u b l e - a m p l i t u d e a x i a l s t r a i n in t h e

Fig. 26 Relati o n s h i p between the cyclic strength

and v oid ratio for l o w - p l a s t i c i t y index
tailings slimes

b e s e e n i n F i g . 26 t h a t t h e c y c l i c s t r e n g t h o f l o w -
p l a s t i c i t y t a i l i n g s is g e n e r a l l y s m a l l , b e i n g o n
the s a m e o r d e r of m a g n i t u d e as the l i q u e f a c t i o n
Fig. 24 G radation curves of the tailing slimes re s i s t a n c e of r e c o n s t i t u t e d specimens of clean
u s e d in t h e t e s t sand. A l s o n o t e w o r t h y in F i g . 26 is t h e f a c t t h a t
void ratios of the samples p r e p a r e d by the commonly
u s e d m e t h o d of p l u v i a t i o n lie a p p r o x i m a t e l y in the
same r a n g e as the v o i d r a t i o of c l e a n s a n d d e p o s i t -
e d e d in t h e same way. This also provides evidence
that low-plasticity fine-grained tailings behave
0.6 a s if t h e y w e r e c o h e s i o n l e s s s a n d s .
"6 n
C\J Pluviation El C o b re , C h ile
'S 0 .5 through a ir ----- NO.4 D ike, s lim e ECM
o— o : I n i t i a l liq . V LIQUEF A C T I O N POTENTIAL OF COAR S E - G R A I N E D SOILS
6
o' 0 .4
__ □— □ . 5 % s t r a i n (DA.)
a- - - a : I 0 % s t r a in ( D. A.) 5.1 General
eav = 0.902 (0 .8 7 - 0.93) The h a zard a s s o ciated wi t h soil liquefaction d u r ­
0 .3
</) 0o' = 1 0 0 KN/m2 ing e a r t h q u a k e s has b e e n k n o w n to be e n c o u n t e r e d
</> J
0
Y_
) in d e p o s i t s c o n s i s t i n g o f f i n e t o m e d i u m s a n d s a n d
'<■ sands c o n t a i n i n g l o w - p l a s t i c i t y fines. Occasional­
t/) 0.2
ly, h o w e v e r , c a s e s a r e r e p o r t e d w h e r e l i q u e f a c t i o n
a p p a r e n t l y o c c u r r e d in g r a v e l l y soils. For in­
o 0.1 s t a n c e , a t t h e t i m e o f t h e F u k u i e a r t h q u a k e of
o J u n e 28, 1 9 4 8 i n J a p a n , s i g n s o f d i s a s t r o u s l i q u e ­
f a c t i o n w e r e r e p o r t e d l y o b s e r v e d in a g r a v e l l y
0
1 10 100 s a n d in an a r e a of fan d e p o s i t n e a r the e p i c e n t e r
of the earthquake. I t is a l s o r e p o r t e d b y C o u l t e r
Num ber of cy cle s
a n d M i g l i a c c i o (1966) t h a t a m a j o r l a n d s l i d e a p ­
p e a r s t o h a v e t a k e n p l a c e in a s a n d y g r a v e l d u r i n g
F i g . 25 Cyclic stress ratio versus the number t h e 196 4 A l a s k a e a r t h q u a k e . A t the time of the
of cycles for a t a i lings slime T a n g s h a n e a r t h q u a k e o n 28 J u l y 1976 in C h i n a , a
l a r g e s l i d e o c c u r r e d in t h e s a t u r a t e d s a n d - g r a v e l
p r o t e c t i o n zone o v e r the u p s t r e a m s l o p e of the
B a i h e D a m a b o u t 90 K m f r o m B e i j i n g . T h e c a u s e of
t h e s l i d e is a t t r i b u t e d t o l i q u e f a c t i o n - i n d u c e d
t r i a x i a l t e s t s p e c i m e n s is p l o t t e d v e r s u s t h e n u m ­ f a i l u r e w h i c h o c c u r r e d i n t h e p r o t e c t i o n l a y e r
ber of cycles. It m a y b e s e e n t h a t the c y c l i c c o n t a i n i n g 50 - 60 % g r a v e l (Wang, 1 9 84).
stress ratio producing 5 % double-amplitude axial
s t r a i n i n 20 l o a d c y c l e s is a b o u t 0 . 1 5 w h i c h is In r e c o g n i t i o n of the i m p o r t a n c e of the b e h a v i o r
the same order of m a g n i t u d e as the cyclic stress o f g r a v e l l y s o i l a s a b o v e , W o n g e t al. (1975) p e r ­
ratio o b t a i n e d w i t h r e c o n s t i t u t e d samples of clean formed a series of cycl i c tests on grave l l y soils
s a n d w i t h a r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y o f a b o u t 40 %. All with different gradations using a large-size
o f t h e t e s t r e s u l t s a r e d e m o n s t r a t e d in a s u m m a r y triaxial test apparatus accommodating specimens
f o r m in F i g . 26 in w h i c h t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s r a t i o 30 c m i n d i a m e t e r a n d 74 c m in h e i g h t . The results
c a u s i n g 5 % d o u b l e - a m p l i t u d e s t r a i n in 20 l o a d of this s tu d y i n d i c a t e d s om e w h a t h i g h e r cycl i c
c y c l e s is p l o t t e d v e r s u s t h e v o i d r a t i o o f t h e s t r e n g t h for the g r a v e l l y soils as c o m p a r e d to the
test specimens. W i t h r e f e r e n c e to the v a l u e s of s t r e n g t h o f c l e a n sands, b u t n o t so m u c h to a d e ­
p l a s t i c i t y i n d e x i n d i c a t e d in t h e i n s e t , it m a y gree completely impeding the occurrence of lique-

333
faction for any s haking of the i ntensity e n c ount- T h e a m p l i t u d e s of i n p u t a c c e l e r a t i o n at the b a s e
e r e d in m e d i u m to l a r g e s c a l e e a r t h q u a k e s . It w a s o f t h e c o n t a i n e r w e r e 100, 150 a n d 2 0 0 g a l s . In
a l s o r e a s o n e d t h a t the c a p a c i t y of a g r a v e l l y soil each of the tests empl o y i n g d i f f e r e n t intensities
to d i s s i p a t e i n d u c e d p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e d u r i n g of a c c e l e r a t i o n , the p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e b u i l t up
the p e r i o d of e a r t h q u a k e shaking may have a pro- and b e c a m e s t a t i o n a r y about 4 seconds af t e r the
found i nfluence on the exte n t of dama g e c a used by i n i t iation of shaking. The values of pore water
the liquefaction of gravelly soil deposits. pres s u r e s at this instant of time w ere read off
and n o r m a l i z e d to the effe c t i v e o v e r b u r d e n pressure
to d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e s of r e s i d u a l p o r e w a t e r
5.2 Laboratory Tests on Gravel-Containing Sand p r e s s u r e ratio, U r / o v ' . On the ot h e r hand, based
on the a c c e l e r a t i o n v a l u e s m o n i t o r e d n e ar the sur-
Apart from the effects of drainage capacity, the face of the deposit, the m a g n i t u d e of shear stress
liability of g r a v e l l y soils to liq u e f a c t i o n ap- supposedly acting on the soil element was evaluated
pears to d e p e n d upo n the per c e n t a g e of gravel u s i n g t h e r e l a t i o n o f Eq. (4). Then, it b e c a m e
f r a c t i o n as w e l l as the l o o s e n e s s o r d e n s e n e s s of p o s s i b l e to e s t a b l i s h the r a l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the
the sand portion. cyclic stress ratio, T d / o v ' , and the residual pore
p r e s s u r e ratio, U r / a v ' . In the c a s e of the p r e s e n t
In o r d e r to i n v e s t i g a t e the e f f e c t s of the g r a v e l test, the r e c o r d e d a c c e l e r a t i o n time hi s t o r y did
fraction, a series of l a b o ratory tests us i n g a not show a const a n t - a m p l i t u d e pattern from the very
s h a k i n g t a b l e w a s c o n d u c t e d b y H a g a (1984) a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of the shaking. Therefore, the number
University of Tokyo on artificially prepared sand of c y cles a c t u a l l y invol v e d in b u i l d i n g up the
d e p o s i t s c o n t a i n i n g d i f f e r e n t p r o p o r t i o n s o f g r a v - p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e w a s t a k e n t o b e 7, a l t h o u g h
el. The g r a i n size d i s t r i b u t i o n curves of the the actual number of cycles d uring the 4-second
s a n d a n d g r a v e l u s e d in t h e t e s t s a r e s h o w n in p e r i o d of shaking was 8 .
F i g . 27. These m a t e r i a l s wer e b l e n d e d at gravel
p r o p o r t i o n s o f 0 %, 30 %, 50 % a n d 70 %. A s a m p l e T h e r e s u l t s o f all t h e s h a k i n g t a b l e t e s t s as a r ­
r a n g e d a b o v e a r e d e m o n s t r a t e d i n F i g . 28, w h e r e it
may g e nerally be seen that the residual pore water
p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s as the s h a k i n g i n t e n s i t y a n d
hence the cyclic stress ratio are increased. Fig.
28(a), s howing the test results for sand deposits
w i t h o u t gravel, indicates that a state of l i q u e ­
_ 100 f action was re a c h e d whe n seven cycles of u n i f o r m
g> shear stress have been applied with the cyclic
st re s s r a ti o of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.24. T h i s v a l u e is
1 in g o o d a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e s i m i l a r l y d e f i n e d c y c l i c
st r e s s r a t i o c a u s i n g i n i t i a l l i q u e f a c t i o n in the
s p e c i m e n of c l e a n s a n d t e s t e d in the c y c l i c
I 50
t r i a x i a l a p p a r a t u s w i t h a r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y of
a b o u t 4 5 %. T h e t e s t r e s u l t s s u m m a r i e d in Fig.
c 28(e) i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e i n c l u s i o n o f g r a v e l in
au*
L e x c e s s o f 30 % a c t s t o w a r d i n c r e a s i n g t h e c y c l i c
8. s t r e n g t h o f t h e s a n d , if i t is d e p o s i t e d i n t h e
i d e n t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t . S i n c e a c c u r a t e v a l u e s of
o d e n s i t y in e a c h t e s t d e p o s i t w e r e n o t k nown, no
definitive conclusion could be drawn from these
tests r e g a r d i n g the e ffects of de n s i t y of the
deposits.
F i g . 27 G r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n c u r v e s of
gravels and gravel-containing sands

VI EVALUATION OF LIQUEFACTION CHARACTERISTICS

c o n t a i n e r b o x h a v i n g a d i m e n s i o n o f 4 . 0 m in OF IN-SITU SOILS
l e n g t h 0 . 8 7 m i n h e i g h t a n d 1.0 m i n w i d t h w a s
placed on the shaking table which was operated by 6.1 General
an e l e c t r o - h y d r a u l i c s y stem c apable of gen e r a t i n g
a m a x i m u m l o a d of 3.0 tons u n d e r d y n a m i c l o a d c o n - in the p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n s , s e v e r a l k e y f a c t o r s
ditions. The mixtures of sand and gravel were influ e n c i n g the cyclic b e h a v i o r of coh e s i o n l e s s
p o u r e d in the w a t e r - p o o l e d c o n t a i n e r b o x b y m e a n s soils h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e to the
of a m o v a b l e spreader t r a v e l l i n g b ack and forth results of cyclic loading tests c o n d u c t e d on speci-
over the container. The den s i t y of the d e p o s i t e d m e n s r e c o n s t i t u t e d in t h e l a b o r a t o r y . However,
materials was m e a s u r e d by the gross v olume and since in-situ soil deposits exist under the influ-
w e i g h t of the m a t e r i a l p l a c e d in t h e box. Ave r a g e ence of m a n y unk n o w n factors w h i c h are diff i c u l t
values of m e a s u r e d voi d ratios for eac h of the to e v a l u a t e a n d to d u p l i c a t e in l a b o r a t o r y - r e c o n -
test deposits with different gravel proportions s t i t u t e d s p e c i m e n s , it b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y t o r e c o v -
a r e i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 28. er as p e r f e c t l y u n d i s t u r b e d s a m p l e s as p o s s i b l e
f r o m i n - s i t u soil d e p o s i t s a n d to t e s t t h e m in the
Whe n per f o r m i n g the shaking table tests, horizon- l a b o ratory u n d e r co n d i t i o n s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of those
tal accelerations were m e a s u r e d at the location p r e v a i l i n g in t h e f i e l d .
10 c m b e l o w t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e d e p o s i t a n d a l s o a t
the b a s e o f the c o n t a i n e r box. Pore water p r e s ­
sures were also measured by means of high-preci- 6.2 Out l i n e of U n d i s t u r b e d Sand Sampling
s i o n p i e z o m e t e r s e m b e d d e d a t d e p t h s 10 c m a n d 30 Techniques
cm be l o w the surface of the deposits. The table
w a s s h a k e n b y s i n u s o i d a l load w i t h 2 Hz f r e q u e n c y . A t t e m p t s to r e c o v e r h i g h - q u a l i t y u n d i s t u r b e d

334
 in p l a c e i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t e s t e q u i p ­
ment .

One of the tube sampl i n g met h o d s used

in t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f s a m p l i n g t u b e
d e v e l o p m e n t is a t y p e o f p i s t o n s a m ­
pler originally developed by Osterberg
(1952). A sampler lowered to the b o t ­
t o m o f a d r i l l e d h o l e is p u s h e d d o w n
by hydraulic pressure from a mud pump
w h i c h is b e i n g u s e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y f o r
the dril l i n g operation. Because there
is n o n e e d t o p r e p a r e e x t r a e q u i p m e n t
for sampler p e n e t r a t i o n and also b e ­
c a u s e o f its s i m p l i c i t y in o p e r a t i o n ,
the Oster b e r g - t y p e p iston sampler w o u l d
probably be the least expensive among
tube sampling techniques ever used for
recovering samples of loose s a n d s .
This sampling technique has been used
in N i i g a t a a n d in o t h e r a r e a s of J a p a n
as w e l l to i n v e s t i g a t e the l i q u e f a c t i o n
Fig. 28 Pore water pressure buildup character characteristics of in-situ sand deposits
istics of sand con t a i n i n g different ( I s h i h a r a e t al, 1 9 7 9 ) .
percentages of gravel
A n o t h e r t y p e o f t u b e s a m p l i n g t e c h n i q u e is w h a t is
c alled the large diameter sampler. This sampler
h a s a n i n n e r d i a m e t e r o f 20 c m a n d a l e n g t h o f
a b o u t 1 m a n d i t is c a p a b l e o f r e c o v e r i n g a l a r g e
samples of sand have thus acquired a renewed im­
p o r t a n c e in r e c e n t y e a r s in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the chunk of soil from the b o t t o m of a b o r e d hole
e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e l i q u e f a c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of ( Ishihara a n d Silver, 1977). T h e c u t t i n g b i t at
in-situ d e p o s i t s of sands. The in-situ techniques t h e t o e o f a c o r e t u b e is e q u i p p e d w i t h a c o r e
c a t c h e r c o n s i s t i n g of two p i eces of stainless steel
use d to recover u n d i s t u r b e d samples from sand d e p ­
screen w h i c h are folded and held w i t h i n a n arrow
osits may be broken down into three kinds ; tube
s p a c e in the w a l l o f t h e c u t t i n g bit. The core
sampling, block sampling and in-situ freezing
c a t c h e r s c r e e n is s t r e t c h e d t r a n s v e r s e l y a c r o s s
method. the core tube by means of a cable led to the ground
surface. O n e o f the d i s a d v a n t a g e s of u s i n g this
In t u b e s a m p l i n g , h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n i q u e s
t y p e o f s a m p l e r is t h a t a n e x t r a s e t u p is r e q u i r e d
are r e q u i r e d to pre v e n t u n d i s t u r b e d samples from
to pro v i d e the large r e a c t i o n for p u s h i n g the s a m ­
falling out of the sampling tube d u ring the lif t ­
p ler into the soil deposit. Also, b e c a u s e of the
ing op e ra t io n . When samples are taken from a
l a r g e s c a l e in e v e r y r e s p e c t , t h e o p e r a t i n g c o s t
loose sand d e p o s i t be l o w the g r o u n d w a t e r table,
is g e n e r a l l y h i g h . H o we v er , t hi s t e c h n i q u e has
w a t e r i n t h e p o r e s o f s a t u r a t e d s a n d is d r a i n e d
b e e n u s e d o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s in J a p a n t o i n v e s ­
to a c t i v a t e c a p i l l a r y ten s i o n w i t h i n the pores
t i gate soil c o n d i t i o n s at sites of ma j o r e n g i n e e r ­
a n d to d e v e l o p a s m a l l a m o u n t of t e m p o r a r y
strength nec e s s a r y for sample handling. The p a r ­ ing importance.
t i a l l y s a t u r a t e d s a n d s a m p l e is t h e n f r o z e n a t
A n improved type of Denison sampler, commercially
the s a m p l i n g site w i t h the a id of d r y ice or l i q ­
dubbed a triple tube sampler, has also been used
u e f i e d n i t r o g e n a n d t r a n s p o r t e d to t h e l a b o r a t o r y .
in J a p a n ( Mori a n d K o r e e d a , 1979) t o o b t a i n u n ­
S i n c e t h e s a m p l e is n o t f u l l y s a t u r a t e d , t h e
freezing should not produce any v o lume change and d i s t u r b e d samples of sand from b e l o w the g r ound
h e n c e d i s t u r b a n c e is m i n i m i z e d . In the l a b o r a t o ­ wa t e r table. T h e t r i p l e t u b e s a m p l e r is c l a i m e d
ry, t h e f r o z e n s a m p l e is t h a w e d a f t e r it is p u t to h ave the a d v a n t a g e of b e i n g able to retain

335
samples f rom loose to ver y d e n s e and c e m ented into small specimens and used for the laboratory
sand. A d i s a d v a n t a g e is t h e p r o b a b l e d i s t u r b a n c e testing. The esse n t i a l p r i n c i p l e b e h i n d this
c a used by the r e v olution of the core bit with t e c h n i q u e is t h a t t h e f r e e z i n g f r o n t i n t h e
jetting of m u d wh i l e a t t e m p t i n g to o b t a i n samples g r o u n d c a n b e m a d e to a d v a n c e r a d i a l l y to e n a b l e
from very loose deposits. t h e i n c r e a s e d v o l u m e o f f r o z e n w a t e r in t h e p o r e s
to m i g r a t e a t a s u f f i c i e n t l y s l o w s p e e d c o n s i s t e n t
S t i l l a n o t h e r s a m p l e r w h i c h is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d in the p e r m e a b i l i t y of the sand and to m i n imize
J a p a n is a n i m p r o v e d t h i n - w a l l s a m p l e r , c o m m e r ­ interaction wi t h the soil skeleton. Therefore,
c i a l l y d u b b e d t h e t w i s t s a m p l e r ( Mori a n d K o r e e d a , there occurs no volume change and hence no distur­
1979). A s a m p l e t u b e w i t h a s t a t i o n a r y p i s t o n is bance to the s t ructure of in-situ soil deposit.
put inside another steel tube equipped with a rub­ A l t h o u g h the above technique can provide high-
ber tubing. A f t e r both tubes are p e n e t r a t e d into q u a l i t y u n d i s t u r b e d s a m p l e s , it c a n n o t b e a p p l i e d
the g r o u n d simultaneously, o nly the sample tube to sa n ds c o n t a i n i n g fines w i t h low p e r m e a b i li t y.
is l i f t e d s l i g h t l y a n d t h e n t w i s t e d . This upward T h e c o s t i n v o l v e d in o p e r a t i n g the i n - s i t u f r e e z ­
and rotational move m e n t causes the rubber tubing i n g m e t h o d is g e n e r a l l y h i g h .
o u t s i d e the s a m p l e t u b e to s t r e t c h a n d t w i s t
a r o u n d the mo u t h of the sample tube, th e r e b y p r e ­
ven t i n g fall-out of the sample. 6.3 C y c l i c S t r e n g t h s o f U n d i s t u r b e d S a m p l e s of
Clean Sands
A t y p e o f t u b e s a m p l e r r e c e n t l y d e v e l o p e d in
Y u g o s l a v i a b y K v a s n i c k a (1984) h a s i n n e r a n d o u t e r 6.3.1 Loose to M e d i u m D e n s e Sand
d i a m e t e r s o f 70 m m a n d 98 m m r e s p e c t i v e l y a n d is
e q u i p e d w i t h a s h a r p c u t t i n g e d g e o f 10 d e g r e e s . T h e c l e a n s a n d r e f e r r e d t o h e r e i n is d e f i n e d as
T h r o u g h a s m a l l p i p e e q u i p e d w i t h i n the w a l l of sand con t a i n i n g less than 5 * fines p a s sing the
t h e s a m p l i n g t u b e , c o o l a n t is s e n t t o t h e t i p o f No. 200 sieve. W i t h t h e r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t o f the
t h e s a m p l e r w h e r e t h e s o i l s a m p l e is f r o z e n t o s o p h i sticated sampling m e t hods desc r i b e d above, a
provide a plug for pr e v e n t i n g fall-out. comprehensive amount of test data has been p r o d ­
uced concerning the cyclic strength of undisturbed
A l t h o u g h the t e c h niques of tube sampl i n g as above clean sands determined mainly by cyclic triaxial
permit a c q u i sition of samples wi t h a reasonably t e s t s in t h e l a b o r a t o r y . Among numerous test
l o w d e g r e e o f d i s t u r b a n c e , t h e r e is n o g u a r a n t e e r esul t s, t h o s e o b t a i n e d on s a m p le s f ro m si t es where
t h a t t h e s a m p l e is c o m p l e t e l y f r e e f r o m a n y d i s ­ l i q u e f a c t i o n is k n o w n t o h a v e o c c u r r e d o r in t h e i r
turbance during all phases of sampling operations. v i cinity might be of interest.
Probably the most important source of disturbance,
if it e x i s t s in t h e t u b e s a m p l i n g t e c h n i q u e , w o u l d F o l l o w i n g the N i i g a t a earthquake, in-situ sampling
be the one imparted d u r i n g the inse r t i o n of a tube was con d u c t e d by means of the Ost e r b e r g type s a m ­
into a n i n t a c t d e p o s i t of sand. pler and the large diam e t e r sampler at several lo­
c a t i o n s w h e r e signs of l i q u e f a c t i o n wa s or wa s not
To e l i m i n a t e the so u r c e of d i s t u r b a n c e due to the o b s e r v e d a t t h e t i m e o f t h e 1964 e a r t h q u a k e
tube insertion, several attem p t s have b een mad e by (Ishihara an d Koga, 1981). The undisturbed speci­
H o r n (19 78), E s p a n a e t a l . ( 1 9 7 8 ) , M a r c u s o n a n d m e n s o f s a n d r e c o v e r e d at a s i t e in K a w a g i s h i - c h o
F r a n k l i n ( 1 9 79), a n d M o r i a n d I s h i h a r a (197 9 ) , w h e r e s e v e r a l a p p a r t m e n t b u i l d i n g s s u r f f e r e d severe
to o b t a i n sam p le s by b l o c k sampling. The method d a m a g e w e r e t e s t e d in the l a b o r a t o r y u s i n g the
of bl o c k s a m pling c o n sists of isol a t i n g a column cyclic triaxial test apparatus. The results of
of soil by e x c a v a t i n g the s u r r o u n d i n g m a t e r i a l and the cyclic triaxial tests on the specimens obtain­
o f e n c o m p a s s i n g the soil c o l u m n b y a s e c t i o n of e d b y t h e l a r g e d i a m e t e r s a m p l e r a r e p r e s e n t e d in
tubing or a square box and of f inally cut t i n g the F i g . 29 i n t e r m s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e
b o t t o m free. This method can be successfully used cyclic stress ratio versus the number of cycles.
in a l l s o i l s p r o v i d e d t h e t r u e o r a p p a r e n t c o h e ­ The grain size distri b u t i o n curves of the sand
s i o n is g r e a t e n o u g h t o s u p p o r t t h e i s o l a t e d s o i l t e s t e d a r e s h o w n i n F i g . 30. A f t e r f i n i s h i n g the
column. For c a r r y i n g ou t b l o c k sampling, the tests on u n d i s t u r b e d specimens, the specimens were
intact surface of the soils to be sa m p l e d m u s t be c o m p l e t e l y d i s t u r b e d a n d r e c o n s t i t u t e d so as to
exposed by excavating test pits or exploratory have appro x i m a t e l y the same d e n sity by the m ethod
shafts or trenches. Block sampling has the d i s ­ of p l u viation under water. T h e r e s u l t s of the
advantage of requiring a large amount of e x c a v a ­ tests on such reconstituted specimens are also in­
tion s ometimes t o g ether w i t h a l o w ering of the d i c a t e d i n F i g . 29. It m a y b e s e e n t h a t the cyclic
el evation of the g round water table. A l t h o u g h the stress ra t i o c a u s i n g initial l i q u e f a c t i o n or 5 %
di s t u r b a n c e c a u s e d by d i s p l a c e m e n t of soil during d o u b l e - a m p l i t u d e a x i a l s t r a i n d u r i n g 20 c y c l e s o f
driving and pushing a sampling tube can be elimi­ s h e a r s t r e s s a p p l i c a t i o n is g e n e r a l l y g r e a t e r f o r
nated, bl o c k sampl i n g m a y still be subject to the the u n d i s t u r b e d s p e c i m e n s t han for the r e c o n s t i ­
distur b a n c e a s s ociated wi t h the stress release due tuted specimens. I t is a l s o n o t e d in F i g . 29 t h a t
to e x c a v a t i o n of the test pit or the l o w ering of t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n c y c l i c s t r e n g t h s is m o r e p r o ­
the g r ound water l e v e l . n o u n c e d w h e n t h e n u m b e r o f c y c l e s i n q u e s t i o n is
s m a l l a n d t h a t as the n u m b e r o f c y c l e s increa s e s ,
In o r d e r t o s e e k f o r a m o r e c o m p l e t e m e t h o d o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e in c y c l i c s t r e n g t h s t a p e r s off.
undist u r b e d sampling, the freezing technique has T h i s is p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e o f t h e d i s t u r b i n g e f f e c t s
been developed by some investigators. The most of c y clic loading itself i m p a r t e d to the u n d i s t u r ­
r e c e n t a t t e m p t to t h i s e n d w a s m a d e b y Y o s h i m i bed sand specimen. It a p p e a r s l i k e l y t h a t the
e t al. (1978). In t h i s m e t h o d a m i x t u r e o f e t h ­ p o r t i o n of s t r e n g t h p o t e n t i a l l y e x i s t i n g in u n ­
a n o l a n d c r u c h e d d r y i c e is c i r c u l a t e d t h r o u g h a n d i s t u r b e d s pecimens due to c e m m e n t a t i o n and aging
open pipe inserted ver t i c a l l y into the ground. is m o b i l i z e d t o r e s i s t e x t e r n a l l y a p p l i e d s h e a r
Af t e r the sand s urrounding this pipe has been f ro­ o n l y d u r i n g s e v e r a l c y c l e s in the e a r l y s t a g e of
zen, t h e s t e e l p i p e is p u l l e d o u t o f t h e g r o u n d b y c y c l i c l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n , a n d o n c e t h e g a i n in
me a n s of a crane t o g ether w i t h the h uge frozen s t r e n g t h d u e t o t h e c e m e n t a t i o n o r a g i n g is l o s t ,
c o l u m n of sand. T h e f r o z e n s a n d c o l u m n is c u t the beha v i o r of u n d i s t u r b e d sand specimens becomes

336
 06
(a) Niigata (Kaw agishi-cho)
Large Diameter Depth 22 m
05 sam ple o,« In itia l liq.
5*/. s tra in (D.A.)
A kA 10*/.strain (D.A.)
04
Undisturbed . Dr=56V. (5 4 -57*/.)
0-3

t; 0-1 Reconstituted . Dr =58*/.(57~59*/.)

, , i j , n d -------- J_LUJ. 10 100

1 10 100
Number of c ycles , Ni Number of cycles

0-6
i i i i i 1111 -i ■ i . . ... i
- (b) Niigata sand (rive r site)
(b) Niigata (Kawagishi-cho) Depth: 11.5m
0-5 Consolidated
Large D iameter Depth :13-6m © in itia l Iiq .
6
C\J sam ple o .« : In itia l liq.
- '6
density
0 5*/* strain (D .A .)
CM
: 5 ’/.s tra in (D.A.) 0-4 a ip 0/, strain (D .A .) ,
A,A:10*/.strain(D.A.) \
8 - -Undisturbed Dr=53*/.(50 ~52)
8 0-3 -Reconstituted Dr=52*/.(50~ 54)
- Undisturbed . DrS53‘/. (42-67*/.) o

- D
/
rr —aaa__
Reconstituted , Dr$55*U (54-57*/«) 02

0-1
l/l
-
0
. i i i <. . I i i i i.i_i
10 100
'1 10 100 Number of cycles
Number of cycles , Ni
Fig. 31 Cyclic stress ratio versus the number
Fig. 29 C o m p a r i s o n of cycl i c s t r e n g t h be t w e e n of cycles for u ndisturbed and r e c o n s t i ­
undisturbed and reconstituted samples tuted samples of N i i g a t a sand
of N iigata sand

specimens r e l ative to that of r e c o n s t i t u t e d s p e c i ­

m e n s is s i m i l a r t o t h a t o b s e r v e d in t h e r e s u l t s o f
t e s t s o n t h e s a n d s a t t h e K a w a g i s h i - c h o s ite.

In the nat u r a l d e p osits of p r e d o m i n a n t l y fluvial

origin, loose deposits are g enerally young and
almo s t free from added strength due to cemen t a t i o n
and aging, whereas dense sand deposits might have
bee n exp o s e d to var y i n g degree of strengthing
e f f e c t s s u c h as c e m e n t a t i o n a n d a g i n g d u r i n g a
long p e r i o d of their ge o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y . C o n s e ­
q u e n t l y , t h e r e a r e g o o d r e a s o n s to b e l i e v e t h a t
u n d i s t u r b e d samples from dens e r d e p osits mi g h t be
m o r e suscep t i b l e to d i s t u r b a n c e than undis t u r b e d
samples from looser sand deposits. It m i g h t ,
therefore, be of interest to see h o w the density
of s a n d w i l l i n f l u e n c e the d e g r e e of loss of
cyclic s t r ength due to r emolding of undis t u r b e d
samples. The outcome of the test series c o n d u c t ­
F i g . 30 G r a d a t i o n curves of N i i g a t a sands u sed e d o n s a n d s a m p l e s f r o m the R i v e r site in N i i g a t a
in the test cit y w ill be instrumental to investigate this
aspect of the problem. Fro m all the cyclic
triaxial test data, those having induced initial
identical to that of r e c o n s t i t u t e d specimens. liqu e f a c t i o n or 5 % d o uble a mplitude axial strain
in t h e c o u r s e o f 3 t o 10 c y c l e s o f s t r e s s a p p l i c a ­
F i g . 31 s h o w s a s i m i l a r s e t o f t e s t r e s u l t s o n tion we r e collected, and the cyclic stress ratio
un d i s turbed sand samples obta i n e d by the large e m p l o y e d in e a c h o f t h e s e t e s t s w a s p l o t t e d v e r s u s
diameter sampler from a site on the right bank the r e l ative d e n s i t y of the specimens at the time
of the S h i n a n o r i ve r a b ou t 3 K m u p s t r e a m f r o m the the init ia l c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e w a s a p p l i e d (con­
K a w a g i s h i - c h o site. T h i s s i t e is i n d i c a t e d in soli d a t e d relative d e n s i t y ) . The result of this
F i g . 57 a n d r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e R i v e r s i t e . The d a t a c o m p i l a t i o n is p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 3 2 ( a ) .
gra d a t i o n s of the sands test e d are a p p r o x i m a t e l y S i m i l a r l y t h o s e t e s t d a t a p r o d u c i n g a s t a t e of
in t h e s a m e r a n g e a s t h o s e o f t h e s a n d f r o m i nitial l i q u efaction or 5 % d o uble amplitude
K a w a g i s h i - c h o site. A s s e e n i n F i g . 31 t h e g e n e r ­ s t r a i n i n t h e r a n g e o f n u m b e r o f l o a d c y c l e s
al t r e n d in t h e c y c l i c s t r e n g t h o f u n d i s t u r b e d

337
 06 ma y be mor e v u l n e r a b l e to d i s t u r b a n c e w i t h increas­
[ No. cf cycles to 5•/. D.A.strair : 3—10 ) ing n u m b e r of load a pp l ic a ti o ns .
'§ 0-5 A l l the r e s u l t s of c y c l i c t r i a x i a l t e s t s e v e r p e r ­
CM
(a ) formed on b oth u n d i s t u r b e d and r e c o n s t i t u t e d s a m ­
8 o-4 p les of sands f ro m the a r e a of N i i g a t a c i t y are
• Reconstitute
0 a s s e m b l e d in F i g . 33 f o r c o m p a r i s o n p u r p o s e s o f
■§
L.
0-3
------ \
O
X
\
\* y ' Ns-/ =3-10 cyclic strength between undisturbed and reconsti­
tuted specimens. E x c e p t for the b l o c k s a m p l i n g at
a
fi 0-2
O m 0^0 O

t/5
• *o
1 00
>»
o
0
----- 1--
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
‘Consolidated relative density (•/.)

0 01 02 03 04
Cyclic stress ratio causing 5% QA.strain in
20 cycles in undisturbed samples

Fig. 33 Comparison of cyclic strength of un d i s ­

t u r b e d a n d r e c o n s t i t u t e d s a m p l e s of
N i i gata sand

the se w ag e t r e a t m e n t site, all the t e st d a t a are

those for samples obtai n e d by means of the large
0-6 diameter sampler. A l t h o u g h t h e d i f f e r e n c e in c y ­
^No.of cycles to 5*/. QA.strain: 31 —110j clic strength between the undisturbed and recon­
0-5 s t i t u t e d s p e c i m e n s d e p e n d s , as m e n t i o n e d a bove, on
(O t h e n u m b e r o f c y c l e s b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , 20 l o a d c y ­
8 cles was use d to defi n e the cyclic s t r ength c o m ­
p a r i s o n s h o w n i n F i g . 33. It m a y b e s e e n t h a t t h e
cyclic stress ratio causing 5 % double amplitude
& Undisturbed & s t r a i n i n 2 0 l o a d c y c l e s is, b y a b o u t 2 0 % o n t h e
a Reconstituted average, g r e a t e r for u n d i s t u r b e d speci m e n s t han
for specimens r e c o n s t i t u t e d to the i d entical d e n ­
* jz*'t'l N5>'- =31-110 sity by the m e t h o d of p l u v i a t i o n u n d e r water.
■ -AA - *A- A-
--
S i n c e t h e a b o v e c o m p a r i s o n is b a s e d o n t e s t r e s u l t s
on samples obtained by tube sampling and block sam­
pling, w h i c h do not perm i t the r e c o v e r y of samples
10 20
free from any disturbance, the true figure on the
Consolidated relative density (*/.) increase of c y clic s t r ength of in- s i t u sand over
t hat of r e c o n s t i t u t e d specimens un d e r s e emingly
F i g . 32 Cyclic stress ratio versus relative i d e n t i c a l d e p o s i t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s is n o t k n o w n a t
density r e lationship for undist u r b e d the p r e s e n t time. H o w e v e r , as far as l o o s e to
and reconstituted samples of Niigata m e d i u m d e n s e s a n d is c o n c e r n e d (in t h e r e l a t i v e
sand d e n s i t y r a n g e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40 t o 60 %), t h e
m et h o d s of tube sampl i n g and b l o c k s a m pling appear
to y i e l d t h e c y c l i c s t r e n g t h d a t a o f i n - s i t u s a n d
b e t w e e n 11 t o 30 w e r e a s s e m b l e d a n d p l o t t e d in depos i t s wit h a re a s o n a b l e degr e e of accuracy.
F i g . 32(b) in t e r m s o f t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e It is t h e d e p o s i t s o f l o o s e t o m e d i u m d e n s e s a n d
cyclic stress ratio and relative density. Fig. that have actually developed extensive liquefac­
32(c) is t h e p l o t o f t e s t d a t a i n w h i c h a l a r g e r tion during past earthquakes and accordingly have
n u m b e r o f l o a d c y c l e s o f 31 t o 110 w a s r e q u i r e d t o b e e n t h e m a i n t a r g e t o f c o n c e r n f o r m a n y r e s e a r c h ­
c a u s e i n i t i a l l i q u e f a c t i o n b o t h in u n d i s t u r b e d a n d e r s a n d e n g i n e e r s .
reconstituted specimens. It is a p p a r e n t i n F i g .
32, t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e d c y c l i c s t r e n g t h o f u n d i s ­ Apart from the c o m p arison b e t ween u n d i s turbed and
turbed specimens over that of r e c o nstituted s p e c i ­ re c o nstituted specimens disc u s s e d above, a c o m pari­
m e n s is o b s e r v e d i n t h e s e d a t a w h e n t h e n u m b e r o f son of the cyclic s trengths of s pecimens o b t a i n e d
c y c l e s i n v o l v e d is s m a l l a n d w h e n t h e r e l a t i v e f r o m d i f f e r e n t s a m p l i n g p r o c e d u r e s is a l s o o f
d e n s i t y is l a r g e . This consequence appears logi­ interest. M ost of the d ata avai l a b l e to the writer
cal in v i e w o f the s p e c u l a t i o n , as m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , c o n c e r n i n g t h e c y c l i c s t r e n g t h o f u n d i s t u r b e d s a m ­
t h a t the i n n e r s t r u c t u r e of s a n d d u e to c e m e n t a ­ p l e s are t h o s e for s a m p l e s o b t a i n e d b y m e a n s of
t i o n o r a g i n g is m o r e p r o n o u n c e d l y d e v e l o p e d w i t h the large diameter sampler and the O s terberg type
increasing density and such a built-in structure piston sampler. In s o m e o f the s i t e s i n v e s t i g a t e d ,

338
 c a u s i n g i n i t i a l l i q u e f a c t i o n in 2 0 l o a d c y c l e s f o r
attempts have been made to recover u n d i s turbed
specimens us i n g bot h sampling techniques at two the s p e c i m e n s ta k e n by the large d i a m e t e r sampler
is p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e s i m i l a r l y d e f i n e d c y c l i c
nearby locations within a few meters from each
s t r ength of the s pecimens o b t a i n e d by the Oste r b e r g
other. It w o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , b e o f i n t e r e s t to
p iston sampler. Alth o u g h the data points scatter
see h o w the c y c l i c s t r e n g t h s c o m p a r e for u n d i s ­
turbed samples taken by these two me t h o d s of tube d u e m a i n l y to v a r i a b i l i t y of s t r e n g t h in i n d i v i d u a l
specimens, there appears to be no c o n s i s t e n t trend
sampling. F i g . 34 s h o w s a c o m p a r i s o n , t o t h i s
in F i g . 35 i n d i c a t i n g o n e k i n d o f t h e s p e c i m e n s t o
yield a high e r or lower cycl i c s t r ength than
the other. C o n s e q u e n t l y , it w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h e
cyclic strength det e r m i n e d from the specimens o b ­
t a i n e d b y t h e l a r g e d i a m e t e r s a m p l e r is a p p r o x i ­
m a t e l y equal to the cyclic strength of the s p e c i ­
mens obtai n e d by the O sterberg piston sampler.

6.3.2. Dense Sand

T h e r e h a s b e e n an i n c r e a s i n g n e e d in r e c e n t years,
in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e d e s i g n o f i m p o r t a n t s t r u c ­
tures, for a k n o w l e d g e of the b e h a v i o r of dense
sand deposits subjected to high - i n t e n s i t y shaking
of earthquakes. In r e s p o n s e to s u c h a d e mand, some
efforts have been made to investigate the cyclic
m o b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of dense sands for u n d i s ­
t u r b e d as w e l l for r e c o n s t i t u t e d sampl e s . The
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c feature of dense sand b e h avior
indicated by tests on reconstituted samples was
d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l s in t h e f o r e g o i n g s e c t i o n . It
w a s s h o w n t h a t t h e d e n s e s a n d is c a p a b l e o f m o b i ­
lizing a signi f i c a n t amount of resistance to cyclic
stress applications even after the induced pore
Co m p a r i s o n of c y clic s t r ength of u n d i s ­ w a t e r p r e s s u r e b e c o m e s e q u a l to the i n i t i a l c o n f i n ­
Fig. 34 ing pressure. Such a behavior was called cyclic
t u r b e d s a n d in N i i g a t a o b t a i n e d b y the
large diameter sampler and Osterberg mobility. T h e r e f o r e , it h a s b e e n c u s t o m a r y t o
ev a luate the cyclic strength of u n d i s t u r b e d dense
piston sampler
s a n d i n t e r m s o f t h e c y c l i c m o b i l i t y , i . e . , in
terms of the cyclic stress ratio r e q uired to cause
some level of d o u b l e - a m p l i t u d e of shear strain.
e f fect, of t h e c y c l i c s t r e n g t h d a t a o b t a i n e d for
s a m p l e s o b t a i n e d at the K a w a g i s h i - c h o site. It
When recovering undisturbed samples from deposits
m a y b e s e e n in t h i s f i g u r e t h a t the v a l u e s of
of dense sand by means of any tube sampler, chances
cyclic stress ratios causing initial liquefaction
ar e h i g h for the s a n d to b e l o o s e n e d d u e to its d i ­
i n 20 l o a d c y c l e s a r e w i t h i n t o l e r a b l e l i m i t s o f
l a t i n g n a t u r e d u r i n g p e n e t r a t i o n of the t u b e s a m ­
v ariation for the specimens obtai n e d by the two
pler. The samples taken by the large diameter and
k i n d s of s a m p le r s t h r o u g h o u t the d e p t h of the
O s t e r b e r g s a m p l e r s a l s o s u f f e r a v a r y i n g d e g r e e of
sand deposit investigated. By c o l lecting all test
d i s t u r b a n c e d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e d e n s i t y of sand,
d a t a f r o m o t h e r s i t e s , t h e p l o t s h o w n F i g . 35 w a s
a n d it w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h e s e s a m p l e r s c a n n o t be
developed. In t h i s F i g u r e t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s r a t i o
used to o b t a i n samples w i t h o u t d i s t u r b a n c e from
deposits with a relative density exceeding about
70 % o r w i t h a b l o w c o u n t v a l u e o f t h e s t a n d a r d
p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t a p p r o x i m a t e l y g r e a t e r t h a n 15.
In r e c o g n i t i o n of this, the bl o c k sampling meth o d
has bee n w i d e l y used to obtain high-q u a l i t y u n d i s ­
turbed samples. T h e m a r k e d d i f f e r e n c e in c y c l i c
strength b e t ween dense samples from the tube s am­
pling and those from block sampling was pointed
o u t b y E s p a n a e t al. (1978) a n d M a r c u s o n a n d
F r a n k l i n ( 1 9 7 9 ) , who showed that the block samples
ar e a b o u t t w i c e as r e s i s t a n t to c y c l i c s t r e s s a p ­
pl i c a t i o n s as are specimens from the tube sampler.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , it a p p e a r s t h a t t u b e s a m p l i n g s h o u l d
not be use d to o b t a i n samples from dense sand d e ­
posits .

In o r d e r to e v a l u a t e the c y c l i c s t r e n g t h of d e n s e
s a n d , K o k u s h o e t al. (1903a) c o n d u c t e d a s e r i e s o f
cyclic triaxial tests on undisturbed sand from a
d i l u v i a l d e p o s i t c a l l e d t h e N a r i t a d e p o s i t in
Japan. The u n d i s t u r b e d specimens wer e o b t a i n e d by
e x c a v a t i n g b l o c k s 30 c m * 30 c m * 30 c m i n d i m e n ­
in 20 c y c le s to r O s te rb e rg s a m p le s . sions. The sand was slightly cemented and contain­
e d a b o u t 10 % f i n e s . The maximum and ninimum void
Fig. 35 C o m p a r i s o n of c y c l i c s t r e n g t h b e t w e e n ratios w ere 1.345 and 0.824, respectively. Small
the large diameter samples and Osterberg specimens wer e trimmed out of the block sample
samples

339
a n d t e s t e d in the c y c l i c t r i a x i a l t e s t a p p a r a t u s
following the usual test procedure. After fin­
i s h i n g t h e test, the s a m p l e w a s r e c o n s t i t u t e d to
a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same d e n s i t y b y the m e t h o d of
p l u v i a t i o n in w a t e r a n d t a m p i n g a n d t e s t e d a g a i n
T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e t e s t s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n Fig .
36, i n t e r m s o f t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s r a t i o c a u s i n g

Norlta sand
Block sampling
No.of cycles*20

Fig. 37 Soil p r o f i l e at a site of Ohgi s h i m a

man-made island
>s 0-5-
O
0L.
04-

0 50 100 150 200

Initial conf ining stress , a»'(kN/m2)

Fig. 36 Effects of initial c o n f i n i n g stress on

the c y clic stren g t h of dense sand
( K o k u s h o e t al. 1983a)

5 % d o u b l e - a m p l i t u d e a x i a l s t r a i n i n 20 l o a d c y ­
cles p l o t t e d versus the initial confining pressure Fig. 38 Gradation curves of two sands compacted
u s e d in e a c h test. I t is o f i n t e r e s t t o n o t e t h a t by the c o m paction pile
the cycl i c s t r e n g t h d e p e n d s s i g n i f i c a n t l y u p o n the
initial c o nfining pressure, both for undisturbed
a nd r e c o n s t i t u t e d st a te s of the sand. Noteworthy t h e g r o u n d is s h o w n i n F i g . 37. The depths of
a s w e l l i n F i g . 36 is t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c y c l i c s a m p l i n g a r e a l s o i n d i c a t e d in t h i s figure. The
s t r e n g t h f o r u n d i s t u r b e d i n t a c t s a n d s p e c i m e n s is g r a d a t i o n o f t h e s a n d t e s t e d is s h o w n i n F i g . 38.
a b o u t 4 0 % g r e a t e r th a n t ha t for the r e c o n s t i t u t e d The cyclic triaxial tests were per f o r m e d on two
specimens. This increase might well be attributed g r o u p s o f s a m p l e s , i . e . , o n e f r o m t h e c e n t e r o f the
to the eff e c t s of c e m e n t a t i o n or aging that took 40 c m d i a m e t e r c o m p a c t i o n p i l e a n d t h e o t h e r f r o m
p l a c e in a l o n g g e o l o g i c a l time. points m i d w a y b e t ween the com p a c t i o n piles. The
results of the cyclic triaxial tests are presented
A n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f b l o c k s a m p l i n g is t h e o n e w h i c h i n F i g . 39, w h e r e i t m a y b e s e e n t h a t t h e c y c l i c
w a s c o n d u c t e d a t a s i t e n e a r t h e e a s t w h a r f in stress ratio causing initial liquefaction or 5 %
Oh gishima man-m a d e island, Yokohama, Japan. This d o u b l e - a m p l i t u d e a x i a l s t r a i n i n 2 0 l o a d c y c l e s is
site had been stabilized by installing compaction on the or d e r of 0.30 for the s a m p l e s f r o m the
p i l e s at a s p a c i n g o f 2.0 m a b o u t 5 y e a r s b e f o r e p oi n t s b e t w e e n the c o m p a c t i o n p i l e s and on the
p e r f orming the block sampling. A s e c t i o n 15 m order of 0.38 for the samples from the points of
l o n g a n d 6 m w i d e w a s f i r s t e n c l o s e d b y rows of the pile. T h e v a l u e s of c y c l i c s t r e n g t h in t h e s e
sheet piles and after lowering the ground water t e s t s a r e s m a l l e r t h a n t h o s e s h o w n i n F i g . 36.
t a b l e t o a d e p t h o f 5 . 0 m, t h e g r o u n d w a s e x c a ­ This might prob a b l y have resu l t e d from the sample
v a t e d t o a d e p t h o f 4 . 0 m. The sampling procedure disturbance during sample transportation and h a n ­
began by carving the exposed intact sand into a d ling, as w i l l be d i s c u s s e d in the n e x t section.
column with a diameter and length slightly larger
than those of f i n ished samples. A tube was then Still ano t h e r scheme of bl o c k sampling was c arried
pushed gently a short distance meanwhile removing out at a sewage trea t m e n t site in Edogawa, Tokyo,
the sand around the sampling tube wit h suitable where a large-scale excavation work was underway.
han d tools. T h e p u s h i n g w a s c o n t i n u e d in this In t h e g e n e r a l a r e a of e x c a v a t i o n , o n e s e c t i o n had
manner until the intact sand was c o m p letely e n ­ been c o mpacted by means by c o m paction piles, but
c a s e d in the tube. F i n ally the sample was shaved other sections had been left uncompacted. Block
off by i nserting a thi n steel plate under the samples w ere taken at bot h sites us i n g the same
cut t i n g edge. T h e s a m p l e s w e r e t r a n s p o r t e d to the p r o c e d u r e as d e s c r i b e d above. The N - v a l u e of the
l a b o r a t o r y w i t h o u t f r e e z i n g a n d t e s t e d in t h e c y ­ s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t w a s a b o u t 27 f o r t h e
clic triaxial test apparatus. The soil profile c o m p a c t e d s i t e a n d a b o u t 1>0 f o r t h e u n c o m p a c t e d
es t a b lished by borings prior to the e x c a vation of site. The results of c y clic triax i a l tests on

340
 i----- 1— i—i" i r r n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e d if s a n d is c o m p a c t e d in t h e g r o u n d
0-6
Block sampling Ohgishima (Mid - points between by means of c o m paction piles. The relatively small
compaction p ile s ) v a l u e of c y c l i c s t r e n g t h for the s p e c i m e n s f r o m the
0-5 (a) Depth: 4-0 and 4-5 m c o m p a c t e d s e c t i o n m i g h t h a v e a c c r u e d as a r e s u l t of
o : In itia l liq.
sample disturbance incurred during sample handling
B— a -5 % s tra in (D.A.)
04 Dr * 84 */• (78 - 92 •/•) and transportation. This aspect of the problem
w i l l be d i s c u s s e d in the n e x t section.

The results of a series of cyclic triaxial tests on

specimens taken by the block sampling have also
Dia. of sam pling b e e n r e p o r t e d b y F r y d m a n e t al. ( 1 9 80). Samples
tu b e : 73mm
0 ;'-5 k N / m2
were obtained from a variably cemented sand depos­
it, k n o w n a s K u r k a r , t h a t is e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e
area along the coastline of I s r a e l . The sand c o n ­
t a i n e d a b o u t 5 t o 15 % f i n e s a n d t h e b l o c k s a m p l e s
10 100 were frozen after they had bee n carved in-situ.
Number of cycles C y l i n d r i c a l s pecimens for c y clic triax i a l testing
wer e cored from the frozen block and after thawing
they were tested. A l though scattered, the test
06
Block sampling d a t a i n d i c a t e d a c y c l i c stress r a t i o of 0.2 to 0.35
D ia of sam pling
r e q u i r e d to c a u s e i n i t i a l l i q u e f a c t i o n in 20 lo a d
(b ) tube : 60 and 73mm
5 05 O i'- 5 kN /m * cycles for the intact specimens h a ving a relative
\ d e n s i t y o f a b o u t 40 t o 60 %. In s p i t e o f low
S 04 levels of cycl i c resistance, the b l o w count value
o of the stand a r d p e n e t r a t i o n test was hig h ranging
b e t w e e n 25 a n d 90. The unexpectedly low resis­
° 0-3
tance to cyclic loads was conceived by the inves­
«4/>» Ohgishima (points at the
t i g ators to have r e s u l t e d from the p r e s e n c e of
center of compaction pile)
* 02 Depth : 4 0 m u n c e m e n t e d l o o s e p o r t i o n s in t h e s o i l s t r u c t u r e o f
V o— © In itia l liq. the specimens. O n e o f t h e i n t e r e s t i n g o u t c o m e s in
u
5 0-1
o - ~ g 5*/# stra in (D.A.) this in v e s t i g a t i o n was the o b s e r v a t i o n of the in ­
Dr=89 •/• (82 - 967.)
fluence of the initial e f f e c t i v e c o n f i n i n g stress
on the cyclic re s i s t a n c e of intact s p ecimens of
0
10 100 sand. The cyclic stress ratio causing initial
Number of cycles l i q u e f a c t i o n in 20 l o a d c y c l e s u n d e r t h e c o n f i n i n g
s t r e s s e s u s e d i n t h e t e s t s is n o r m a l i z e d t o t h e
Fig. 39 Cycl i c s t r ength of u n d i s t u r b e d sand similarly defined cyclic stress inducing initial
samples recovered from the deposit l i q u e f a c t i o n u n d e r a c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e of 100
compacted by the compaction pile k N / m 2 a n d s h o w n i n F i g . 41 f o r d i f f e r e n t c o n f i n i n g

Edogawa
Block sampling
Depth: Am
o— o : In itia l liq.
M id-points between B-—0 : 5*/.stra in (D.A.)
piles , Dr Q0*lo
N -value: 27

10 100
Number of cycles

Fig. 40 C o m p arison of cyclic strength of u n d i s ­

turbed samples obtained from uncompacted
deposit and compacted deposit by means Fig. 41 Effects of con f i n i n g stress on the cyclic
of the c o m p a c t i o n pi l es strength of cemented sand

u n d i s t u r b e d specimens from the c o mpacted and u n ­ pressures. Similar data arrangements were also
c o m p a c t e d s e c t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d t o g e t h e r i n Fig. m a d e f o r t h e t e s t r e s u l t s s h o w n i n F i g . 36 a n d
40. It m a y b e s e e n i n t h i s f i g u r e t h a t t h e c y c l i c t h e y a r e a l s o p l o t t e d i n F i g . 41. The summary
stress ratio inducing initial liquefaction or 5 % p l o t s in F i g . 41 i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e c y c l i c r e s i s ­
d o u b l e - a m p l i t u d e a x i a l s t r a i n i n 2 0 l o a d c y c l e s is t a n c e o f c e m e n t e d s a n d s is s i g n i f i c a n t l y w e a k e n e d
o n t h e o r d e r of 0.4 for the s p e c i m e n s f r o m the as t h e c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s i n c r e a s e s . The reduction
c o m p a c t e d s e c t i o n and on the o r d e r of 0.26 for the in c y c l i c s t r e n g t h as a b o v e a p p e a r s to o c c u r due
specimens from the u n c o m pacted deposit. From to the o v e r c o n s o l i d a t e d n a ture of danse c e m ented
t h e s e t e s t r e s u l t s , it m a y be n o t e d t h a t the r e ­ s a n d a n d a l s o as a r e s u l t o f a b r e a k d o w n o f w e a k
s i s t a n c e t o c y c l i c s t r e s s a p p l i c a t i o n s is s u b s t a n - cementation bonds with increasing confinement.

341
6.4 E f f e c t s of S a m p l e D i s t u r b a n c e in D e n s e S a n d p e r f o r m e d o n s p e c i m e n s n o t s u b j e c t e d to s u c h an
artificial disturbance. T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e t ests
As m e n t i o n e d previously, s p ecimens of dense sand r e p o r t e d b y K o k u s h o e t al. (1983a) a r e s h o w n in
o b t a i n e d b y b l o c k s a m p l i n g a r e s u s p e c t e d to s u f f e r F i g . 42, w h e r e t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s r a t i o s c a u s i n g
d i s t u r b a n c e due to stress re l e a s e d u ring e x c a v a ­ 5 % d o u b l e a m p l i t u d e s t r a i n in t h e s p e c i m e n s w i t h
tion of test pits or l o w e r i n g of the g r o u n d w a t e r and w i t h o u t d i s t u r b a n c e are plo t t e d versus the
table. To i n vestigate the e ffects of the stress number of cycles. F i g . 42 s h o w s t h a t t h e s p e c i ­
r e l e a s e o n the c y c l i c s t r e n g t h o f d e n s e sand, m e n s w h i c h h a d u n d e r g o n e 2 0 c y c l e s o f s m a l l shocks
K o k u s h o e t al. (1983a) p e r f o r m e d s e v e r a l s e r i e s o f e x h i b i t e d a c y c l i c s t r e n g t h o f a b o u t o n e - h a l f the
cyclic torsion shear tests on densely compacted s t r ength of s pecimens w i t h o u t disturbance. The
s pe c i m e n s of T o y o u r a sand. Specimens were pre­ e x t e n t t o w h i c h a s a n d s p e c i m e n is i n f l u e n c e d by
p a r e d b y the m e t h o d of p l u v i a t i o n in w a t e r a n d t h e d i s t u r b a n c e m a y d e p e n d u p o n t h e l o o s e n e s s or
tapping. A f t e r c o n s o l i d a t i n g the s pe c imens, the
c o nfining pressure was reduced and kept at a low
level for a p e riod of 1 hour to 3 days. The c on­
f i n i n g p r e s s u r e w a s i n c r e a s e d a g a i n to the i n i t i a l
level and cy c l i c l o a d in g test w a s c a r r i e d out. In
a no t h e r series of tests, cyclic torsion tests were
performed on specimens without any such stress
release. A com p a r i s o n of the results of these two
t y p e s of t e s t i n d i c a t e d t h a t the c y c l i c s t r e n g t h
w a s v i r t u a l l y the same. In a n o t h e r s e r i e s o f
tests, a stress release was imparted to specimens
which had undergone some degree of overconsolida­
tion and the c yc l i c t o r s i o n w h e a r te s ts w e r e run
on such specimens. A c o m parison of the cyclic
strength of the o v e r c o n s o l i d a t e d dense specimens
with and without stress release also indicated
a p p r o x i m a t e l y the same result. O n the b a s i s of
the o b s e r v a t i o n as above, K o k u s h o e t al. (1983a)
c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f s t r e s s r e l e a s e is
i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l at l e a s t for the t y p e o f d e n s e Fig. 42 Decrease in cyclic strength due to sam­
s a n d t e s t e d in t h e s t u d i e s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . p l e d i s t u r b a n c e ( K o k u s h o e t al. 1983a)

F r o m the a b o v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , it m a y b e that
c h a n c e s are g e n e r a l l y s m a l l for b l o c k s a m p l e s to
su f f e r a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e of d i s t u r b a n c e d u e to
the stress release w h i c h occurs d uring the e x c a ­ Toyoura sand
(Tapping in water)
vati o n of test pits or the car v i n g of test s p e c i ­ 0J'=100 kN/ m2
mens . No. of load
cycles =20
No. of
Block samples are sometimes frozen in-situ but not drop:Q
in m a n y c a s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n t h e y c o n t a i n s o m e
p e r c e n t a g e of fines. In c a s e b l o c k s a m p l e s are _5
n o t f r o z e n , it is p r o b a b l e , u n l e s s s p e c i a l p r e c a u ­ Yoshimi 10
et al (1983)
t i o n is t a k e n , t h a t t h e s a m p l e s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o
small shocks from various unknown origins during Number of
sample handling and transportation. bowl drop
-o - 0
A series of i n teresting tests to evalu a t e the in­ 5
fluence of sample d i s t u r b a n c e was car r i e d out r e ­ 10
-o- 20
c e n t l y b y K o k u s h o e t al. ( 1 9 8 3 a ) , i n w h i c h a r t i ­
30
ficially p r e p a r e d specimens of dense sand wer e
40
s ubjected to a sequence of small shocks befo r e
t h e y w e r e t e s t e d in the c y c l i c t r i a x i a l t e s t a p ­
paratus. The a p p l i c a t i o n of the small shocks was
i n t e n d e d to s i m u l a t e some s e q u e n c e s of d i s t u r b i n g
a g e ncies that mi g h t be app l i e d to u n d i s t u r b e d 50
specimens during various phases of sample handling Relative density (•/.)
and transportation. A dense specimen of Japanese
s t a n d a r d s a n d ( T o y o u r a sand) p r e p a r e d b y t h e m e t h ­ Fig. 43 Effects of sample d i s t u rbance on the
o d of t a p p i n g in w a t e r to a r e l a t i v e l y d e n s i t y of c y c l i c s t r e n g t h o f s a n d ( K o k u s h o e t al.
a b o u t 85 % w a s m a d e p a r t i a l l y - s a t u r a t e d b y d r a i n ­ 1983a)
ing excess water. T h e s p e c i m e n e n c l o s e d in m e m -
brance without external confining stress was taken
out of the t r i axial pedes t a l and m o u n t e d on a bowl d e n s e n e s s of the sand. In o r d e r to e x a m i n e this
a t t ached to the appa r a t u s of a L i q u i d Limit t e s t ­ a s p e c t o f t h e p h e n o m e n o n , m u l t i p l e s e r i e s o f tests
ing device. By putting a small bar transversely were per f o r m e d on the Toyoura sand wit h varying
o n the pad, the h e i g h t o f d r o p w a s a d j u s t e d to d e n s i t i e s by e m p l o y i n g d i f f e r e n t levels of distur­
b e c o m e a s s m a l l a s 1 . 2 5 mm. A sequence of small bance. The results of these test series are sum­
shocks was app l i e d to the s p e cimen by d r o p p i n g m a r i z e d i n F i g . 43 i n w h i c h t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s
the b o w l as m a n y t i m e s as d e s i r e d . The specimen r a t i o c a u s i n g 5 % d o u b l e a m p l i t u d e s t r a i n i n 20
w a s a g a i n p u t in p l a c e in the t r i a x i a l c h a m b e r a n d load c y c l e s in the s p e c i m e n s s u b j e c t e d to d i f f e r ­
t e s t e d in t h e u s u a l m a n n e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c y c l i c e n t n u m b e r s o f d r o p s o f t h e b o w l is p l o t t e d versus
strength. On the o t h e r hand, tests w e r e also the r e l ative d e n s i t y of the sand tested. O n e of

342
the mos t c o n s p i c u o u s features of the test results than that for loose sand, bec a u s e of the highly
o b s e r v e d in F i g . 4 3 is a r e m a r k a b l e d r o p in t h e s u s c e p t i b l e n a t u r e of the s a m p l e s to a n y s o u r c e s
c y c l i c s t r e n g t h t h a t o c c u r s p a r t i c u l a r l y in d e n s e of disturbance.
sa n d as a r e s u l t of d i s t u r b a n c e c a u s e d b y the
d r o p of the b owl on w h i c h the s p e c i m e n s was m o u n t ­ A p a r t from the e ffects of sample d i s t u r b a n c e and
ed. F o r the s p e c i m e n s w i t h a r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y of t h e v a r i a b i l i t y o f o t h e r i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s as
a b o u t 9 5 %, t h e c y c l i c s t r e n g t h is s h o w n t o d e ­ no t e d above, one s h ould be r e m inded of the fact
crease w i t h i n c r easing number of the bowl drops that the cyclic s t r ength of dense sand changes
e v e n t u a l l y r e a ching about o n e - q u a r t e r of the o r i g ­ v a s t l y d e p e n d i n g on the numb e r of cycl e s and the
inal s t r e n g t h w i t h 4 0 drops of the bowl . The ampl i t u d e of shear strain by w h i c h a state of
s h a r p d r o p in c y c l i c s t r e n g t h d o e s n o t seem, h o w ­ f a i l u r e is d e f i n e d . T h e d e f i n i t i o n of f a i l u r e
e v e r , t o t a k e p l a c e in s p e c i m e n s h a v i n g a r e l a t i v e w i d e l y u s e d a t p r e s e n t t i m e is a s t a t e i n w h i c h
d e n s i t y l e s s t h a n a b o u t 70 %. 5 % d o u b l e - a m p l i t u d e s t r a i n is p r o d u c e d i n t h e
s a n d d u r i n g th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f 20 c y c l e s of s h e a r
In t h e l i g h t o f t h e q u a l i t a t i v e d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f stress. T h i s d e f i n i t i o n is n o t , h o w e v e r , b a s e d
the i m p o r t a n c e of s a m p l e d i s t u r b a n c e as shown on any firm physical background. T h e r e is n o
a b o v e , it m a y w e l l b e m e n t i o n e d t h a t a n u n d i s t u r b ­ reason, t h e r e f o r e , to r e j e c t a n y o t h e r c r i t e r i a
e d s p e c i m e n o f d e n s e s a n d is h i g h l y s u s c e p t i b l e t o to d e fine a state of failure. In the w r i t e r ' s
any degree of disturbance from various origins, o p i n i o n , it s e e m s m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e t o d e f i n e f a i l ­
l e a d i n g t o a r e d u c t i o n in i t s r e s i s t a n c e t o c y c l i c ure on the basis of careful desi g n considerations.
loading.

T h e d i s t u r b a n c e d u e to s m a l l s h o c k s d u r i n g s a m p l e
h a n d l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n w i l l b e m i n i m i z e d if VII EV A L U A T I O N OF L I Q U E F A C T I O N RE S I S T A N C E BY
samples are prop e r l y frozen in-situ. The require­ IN-SITU PENETRATION TESTS
m e n t w i l l b e m e t if s a m p l i n g is m a d e b y t h e m e t h o d
o f r a d i a l f r e e z i n g d e v e l o p e d b y Y o s h i m i e t al. 7.1 General
(197 8 ) . Note that this m e thod eliminates the d i s ­
turbance not only from small shocks but also from In v i e w o f the s o m e w h a t c o s t l y o p e r a t i o n i n v o l v e d
t h e s t r e s s r e l e a s e , if a n y . An attempt was made in o b t a i n i n g a n d t e s t i n g h i g h - q u a l i t y u n d i s t u r b e d
r e c e n t l y b y Y o s h i m i e t al. (1983) t o r e c o v e r a s a m p l e s , a n d a l s o in v i e w o f t h e g e n e r a l l y p u r ­
huge block of frozen sand at a site near the r a i l ­ p o r t e d t h e o r e t i c a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s i n he r en t to any
w a y s t a t i o n in t h e c i t y o f N i i g a t a . The sample l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g t e c h n i q u e s u c h as s y s t e m c o m ­
was cut into small cylindrical specimens for t e s t ­ pliance, membrane penetration and non-uniformity
ing in the c y c l i c t r i a l t e s t a p p a r a t u s . The r e ­ of strain distribution, the merits of h a ving r e ­
sult of the recent test on the dense sand w i t h a co u r s e to i n - situ p e n e t r a t i o n tests for a s s e s s i n g
r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y o f 87 % i n d i c a t e d a v a l u e o f c y ­ the cyclic strength of in-situ d e p osits of soils
cl i c s t r e s s r a t i o as h i g h as 0.80 to p r o d u c e 5 % h a v e b e e n i n c r e a s i n g l y r e c o g n i z e d in r e c e n t y e a r s .
d o u b l e - a m p l i t u d e s t r a i n i n 2 0 l o a d c y c l e s in t h e S u c h a d e m a n d r e s u l t e d in a t t e m p t s t o c o r r e l a t e
undisturbed specimens. Similar cyclic triaxial the cyclic strength of in-situ soils wit h values
tests were also conducted on specimens reconsti­ of re s i s t a n c e of any p e n e t r a t i o n test and to enable
t u t e d to n e a r l y the s a m e d e n s i t y b y the m e t h o d of th e c y c l i c s t r e n g t h of a g i v e n soil d e p o s i t to be
wet tamping. The corresponding cyclic stress a s s e s s e d f r o m a k n o w l e d g e o f t h e p e n e t r a t i o n re-^
r a t i o in t h i s c a s e w a s o.48. It w a s c o n c l u d e d s i s t a n c e w h i c h is g e n e r a l l y o b t a i n e d i n t h e r o u t i n e
t hat the cyclic s t r ength of h i g h - q u a l i t y u n d i s ­ practice of soil exploration.
turbed dense sand exhibits much greater re s i s ­
tance to cyclic stress appl i c a t i o n s than had been Th e r e are b a s i c a l l y two types of a p p r o a c h to this
previously envisioned. The hig h value of cyclic end. T h e f i r s t is t o c o l l e c t a g r e a t b u l k o f l a b o ­
s t r e n g t h for d e n s e N i i g a t a s a nd o b t a i n e d by r a t o r y test dat a on cyclic strengths of undis t u r b e d
Y o s h i m i e t al. (1983) is a l s o p l o t t e d i n F i g . 43. soil samples reco v e r e d f rom deposits of known p e n ­
It m a y be s e e n t h a t the p o i n t for this t e s t d a t a e t r a t i o n resis t a n c e s and to e s t a b l i s h an empirical
lies c l o s e to the c u r v e of z e r o d i s t u r b a n c e o b ­ correlation between these two quantities. The sec­
t a i n e d b y K o k u s h o e t al. ( 1 9 8 3 a ) . It a p p e a r s o n d a p p r o a c h is b a s e d o n o b s e r v e d p e r f o r m a n c e s o f
likely, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t the c y c l i c s t r e n g t h of in-situ soil d e p osits as to w h e t h e r or not they
0.80 b y Y o s h i m i et a l . r e p r e s e n t s the s t r e n g t h of have actually developed liquefaction during past
in— situ specimens with least disturbance. earthquakes. Wit h an intensity of shaking e s t i ­
m a t e d b y s o m e a p p r o p r i a t e p r o c e d u r e s , v a l u e s of
If t h e e f f e c t s o f s t r e s s r e l e a s e a r e f o u n d t o b e c y c l i c s t r e s s r a t i o s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e o c c u r r e d in
inconsequential for in-situ deposits of dense sand i n — s i t u soil d e p o s i t s d u r i n g the e a r t h q u a k e c a n be
a s s u g g e s t e d b y K o k u s h o e t al. (1983a), f o r t h e e s t i m a t e d at any d e p t h of the d e p o s i t and r e l ated
laboratory prepared specimens the most economical to the penetr a t i o n resistance. Since the o c c u r ­
and reliable proc e d u r e wo u l d be to r ecover block rence or n o n - o c c u r r e n c e of liquefact i o n - i n d u c e d
sampl e s , f r e e z e t h e m i n - s i t u a n d t e s t t h e m in the g r o u n d d a m a g e is k n o w n , it is t h e n p o s s i b l e t o
laboratory after thawing. A t the p r e s e n t time, e s t a b l i s h a t h r e s h o l d r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the
t h e r e a p p e a r s n o r e p o r t o f s u c h t e s t s c o n d u c t e d on cyclic stress ratio and the values of penetration
d e n s e d e p o s i t s of c l e a n sand. Alth o u g h the study resistance.
b y F r y d m a n e t al. (1980) w a s c o n d u c t e d f o l l o w i n g
t h e p r o c e d u r e r e c o m m e n d e d a b o v e , it w a s d o n e o n A l t h o u g h t h e p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e is m o s t w i d e l y
h i g h l y s t r a t i f i e d s a n d c o n t a i n i n g 5 t o 15 % f i n e s , a v a i l a b l e in-situ data at p r e s e n t time, other index
and c o n s e q u e n t l y the test results m a y not be taken p a r a m e t e r s s u c h a s s h e a r w a v e v e l o c i t y ( D o b r y et
as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e case j u s t i f y i n g the u s e f u l n e s s al. 1980) o r t h e e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f i n - s i t u
of the above procedure. s a n d d e p o s i t s ( A r u l a n a n d a n e t al. 1981 ) m a y p o s s i ­
bly be used for e s tablishing similar relationships.
As d e s c r i b e d above, the task of d e t e r m i n i n g a true
b e h a v i o r of dense sand a ppears muc h mor e d ifficult

343
 7-2 Correlation Based on Laboratory Tests triaxial test apparatus. The results of this i n ­
v e s t i g a t i o n w e r e s u m m a r i z e d in the f o l l o w i n g f o r ­
By a s s e mbling a vast quant i t y of cyclic triaxial m u l a (Ishihara, 1979),
t e s t d a t a o b t a i n e d in J a p a n , T a t s u o k a . e t al.
(1980) e s t a b l i s h e d a c o r r e l a t i o n a s f o l l o w s .
( )2 0 0 . 0 0 9 ( Ni + 13 + 6 . 5 l o g i o C (13)
°o'
0.35
( — ) 20 = 0 . 0 6 7 6 j N i + 0 . 2 2 5 l o g . „(
o o' D w h e r e Ni is d e f i n e d a s

for 0.04 m m £ D s o S 0 . 6 nun Ni = C n -N

(1 0 ) (14)
( — , > 2 0 = 0 . 0 6 7 6 JlTi - 0. 0 5 C n = 0 . 7 7 logi o ( 2 0 / o v ' )
ao
for 0.6 m m < D 51 S 1 . 5 m m
T h e f u n c t i o n t o n o r m a l i z e t h e N - v a l u e is b a s e d o n
t h a t p r o p o s e d b y P e c k e t a l . (1974).

w h e r e D 50 is t h e m e a n p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r i n m i l l i ­ T h e u s e of fines c o n t e n t as a n i n d e x p a r a m e t e r to
m eters, ( T d / O o 1 ) 2 o d e n o t e s the cy c l i c stress a l l o w for the e f fect of p a r ticle size has some
r a t i o r e q u i r e d to c a u s e i n i t i a l l i q u e f a c t i o n or a d v a n t a g e s o v e r t h e u s e o f 50 p e r c e n t p a r t i c l e
5 % d o u b l e a m p l i t u d e s t r a i n i n 20 c y c l e s o f s h e a r size. In t h e r o u t i n e p r a c t i c e o f p h y s i c a l t e s t i n g
s t r e s s a p p l i c a t i o n a n d Ni d e n o t e s a c o r r e c t e d o f s o i l s , t h e g r a d a t i o n o f s o i l s is d e t e r m i n e d
b l o w count value of the s t a ndard p e n e t r a t i o n test m a i n l y b y m e c h a n i c a l s i e v e a n a l y s i s in w h i c h the
(SPT) d e f i n e d as. m i n i m u m m e s h s i z e is 0 . 0 7 4 m m o f # 2 0 0 s i e v e , a n d
a n e l a b o r a t e g r a d a t i o n a n a l y s i s is o f t e n o m i t t e d
for the finer portion. T h e r e f o r e , in m a n y c a s e s
t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e 50 p e r c e n t p a r t i c l e s i z e is
Ni "N ’ not available.
(1 1 )
1 .7
Cm - I t is i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e a b o v e e m p i r i ­
°v' + 0-7 cal formulas wer e der i v e d on the basis of the r e ­
sults of tests on undisturbed samples obtained
mostly by tube sampling. In v i e w of the d i f f i c u l ­
ties in o b t a i n i n g h i g h - q u a l i t y s a m ples, u s i n g any
w h e r e N is t h e b l o w c o u n t v a l u e o f t h e S P T a n d type of tube sampler, fro m dense sand deposits
Ov' is t h e v e r t i c a l e f f e c t i v e o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e w i t h N - v a l u e s i n e x c e s s o f a b o u t 20, t h e a p p l i c a ­
in k g f / c m T h e v a l u e o f Ni m e a n s t h e N - v a l u e o f t i o n o f t h e a b o v e f o r m u l a s s h o u l d b e r e s t r i c t e d to
t he S P T n o r m a l i z e d to a n e f f e c t i v e o v e r b u r d e n d e p o s i t s c o m p o s e d o f l o o s e t o m e d i u m d e n s e s a n d , or
p r e s s u r e of 1 k g f / c m 2 to a c c o u n t for the e f f e c t of of c l a y e y and silty sand. I t is a l s o t o b e n o t e d
increasing N-value with increasing confining that the basic test data leading to the above e m ­
stress. T h e n o r m a l i z i n g f u n c t i o n , C N , is b a s e d pirical c o r r e l a t i o n com e from the r esults of tests
o n t h e f o r m u l a b y M e y e r h o f (1957). Eq. (10) w a s on soils from fluvial d e p osits of a l l u v i u m and
i n c o r p o r a t e d in t h e s e i s m i c c o d e f o r b r i d g e diluvium. Therefore, mos t of the fines contained
f o u n d a t i o n d e s i g n i n J a p a n (1980). in t h e s a n d a r e o f m e d i u m c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h p l a s ­
t i c i t y i n d e x v a l u e s r a n g i n g b e t w e e n 20 a n d 40.
Field and laboratory observations have shown that A s d i s c u s s e d in the f o r e g o i n g c h a p t e r , f i n e - g r a i n e d
the r e s i stance to l i q u e faction tends to increase s o i l s w i t h l o w p l a s t i c i t y i n d ices, s u c h as tailings
w i t h d e c r e a s i n g p a r t i c l e size. Thus for the same materials, exhibit as low resistance to cyclic
p enetration resistance, the cyclic stress ratio loads as does loose sand. Therefore, the mere
r e q uired to cause l i q u e faction increases w i t h de- p r e s e n c e of such fines does not serve to increase
c r e a s e i n g g r a i n size. T h i s e f f e c t is i n c o r p o r a t e d t he c y c l i c s t r e n g t h as m u c h as t h a t e v a l u a t e d by
in the a b o v e f o r m u l a in the s e c o n d t e r m o n the t h e f o r m u l a o f E q s . (12) a n d (13).
r i g h t h a n d s ide. W h i l e t h e 50 p e r c e n t p a r t i c l e
d i a m e t e r , D s o , is u s e d i n Eq. (10) t o a l l o w f o r In r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e s e d r a w b a c k s , a n e x t e n s i v e
the effe c t of p a r t i c l e size, the amount of fines i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s u n d e r t a k e n in J a p a n to d e t e r m i n e
c o n t a i n e d in s a n d y s o i l s m a y a l s o be u s e d as an the cycl i c strengths of l o w - p l a s t i c i t y tailings
i n d e x p a r a m e t e r to a c c o u n t for the same e f f ect. materials. Undisturbed samples of tailings were
A c o r r e l a t i o n i n cluding this effect was als o p r o ­ t a k e n f r o m 15 t a i l i n g s d a m s i t e s b y m e a n s o f t u b e
p o s e d b y T a t s u o k a e t al. (1980) a s f o l l o w s , s a m p l e s a n d t e s t e d in the l a b o r a t o r y . The outcome
of t h e s e t e s t s w a s a r r a n g e d in a d e s i g n f o r m u l a
a s f o l l o w s ( I s h i h a r a e t al. (1981),
( = 0 . 0 6 7 6 + 0.0035C (1 2 )
(Jo
( > 2 0 = 0 .0 6 7 6 J n I + 0 . 0 8 5 l o g ! 0 ( ^ - ^ ) (15)
°o v D,„
w h e r e C is t h e c o n t e n t o f f i n e s i n p e r c e n t p a s s i n g
the #2 00 mesh. where

In a n e f f o r t t o i d e n t i f y l o c a l i t i e s o f h i g h l i q u e ­ Ni = C n -N
(1 6 )
f a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l in t h e b a y a r e a o f T o k y o , a c o m ­
prehensive p r o gram of u n d i s turbed sampling and 1.7
'N
t esting of s u b s urface soils was cond u c t e d by means av' + 0 . 7
of the O s terberg type sampler and by using a cyclic

344
A c o m p a r i s o n o f t h i s f o r m u l a w i t h t h a t o f Eq. (10) distant without imparting any disturbance whatso­
i n d i c a t e s t h a t the i n c r e a s e in c y c l i c s t r e n g t h ever. The cyclic triaxial tests were conducted
w i t h d e c r e a s i n g m e a n p a r t i c l e s i z e is l e s s p r o ­ un d r a i n e d on these specimens to d e t e r m i n e the c y ­
n o u n c e d in t h e c a s e o f t a i l i n g s m a t e r i a l s t h a n in clic strength. The r e s u l ts of t h es e tests are
s o i l s g e n e r a l l y e n c o u n t e r e d in a l l u v i a l a n d d i l u ­ p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 45, w h e r e it c a n b e s e e n t h a t
vial deposits.

As m e n t i o n e d in the f o r e g o i n g c h a p t e r , the c y c l i c
stren g t h of sands c o n t a i n i n g fines de p e n d s not
o n l y on the a m o u n t of fines b ut a l s o o n its c o n ­
sistency characteristics. F i g . 44 s h o w s a s u m m a r y

Fig. 44 Relationship between cyclic strength

and plasticity index of tailings

of cyclic s t r e n g t h test d ata on f i n e - g r a i n e d t a i l ­ Fig. 45 Relation b e t w e e n the cyclic strength

ings plo t t e d v e rsus the p l a s t i c i t y index. The and N-value
t ailings m a terials tested con t a i n e d an average of
a b o u t 30 * f i n e s . W i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d a t a in
F i g . 44, i t m a y w e l l b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e p a r t o f the cyclic strength increases sharply with i n ­
the cyclic strength co n t r i b u t e d by the presence creasing N-value. N o t e t h a t a n e w f o r m u l a s howr
o f f i n e s i n c r e a s e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y in d i r e c t p r o ­ i n F i g . 45 w a s u s e d t o c o m p u t e t h e n o r m a l i z e d
por t i o n to the p l a s t i c i t y index of the fines at b l o w c o u n t , Ni in p l o t t i n g t h e t e s t d a t a . This
a r a t e o f I p / 3 5 f o r a s a n d c o n t a i n i n g a b o u t 30 f o r m u l a g i v e s a b o u t t h e s a m e v a l u e o f Ni a s t h e
% fines. If t h i s r a t e o f i n c r e a s e i n c y c l i c formula i n d i c a t e d i n E q s . (11) a n d (14)
s t r e n g t h is a s s u m e d t o h o l d a p p r o x i m a t e l y v a l i d
f o r a n y p e r c e n t a g e o f f i n e s o v e r 30 %, t h e f a c t o r
of Ip/3 5 m a y be inco r p o r a t e d into the above e m ­ 7.3 Correlation Based on Field Performances
pirical formula as a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r to a l l o w
for the e f fect of c o n s i s t e n c y of the fines. Thus, F o l l o w i n g t h e N i i g a t a e a r t h q u a k e of 1964, the
E q s . (12) a n d . (13) w i l l b e m o d i f i e d as, areas where liquefaction had and had not occurred
w e r e i n v e s t i g a t e d b y K i s h i d a (1966), K o i z u m i
(1966), a n d c r i t e r i a f o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b e t w e e n
soil co n d i t i o n s of liq u e f a c t i o n and n o n - l i q u e f a c -
( ^ 4 ) 2 0 = 0 . 0 6 7 6 ^ + 10 " -Ip .C ..... (17) tion were developed based on the standard p e netra­
tion r e s i stance of the sand deposits. These cri­
teria were established, however, on the tacit
a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e i n t e n s i t y o f s h a k i n g is o n t h e
o r d e r o f 150 t o 160 g a l in t e r m s o f t h e g r o u n d
( ) = 0 . 0 0 9 ( N x +1 3 )+1 .6 7 x 1 0 3 -Ip . l o g 10C
a c c e l e r a t i o n as r e c o r d e d in the c i t y of N i i g a t a .
®o'
..... (18) On the other hand, field studies of liquefaction
h a d a l s o b e e n u n d e r w a y in C h i n a , l e a d i n g to t h e d e ­
v e l o p m e n t of an empi r i c a l c r i t e r i o n w h i c h was in ­
Still ot h e r series of c o m p r e h e n s i v e i nvestigations c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e C h i n e s e s e i s m i c c o d e i n 1974
w a s c a r r i e d o u t b y K o k u s h o e t al. (1983b) b y u s i n g (Xie. 1 9 7 9 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s c r i t e r i o n , t h e
a l a r g e - s c a l e t e s t b o x 2 m i n h e i g h t a n d 2 m in c r i t i c a l b l o w c o u n t v a l u e , N c r t, d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g
diameter. A sand from the b e d of the Ton e river b e t w e e n the o c c u rrence and non- o c c u r r e n c e of l iq­
c a lled T o n e g a w a sand was c o m p a c t e d to diff e r e n t u e f a c t i o n is g i v e n b y
d e n s i t i e s in t h e box, a n d s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n
tests were conducted under varying surcharge pres­ N crt = S [ l * 0 . 1 2 5 ( d s - 3 ) - 0 . 0 5 ( d w -2)] ••• (19)
sures which were applied through an air-inflated
r u b b e r b a g p l a c e d o v e r the c o m p a c t e d s a n d fill.
Af t e r the pe n e t r a t i o n tests were over, small w h e r e d s is t h e d e p t h o f t h e s a n d l a y e r u n d e r c o n ­
s p e c i m e n s w e r e e x c a v a t e d a n d c a r r i e d c a r e f u l l y to s i d e r a t i o n a n d d w is t h e d e p t h o f t h e w a t e r t a b l e
t h e s o i l t e s t i n g l a b o r a t o r y l o c a t e d a b o u t 50 m below the ground surface. {5 i n d i c a t e s t h e

345
r e f e r e n c e N - v a l u e w h i c h is s p e c i f i e d i n T a b l e 2 a s a b o v e , it b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e t o p l o t v a l u e s of
as a function of the i ntensity of shaking. the c y clic stress ratio kn o w n to be ass o c i a t e d
w i t h some evide n c e of liqu e f a c t i o n or wit h n o n ­
l i q u e f a c t i o n in t h e f i e l d v e r s u s t h e n o r m a l i z e d
Table 2 R E F E R E N C E B L O W C O U N T V A L U E IN C H I N E S E p e n e t r a t i o n resistance, N i , of the sand deposit
CODE being considered. Then, a line can be drawn
through the p l o tted data points giving the lowest
Chinese Acceleration N cyclic stress ratio known to cause liquefaction
Intensity (gal) for any given Ni-value. T h i s l i n e is r e g a r d e d as
a boundary line diff e r e n t i a t i n g b e t ween conditions
7 75 6
in w h i c h l i q u e f a c t i o n c a n a n d c a n n o t o c c u r . The
r e s u l t o f t h e m o s t r e c e n t d a t a c o m p i l a t i o n i n the
8 150 10
a b o v e v e i n b y S e e d e t al. (1983) is s h o w n i n Fig.
4 7 (a). Since most of the field p e r f o rmance data
9 300 16

In o r d e r to e s t a b l i s h m o r e e l a b o r a t e c r i t e r i a ,
several field performance correlations have been
proposed by several investigators, based on e x ­
peri e n c e s of more recent earthquakes. A method
( a)
o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c r i t i c a l N - v a l u e as a f u n c t i o n
of liquefac t i o n - i n d u c i n g cyclic stress ratio was
p r o p o s e d b y S e e d (1979) o n t h e b a s i s o f a v a s t
a mou n t of field p e r f o r m a n c e data of sand d e p osits
during recent earthquakes, followed by a renewed
version containing more comprehensive performance
d a t a ( S e e d e t al. 1 9 8 3 ) . In t h i s m e t h o d , an
e q u i v a l e n t cyclic stress ratio c o n c e i v e d to have
d e v e l o p e d in t h e f i e l d d u e t o e a r t h q u a k e s h a k i n g
is e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n ,

0.65 (2 0 )
g a V

T h i s e q u a t i o n is s i m i l a r t o Eq. (4) e x c e p t t h a t a
c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r , 0 . 6 5 , is i n t r o d u c e d t o c o m p u t e
t h e a v e r a g e s h e a r s t r e s s , T av- T h e n e x t s t e p in
t h i s m e t h o d is t o c o l l e c t i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e N -
v a l u e of the SPT and to calc u l a t e the N i - v a l u e (b)
c o r r e c t e d to an e f f e c t i v e o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e of
1 k g f / c m 2 by the formula,

N 1 = C m *N (2 1 )

T h e f u n c t i o n t o n o r m a l i z e t h e m e a s u r e d N - v a l u e is
s h o w n i n F i g . 46. H a ving compiled a set of data
Cn

Fig. 47 Co r r e l a t i o n b e t ween the cyclic stress

ratio and the s t a ndard p e n e t r a t i o n
r e s i s t a n c e ( S e e d e t al. 1983)

c o m p i l e d in t h i s f i g u r e a r e t h o s e f r o m e x p e r i e n c e s
o f e a r t h q u a k e s w i t h a m a g n i t u d e a r o u n d 7.5, it is
so i n d i c a t e d in Fig. 47(a). Without accummulating
m o r e f i e l d d a t a , it a p p e a r s d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n
d i fferent field perfor m a n c e curves for other m a g ­
nitude events. H o w e v e r , t h e c u r v e i n F i g . 4 7(a)
h a s b e e n e x t r a p o r a t e d t o o t h e r m a g n i t u d e e v e n t s on
t h e b a s i s of t h e n u m b e r s of c y c l e s a s s o c i a t e d with
these o t h e r e a r t h q u a k e s leading to the family of
Fig. 46 Chart for the coefficient, C™, ( Seed c u r v e s s h o w n in Fig. 47(b).
e t al. 1983)

346
In a r r a n g i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e d a t a s h o w n in F i g . the curve rises very sharply for a b l o w count
4 7 (a), it a p p e a r s t h a t a c e r t a i n l a y e r o f s a n d a t v a l u e l a r g e r t h a n 20. T h e b o u n d a r y c u r v e in Fig.
s o m e d e p t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a s i t e in q u e s t i o n 47 d u e t o S e e d e t a l . (1983) is a l s o r e p l o t t e d in
was taken up for consi d e r a t i o n . If s u c h a s a n d F i g . 48 b y c o n v e r t i n g t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s r a t i o i n t o
l a y e r is l o c a t e d f a i r l y d e e p o v e r l a i d b y a t h i c k the m a x i m u m stress ratio. The conversion was
n o n - l i q u e f i a b l e s u r f ac e soil, the r e w il l be no made simply by divi d i n g the cyclic stress ratio
visible sign of l i q u e faction on the g r ound surface b y 0.65. F i g . 48 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e b o u n d a r y
e v e n if t h e s a n d l a y e r d e v e l o p e d l i q u e f a c t i o n d e e p c u r v e b y S e e d e t al. g i v e s a s m a l l e r c y c l i c s t r e s s
in t h e g r o u n d . I n s u c h a c a s e , t h e s i t e is i d e n t i ­ r a t i o t h a n t h a t b y T o k i m a t s u a n d Y o s h i m i in t h e
fied as a site o f n o - l i q u e f a c t i o n a n d i n d i c a t e d r a n g e s o f t h e b l o w c o u n t v a l u e , N x , w h i c h is s m a l l e r
a c c o r d i n g l y w i t h a w h i t e c i r c l e in F i g . 4 7 ( a ) . t h a n 17 a n d l a r g e r t h a n 25. T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s are
The o c c u r r e n c e of l i q u e faction w i t h i n some layers p r o b a b l y d u e i n p a r t t o d i f f e r e n c e s in m e a s u r i n g
a t a g i v e n s i t e is n o t u n i q u e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e N - v a l u e in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d J a p a n .
its v i s i b l e m a n i f e s t a t i o n a t t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e ,
and, t h e r e f o r e , m a n y of the d a t a p o i n t s of n o - l i q ­ A t h r e s h o l d c u r v e in t h e same v e i n w a s a l s o p r o ­
u e f a c t i o n a r e p l o t t e d i n F i g . 47 in t h e z o n e a b o v e p o s e d b y S h i b a t a (1981) b a s e d o n t h e d a t a o f f i e l d
the b o u n d a r y line. It is t o b e n o t e d , t h e r e f o r e , performances during past earthquakes. As i n d i c a t ­
t h a t t h e b o u n d a r y l i n e in F i g . 47 s i m p l y i m p l i e s a e d i n F i g . 48, t h i s c u r v e g i v e s s l i g h t l y h i g h e r
g enuine soil c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ident i f y i n g w h e t h e r or v a lues of c y clic stren g t h as c o m p a r e d to the curves
not the soil itself can d e v e l o p l i q u e f a c t i o n under by other investigators.
a g i v e n i n t e n s i t y o f s h a k i n g w h i c h is e x p r e s s e d in
terms of the cyclic stress ratio. In t h i s sense,
t h e b o u n d a r y l i n e c u r v e in F i g . 47 h a s t h e s a m e 7.4 S ummary of C o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n B low Count
i m plication as the curve w h i c h can be d e p i c t e d by V alues and Cyclic Strength for Clean Sands
t h e e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e s u c h a s E q s . (10), a n d (13).
The c o rrelations b e t ween the cyclic strength and
A n o t h e r c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y in t h e s a m e v e i n w a s Nj-value e s t a b lished thus far are all plotted
m a d e b y T o k i m a t s u a n d Y o s h i m i (198 3 ) , w h o h a d t o g e t h e r i n F i g . 48 f o r c o m p a r i s o n p u r p o s e s . In
accumulated a body of field p e r f o rmance data from c o m p i l i n g the data from d i f f e r e n t sources, the
p a s t e a r t h q u a k e s m a i n l y in J a p a n . Results of the f o l l o w i n g a s s u m p t i o n is m a d e w h i c h s e e m s t o h o l d
d a t a c o m p i l a t i o n w e r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e f o r m o f a n a p p r oximately valid:
empirical formula containing a parameter allowing
for the e f f e c t of s h e a r s t r a i n a m p l i t u d e to d e f i n e
1
failure. The boun d a r y line separating the o c c u r ­ f ( ---- ( 2 2 )
rence and n o n - o c c u r r e n c e of l i q u e f a c t i o n o b t a i n e d 0.65
f rom this f o r mula for a f a ilure c o n d i t i o n of 3 %
s h e a r s t r a i n d e v e l o p m e n t is d e m o n s t r a t e d i n F i g .
48, w h e r e it m a y b e s e e n t h a t , w h i l e t h e c u r v e
lies a p p r o x i m a t e l y in t h e same zone as the o t h e r s It m a y b e n o t e d t h a t t h e l a b o r a t o r y - e s t a b l i s h e d
for a s m a l l b l o w c o u n t v alue, say, less t h a n 2 0 , c u r v e b y K o k u s h o e t al. (1983) l i e s c l o s e t o t h e
c u r v e s b y S e e d e t al. ( 1 9 8 3 ) , T o k i m a t s u a n d Y o s h i m i
(198 3 ) , a n d S h i b a t a (198 1 ) , w h i c h h a d b e e n d e r i v e d
from field performances. I t is s u r p r i z i n g t o n o ­
tice that, unli k e the laboratory test results by
others, the cycl i c strength values d e t e r m i n e d by
K o k u s h o e t al. (1983b) s h o w s m u c h h i g h e r v a l u e s
p a r t i c u l a r l y for d e n s e sand. T h i s a p p e a r s to
a c c r u e as a r e s u l t of h a v i n g n i m i m i z e d s a m p l e d i s ­
turbance, as m e n t i o n e d before, by care f u l l y t r a n s ­
porting the un d i s t u r b e d samples. As d e m o n s t r a t e d
e x p e r i m e n t a l l y i n F i g s . 42 a n d 43 b y K o k u s h o e t a l .
(1983a), a s e r i e s of small s h o c k s l i k e l y to b e i m ­
p a r t e d to s a m p l e s d u r i n g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d h a n d l ­
ing could exert deleterious effects on the quality
of un d i s t u r b e d samples partic u l a r l y wh e n the sand
is d e n s e . Therefore, the results of the laboratory
t e s t s b y K o k u s h o e t a l . (1983b) w o u l d p r o b a b l y r e ­
flect real field performances, as e v i d e n c e d by the
comparison with other studies based on field pe r ­
formance data.

T h e f o r m u l a u s e d in the J a p a n e s e c o d e for b r i d g e
d e s i g n is a l s o s h o w n in F i g . 48. In v i e w of the
l i m i t a t i o n w h e n u s i n g these for m u l a e for dense
sand deposits, the curves derived from these for­
mulae are shown o n l y for a range of the no r m a l i z e d
b l o w c o u n t v a l u e l e s s t h a n 30.

L o o k i n g o v e r a l l a t the c l u s t e r of c u r v e s in Fig.
48, o n e m a y c o n c l u d e t h a t f o r m e d i u m t o h i g h v a l u e s
of the SPT b l o w - c o u n t , all curves yi e l d a p p r o x i ­
m a t e l y the same cyclic strength, whereas variable
Fig. 48 Summary chart for e v a l uating the cyclic c y c l i c s t r e n g t h v a l u e s a r e o b t a i n e d in the r a n g e
strength ba s e d on the n o r m alized SPT of N j - v a l u e less than about 1 0 .
N-value

347
W h e n u s i n g a n y c u r v e i n F i g . 48, it s h o u l d b e b o r n
in m i n d t h a t t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e c y c l i c s t r e n g t h
o n t h e c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s is n o t t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .
A s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g s . 36 a n d 41, t h e l a b o r a t o r y -
d e t e rmined cyclic stress ratio at failure exhibits
a relatively strong dependence on the confining
s t r e s s p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n t h e s a n d is d e n s e a n d
cemented. T h e c h a r t s s h o w n i n F i g . 48 h a v e a l l
been e s t a b lished on the basis of data obtained
with effective overburden pressures or confining
s t r e s s e s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 k N / m 2 . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
whe n the ov e r b u r d e n pressure of a sand layer being
c o n sidered deviates greatly from the above value,
a p p r o p r i a t e m o d i f i c a t i o n s s h o u l d be m a d e to v a l u e s
read from the chart.

7.5 C o r r e l a t i o n s for F i n e - G r a i n e d Soils

T h e e f f e c t s of f i n e s c o n t a i n e d in s a n d m a y be
e v a l u a t e d e i t h e r in t e r m s o f t h e a v e r a g e g r a i n
s i z e o r in t e r m s o f t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f f i n e s p a s s ­
ing the #200 mesh. B ecause of the a d v a n t a g e s of
the u s e of the f i n e s c o n t e n t , as e x p l a i n e d b e f o r e ,
this m e a s u r e w i l l b e e m p l o y e d in the f o l l o w i n g
d i s c u s s i o n as an i n d e x p a r a m e t e r .

Two methods have bee n used to consider the effects

of fines content on the correl a t i o n b e t ween the Fig. 50 I n c r e a s e in c y c l i c s t r e n g t h d u e to
cyclic strength and Ni-value. O n e m e t h o d is t o i ncl u s i o n of fines
a s s e s s an a p p a r e n t i n c r e a s e in N i - v a l u e so t h a t
it g i v e s t h e s a m e a m o u n t o f c y c l i c s t r e n g t h a s
do c l e a n sands w i t h o u t fines and, w i t h t h is i n ­ c o u n t v a l u e , N i . It m a y b e s e e n t h a t f o r a f i n e s
c r e a s e d N j - v a l u e , t o e n t e r t h e c h a r t in F i g . 48 c o n t e n t o f 30 %, t h e c y c l i c s t r e n g t h is i n c r e a s e d
e s t a b l i s h e d for c l e a n sand. The apparent increase a b o u t 30 % o n t h e a v e r a g e f o r d e p o s i t s w i t h N i -
i n N i - v a l u e is e x p r e s s e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f f i n e s v a l u e u p t o a b o u t 20. F i g . 50 a l s o s h o w s t h a t the
content. Such an a p p r o a c h was sugg e s t e d by curve by Tokimatsu-Yoshimi gives slightly lower
T o k i m a t s u a n d Y o s h i m i (1983) w h o p r o p o s e d t h e cyclic strength for smaller Ni- v a l u e s but higher
u s e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s h o w n i n F i g . 49 t o c o m ­ c y c l i c s t r e n g t h f o r l a r g e r N 1 - v a l u e s a s c o m p a r e d to
pute the i ncrement of Ni-value. Similar manipula­ the other curves. In o r d e r t o e x a m i n e the e f f e c t s
t i o n c a n b e a p p l i e d t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f Eq. of fines, the cyclic s t r ength e s t i m a t e d by the
(13) b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e t e r m 6 . 5 - l o g i o C a s b e i n g t h r e e m e t h o d s is p l o t t e d i n F i g . 51 v e r s u s t h e
c o n t e n t o f f i n e s for b l o w c o u n t v a l u e s of N i =10
a n d 15. The figure shows that the formula by the

Fig. 49 I ncrement of N-v a l u e to e v a l u a t e the

c y c l i c s t r e n g t h b y t h e c h a r t i n F i g . 48,
a l l owing for the e f fect of fines content

a n i n c r e m e n t of N i - v a l u e d u e t o t h e p r e s e n c e of
fines. T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p is a l s o s h o w n in F i g .
49. T h e o t h e r m e t h o d is s i m p l y t o e s t a b l i s h a n
e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s u c h a s Eq. (12) o n t h e
basis of l a b o ratory tests or field p e r f o r m a n c e
data during e arthquakes for soil deposits c o n ­
ta i n i n g fines.

The results of the inves t i g a t i o n s as o u t l i n e d

a b o v e a r e d i s p l a y e d i n F i g . 50 i n t e r m s o f t h e Fig. 51 Ef f e c t s of fines c o n t e n t on the cyclic
cyclic stress ratio versus the normalized blow s t r ength of f i n e s - c o n t a i n i n g sand

348
J a p a n e s e b r i d g e d e s i g n c o d e g i v e s a h i g h e r r a t e of A c h a r t f o r t h i s p u r p o s e c o u l d b e e s t a b l i s h e d , if
i n c r e a s e in c y c l i c s t r e n g t h w i t h i n c r e a s i n g fines the r e s i stance to liq u e f a c t i o n of g r a v e l l y sand
content than do the other two formulae. is k n o w n b y s o m e m e a n s f o r d e p o s i t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t
gravel contents but formed under identical deposi-
The p r e s e n c e of fines as a factor influ e n c i n g the tional conditions. O n c e t h i s k i n d o f c h a r t is e s ­
r e lationship b e t w e e n the cyclic strength a nd blo w t a b l i s h e d , it b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e to e s t i m a t e the
count values has been a topic of considerable l i q u e f a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l o f t h e g r a v e l l y d e p o s i t in
d i s c u s s i o n a m o n g e n g i n e e r s in C h i n a a n d m a n y e m ­ question, w i t h the k n o w n d a t u m value of cyclic
p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d in r e c e n t s t r e n g t h f r o m t h e n e a r b y s a n d d e p o s i t (zero g r a v e l
y ea r s to i n c o r p o r a t e a c o r r e c t i o n for the g e n e r a l ­ content) a n d a l s o w i t h the k n o w n p e r c e n t a g e of
ly a u t h o r i z e d f o r m u l a o f Eq. (19). It is g e n e r a l ­ gravel content. A chart of this type was e s t a b ­
ly r e c o g n i z e d t ha t the p r e s e n t fo r m of the C h i n es e l i s h e d a s s h o w n in F i g . 52 o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e
code c an be a p p l i e d o nly for soils h a v i n g a p l a s ­ r e s u l t s o f t h e s h a k i n g t a b l e t e s t s s u m m a r i z e d in
t i c i t y i n d e x l e s s t h a n 3. I t is a l s o a c c e p t e d in Fig. 28(e). It m a y b e n o t e d t h a t t h e s h a k i n g
China that soils with a plasticity index greater table tests w ere c o n d u c t e d on sand d e p osits w ith
t h a n 10 a r e a l m o s t i m m u n e t o l i q u e f a c t i o n a n d c a n different gravel contents propared under identical
b e p u t a s i d e in d i s c u s s i n g c o d e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . depositional conditions.
Therefore, the k ind of f i n e - g r a i n e d soils under
c o n s i d e r a t i o n as p o t e n t i a l l y l i q u e f i a b l e in C h i n a
are soils h a ving a p l a sticity index b e t w e e n 3 and
10. In a d d i t i o n , the e f f e c t s of f i n e s a r e a l l o w e d
for in m o s t o f the p r o p o s e d f o r m u l a e b y c o n s i d e r ­
ing the c o n t e n t of c la y w i t h a g r a i n size sma l le r
t h a n 0 . 0 0 5 mm. A m o n g man y formulae proposed, the
f o l l o w i n g t w o p u r p o r t i n g to be m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g
a r e c i t e d h e r e f o r r e f e r e n c e s a k e (Shi, 1984)

N c r i = N [ l + 0 . 1 2 5 ( d g - 3 ) - 0 . 0 5 (dw - 2 ) - 0 . 1 (pc - 3 )] - - - (23)

N c r i = N [ l + 0 . 1 2 5 ( d s - 3 ) - 0 . 0 5 ( d w -2)] (^-) °'5 •••(24)

W h e r e P c is t h e c o n t e n t o f c l a y i n p e r c e n t . It
m a y be seen that the effects of c lay con t e n t are
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n b o t h o f t h e a b o v e t w o f o r m u l a e in Fig. 52 Effects of gravel inclusion on the
such a w a y that the c r i tical b l o w count value by cy clic r e s i stance of g r a v e l - c o n t a i n i n g
t h e p r e s e n t c o d e is d e c r e a s e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g sand
p e r c e n t a g e of clay content.

7.7 C o rrelations between the Cyclic Strength

7.6 C o r r e l a t i o n s for G r a v e l l y Sands and Cone Penetration Test
B e c a u s e of d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n t e r e d in u n d i s t u r b e d S e v e r a l t y p e s of the c o n e p e n e t r a t i o n d e v i c e have
sampling and laboratory testing and also because been developed, but the most commonly used would
o f a m b i g u i t y in i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e b l o w c o u n t v a l u e be the o n e c a l l e d D u t c h c o n e t e s t in w h i c h a cone
of the s t a ndard p e n e t r a t i o n test, a t t empts have w i t h a 10 c m b a s e a r e a w i t h a n a p e x a n g l e o f 60°
seld o m b een made to c o r r e l a t e the cyclic strength is p e n e t r a t e d s t a t i c a l l y b y m e a n s o f a h y d r a u l i c
of gravelly sands or sandy gravels wit h any p a r a m ­ or m e c h a n i c a l jack at a speed of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2
e t e r m e a s u r e d in the field. cm/sec. In w h a t follows, the d a t a p r e s e n t e d r e ­
fer, u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e m e n t i o n e d , t o t h o s e o b t a i n ­
One of the p o s sible b r e a k t h r o u g h s to this end ed by the Dutch cone. A l t h o u g h it h a s in the
w o u l d be to obta i n the b l o w co u n t value at some past been less w idely used than the standard
si t e s c o n s i s t i n g of s a n d in the n e i g h b o r h o o d of p e n e t r a t i o n test, the cone p e n e t r a t i o n test has
a g r a v e l d e p o s i t i n q u e s t i o n w h i c h is c o n c e i v e d t h e a d v a n t a g e t h a t it c a n p r o v i d e a h i g h d e g r e e
to h a v e b e e n for m ed u n d e r g e o l o g i c a l l y a n d e n v i ­ of r e s o l u t i o n for i d e n t i f y i n g soil p r o p e r t i e s
r o n m e n t a l l y identical co n d i t i o n s and then to enter p a r t i c u l a r l y in s o f t d e p o s i t s o f c l a y e y o r s i l t y
i n t o t h e c h a r t i n F i g . 48 t o e v a l u a t e a d a t u m soils wh e r e the SPT N - v alues of less than one
v a l u e of c y c l i c s t r e n g t h u s i n g the N - v a l u e as are encountered. The other unequalled advantage
obtained above. I t m i g h t a l s o b e p o s s i b l e to lies in its h i g h level of c a p a b i l i t y for d e l i n ­
locate, in the same b o r e d hole, a s a n d layer e a t i n g stra t i g r a p h y of soil deposits.
immediately above or b e l o w the gravelly layer
in q u e s t i o n w h i c h a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n f o r m e d A c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the cone b e a r i n g an d the
under c o n d itions i dentical to those of the gravel cyclic strength m a y be e s t a b l i s h e d b a s e d on the
layer. If t h e b l o w c o u n t v a l u e o f s u c h a s a n d same g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s as t h o s e u s e d for the
l a y e r is k n o w n , t h e d a t u m v a l u e o f c y c l i c s t r e n g t h SPT correlation. S e e d (1981, 1983) s u g g e s t e d
m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e c h a r t o f F i g . 48. In t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n e b e a r i n g , qc, t o
a n y case, the c o n t e n t of g r a v e l c o n t a i n e d in the that c o r r e s p o n d i n g to an e f fective o v e r burden
gravelly deposit must be known. The percentage p r e s s u r e o f 1 k g / c m 2 u s i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s , Cjj,
of g r avel content m a y be d e t e r m i n e d by m e a s u r i n g s u c h a s t h o s e o f E q s . (11) a n d (14), o r F i g . 46.
the q u a n t i t y of gravel r e m a i n i n g on the #10 sieve T h e n , t h e n o r m a l i z e d c o n e b e a r i n g , q j , is d e f i n e d
w i t h 2 . 0 0 m m m e s h s i z e o r i n t h e #4 s i e v e w i t h a
m e s h size of 4.76 mm. T h e n e x t s t e p in t h i s p r o ­
cedure wo u l d be to establish a co r r e l a t i o n b e ­ Si = cn <3c ..... (25)
tween the cyclic strength and the gravel content.

349
If t e s t d a t a o f c y c l i c s t r e n g t h is a v a i l a b l e t o ­ The in-situ cone b e a r i n g data for silty sands o b ­
gether w i t h the cone b e a r i n g d ata for the same t a i n e d in t h e r e c l a i m e d l a n d s in T o k y o B a y w e r e
soil deposit, a c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e two c o r r e c t e d t h r o u g h Eq. (26) a n d t h e y a r e p l o t t e d
sets of soil p a r a m e t e r s c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d . Fig. i n F i g . 54 v e r s u s t h e c y c l i c s t r e n g t h t e s t d a t a
53 s h o w s t h e r e s u l t s o f d a t a p l o t t i n g i n t h e on undist u r b e d samples recovered by the Osterberg
above contest using test data on alluvial sands sampler. A l s o i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 54 is a c u r v e
in t h e r e c l a i m e d l a n d i n T o k y o B a y a n d i n t h e q u o t e d f r o m F i g . 53. It s h o u l d a l s o b e n o t e d ,
c i t y of N i i g a t a (Ishihara a n d Koga, 1981). The b a s e d o n t h e c o m p a r i s o n in F i g . 54, t h a t t h e e f ­
c y c l i c s t r e n g t h o f t h e s a n d y s o i l s in T o k y o B a y fects of d e c r e a s i n g cone b e a r i n g or increasing
was o b t a i n e d fro m the cyclic triaxial tests on cyclic strength caused by the presence of fines
u n d i s t u r b e d samples r e c o v e r e d by me a n s of the m ay be taken into account by c o r r ecting the qj-
Osterberg-type tube sampler. A l t h o u g h t h e r e is v a l u e t h r o u g h Eq. (26) a n d t h e n u s i n g a c h a r t such
c o n s i d e r a b l e s c a t t e r in t h e d a t a p o ints, a line a s t h a t o f F i g . 53 e s t a b l i s h e d f o r c l e a n s a n d s
w a s d r a w n t h r o u g h t h e e n t i r e d a t a set, w h i c h m a y with very little fines content.
be u s e d as a b o u n d a r y line s e p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s
in w h i c h l i q u e f a c t i o n c a n a n d c a n n o t occur.

Fig. 54 Correlation between cyclic strength

and Dutch cone resistance corrected
for fines content
Fig. 53 Correlation between cyclic strength and
nor m a l i z e d cone resistance for clean
sands
VIII SIMPLE METHOD OF ANALYSIS FOR LIQUEFACTION
IN L E V E L G R O U N D
W h e n s o i l s c o n t a i n f i n e s g r e a t e r t h a n a b o u t 10 %
b y w e i g h t , t h e c u r v e s h o w n i n F i g . 53 is n o l o n g ­ 8.1 General
er usable. S i n c e t h e p r e s e n c e o f f i n e s a p p e a r s to
e x e r t a s i m i l a r i n f l u e n c e o n the c o n e b e a r i n g as A creneral m e t h o d o f a n a l y s i s t o a s s e s s a p o s s i ­
i t d o e s o n t h e S P T r e s i s t a n c e , it w o u l d b e r e a ­ b i l i t y of l i q u e f a c t i o n or cycl i c m o b i l i t y o c c u r r ­
s o n a bl e to i n t r o d u c e a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r into the ing in the level g r o u n d was p r o p o s e d by Seed and
c o r r e l a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d for cl e a n sands. The I d r i s s (1971). In t h i s m e t h o d the c y c l i c s t r e s s
e a s i e s t w a y t o a c h i e v e t h i s c o r r e c t i o n is f i r s t ratio i nduced in a soil d e p o s i t by ea r t h q u a k e
to d e t e r m i n e a n i n c r e m e n t of q ^ v a l u e in a c c o r ­ s h a k i n g is e s t i m a t e d f r o m a k n o w l e d g e o f t h e m a g ­
d a n c e w i t h t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e c o n t e n t o f n itude of accele r a t i o n at the g round surface and
f i n e s is a c c o u n t e d f o r i n Eq. (13). In t h e case compa r e d against the corre s p o n d i n g cyclic strength
of the s t a ndard p e n e t r a t i o n test, the e f f e c t of e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s r a t i o
f i n e s is v i e w e d i n Eq. (13) a s b e i n g a l l o w e d f o r c a u s i n g l i q u e f a c t i o n o r c y c l i c m o b i l i t y in the
b y u s i n g a n e q u i v a l e n t N 1- v a l u e w h i c h is i n c r e a s e d soil d e p o s i t in q u e s t i o n . S imilar m e t h o d s of
b y a n a m o u n t 6 . 5 l o g 1 0 C. However, since the cone liquefaction analysis were suggested by Ishihara
b e a r i n g in the C P T h a s b e e n k n o w n t o t a k e a v a l u e (1977) a n d I w a s a k i e t al. ( 1 9 78), b u t t h e s e a r e
a p p r oximately four times the SPT N - v alue for silt somewhat d ifferent from the analysis m e t h o d de v e l ­
to s a n d - s i z e d soils, it w o u l d a p p e a r a p p r o p r i a t e oped by Seed and Idriss. The essential difference
to i n t r o d u c e a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r of 4 x6.5 l o g 10C b e t w e e n these two types of a p p r o a c h , h o w e v e r ,
= 26 l o g 1 0 C. Thus, a c o r r e c t e d cone resistance, a p p e a r s to lie in the w a y the e f f e c t s of the i r ­
q 2 , may be evaluated by reg u l a r time h i s t o r y of shear stress applications
is t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f t h e
analysis.
q 2 = q x + 26 l o g 1 0 C ..... (26)
In t h e m e t h o d o f S e e d a n d I d r i s s , t h e i r r e g u l a r
n a t u r e o f e a r t h q u a k e l o a d i n g is a l l o w e d f o r b y

350
c o n v erting a given load time history into a s e ­ by using the greater value of the m a x i m u m a c c e l ­
q u e n c e of u n i f o r m loads w i t h spec i f i e d a mplitude e r a t i o n s w h i c h a r e g e n e r a l l y m e a s u r e d in E W - a n d
and number of cycles. The s p e c i f i c a t i o n of the NS-di r e c t i o n s on the g r ound surface. The cyclic
a m p l i t u d e is m a d e b y t a k i n g 65 % o f t h e m a x i m u m s t r e n g t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e a b o v e c o n d i t i o n s is
s t r e s s r a t i o a s d e f i n e d b y Eq. (4). The number g i v e n by.
o f c y c l e s is s p e c i f i e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e m a g ­
n i t u d e o f t h e e a r t h q u a k e in q u e s t i o n . For a
t y p i c a l e v e n t of 7.5 m a g n i t u d e , the n u m b e r of c y ­ Tm a x ,I
( ) (27)
c l e s is c h o s e n t o b e 15. Thus, the i rregular *0 o9 20
n a t u r e o f l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n s is t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t
i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f e n v i r o m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s in
wh i c h external forces are created. The corre­
s p o n d i n g c y c l i c s t r e n g t h to be c o m p a r e d a g a i n s t wh e r e C 2 .C 5 expr e s s e s the c o m b i n e d effe c t of load
is d e t e r m i n e d e i t h e r f r o m t h e r e s u l t s o f c y c l i c i r r e g u l a r i t y in m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l l o a d i n g . On the
load tests on undisturbed samples or from a c o r r e ­ b a s i s o f t h e e x h a u s t i v e d i s c u s s i o n s i n S e c t i o n 3.3,
lation chart between cyclic loading resistance t h e c o m b i n e d c o e f f i c i e n t , C 2 - C 5# w i l l b e a s s u m e t o
a n d the p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e of the soil. If t a k e a v a l u e s h o w n i n T a b l e 3. The coefficient,
t h e e x t e r n a l l y a p p l i e d c y c l i c s t r e s s is g r e a t e r C lf a l l o w s f o r t h e e f f e c t o f K 0- c o n d i t i o n a n d is
t h a n t h e c y c l i c s t r e n g t h , l i q u e f a c t i o n is j u d g e d as s u m e d to be gi v e n by
to occur, b ut o t h e r w i s e no l i q u e f a c t i o n takes
place. 1 +2Ko
c i =
(28)
On the other hand, the m e t h o d of a n a lysis by
I w a s a k i e t al. is b a s e d o n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of soils re s p o n d i n g d i f f e r e n t l y d e p e n d i n g upon
the type of i r regular w a v e forms. The effects T h e a d e q u a c y of u s i n g this r e l a t i o n s h i p for the
o f t h e i r r e g u l a r i t y i n s e i s m i c s h a k i n g is a l l o w e d w id e range of r e l ative d ensities of sand has been
for in t e r m s of the m a t e r i a l r e p o n s e b y i n t r o d u c ­ v e r i f i e d by a series of l a b o ratory tests u s i n g the
ing some c o r r e c t i o n factors w h i c h are to be ap- t o r s i o n s h e a r t e s t a p p a r a t u s (Yamazaki, 1984).
plyed to the failure-inducing cyclic stress ratio
det e r m i n e d typically by the cyclic triaxial tests
under uniform loading conditions. G e ne r al l y, the Table 3 L O A D I R R E G U L A R I T Y F A C T O R IN M U L T I ­
cyclic stress ratio c a u s i n g l i q u e f a c t i o n or 5 % DIRECTIONAL IRREGULAR LOADING
d o u b l e - a m p l i t u d e a x i a l s t r a i n i n 20 l o a d c y c l e s
is u s e d a s a m e a s u r e t o r e p r e s e n t t h e c y c l i c Loose sand Dense sand
s t r e n g t h of soils. T h i s c y c l i c s t r e s s r a t i o is
cor r e c t e d by mu l t i p l y i n g the load irregularity D r - 40 ~ 60% D r = 6 0 ~ 80%
f a c t o r , C 2 , d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 3. The external
s h e a r s t r e s s i n d u c e d b y s e i s m i c s h a k i n g is e x ­
p r e s s e d in t e r m s of the m a x i m u m s h e a r s t r e s s r a t i o 1 .55 1 .45
cT
u
CM

as g i v e n b y Eq. (4) a n d t h i s is c o m p a r e d a g a i n s t
th e s t r e n g t h as d e t e r m i n e d above.

A somewhat d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d of a n a lysis was p r o ­

p o s e d b y D o b r y e t al. (1980) b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e T h e l i q u e f a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l o f s a n d d e p o s i t s is
t h r e s h o l d l e v e l of s t r a i n s a t w h i c h p o r e w a t e r e v a l u a t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e f a c t o r o f s a f e t y , Fjj,
p r e s s u r e s in t h e s a n d s t a r t t o b u i l d up. The w h i c h is d e f i n e d as
m a g n i t u d e of g r ound surface a c c e l e r a t i o n great
e n o u g h to initiate a b u i l d - u p of por e wa t e r p r e s ­
sure on the soil was c o r r e l a t e d wit h the t h r e s h ­ Tmax,i/Qy
o ld strain for the soil det e r m i n e d by laboratory F» = (29)
tests. B e c a u s e t h i s m e t h o d is b a s e d o n t h e o n s e t Tm a x / a v'
c o n d i t i o n o f p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p , it w i l l
generally yield somewhat conservative predictions
for the o c c u r r e n c e of liquefaction. However, this If t h e f a c t o r o f s a f e t y is e q u a l t o o r l e s s t h a n
m e t h o d o f a n a l y s i s a p p e a r s o f i n t e r e s t i n t h a t it u n i t y , l i q u e f a c t i o n is s a i d t o t a k e p l a c e . When
inc o r p o r a t e d the use of in — situ shear wav e v e l o c i ­ liquefaction does not occur with a computed factor
t y m e a s u r e m e n t s w h i c h a r e s o m e t i m e s e x e c u t e d in of safety gre a t e r than unity, the e x tent of pore
the h o p e o f o b t a i n i n g soil p r o p e r t y d a t a for w a t e r p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p r e l a t i v e to the i n i t i a l
cer t a i n kinds of soil w i t h a high e r level of o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e can be e s t i m a t e d by u s i n g the
a c c u r a c y than can be o b t a i n e d w i t h any kin d of c u r v e i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 55. The relationship
p e n e t r a t i o n test. s h o w n in t h i s c h a r t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y o b s e r v i n g
t h e r e s i d u a l p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e s in t h e l a b o r a t o ­
ry test specimens subj e c t e d to i rregular loads
8.2 A M e t h o d of L i q u e f a c t i o n A n a l y s i s w i t h v a r y i n g levels of the m a x i m u m shear stress
ratio.
The simple m e t h o d of l i q u e f a c t i o n a n a lysis a d o p t ­
e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s is e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e
as t h a t p r o p o s e d p r e v i o u s l y b y I s h i h a r a (1977)
a n d I w a s a k i e t al. (1978). It g i v e s r e s u l t s v e r y IX C ASE STUDIES OF LIQU E F A C T I O N
similar to those o b t a i n e d by the m e t h o d p r o p o s e d
b y S e e d a n d I d r i s s (1977). The external shear 9.1 General
s t r e s s is e v a l u a t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e m a x i m u m s h e a r
s t r e s s r a t i o , T m a x / O v ' > g i v e n b y Eq. (4). It w i l l Cases of l i q u e f a c t i o n - i n d u c e d d a mage d u r i n g e a r t h ­
b e s t i p u l a t e d t h a t t h e v a l u e o f T m a x is d e t e r m i n e d quakes have been reported by many investigators,

351
 9.2 I n tensity of G r o u n d Shaking A s s o c i a t e d w ith
In-Situ Liquefaction

The inte n s i t y of ea r t h q u a k e shaking large enough

t o c a u s e l i q u e f a c t i o n d e p e n d s , n e e d l e s s t o say,
on the looseness or dens e n e s s of soils co m p r i s i n g
the ground. T h e s o i l s in t h e f i e l d a r e d e p o s i t e d ,
in m a n y c a s e s , h o w e v e r , w i t h a d e n s i t y g r e a t e r
t h a n a c e r t a i n v a l u e , say, a b o u t 40 * i n t e r m s o f
relative density, whether they have been artifici­
ally placed or naturally deposited. Therefore,
t h e r e a p p e a r s to b e a c e r t a i n l o w e r l i m i t in the
m a g n i t u d e of g r o u n d a c c e l e r a t i o n duri n g an e a r t h ­
q u a k e w h i c h c a n b a r e l y b r i n g a b o u t l i q u e f a c t i o n in
actual field deposits. S u c h a m i n i m u m v a l u e of
ac c e l e r a t i o n w o u l d be d i s c o v e r e d by e x a m i n i n g m o ­
tions of the g round recorded d uring ma j o r e a r t h ­
q u a k e s in t h e p a s t . L i s t e d in T a b l e 4 a r e the
m a x i m u m h o r izontal a c c e lerations on the ground
r e c o r d e d a t s i t e s w h e r e l i q u e f a c t i o n is k n o w n t o
h a v e o c c u r r e d in t h e i r n e i g h b o r h o o d w i t h i n a d i s ­
t a n c e o f a b o u t 5 Km. Table 4 indicates that the
m i n i m u m value of g round a c c e l e r a t i o n ever m o n i ­
t o r e d w i t h t h e l i q u e f a c t i o n o c c u r r i n g in i t s v i ­
Residual pore w ater pressure ratio c i n i t y w a s 116 g a l a n d t h i s w a s o n a n o l d l a n d f i l l
u/cr.' a t A o m o r i H a r b o r in J a p a n a t t h e t i m e o f t h e
N i h o n k a i - C h u b u e a r t h q u a k e o f M a y 26, 1983.
Fig. 55 Relationship between the residual pore
pressure ratio and factor of safety
against liquefaction Table 4 VALUES OF MAXIMUM ACCELERATION RECORDED
A T S I T E S IN T H E N E I G H B O R H O O D O F L I Q U E F I E D
GROUND DURING THE RECENT EARTHQUAKES

s i n c e t h e e v e n t s in 1964 i n N i i g a t a a n d A l a s k a . Site of Epkrentral Max.acc.(gal) Ground

Earthquake Date Magnitude recording conditions
Several features of grou n d dama g e cha r a c t e r i s t i c s NS EW
d u r i n g the 1964 N i i g a t a e a r t h q u a k e w e r e d i s c l o s e d Niigata 1964 Kawagishi A rtific ia l
7-5 55 155 159
b y e l a b o r a t e s t u d i e s b y K i s h i d a (1966), K o i z u m i (Japan) June 12 -cho sand f ill
(1966) a n d O h s a k i (1966). Subsequently, some Tokachi-oki 1968
7-9
Aomori
280 213 180
Alluvial
studies were made on the cause of the liquefaction (Japan) May16 harbor sand
in N i i g a t a b y I s h i h a r a e t al. (1978, 1 9 79, 1 9 8 1 ) . Tokachi-oki 1968 Hachinohe Alluvial
7-9 210 235 188 medium dense
The failure of the Lower San F e r n a n d o d a m duri n g (Japan) May 16 harbor sand
t h e e a r t h q u a k e o f 1971 w a s d e s c r i b e d in d e t a i l b y Vrancea 1977 72 Bucharest 120 213 178
Loess
S e e d e t al. (1975). The failure was attributed (Romania) March 4 (Silty loam)
to the l i q u e f a c t i o n w h i c h o c c u r r e d in t h e l o o s e Nihonkai - 1983
7-7
Akita
107 190 205
Artificial
chubu(Japan) May 26 harbor sand f i l l
dep o s i t of sandy soils in the d a m c o n s t r u c t e d by
the h y draulic method. The cause of landsliding Nihonkai- 1983
7-7
Aomori
156 95 116
Alluvial
chubu( Japan) May 26 harbor sand
in t h e J o s e p h J e n s e n F i l t r a t i o n P l a n t a t t h e t i m e
of the San Ferna n d o earthquake was atr i b u t e d by Miyagiken- 1978
7-4 Ishinomaki 100 289 200 Rock
oki (Japan) June12
D i x o n e t al. (1973) t o t h e l i q u e f a c t i o n o f t h e
n atural dep o s i t of satu r a t e d a l l u v i u m u n d e r l y i n g Monte Negro 1979
7-2
Herceg-
73 228 255 Soft rock
(Yugoslavia) April15 Novl
a t h i c k la y er of c o m p a c t e d fill. T h e r u p t u r e of
t he g r o u n d r e s u l t i n g f r o m the l i q u e f a c t i o n of
fluvial deposits d uring the T okachi-oki earthquake
w a s r e p o r t e d b y T o h n o e t al. (198 1 ) . The ground 1x a (0-65 ~ 0-9) Qmax
f a i l u r e s s u c h as l a n d s l i d i n g a n d l i q u e f a c t i o n of
sand deposits wh i c h occur r e d during the V r a ncea
e a r t h q u a k e of 1977 w a s r e p o r t e d b y M a n d r e s c u Rock L iq u e fa c tio n
(1978, 1 9 8 1 ) , B o t e a e t al. ( 1 9 80), P e r l e a (1981), o u tc ro p
a n d I s h i h a r a a n d P e r l e a (1984). The liquefaction- S o il dep osit
induced damage during the Monte Negro earthquake
o f 1979 w a s d e s c r i b e d b y T a l a g a n o v e t al. (1981).
The results of i n v e s tigations m ade after the
G u a t e m a l a e a r t h q u a k e o f 1976 ( M a g n i t u d e 7.6) in
the area of La Playa near the edge of Lake Fig. 56 I l l u s t r a t i o n o f g r o u n d c o n d i t i o n s for
A m a t i t l a n w e r e d e s c r i b e d b y S e e d e t al. (1981). sites wh e r e a c c e l e r a t i o n records are
Y o u d a n d B e n n e t t (1983) p r e s e n t e d r e s u l t s o f c o m ­ obtained
prehensive in-situ investigations at sites where
l i q u e f a c t i o n t o o k p l ac e at the time of the
I m p e r i a l V a l l e y e a r t h q u a k e o f 1979. In o r d e r to compare the m a g n i t u d e of a c c elerations
recorded at sites with different ground conditions
Fr o m the number of liquefaction cases outli n e d s u c h a s t h o s e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 56, t h e d a t a in
a b o v e t w o cases, viz., the N i i g a t a e a r t h q u a k e of Table 4 are c l a s s i f i e d into two groups ; those on
1969 a n d the M o n t e N e g r o e a r t h q u a k e s of 1979 w i l l rock outcrops and the others on soil deposits both
be t a k e n u p for s o m e w h a t d e t a i l e d d i s c us s io n s. in t h e f r e e f i e l d . Among the several records o b ­
tained on soil deposits, the motions at Niigata

352
wer e o b t a i n e d right on the site of liquefaction, The area affected by the h azardous liquefaction was
but all others wer e a c q u i r e d at the sites where m ainly located along the Shinano river indicated
l i q u e f a c t i o n o c c u r r e d in t h e i r n e i g h b o r h o o d . It i n F i g . 57. A b o u t 15 y e a r s a f t e r t h e e a r t h q u a k e ,
m a y b e s e e n in T a b l e 4 t h a t t h e g r o u n d a c c e l e r a ­ a series of detailed investigations was undertaken
t i o n s r e c o r d e d o n the soil d e p o s i t s lie in the to c l a r i f y the c a u s e of the l i q ue f ac t io n . The
r a n g e b e t w e e n 116 g a l a n d 2 3 5 g a l , b u t t h e m a j o r i ­ investigations included the standard penetration
ty are in the r a n g e of 200 g a l to 235 gal. Table test, Dutch cone test, sampling of u n d i s t u r b e d
4 also shows that the ac c e l e r a t i o n s r e c o r d e d on specimens from sand deposits below the ground
the rock o u t c r o p s near the place of l i q u e faction w a t e r t a b l e a n d t e s t i n g u n d i s t u r b e d s a m p l e s in
wer e s o m ewhat high e r than those r e c o r d e d on the l a b o r a t o r y cyc l i c tri a x i a l tests to d e t e r m i n e the
soft deposits. T h i s m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d if o n e is cyclic strength of the intact samples. The loca­
reminded of the fact that soils exhibit m uch t i o n s o f s i x s i t e s t h u s i n v e s t i g a t e d a r e s h o w n in
higher damping than rock materials especially F i g . 57, a n d t h e i t e m s o f i n - s i t u i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
w h e n t h e s h a k i n g is s t r o n g t h e r e b y i n d u c i n g l a r g e c o n d u c t e d a t e a c h s i t e a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 5.
shear strains. Alth o u g h the a v ailable data are
s c a r c e , it m a y r o u g h l y b e m e n t i o n e d t h a t , w h e n e v e r Table 5 I T E M S O F I N - S I T U I N V E S T I G A T I O N S IN
t h e i n t e n s i t y o f s h a k i n g is s t r o n g e r t h a n a b o u t THE CITY OF NIIGATA
2 6 0 g a l o n t h e r o c k o u t c r o p a n d w h e n e v e r it is
g re ate r than a p p r o x i m a t e l y 200 gal on the soil
Site MeChod of Sampling Penecracion Signs of Liq. Formacion of
d e p o s i t , it a p p e a r s l i k e l y t h a t l i q u e f a c t i o n c a n cesc or non-Liq. deposics
t a k e p l a c e in t h e i r v i c i n i t y if t h e s a n d is a
loose d e p o s i t of a l l u v i u m o r m a n - m a d e fill. It River Large Dia. Sampling SPT Liq. Reclaimed
m a y as w e l l b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e r a t i o of a c c e l e r ­ sice Oscerberg sampling and alluvium
ation on the soil dep o s i t to that on the rock
o u t c r o p c a u s i n g l i q u e f a c t i o n in t h e i r v i c i n i t y Road site OsCerberg sampling SPT No. Liq. Alluvium and
diluvium
is a p p r o x i m a t e l y i n t h e r a n g e o f 0 . 6 5 t o 0 . 9 w i t h
a n a v e r a g e o f a b o u t 0.8. This ratio will be u s e ­ Reclaimed
Kawagishi- Large Dia. Sampling SPT Liq.
ful w h e n r o u g h l y a s s e s s i n g g r o u n d a c c e l e r a t i o n s cho site Oscerberg sampling CPT deposit
on soil d e p osits from known valu e s of a c c e l e r a ­
t i o n s o n r o c k o u t c r o p s in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h m a k i n g SouCh Large Dia. Sampling SPT No. Liq. Diluvium
analyses of liquefaction. bank sice Oscerberg sampling CPT

Sewage Block Sampling in SPT Liq. Alluvium

sice an excavaced pic
9.3 Niigata Earthquake of 1964
Agano Large Dia. Sampling SPT Liq. Alluvial
A t 1:01 p . m . o n J u n e 16, 1 964, a v i o l e n t e a r t h ­ river sice riverbed
quake r o c k e d the N i i g a t a p r e f e c t u r e in Japan,
i n f l i c t i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e d a m a g e in the c i t y a r e a
of Niigata. In t h e a r e a a l o n g t h e S h i n a n o a n d T h e soil p r o f i l e s a n d S P T N - v a l u e s o b t a i n e d at
Agano rivers where sand deposits were widespread, e a c h s i t e a r e s h o w n i n F i g s . 58 t o 63, t o g e t h e r
the damage was primarily associated with the liq­ w i t h the r e s u l t s of the c y c l i c t r i a xi a l tests.
uefaction of loose sand deposits. Buildings not On the b a s i s of the c y cl i c s t r e n g t h data, analysis,
e n b e d d e d d e e p in f i r m s t r a t a s a n k or t i l t e d t o ­ of liquefaction was perf o r m e d using the simple
wards the d i rection of the center of gravity. p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d in t h e f o r e g o i n g c h a p t e r . In
U n d e r g r o u n d i n s tallations such as septic and s t o r ­ m a k i n g the liquefaction analysis, the m a x i m u m h o r ­
age tanks, sewage conduits and man-holes floated i z o n t a l a c c e l e r a t i o n s o f 158 g a l a n d 155 g a l in
up a meter or two above the g r ound surface. In E W - a n d N S - d i r e c t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , m o n i t o r e d at
flat fields, sand flows and mud volcanos ejected the b a s e m e n t of the K a w a g i s h i - c h o apar t m e n t were
wa t e r and sand 2 to 3 min u t e s f ollowing the m ain used for all deposits of the sites analyzed.
shaking of the earthquake. S a n d d e p o s i t s 20 t o T h e s e s i t e s a r e a l l l o c a t e d w i t h i n 10 K m f r o m t h e
50 c m t h i c k c o v e r e d t h e e n t i r e c i t y a r e a , a s if K a w a g i s h i - c h o site and the values of acce l e r a t i o n
t he w h o l e a re a w e r e i n u n d a t e d by a flood. as a b o v e m a y w e l l b e r e g a r d e d as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of
t h e i n t e n s i t y o f s h a k i n g i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e s ite.
I n t h e a n a l y s i s , t h e K 0- v a l u e a p p e a r i n g i n Eq. (28)
w a s t a k e n a s 0.5. The cyclic strength values used
in t h e a n a l y s i s w e r e t h o s e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e c y c l i c
t r i a x i a l t e s t s c o n d u c t e d o n u n d i s t u r b e d s a m p l e s of
sand.

T h e r e s u l t s of the a n a l y s i s a r e p r e s e n t e d in Figs.
64 t o 69. O f s i x c a s e s b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , f o u r s i t e s
a r e k n o w n to h a v e u n d e r g o n e g r o u n d d a m a g e d u e to
liquefaction. The o b s e r vation of the soil profile
data on these four sites indicates that the ground
w a t e r t a b l e w a s in a l l c a s e s l o c a t e d a t a d e p t h
shallower than 2 . 0 m and that deposits of clean
s a n d w i t h S P T N - v a l u e s l e s s t h a n a b o u t 10 e x i s t
d o w n t o a d e p t h o f a b o u t 6 t o 10 m. The cyclic
s t r e n g t h d a t a for t h e s e s a n d d e p o s i t s a r e s h o w n to
l i e i n t h e r a n g e b e t w e e n 0.1 a n d 0.2. The results
o f the a n a l y s e s a l l i n d i cate, in c o i n c i d e n c e w i t h
t h e o b s e r v e d i n - s i t u p e r f o r m a n c e s d u r i n g t h e 1964
e a r t h q u a k e , t h a t t h e l i q u e f a c t i o n c o u l d o c c u r in
Fig. 57 S i t e s o f i n - s i t u i n v e s t i g a t i o n s in the d e p o s i t s of loose sand as d e s c r i b e d above.
Niigata area In c o n t r a s t to the above, the soil p rofile data

353
 • Cyclic stress ratio causing 5 •/• D.A. strain in 20 cycles ♦ Cyclic stress ratio causing 5 */. D.A. strain in 20 cycles

Fig. 58 Soil profile at River Fig. 59 Soil profile at Road Fig. 60 Soil p r o f i l e at Kawagishi-
s i t e in N i i g a t a site in Niigata c h o site in N i i g a t a

Depth Soil Cyclic strength

(m) profile 0:1 02
-0-5

Osterberg /
sampler /

South Bank of
Showa bridge
(Niigata)

• Cyclic stress ratio causing 5*/. D.A.straln In20cycles

Fig. 61 Soil pr o f i l e at South Fig. 62 Soil profile at Sewage Fig. 63 Soil profile at Agano
B a n k site in N i i g a t a site in N i i g a t a r i v e r s i t e in N i i g a t a

a t t h e t w o s i t e s (the R o a d s i t e a n d t h e S o u t h B a n k o c c u r r e n c e of liqu e f a c t i o n was limited to a layer

site) w h e r e s u r f a c e e v i d e n c e o f l i q u e f a c t i o n w a s so t h i n a n d so d e e p t h a t its d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t s
not observed indicate commonly that there exists such as sand b o i l i n g and g r o u n d fiss u r i n g could
a s urficial layer to a d e p t h of 4 to 5 m c o n s i s t ­ not be m a n i f e s t e d on the g r o u n d surface.
i n g o f w h a t is c a l l e d s u r f a c e s o i l a n d u n d e r l y i n g
silt or s a nd y silt. The surface soil implies a In the l i g h t o f f i e l d p e r f o r m a n c e s a n d a n a l y s e s
m a n - m a d e fill c o m p o s e d of a potp o u r r i of various a s a b o v e , it m a y b e o b s e r v e d t h a t , f o r t h e c a s e
k i n d s of s o i l s o r s t o n e s w h i c h a r e i m m u n e to l i q ­ of t h e 1964 N i i g a t a e a r t h q u a k e , t h e r u p t u r e of
uefaction. I t is a l s o o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e l i q u e f a c - the g r ound such as sand s p u rting and fissuring
tion-immune surficial layers are underlaid by d e ­ t o o k p l a c e in the a r e a w h e r e s a t u r a t e d s a n d d e ­
p o s i t s o f l o o s e s a n d b u t t h e i r t h i c k n e s s is l i m i t ­ posits existed with a thickness exceeding about
e d t o a b o u t 2 t o 3 m. The results of the analysis 3 m in the p r o f i l e of soil d e p o s i t s at a d e p t h
s h o w n i n F i g s . 65 a n d 67 i n d i c a t e t h a t l i q u e f a c ­ s h a l l o w e r t h a n a b o u t 3 m. O t h e r w i s e , s i g n s of
t i o n m i g h t p r o b a b l y h a v e d e v e l o p e d l o c a l l y in the liquefaction we r e not m a n i f e s t e d on the ground
sand deposits u n d e rlying the surficial layer but surface, although the liquefaction might have
its e x t e n t w a s l i m i t e d to a f e w m e t e r s in t h i c k ­ l o c a l l y o c c u r r e d in s o m e t h i n l a y e r l o c a t e d
ness. T h e r e f o r e , it w o u l d a p p e a r l i k e l y t h a t t h e s u f f i c i e n t l y d e e p in the d e p osit.

354
9.4 Mo n t e N e g r o Ea r t h q u a k e of 19 79 w a s l o c a t e d in t h e A d r i a t i c s e a a b o u t 15 K m o f f
t h e c o a s t o f U l c i n j a n d t h e f o c a l d e p t h w a s 25 Km,
A d i s a s t r o u s e a r t h q u a k e of m a g n i t u d e 7.2 t o o k a s s h o w n in F i g . 70. F i g . 71 s h o w s a n i s o s e i s m i c
p l a c e i n M o n t e N e g r o , Y u g o s l a v i a , a t 7 : 2 0 a.m. map of this ea r t h g u a k e d e v e l o p e d by the Y u g o s l a v
A p r i l 15, 1 979, a f f e c t i n g t h e w i d e s p r e a d a r e a A s s o c i a t i o n of Seismology (Petrovski and Paskalov,
al o n g the coast of the A d r iatic sea from C roatia 1981). F i g . 70 i n d i c a t e s t h e m a x i m u m g r o u n d a c c e l ­
e r a t i o n s in t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s r e c o r d e d a t s e v e r a l
t o t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t oi A l b a r i a . Its e p i c e n t e r

R esidual pore pressure r a tio ,

Residual pore pressure ratio
0 0-2 0-4 0-6 0-8 10

-1-5m
Residual pore pressure ratio,Ur/o£
0 0-2 0-4 0-6 0-8 1-0
K aw agishi-
cho s ite
R iver s ite
Liquefied N iig ata
N iigata
O sterberg
Large dia. depth sam ple
L iq u e fied
sam ple depth

.c
Q. 10
Qj
Liquefied o
d e p th
Q-
Qj 10
a
— • Based on EW-comp.
15 Qmax/{j =0-162
• • Based on EW-comp.
G— -o Based on NS-com p.
O m ax/g =0-162
Qmax/g =0-158
o—o Based on N 5-comp.
Q m ax/g = 0 -1 5 8
X _ I
Fig. 65 Result of liquefaction Fig. 66 R e sult of l i q u e faction
F i g . 64 Resu l t of liq u e f a c t i o n
analysis for Kawagishi-
analysis for River analysis for Road site
in N i i g a t a cho site in Nii g a t a
s i t e in N i i g a t a

R esid u al pore pressure r a tio , Ur/ b o '

R esidual pore p ressure r a t io , U r/ O h '

Residual pore pressure ratio , Ur/(3o
0-2 0.4 0.6 08 1.0
-1— T^-I— r
0 0-2 04 06 0 -8 1-0
-0-5 m
T
L iq u e fie d -0 -8 5 m
dep th
Agano river
site Niigata
Large dia.
HLiquefied
P 1’
d>
_L sa m p le di
depth
South bank of i.
Showa b rid g e
N iigata a
a.
O sterberg
sam ple

10
10
• Based on EW-comp.
Qmax/g = 0-162 • —•Based on EW-comp.
o------ o Based on NS-comp. Omax/g = 0-162
Qmax/g = 0-158 o—o Based on NS-comp.
Q m a x / 9 = 0 -1 5 8
15
15

F i g . 68 Result of liquefaction Fig. 69 R e s u l t of l i q u e f a c t i o n

F i g . 67 Result of liquefaction analysis for Agano river
analysis for South analysis for Sewage
t r e a t m e n t site in N i i g a t a s i t e in N i i g a t a
B a n k site in N i i g a t a
Niigata

355
 L im it of liquefaction

Fig. 72 G r o u n d d a m a g e in the r e g i o n of Ulcinj

Fig. 70 Are a inflicted by the Mo n t e Negro d u e t o t h e M o n t e N e g r o e a r t h q u a k e of
e a r t h q u a k e o f A p r i l 15, 1979 1 9 79. ( T a l a g a n o v e t a l . 1 9 8 1 )

Fig. 73 Sites of g r o u n d d a mage due to l i q u e f a c ­

tion near Herceg-Novi during the Monte
Fig. 71 S e i s m i c i n t e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n in M C S N e g r o e a r t h q u a k e ( T a l a g a n o v e t al. 1981)
scale of the Mo n t e N e g r o ea r t h q u a k e
o f A p r i l 15, 1 9 7 7 ( P e t r o v s k i - P a s k a l o v ,
1981)
c u r r e d in a l i m i t e d a r e a i n p r o x i m i t y t o t h e w a t e r ­
front where man-made landfills existed. In the
stations located along the A d r i a t i c coast. s o u t h e r n m o s t r e g i o n n e a r U l c i n j , the d a m a g e to the
A mong various types of damage to buildings and ground and mountain slopes was extensive. As in­
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n s t a llations, the d a m a g e to the d i c a t e d i n F i g . 72, l a n d s l i d e s a n d r o c k f a l l s t o o k
g r o u n d d u e to l i q u e f a c t i o n , s l i d e s in s l o p e s a n d p l a c e at a n u m b e r of p l a c e s in t h e m o u n t a i n s n o r t h
r o c k f a l l s in t h e l i m e s t o n e m o u n t a i n s w e r e n o t a b l e . of U l c i n j . S u b s i d e n c e a n d late r al s p r e a d i n g c au s e d
I n d i c a t e d in F i g . 70 is t h e a p p r o x i m a t e b o u n d a r y by liqu e f a c t i o n of a layer of ver y fine grained
showing the area of heaviest damage to the g r ound s a n d o c c u r r e d a t m a n y l o c a t i o n s a l o n g t h e b a n k s as
and slopes. It m a y b e s e e n t h a t h a r d e s t h i t w a s well as o v e r the d e l t a of the B o j a n a ri v e r on the
t h e l i t t o r a l b e l t z o n e a b o u t 15 K m w i d e i n l a n d Yugoslavia-Albania border. T h e t o w n o f S k a d a r in
e x t e n d i n g from Ulcinj n o r t h to H e r c e g Novi, where A l b a n i a is r e p o r t e d t o h a v e b e e n s e v e r e l y d a m a g e d
the i n t e n s i t y o f s h a k i n g w a s 8 to 9 in the M C S due to the extensive development of liquefaction
scale with the maximum horizontal ground acceler­ ( A n i c i c e t al. 1 9 8 0 ) .
a t i o n g r e a t e r t h a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 220 gal.
In the n o r t h e r n p a r t a r o u n d the inlet, the d am a g e
The ov e r a l l ge o l o g i c a l regime of the a f f e c t e d zone w a s m o r e o r less a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l i q u e f a c t i o n of
is d e s c r i b e d a s t a l u s a n d f l u v i a l d e p o s i t s u n d e r ­ the a l l u v i a l s a n d d e p o s i t a l o n g the c o a s t line.
laid by a kin d of c l a y s t o n e c a l l e d flysch and with The l o cations of the g r o u n d d a m a g e are indi c a t e d
l i m e s t o n e c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e b e d r o c k in t h i s region. i n F i g . 73 ( T a l a g a n o v e t al. 1 9 8 4 ) . At Bijela,
In t h e s o u t h e r n a r e a of B udva, P e t r o v a c a n d Bar port and shipyard facilities were heavily damaged
w h e r e t h e m o u n t a i n s r i s e s h e e r f r o m t h e sea, t h e due to failure of a man-made landfill. In Kotor,
s o f t s o i l d e p o s i t is a b s e n t a n d t h e f l y 6 c h o r l i m e ­ the l i q u e f a c t i o n o c c u r r e d e x t e n s i v e l y in the d e l ­
stone formation outcrops directly on the ground taic area wh e r e the quay, a hotel and a park were
surface. In s u c h r e g i o n s , t h e g r o u n d d a m a g e oc- located. L a t e r a l d i s p l a c e m e n t a n d s e t t l e m e n t s in

356
the par k i n g lot b e t w e e n tiebacks to the qua y wall
w e r e o f t h e o r d e r o f 50 c m in t h e q u a y a r e a . An
outdoor swimming pool of the hotel floated up
about 1 m due to the u p l i f t pressure. An annex
building housing an indoor swimming pool collapsed
due to lateral spreading of the foundation. A
m o n u m e n t in the p a r k t i l t e d n o t i c e a b l y . Almost
t h e e n t i r e s t r e t c h o f b e a c h in t h i s a r e a s u b s i d e d
a b o u t 50 c m i n t o t h e b a y . In K a m e n a r i a s e c t i o n
of the c o a s t r o a d slid into the bay, due p r o b a b l y
to the l i q u e f a c t i o n of the s a nd depo si t . A penin­
sula r e p o r t e d l y e x t e n d e d several tens of meters
into the b a y at this l o c a t i o n b e f o r e t h e e a r t h ­
quake. T h e f e a t u r e o f t h e s l u m p i n g is r o u g h l y
d e s c r i b e d i n F i g . 74. A s u r v e i l l a n c e of p a r t of
the e x p o s e d surface indi c a t e d that a m a n - m a d e fill
composed of a mi x t u r e of silt, sand and stone
ex i sted near the ground surface. A sand-rich
dep o s i t rep o r t e d l y u n d e r l y i n g t his surface fill
a p p e a r s to h a v e l i q u e f i e d a n d t r i g g e r e d t h e slide. Fig. 76 D a m a g e t o t h e g r o u n d a n d q u a y w a l l in
In Z e l e n i c a , a q u a y w a l l c o n s t r u c t e d o f s a n d a n d Zelenica
gravel held w ithin a rock r e taining wall failed,
i nvolving a s u b s idence of an o l d t w o - s t o r y w a r e ­
h o u s e o n a slab f o u n d a t i o n as s h o w n s c h e m a t i c a l l y soil failure was dis p l a c e d about 2 m horiz o n t a l l y
i n F i g . 75. The r e t a i n i n g wal l in the a rea of and a lesser amount vertically. Before the e a r t h ­
quake the quay wall area had extended farther t o ­
w a r d s t h e s e a a b o u t 60 m f r o m t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e
w a r e h o u s e as i l l u s t r a t e d in t h e p l a n v i e w o f Fig.
76. The most seaward p o r tion of the qu a y had r e ­
p o r t e d l y slid into the sea for a s t r e t c h of m ore
t h a n 100 m a s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 76. A b o u t 300 m
i n l a n d f r o m the w a r e h o u s e l o c a t i o n , t h e r e is a
primary school building which also suffered a
d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e o r d e r o f 10 cm.
A b o r i n g mad e at the p l a y g r o u n d of the school d i s ­
c l o s e d the e x i s t e n c e of a sand d e p o s i t d own to a
d e p t h o f 20 m h a v i n g a S P T b l o w c o u n t v a l u e o f
5 t o 10. S i n c e t h e w a r e h o u s e is l o c a t e d i n t h e
a r e a w i t h t h e s a m e d e p o s i t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n , i t is
most likely that the liquefaction of the sand u n ­
derlying the qu a y h ad t r iggered the slide toward
------ t h e sea.
\ Sliding surface
T h e o v e r a l l g e o l o g i c a l r e g i m e in t h e r e g i o n of
cross section A -A
Herceg Novi, Zelenica, Bijela, Kamemari, Kotor
and Tivat can be des c r i b e d as c o n sisting of talus
d e p o s i t s u n d e r l a i d b v t h e b a s e r o c k s , f lysch and
A llu v ia l
limestone. T h i s f e a t u r e is s c h e m a t i c a l l y i l l u s ­
sand t r a t e d i n F i g . 77. T h e c o l l u v i a l t a l u s is c o m p o s e d
of a gravel - r i c h d e p osit near the foot of the li m e ­
s t o n e c liff, b u t its c o m p o s i t i o n c h a n g e s c o a s t w a r d s
to s a n d - r i c h sediment. N e a r the b e a c h of the bay,
Fig. 74 Kamenari slide during the Monte Negro a cl e a r pat t e r n of the coll u v i a l dep o s i t h a d been
e a r t h q u a k e o f A p r i l 15, 1 9 7 9 d i s t u r b e d by actions of small rivers and wa v e s or

Fig. 75 Dama g e to a w a r e h o u s e due to the lateral Fig. 77 Schematic illustration of the geological
m o v e m e n t of the q u a y w a l l in Z e l e n i c a r e g i m e in K o t o r - T i v a t r e g i o n

357
currents of the sea water. S h o w n i n F i g s . 78 a n d c a t e t h a t t h e g r a d a t i o n is r e l a t i v e l y u n i f o r m w i t h
79 a r e s o i l p r o f i l e d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m b o r i n g s a t t h e m e a n p a r t i c l e s i z e r a n g i n g f r o m D 50 = 0 . 1 5 t o
t w o l o c a t i o n s a l o n g the c o a s t o f the bay. It m a y 0 . 4 5 mm. The results of c y clic triaxial tests on
be re c o g n i z e d g e n e r a l l y that a loose sand deposit s a m p l e s r e c o n s t i t u t e d t o r e l a t i v e d e n s i t i e s o f 42
e x i s t s n e a r the s u r f a c e d o w n to a m a x i m u m d e p t h of % a n d 87 % b y t h e m e t h o d o f p l u v i a t i o n u n d e r w a t e r
a b o u t 18 m. The lower p o r tion of the sand deposit a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 80, w h e r e i t c a n b e s e e n t h a t
c o n t a i n s f i n e - g r a i n e d m a t e r i a l s s u c h as c l a y and the cyclic strength takes a value nearly identical
silt w h i c h had p r o b a b l y been d e r i v e d from the o u t ­ to the a v e r a g e w h i c h has b e e n o b t a i n e d for m an y
cro p of the c laystone on land and d e p o s i t e d later other clean sands with similar gradation character­
u n d e r t h e sea. istics .

Fig. 80 Cyclic stress ratio versus the number

of cycles for recon s t i t u t e d specimens
of Baosic sand

Fig. 78 Typical soil pro f i l e at Baosic A n a l y s i s of l i q u e f a c t i o n was mad e on four soil

p r o f i l e s s h o w n i n F i g s . 81 a n d 82 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
of those at B i j e l a and Baos i c wh e r e the d a m a g e due
to l i q u e f a c t i o n w as d i s a s t r o u s at the time of the
1979 M o n t e N e g r o e a r t h q u a k e . Mot i o n s of the ground
r e c o r d e d n e a r e s t B i j e l a a n d B a o s i c w e r e t h o s e at
Herceg Novi. Since the m a x i m u m h o r i zontal a c c e l e r ­
ations of 0.26 g and 0.23 g wer e those m o n i t o r e d
o n the r o c k o u t c r o p , the i n t e n s i t y of s h a k i n g at
the l i q u e f i e d s i t e s in B i j e l a a n d B a o s i c w o u l d have
p r o b a b l y b e e n s m a l l e r t h a n t h a t in H e r c e g Novi.
A l t h o u g h i t is d i f f i c u l t t o m a k e a n a c c u r a t e e s t i ­
mate, the m a x i m u m h o r i z o n t a l a c c e l e r a t i o n at the
sites of B i j e l a and B a osic w h e r e liqu e f a c t i o n
o c c u r r e d m a y be a s s u m e d to hav e bee n a p p r o x i m a t e l y
80 % o f t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n r e c o r d e d o n t h e r o c k o u t ­
crop. T h i s a s s u m p t i o n is b a s e d o n t h e c o m p a r i s o n
b e t ween the m a x i m u m accel e r a t i o n s ever recorded on
rock outcrops and those recorded on sand deposits
d u r i n g m a j o r e a r t h q u a k e s i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t as
s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 4. I n m a k i n g t h e a n a l y s i s , the
m a x i m u m h o r i z o n t a l a c c e l e r a t i o n w a s t h u s a s s u m e d to
b e 0.21 g. T h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t a t r est,
K 0 , w a s a s s u m e d t o b e 0.5. T h e c y c l i c s t r e n g t h of
sand was e stimated on the basis of the empirical
f o r m u l a o f Eq. (10) u s i n g t h e S P T N - v a l u e s . The
results of the liquefaction analyses are presented
i n F i g s . 81 a n d 82. A l t h o u g h the analysis was made
for two soil profile data each at Bijela and Baosic
o b t a i n e d at a p p r o x i m a t e l y the same place, the o u t ­
c o m e o f t h e a n a l y s i s t u r n e d o u t t o b e i d e n t i c a l in
Fig. 79 Typical soil profile at Bijela that liquefaction could occur throughout the d e p o s ­
it of s a n d for b o t h s i t e s o f B i j e l a a n d B a osic. In
the light of the obse r v e d field p e r formances and
The bl o w count values of the standard penetr a t i o n t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s , i t s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e to
test obtained for the d e p osit at Bijela and Baosic conclude that the ground surface disruption was
a r e a l s o s h o w n i n F i g s . 78 a n d 79, w h e r e i t m a y b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t h e l i q u e f a c t i o n t h a t o c c u r r e d in
b e s e e n t h a t t h e s a n d is d e p o s i t e d i n a l o o s e the near-s u r f a c e deposits of saturated loose sand
c o n d i t i o n w i t h N - v a l u e s r a n g i n g b e t w e e n 5 a n d 10. h a v i n g a t h i c k n e s s o f a b o u t 3 t o 18 m. It is n o t ­
The sand a r ound the b a y area was d e r i v e d from the e d that, in a l l c a s e s c o n s i d e r e d w h e r e signs of
l i m e s t o n e a n d as s u c h has a r e d d i s h color. The liqu e f a c t i o n wer e m a n i f e s t e d on the g r o u n d surface,
gr a i n size d i s t r i b u t i o n curves of the sand i n d i ­ the h i g h e s t e l e v a t i o n of the l i quefied zone was

358
 to the g r o u n d surface, do the e f f e c t s of l i q u e f a c ­
tion become disasterous, leading to sand boiling
and ground fissuring with various types of associ­
ate d dama g e to structures and u n d e r g r o u n d i n s t a l l a ­
tions. T h e r e f o r e , it w i l l b e o f i n t e r e s t t o s t u d y
conditions under which the effects of liquefaction
will or will not a ppear on the g r ound surface.

T his a s p e c t of the p r o b l e m has an i m portant b e a r ­

ing in d e v e l o p i n g m i c r o z o n i n g m a p s w i t h r e s p e c t to
l i q u e f a c t i o n - i n d u c e d d a m a g e in a r e a o f h i g h s e ismi­
city. I n e x e c u t i n g t h e m i c r o z o n i n g w o r k , i t is
n e c e s s a r y to h ave a p r o p e r g u i d e l i n e to d i s t i n g u i s h
w h e t h e r a g i v e n s i t e is t o b e i d e n t i f i e d a s b e i n g
prone or immune to l i q u e f a c t i o n - i n d u c e d grou n d
d a m a g e for a g i v e n i n t e n s i t y of s h a k i n g a n t i c i p a t e d
t o o c c u r d u r i n g a n e a r t h q u a k e in t h e f u t u r e .

10.2 Factors Influencing the Liqu e f a c t i o n - I n d u c e d

Ground Damage

One of the factors i nfluencing the surface manifes­

tati o n of liq u e f a c t i o n w o u l d be the t h ickness of a
mantle of unliquefied soils overlying the deposit
Fig. 81 R e s u l t of l i q u e f a c t i o n a n a l y s i s of o f s a n d w h i c h is p r o n e t o l i q u e f a c t i o n . Should the
Bijela mant l e near the g r o u n d surface be thin, the pore
water pres s u r e from the u n d erlying liquefied sand
dep o s i t w ill be able to e a s i l y b r e a k thr o u g h the
s u r f a c e soil layer, t h e r e b y b r i n g i n g a b o u t the
g r o u n d r upture such as sand b o i l i n g and fissuring.
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , if t h e m a n t l e o f t h e s u b s u r f a c e
s o i l is s u f f i c i e n t l y t h i c k , t h e u p l i f t f o r c e d u e t o
the excess pore water pressure will not be strong
e n o u g h t o c a u s e a b r e a c h in t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r , a n d
h ence, t h e r e w i l l be n o s u r f a c e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of
l i q u e f a c t i o n e v e n if it o c c u r s d e e p i n t h e d e p o s i t .
In v i e w of t h es e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , the f i rs t step for
e s t a b l i s h i n g a g u i d e l i n e for site i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of
l i q u e f a c t i o n - i n d u c e d d a mage w o u l d be to specify a
t h r e s h o l d value on the t hickness of the surface
soil layer.

The thic k n e s s of the lique f i a b l e sand layer itself

wil l als o exert a p r o f o u n d i nfluence on the d e v e l ­
o p m e n t o f t h e b r e a c h i n t h e m a n t l e o f s u r f a c e layer.
If t h e l i q u e f i e d s a n d l a y e r is t h i n , t h e r e s u l t i n g
u p lift p r e s s u r e wil l not be p o w e r f u l e n ough to
b r i n g a b o u t the c o l l a p s e in t h e s u r f a c e layer.
F i g . 82 R e s u l t of l i q u e f a c t i o n a n a lysis at T h e r e f o r e , t h e s i t e m a y n e e d t o b e i d e n t i f i e d as
Baosic be i n g free fro m the dama g e due to liquefaction.
T h e o p p o s i t e e f f e c t s w i l l b e e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r if
t h e s a n d l a y e r is t h i c k e n o u g h . A c c o r d i n g l y , the
located above the de p t h of 3 m and the t hickness s e c o n d s t e p f o r s e t t i n g u p a c r i t e r i o n is t o s t i p u ­
of the liqu e f i e d sand layer was gr e a t e r than about late a t h r e s h o l d on the thic k n e s s of the sand layer
3 m. T h e c o n d i t i o n s a s a b o v e i n w h i c h t h e e f f e c t s w h i c h is p o t e n t i a l l y l i q u e f i a b l e .
of liquefaction were m a n i f e s t e d on the g round s u r ­
face are the same as the con d i t i o n s for the cases A g u i d e l i n e in t h e a b o v e c o n t e x t w a s a d o p t e d by
o f l i q u e f a c t i o n e n c o u n t e r e d in N i i gata. I s h i h a r a a n d O g a w a (1978) i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a m i c r o -
zonation map for the area of downtown Tokyo. In
that area, the general subsurface stratification
is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f a s a n d d e p o s i t
X SITE IDENTIFICATION FOR LIQUEFACTION-INDUCED of alluvial origin underlying surface fills c o n ­
DAMAGE sisting of a potp o u r r i of clays, loams, sands and
cobbles, w h i c h are c o n s i d e r e d immune to l i q u e f a c ­
10.1 General tion. T h e p o t e n t i a l l y l i q u e f i a b l e s a n d l a y e r is
u n d e r l a i d in m a n y c a s e s b y a n a l l u v i u m of s i l t and
Studies of the cases d e s c r i b e d in the prec e d i n g clay, but s ometimes by dense sand d e p o s i t s of d i ­
s ection indicate that the o c c u r r e n c e of l i q u e f a c ­ luvial origin.
t i o n i t s e l f in s o m e l a y e r i n t h e d e p o s i t is n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the d a mage of s t r u c ­ To est a b l i s h the guideline, literature surveys were
tures and other installations founded on or near made on boring data at sites with known field p e r ­
the g round surface. O n l y w h e n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of formances during past earthquake in Japan. Over
l i q u e f a c t i o n is s u f f i c i e n t l y e x t e n s i v e t h r o u g h t h e a w i d e a r e a g e n e r a l l y a f f e c t e d b y l i q u e f a c t i o n ,
d e p t h of a d e p o s i t a n d s h a l l o w e n o u g h in p r o x i m i t y s o m e s i t e s a r e k n o w n to h a v e s u f f e r e d d a m a g e , b u t

359
o t h e r s a r e k n o w n to h a v e s h o w n no e v i d e n c e of A l l t h e a v a i l a b l e b o r i n g l o g s in t h i s a r e a w e r e
damage. For several sites w i t h i n such an area, c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t w o g r o u p s in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e
a v a i l a b l e b o r i n g d a t a w e r e e x a m i n e d to s e e k for g u ideline disc u s s e d above. W h e n t h e s u r f a c e layer
the m i n i m u m thickness of surface layer required is t h i n n e r t h a n 3 . 0 m a n d if t h e u n d e r l y i n g s a n d
to av o i d the g r ound d a m a g e due to liquefaction. l a y e r is t h i c k e r t h a n 3 . 0 m, t h e s i t e w a s l a b e l l e d
The resu l t of this study indi c a t e d that the d a m ­ w i t h a b l a c k c i r c l e a n d i n d i c a t e d a c c o r d i n g l y in
a g i n g e f f e c t o f l i q u e f a c t i o n is b r o u g h t a b o u t o n F i g . 83. O t h e r w i s e , t h e s i t e o f a b o r i n g is i n d i ­
the g r o u n d s u r f a c e w h e n the t h i c k n e s s of the s u r ­ cated with a white circle. The area predominently
f a c e l a y e r is s m a l l e r t h a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 m. It s t u d d e d w i t h b l a c k c i r c l e s is i n d i c a t e d w i t h h a t c h ­
was a ls o p o i n t e d o u t that, w i t h the t h i c k n e s s of ed lines. T h e o u t c o m e o f s u c h z o n i n g a s s h o w n in
s u r f a c e l a y e r l e s s t h a n 3 m, t h e d a m a g i n g e f f e c t F i g . 83 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e a r e a w i t h t h e s o i l p r o ­
of is c e r t a i n l y r e i n f o r c e d , if t h e f i l e i d e n t i f i e d as p r o n e t o l i q u e f a c t i o n - i n d u c e d
t h i c k n e s s o f u n d e r l y i n g l i q u e f i a b l e l a y e r is d a m a g e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a b o v e r u l e is a p p r o x i m a t e l y
larger than about 3 m . It is t o b e n o t e d t h a t c o i n cident wit h the area where surface evidences
t he r u l e of t h u m b as a b o v e w a s e s t a b l i s h e d for the of l i q u e f a c t i o n w e r e a c t u a l l y o b s e r v e d d u r i n g the
m o t i o n s of e a r t h q u a k e s h a v i n g an i n t e n s i t y of V r a n c e a e a r t h q u a k e o f 1977.
s h a k i n g of the o r d e r o f 200 to 250 g a l in t e r m s
of m a x i m u m ho r i z o n t a l g r ound acceleration.
10.4 C a s e s in the 1983 N i h o n k a i - c h u b e Earthquake

10.3 C a s e S t u d y in the 1977 V r a n c e a E a r t h q u a k e T h e e a r t h q u a k e o f m a g n i t u d e 7.7 w h i c h o c c u r r e d in

t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f J a p a n o n M a y 26, 1983, f u r n i s h ­
A set of d a t a in s u p p o r t of the a b o v e q u i d e l i n e ed an ad d i t i o n a l bod y of field p e r f o r m a n c e data
w a s p r e s e n t e d b y P e r l e a (1983) w h o c o m p i l e d a w h i c h are u s eful to exa m i n e the co n d i t i o n s of o c ­
n u mber of b o r i n g logs o b t a i n e d on various o c c a ­ c u r r e n c e o r n o n - o c c u r r e n c e o f g r o u n d d a m a g e d u e to
sions in a s m a l l p a t c h of l a n d f i l l a r e a a l o n g the liquefaction. Var i o u s types of l i q u e f a c t i o n - i n ­
D i m b o v i t z a r i v e r c o u r s e in the c i t y of B u c h a r e s t , duced dama g e was i n c urred to m a n y structures and
Romania. This area suffered extensive ground i n s t a l l a t i o n s in a w i d e s p r e a d a r e a w i t h i n an e p i -
d a mage due to l i q u e faction at the time of the c e n t r a l d i s t a n c e o f a b o u t 120 Km. The b o r i n g data
V r a n c e a e a r t h q u a k e o f M a r c h 4, 1 977, a s e v i d e n c e d collected from many liquefaction-inflicted areas
by sand spurting and d i f f e r e n t i a l s e ttlements of dis c l o s e d that the soil profile could be classified
f ar m ho u s e s (Ishihara-Perlea, 1984). The locations i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l o c a t i o n o f the
where dozens of sand boils were observed follow­ g r o u n d w a t e r t a b l e , a s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 84.
i n g t h e e a r t h q u a k e a r e i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 83. Also

sand Hi

sand (N 310) h2

------ Unliquef iable soil ----------

Hi
(b )
sand (NSW) H2

^ £ - U nliquefiable s o il _r _r _
Hi
■sand . (C)

sand (NS10) H2

Fig. 84 Definitions of the surface unliquefiable

layer and the underlying liquefiable
Fig. 83 Sites of liq u e f a c t i o n nea r the river sand layer
c o u r s e i n B u c h a r e s t d u r i n g t h e 1977
V r a n c e a e a r t h q u a k e , ( P e r l e a , 1983)
T h e t h i c k n e s s of the s u rface u n l i q u e f i a b l e layer,
H 1 , was then d e f i n e d as b e i n g equal to the depth
indicated are individual locations where borings o f t h e g r o u n d w a t e r t a b l e if i t is l o c a t e d w i t h i n
were performed. T h e g e n e r a l s o i l p r o f i l e in this the sand deposit. Should an unliq u e f i a b l e cohesive
a r e a is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n a l l u ­ s o i l e x i s i t t o a d e p t h b e l o w t h e g r o u n d w a t e r table,
vial sand deposit overlaid by a m antle of clayey the value of w a s c h o s e n as t h e t h i c k n e s s o f the
s i l t w h i c h is n o t v u l n e r a b l e t o l i q u e f a c t i o n . s u r f a c e l a y e r i t s e l f as i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig. 84(b).

360
The areas inflicted by this earthquake are b e ­ 3 . 0 m. If t h e t h i c k n e s s of the l i q u e f i a b l e sand
lieved to have unde r g o n e a shaking w ith a h o r i ­ l a y e r is s m a l l e r t h a n 3.0 m, t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e
zontal g r o u n d a c c e l e r a t i o n of the or d e r of 200 gal surface layer r e q u i r e d to p r e v e n t dama g e w o u l d be
as i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 4. T h e simple a n a l y s i s for correspondingly reduced. The co n d i t i o n s as above
liqu e f a c t i o n was mad e using this a c c e l e r a t i o n on ar e i n d i c a t e d b y a s m o o t h e d b o u n d a r y line in Fig.
the b a s i s of the p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 85.
8.2. The analysis results indicated that a sand
l a y e r w i t h a b l o w c o u n t v a l u e l e s s t h a n a b o u t 10
would probably have developed liquefaction during 10.5 C a s e S t u d y in the 1976 T a n g s h a n E a r t h q u a k e
the 1983 e a r t h q u a k e . Consequently, the thickness
of l i q u e f i e d sand deposit, H 2 , was c h o s e n equal T h e T a n g s h a n e a r t h q u a k e o f J u l y 26, 1976, in C h i n a
to that of the sand layer s a t i s f y i n g this c o n d i ­ is p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t c a t a s t r o p h i c e v e n t t o h a v e
t i o n , a s a c c o r d i n g l y i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 84. o c c u r r e d in r e c e n t y ears. The ground d amage due
to l i q u e f a c t i o n w a s b r o u g h t a b o u t in a w i d e s p r e a d
A c t i n g upon the above rule, the thic k n e s s of the a rea n ear the e p i c e n t e r of the earthquake. The
s u r f a c e l a y e r , H 1# a n d t h e u n d e r l y i n g s u p p o s e d l y u n p a r a l l e l e d degr e e of d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s of this
l i q u e f i e d layer, H 2 w e r e r e a d off f r o m m a n y b o r i n g e a r t h q u a k e d u e t o l i q u e f a c t i o n is d e s c r i b e d v i v ­
logs c o l l e c t e d from sites w i t h i n the infl i c t e d i d l y i n s e v e r a l p a p e r s b y W a n g (198 1 ) , W a n g e t al.
area. The c o llected boring data indicated that (1983) a n d F i n n (1982). Among the many areas
the major i t y of sites inflicted by this earthquake devastated by the liquefaction, a detailed study
c on s i s t p r e d o m i n a n l y of sand from the g r o u n d s u r ­ w a s m a d e b y G a o e t al. (1983) f o r a l i m i t e d a r e a
face and, t h e r e f o r e , the t y p e of soil p r o f i l e north of Tang s h a n city along the Dou river r e g a r d ­
i n d i c a t e d b y F i g . 8 4(a) is e n c o u n t e r e d i n m o s t ing the soil p r o f i l e co n d i t i o n s leading to grou n d
cases. T h e d a t a t h u s a s s e m b l e d a r e p r e s e n t e d in d a mage due to liquefaction. In t h i s a r e a a m a n t l e
F i g . 85 b y p l o t t i n g t h e s e t w o l a y e r t h i c k n e s s e s of sandy c lay exists g e n e r a l l y n ear the ground
as the o r d i n a t e a n d a b s c i s s a . The data from sites surface u n derlaid by a loose d e p osit of fine sand
of k n o w n liqu e f a c t i o n d a mage are indi c a t e d by with varying thickness. The SPT N - v a l u e of this
black circles and those from sites without damage s a n d l a y e r r a n g e s b e t w e e n 5 a m 1 24, b u t m o s t l y
are marked by white circles. It m a y b e s e e n i n b e l o w 20 i n d i c a t i n g a loose s t a t e of d e p o s i t i o n
F i g . 85 t h a t t h e d a t a p o i n t s w i t h k n o w n l i q u e f a c ­ s u s c e p t i b l e to liquefaction. T h i s a r e a is a f l a t
t i o n d a m a g e fall m o s t l y in the zone o n the left l a n d a n d t h e g r o u n d w a t e r t a b l e is l o c a t e d a t a n
elevation shallower than about 4 m . A t o t a l of
226 b o r i n g logs w a s a s s e m b l e d w i t h i n t h i s a r e a
a n d t h e s o i l p r o f i l e c o n d i t i o n s w e r e e x a m i n e d in
the light of the ground damage identified by air
photog r a p h s taken following the earthquake. The
r e s u l t s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e p r e s e n t e d in
F ig. 86 i n w h i c h t h e d e p t h o f t h e s u r f a c e la y e r ,
H lf i s p l o t t e d v e r s u s t h e d e p t h t o t h e b o t t o m o f

Thickness of s u rfa c e la y e r , Hi ( m )

Fig. 85 C o n d i t i o n s of su b s u r f a c e soil s t r a t i f i ­
cation discriminating between occur­
rence and n o n - o c c u r r e n c e of g r ound
rupturing due to l i q u e faction Fig. 86 Conditions of subsurface soil s t r a t i ­
fication discriminating between occur­
rence and n o n - o c c u r r e n c e of g r ound
b o u n d e d b y H = 3.0m. For the deposits with liq­ r u p t u r i n g d u e t o l i q u e f a c t i o n (Gao e t
u e f i e d s a n d l a y e r t h i n n e r t h a n 3 . 0 m, t h e t h i c k ­ al. 1983)
ness of surface layer required to prevent lique-
f a c t i o n - i n d u c e d d a m a g e a p p e a r s t o d e c r e a s e , as
indi c a t e d by a s t r aight line d i r e c t e d to the zero t h e l i q u e f i e d s a n d l a y e r , H x + H 2 . If a s i t e in
p o i n t i n F i g . 85. T h u s it w o u l d a p p e a r that, for q u e s t i o n is k n o w n t o h a v e s u f f e r e d l i q u e f a c t i o n -
deposits subjected to an earthquake shaking with i n d u c e d d a m a g e , i t is i n d i c a t e d b y a b l a c k c i r c l e
an a c c e l e r a t i o n of the o r d e r of 200 gal, the c o n ­ in Fig. 86 a n d o t h e r w i s e t h e d a t a w e r e p l o t t e d
ditions for avoiding liquefact i o n - i n d u c e d damage with white circles. A b o u n d a r y .line w a s t h e n
w o u l d be to have a m a n t l e of u n l i q u e f i a b l e soils d r a w n in Fig. 86 d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b e t w e e n the zones
t h i c k e r t h a n a b o u t 3.0 m w h e n the t h i c k n e s s of the of d a m a g e and no d a m a g e due to liquefaction. It
u n d e r l y i n g l i q u e f i a b l e s a n d l a y e r is l a r g e r t h a n m ay be seen that the thickness of surface layer

361
r equired to avoid d a m a g e d u e t o l i q u e f a c t i o n is
s u r p r i s i n g l y large. T h i s f a c t m a y n e e d to be
i n t e r p r e t e d in t h e ' l i g h t of the e x t r e m e l y s t r o n g
s h a k i n g o c c u r r i n g in this a r e a d u r i n g the T a n g s h a n
earthquake. S i n c e t h i s a r e a is l o c a t e d w i t h i n 30
K m f r o m the e p i c e n t e r of the m a g n i t u d e 7.8 e a r t h ­
q u a k e , t h e i n t e n s i t y o f s h a k i n g is b e l i e v e d t o
have b e e n of the or d e r of 8 to 9 on the Chinese
i n t e n s i t y scale. The corresponding ground ac c e l ­
e r a t i o n is s u p p o s e d t o h a v e b e e n a s g r e a t a s 400
t o 500 gal.

In o r d e r to c o m p a r e the r e s u l t s o f t h e two i n d e ­
pendent studies desc r i b e d above, the boundary
c u r v e o b t a i n e d b y G a o e t al. (1983) w a s r e - p l o t t e d
u s i n g t h e sa"me t y p e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n a s f o r t h e
d i a g r a m i n F i g . 85. The two b o u n d a r y c u rves thus
s u p e r i m p o s e d a r e s h o w n i n F i g . 87. One of the
p e c u l i a r f e a t u r e s o f t h e c u r v e b y G a o e t al.
(1983) is t h a t , f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h i c k n e s s o f l i q u e ­
fiable sand layer, the t h i c k n e s s of s u r face layer

Fig. 88 P r o p o s e d b o u n d a r y curves for site

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of l i quefaction-
induced damage

during these two earthquakes. C o n s i d e r i n g the

g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e in t h e i n t e n s i t y o f s h a k i n g and
hence the large gap b e t w e e n the two prop o s e d
cu rves, it m i g h t w e l l b e p o s s i b l e to d r a w a n o t h e r
b o u n d a r y c u r v e b e t w e e n t h e m as s h o w n in Fig . 88
for an int e r m e d i a t e level of sha k i n g i n tensity
w i t h a g r o u n d a c c e l e r a t i o n o n t h e o r d e r o f 300
gal. The three boundary curves thus established
a n d s h o w n in Fig. 88 m a y b e u s e f u l for i dentifying
sites from the v i e w p o i n t of w h e t h e r or not the
grou n d sustains d a mage due to liq u e f a c t i o n during
a given intensity of earthquake shaking.

SEISMIC STABILITY OF NATURAL SLOPES

Fig. 87 C o m p arison of two boun d a r y curves

differentiating between conditions XI E V A L UATION OF SOIL P R O PERTIES IN SEISMIC
of d a m a g e a n d n o d a m a g e d u e to LOADING
liquefaction
11.1 General

re q u i r e d to pre v e n t l i q u e f a c t i o n d a mage tends to F a i l u r e o f n a t u r a l s l o p e s d u r i n g e a r t h q u a k e s is

d e c r e a s e w h e n i t is s m a l l e r t h a n a b o u t 5 m. This g o v e r n e d in m a n y c a s e s b y d e t a i l s of g e o l o g i c a l
c o n t radiction appears to result from Gao's d e f i n i ­ and hydrological conditions. However, careful
tion of surface layer be i n g d i f f e r e n t from that s c r u t i n y of the s i t e c o n d i t i o n s in m a n y slide
i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 84. In t h e i r d a t a a r r a n g e ­ areas d uring past e arthquakes has indicated that
ments, the surface layer thic k n e s s appears to be there always seems to exist a w e l l - d e f i n e d slip
t a k e n s i m p l y as t h e t h i c k n e s s o f the s a n d y c l a y p l a n e in the s l i d e a r e a a n d t h a t t h i s p l a n e
deposit near the g round surface. H o w e v e r , in c a s e s runs th r o u g h a zone of w e a k n e s s nea r the surface
w h e r e t h e g r o u n d w a t e r t a b l e is l o c a t e d b e l o w t h e of the s l o p e-forming soil deposits. T h e w e a k zone
b o t t o m o f t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r a s i l l u s t r a t e d in is o f t e n c r e a t e d b y w a t e r i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o s u r ­
Fig. 84(c), the t h i c k n e s s of the u n l i q u e f i a b l e face layers of resid u a l or w e a t h e r e d soils but
s u r f a c e l a y e r s h o u l d h a v e b e e n t a k e n as b e i n g e q u a l t here are als o m any cases wh e r e plan e s of weakness
to the depth of the e l e v a t i o n of the grou n d water c oincide wit h t e c tonically dis t u r b e d zones such
table. If s u c h a m o d i f i c a t i o n is i n c o r p o r a t e d in as fault surfaces and contact surfaces between
Gao's data interpretation, the boundary curve would b e ds or s e q u e n c e s of rock.
p r o b a b l y be c o r r e c t e d as i n d i c a t e d in Fig. 8 8 .
A l s o p l o t t e d i n F i g . 8 8 is t h e b o u n d a r y c u r v e E v a l u a t i o n of seismic stab i l i t y of nat u r a l slopes
e s t a b l i s h e d i n F i g . 85. C o m p a r i s o n of these two should, therefore, be made by i dentifying the
curves appears to indicate that the difference p o t e n t i a l s lip p l a n e an d by i n v e s t i g a t i n g the
e m e r g e s m a i n l y f r o m t h e d i f f e r e n c e in the i n t e n s i t y p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s o i l s c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e z o n e of
o f s h a k i n g i n c u r r e d in the i n v e s t i g a t e d a r e a s weakness. Since the mode of stress applications

362
t o a s o i l e l e m e n t b e n e a t h a s l o p e is d i f f e r e n t of accur ac y . T h e r e f o r e it w o u l d b e a p p r o p r i a t e
f ro m that for level ground, s om e w h a t d i f f e r e n t to h a v e r e c o u r s e to t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d of
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s mus t be made for e v a l u a t i n g soil s l o p e s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s t o e x a m i n e t h e d e g r e e of
p r o p e r t i e s b a s e d on l a b o r a t o r y tests. s t a b i l i t y o r i n s t a b i l i t y b a s e d o n t h e f a c t o r of
safety.

11.2 Permanent Displacement and Slope Stability

11.3 Eva l u a t i o n of S t r e n g t h - P e r m a n e n t Deform a t i o n
A s o i l e l e m e n t b e n e a t h a s l o p e is s u b j e c t e d t o a n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s for Soils
i n i t i a l s h e a r s t r e s s , °5 , d u e t o g r a v i t y e f f e c t s
in n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s . During an earthquake a se­ A c o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d of a p p r o a c h to e v a l u a t e the
q u e n c e o f d y n a m i c s h e a r s t r e s s e s is s u p e r i m p o s e d stability of slopes during earthquakes has been
on this soil element. If t h e r e l a t i v e m a g n i t u d e the s o - c a l l e d p s e u d o - s t a t i c m e t h o d in w h i c h the
o f t h i s d y n a m i c s h e a r s t r e s s is r e p r e s e n t e d b y e f f e c t o f s e i s m i c l o a d i n g is t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t
o d , the sum of the shear str e s s e s a p p l i e d d u r i n g b y a n e q u i v a l e n t s t a t i c f o r c e d e t e r m i n e d as the
a n e a r t h q u a k e s h a k i n g is e q u a l t o o s + aj. After product of a seismic c o e f f icient and the weight
the a p p l i c a t i o n of the dynamic shear stress, a of the p o t e n t i a l sliding mass. This m e t h o d of
cer t a i n amou n t of strain or d i s p l a c e m e n t will a p p r o a c h can be u s e d n ot o n l y for e v a l u a t i n g the
r e m a i n in the soil e l e m e n t . Such a strain will f a c t o r o f s a f e t y as c u s t o m a r i l y e m p l o y e d b u t a l s o
b e r e f e r r e d to as a r e s i d u a l s t r a i n o r p e r m a n e n t f o r a s s e s s i n g t h e p e r m a n e n t d e f o r m a t i o n if t h e
strain. The amou n t of residual strain w h i c h occurs str e s s - r e s i d u a l strain r e l ation can be p r o perly
i n t h e s o i l e l e m e n t is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e d y n a m i c es t a b l i s h e d for key soil deposits as s o c i a t e d with
s h e a r s t r e s s p l u s t h e i n i t i a l s h e a r s t r e s s , cjs + sliding.
o<j. The ratio of the initial s h e a r stress to the
total shear stress m a y a lso be a factor i n f l u e n c ­ In e v a l u a t i n g t h e e q u i v a l e n t f o r c e in the a b o v e
ing the d e v e l o p m e n t of the r e s idual shear strain. method, one of the concepts w o u l d be to consider
If a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s h e a r s t r e s s , o s + a n e n t i r e t i m e h i s t o r y of a c c e l e r a t i o n a n d to
a d, a n d t h e r e s i d u a l s t r a i n , e r , is e s t a b l i s h e d r e p l a c e it w i t h a c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f c o n s t a n t -
b y t e s t s , e i t h e r i n - s i t u o r i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y , it a m p l i t u d e a c c e l e r a t i o n s h a v i n g an e f f e c t e q u i v a ­
w ill b e come possi b l e to e s t imate the r e s idual lent to that of the actual time h i s t o r y of e a r t h ­
strain for a given value of shear stress assessed quake motions. If t h e a n a l y s i s is m a d e o n t h i s
through some a ppropriate procedures. b a s i s , t h e d y n a m i c c o m p o n e n t o f s h e a r s t r e s s as
introduced above should be a constant-amplitude
W h e n a s l o p e is c o m p o s e d o f s o i l s w i t h d u c t i l e cyclic stress with a specified number of cycles
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s u c h as h i g h l y p l a s t i c clay, the i n w h i c h t h e v a r i a b l e , a d, r e p r e s e n t s t h e a m p l i ­
m a t e r i a l can sustain in c r e a s i n g m a g n i t u d e s of tude. Therefore, the c o r r esponding s t r e s s - r e s i d ­
seismically induced shear stress without inducing ual strain r e l a t i o n m ust be e s t a b l i s h e d on the
an infinitely large residual strain. The stress- basis of test results employing a constant-ampli-
r e s i d u a l s t r a i n c u r v e f o r s u c h a m a t e r i a l is s c h e ­ tude cyclic stress.
m a t i c a l l y s h o w n i n F i g . 89. It is t h e n p o s s i b l e
a n d r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s e s s t h e r e s i d u a l s t r a i n in An alternative c o n cept for e v a luating the e q u i v a ­
the soil a n d h e n c e the p e r m a n e n t d e f o r m a t i o n of lent force wo u l d be to consider the irregular time
the slope resulting from e a r thquake shaking. In h i s t o r y o f a c c e l e r a t i o n as it o c c u r s in t h e field.
c o n t r a s t , if t h e s l o p e - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l is c h a r a c ­ In t h i s case, the d y n a m i c c o m p o n e n t of s h e a r
terized by br i t t l e c haracteristics, such as c e ­ stress should be e x a c t l y the same as the i r r e g u ­
m e n t e d sand, o r w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s l i a b l e to lar time h i s t o r y of a c c e l e r a t i o n and the peak
f l o w s u c h as l o o s e s a n d a n d l o w - p l a s t i c i t y silt, s h e a r s t r e s s in t h e t i m e h i s t o r y m a y be t a k e n as
the residual strain tends to increase indefinitely the variable, c d . whe n establ i s h i n g the stress-
when the seismically induced shear stress reaches residual strain relati o n s h i p ba s e d on this c o n ­
a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l v alue, as i l l u s t r a t e d s c h e m a t i ­ cept. the tests on soils m ust be p e r f o r m e d by
c a l l y i n F i g . 89. I n s u c h a c a s e , it b e c o m e s e m p l o y i n g the actual time h i s t o r i e s of m otions
p o t e n t i a l l y d i f f i c u l t to e s t i m a t e the p e r m a n e n t during earthguakes.
d e f o r m a t i o n of the slope w ith a t olerable degree
T h e s e c o n d c o n c e p t as d e s c r i b e d a b o v e h a s b e e n
a d o p t e d b y I s h i h a r a e t al. (1983, 1984) f o r e v a l u ­
ating the soil characte r i s t i c s at several sites
of l a n d s l i d i n g t h a t o c c u r r e d in r e c e n t e a r t h ­
quakes. In t h e l a b o r a t o r y t e s t p r o g r a m u s i n g a
triaxial test equipment, isotropically c onsoli­
dated specimens were first subjected under drained
co n d i t i o n s to a c e r t a i n level of initial axial
stress, a s , and then s ubjected to a series of
i r r e g u l a r loads in the a x i a l d i r e c t i o n . The
dynamic phase of the above tests was conducted
by stepwise i n c r easing the a m p l i t u d e of time
h i s t o r y o f t h e i r r e g u l a r l o a d s , 0 <j- I n e a c h s t e p
of the i r regular loading tests wit h v a r y i n g a m p l i ­
tudes, the residual axial strain, e r e , was
measured.

W h e n a n i r r e g u l a r t i m e h i s t o r y is t r a n s f e r r e d t o
s pecimens through the u p - a n d - d o w n m o v e m e n t of the
Fig. 89 I l lustraion of two d i f f e r e n t types of t r i axial loading piston, one of the loading m e t h ­
soil r e l e v a n t or i r r e l e v a n t to the o d s is t o o r i e n t t h e s t r e s s t i m e c h a n g e s o t h a t
permanent deformation analysis the peak can be atta i n e d w h e n the p iston reaches

363
the lowest position. This type of test will be An example of similar test sequences employing a
r e f e r r e d to as a C M - t e s t . It is a l s o p o s s i b l e t o r e v e r s e l y o r i e n t e d w a v e f o r m ( E w - t e s t ) is d e m o n ­
h a v e t h e p e a k s t r e s s o r i e n t e d s o t h a t it is e x e ­ s t r a t e d i n F i g . 91. The time hist o r i e s of axial
cuted at the hig h e s t p o s i t i o n of the loading p i s ­ strain for the three test sequences are shown
ton. This type of test will be r e f e r r e d to as an in F i g . 91 in t h e s a m e w a y a s i n t h e c a s e o f
EM-test. For e ach of the wav e forms used, bot h t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e C M - t e s t s h o w n i n F i g . 90. It
types of test w ere performed. m a y b e n o t e d t h a t t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e p e a k a d,
i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 91 r e f e r s t o t h e m a x i m u m s p i k e
The results of one such series of tests p e r f o r m e d on the side of triaxial compression. In the type
on undist u r b e d samples of volcanic clay are p r e ­ of t r i axial test pro c e d u r e s d e s c r i b e d above, the
s e n t e d i n F i g . 90. The partially saturated sam­ i n i t i a l s h e a r s t r e s s , o s , is a p p l i e d t o w a r d s t h e
p l e s u s e d w e r e p r o c u r e d in b l o c k s f r o m an i n t a c t t ri a x i a l c o m p r e s s i o n side, a n d t h e r e f o r e the key
surface exposed on a mountain slope which had p h e n o m e n a s u c h a s r e s i d u a l s t r a i n s a n d f a i l u r e of
s u f f e r e d a l a r g e - s c a l e l a n d s l i d e at the t i m e of t es t s p e c i m e n s are a l w a y s e n c o u n t e r e d on the side
t h e 1 9 7 8 J a n u a r y 14 I z u - O h s h i m a - K i n k a i e a r t h q u a k e of t r i a x i a l c o m p r e s s i o n . A c c o r d i n g l y , i t is c o n ­
(M = 7.0) i n J a p a n . The test was of the CM- t y p e s i d e r e d r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n s i d e r t h e p e a k s t r e s s on
an d the s t r e n g t h of s p e c i m e n s f rom the same sample the t r i axial c o m p r e s s i o n side as a key variable
b a t c h in c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a t i c l o a d i n g t e s t w a s °f = influ e n c i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t of residual strains
84.4 k N / m 2 , w h e r e d e n o t e s the a x i a l s t r e s s at and failure of the specimens.
failure. A n i n i t i a l s t r e s s , a s , e q u a l t o 70 % o f
t h e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h w a s u s e d in t h e t e s t . F i g . 90 To esta b l i s h the s t r ess-residual strain r e l a t i o n ­
(a) s h o w s t h e t i m e h i s t o r y o f t h e E W - c o m p o n e n t o f s h i p , v a l u e s o f t h e t o t a l r e s i d u a l s t r a i n , E re +
the a c c e l e r a t i o n o b t a i n e d at M u r o r a n at the time e ' r e , a c c u m u l a t e d u p to the c u r r e n t s e q u e n c e of
o f the 1968 T o k a c h i - o k i e a r t h q u a k e in Japan. Fig. irregular loading tests were read off from the
90(b) s h o w s t h e t i m e h i s t o r y o f a x i a l s t r a i n r e ­ t e s t r e c o r d s s u c h a s t h o s e s h o w n i n F i g s . 90 a n d
c o r d e d in o n e of the t e s t s e q u e n c e s w h e r e the 91, a n d t h e s e v a l u e s w e r e p l o t t e d v e r s u s t h e p e a k
a m p l i t u d e o f p e a k a x i a l s t r e s s w a s °d = 8 7.5 k N / m 2 a m p l i t u d e of the c u r r e n t i rregular loading, ,
in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t r i a x i a l c o m p r e s s i o n . It is p l u s t h e i n i t i a l a x i a l s t r e s s , °s . T h e r e s u l t s
o bse r v e d that the residual axial strain produced o f s u c h d a t a c o m p i l a t i o n s f o r t h e t e s t s s h o w n in
in the s p e c i m e n b y the a p p l i c a t i o n of the i r r e g u ­ F i g s . 90 a n d 91 a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 92. In this
l a r l o a d w a s e re = 2 . 1 2 % in t h i s s e q u e n c e . plot, the combined static and dynamic axial
Before exe c u t i n g this loading sequence, the test s t r e s s , a s + Od, is s h o w n n o r m a l i z e d t o t h e
specimen had already undergone a residual strain s t a t i c s t r e n g t h , Of, i n o r d e r t o d i s c e r n t h e
of E're = 1 - 8 8 % in a p r e c e d i n g s e q u e n c e o f the e f f e c t of d y n a m i c l o a d i n g as c o m p a r e d w i t h s tatic
test. F i g . 9 0(c) s h o w s t h e t i m e h i s t o r y o f a x i a l behavior. I n F i g . 92, t h e d a t a p o i n t s i n d i c a t e d
s t r a i n r e c o r d e d in the s u b s e q u e n t t e s t s e q u e n c e by arrows are those wh i c h wer e read off directly
in w h i c h t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e i r r e g u l a r l o a d w a s f r o m t h e t e s t r e s u l t s s h o w n i n F i g s . 90 a n d 91.
r a i s e d t o <?d = 1 1 0 . 7 k N / m 2 . T h e s p e c i m e n h a v i n g A l s o i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 92 a r e t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n
s u s t a i n e d a n a x i a l s t r a i n o f e 're = 4 . 0 % i n t h e curves for the static ph a s e of loading until the
preceding sequences experienced an additional i n i t i a l a x i a l s t r e s s , °s , i s i n c r e a s e d t o 70 % o f
r e s i d u a l s t r a i n o f E re = 5 . 8 5 % i n t h e c o u r s e o f the static strength. The static stress-strain
this new loading sequence. In t h e l a s t s e q u ence, c u r v e s w h i c h w o u l d h a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d if the
the s p e c i m e n u n d e r w e n t a r e s i d u a l s t r a i n as l arge l o a d i n g h a d b e e n c o n t i n u e d f u r t h e r a r e s h o w n in
as 1 0 . 9 % a s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 9 0 ( d ) . F i g . 92 b y t h e d a s h e d c u r v e s . It m a y b e seen

Muroran ,EW-comp.

(b ) 15 20
~i5 20 25 30
0i=87.5kN/m * . <VcS=&7 CSd=48-5l'N/rrf , <V6f = 0-7
Era =1-81V. Er»= 0-32*/.
£re’ =1f t__ _
^ 03 =90-6 . <V ff( =0-7
O isllO ^kN /rrf , <V(3! = 0-7 ErV=2'13V.
*»-UV /•

0d =126-4 kN/rrf
Volcanic clay
V Ere =9-65 */. /Nanamawari \
V Izu )
i12 Of =84-42 k N /jrf
! 8 a =50*N/nr?
;u (0 =122•/•
i Sr=88 */.
i o- PI =30
-u -
_L_ _L

Fig. 90 E v o l v e m e n t of r e s i d u a l s t r a i n s in t h e Fig. 91 E v o l v e m e n t of r e s i d u a l s t r a i n s in the

irregular loading test irregular loading test

364
Fig. 92 Shear stress-residual strain relation­ Fig. 93 Shear stress-residual strain relation­
ship ships for dif f e r e n t c o nfining stresses

that the stress-strain curves for the static- T h e e f f e c t of the c o n f i n i n g st re s s on the static
d y n a m i c l o a d i n g is l o c a t e d f a r a b o v e t h e s t r e s s - s t r e n g t h o f s o i l s h a s b e e n e v a l u a t e d in t e r m s of
strain curve for the static loading alone. This the a p p a r e n t angle of internal frict i o n defined
f a c t i n d i c a t e s t h a t if t h e s o i l s p e c i m e n is s u b ­ a s a n a n g l e o f s l o p e in t h e M o h r c i r c l e r e p r e s e n t a ­
j e c t e d t o a d y n a m i c l o a d a f t e r it h a s d e f o r m e d tion of failure state of stress. T h e r e f o r e , it
s t a t i c a l l y to some e x tent, the s p e c i m e n t ends to is o f i n t e r e s t t o e s t a b l i s h a M o h r - C o u l o m b t y p e o f
exhibit a larger stiffness and higher strength failure c r iterion for the dynamic loading condition
t h a n if it is l o a d e d t o f a i l u r e a l l t h e w a y u n d e r as w e l l a n d c o m p a r e it w i t h the c o n v e n t i o n a l f a i l ­
static conditions. S u c h a n i n c r e a s e in s t i f f n e s s ure crit e r i o n for the static loading condition.
and s t r ength appears to e m erge fro m the h i ghly The m e t h o d a d o p t e d h e r e i n for e s t a b l i s h i n g the
r a t e - d e p e n d e n t nature of c o h e s i v e soils whe n s u b ­ d y n a m i c f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n is i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig.
j e c t e d t o r a p i d l o a d s s u c h a s t h o s e u s e d in t h e 94. T h e v a l u e o f t h e c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s , °o' , is
present test scheme. S i m i l a r t e s t s in this s e r i e s
employing three other time histories all showed Fa ilu re envelope for
th e s a m e t e n d e n c y in the s t r e s s - r e s i d u a l s t r a i n
relation.

For the pur p o s e of e x a m i n i n g the e ffects of v a r y ­

ing initial shear stress on the stress-residual
strain relationship, m u l t i p l e series of similar
tests wer e c o n d u c t e d on the same sample of v o l c a n ­
ic c l a y b y e m p l o y i n g d i f f e r e n t i n i t i a l a x i a l
stresses un d e r four i r regular time hist o r i e s of
l o a d i n g s (Ishihara e t a l . 1983). The results of
these tests indicated that the stress-residual
s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p is n o t a p p r e c i a b l y a f f e c t e d Fig. 94 C o n s t r u c t i o n of Moh r circles and failure
b y the i n i t i a l s h e a r stress, if its v a l u e s tays envelopes associated with static and
w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f a s/°f = 0 . 2 a n d 0 . 8 , w h i c h is dynamic loading
g e n e r a l l y the c a s e f o r the c o n d i t i o n s in soil
deposits under natural slopes. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the
effe c t of the initial s u s t a i n e d shear stress on first laid off at point A on the a b s c i s s a and the
t h e s t r e s s - r e s i d u a l s t r a i n r e l a t i o n is c o n s i d e r e dstatic and dynamic strength values are laid off
as b e i n g of s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e , a n d its e f f e c t t o w a r d s the r i g h t as A B a n d AC, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The
m a y b e d i s r e g a r d e d , i f a r o u g h e s t i m a t e is t o b e c i r c l e d r a w n t h r o u g h p o i n t s A a n d B is t h e M o h r
made for the s tability of slopes duri n g e a r t h ­ circle associated with failure under static load­
quakes. ing. L i k e w i s e , the M o h r c i r c l e for f a i l u r e in the
dynamic loading can be c o n s t ructed by d r a wing a
Several series of similar triaxial tests w e r e also c i r c l e t h r o u g h p o i n t s A a n d C, a s s h o w n i n Fig.
p e r f o r m e d on the same v o l c a n i c clay samples by 94. T h e M o h r c i r c l e s d r a w n in this m a n n e r for the
e m p l o y i n g d i f f e r e n t c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e s u n d e r the t e s t r e s u l t s s h o w n i n F i g . 93 a r e d e m o n s t r a t e d in
four time hist o r i e s of loading. T h e r e s u l t s of F i g . 95. For the volcanic clay tested, the c o h e ­
t h e s e t e s t s c o n d u c t e d w i t h c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e s of s i o n c o m p o n e n t f o r s t a t i c l o a d i n g , C, w a s 20 k N / m 2 ,
a o'= 20, 50 a n d 80 k N / m 2 a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n F i g . a n d t h e c o h e s i o n f o r d y n a m i c l o a d i n g , C q , w a s 48
93. It c a n b e s e e n t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f c o n f i n i n g k N / m 2 . I t is o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t t o n o t e t h a t
s t r e s s is s i g n i f i c a n t a n d c a n n o t b e d i s r e g a r d e d the angle of internal f r i ction was p r a c t i c a l l y the
in e v a l u a t i n g t h e r e s i d u a l s t r a i n a n d s t r e n g t h same for b o t h the stat i c and d y n a m i c l o a ding c o n ­
under dynamic loading conditions. This consequence ditions. The fact that the e f fect of dynamic
is b y n o m e a n s s u r p r i s i n g s i n c e t h e s t r e n g t h o f l o a d i n g o n t h e f a i l u r e s t r e n g t h is m a n i f e s t e d o n l y
partially saturated cohesive soils under static through the cohesion component may be considered
c o n d itions has b e e n kn o w n g e n e r a l l y to v ary w i t h r e a s o n a b l e if o n e is r e m i n d e d o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
the m a g n i t u d e of the c o n f i n i n g stress. i n c r e a s e in s t r e n g t h d u e to r a p i d l o a d i n g s u c h as
the s e i s m i c i r r e g u l a r l o a d i n g e m e r g e s m a i n l y f r o m

365
 I I I II II I ( M = 7 .4) in J a p a n . The soil, of v o l canic origin,
Volcanic clay c o n s i s t s o f a m i x t u r e o f 13 % g r a v e l , 47 % o f s and,
200- Nanamawari 12 % s i l t a n d 28 % c l a y c o n t e n t . T h e s p e c i m e n s for
Iz u
Dynamic failure the t r i a x i a l t e s t s w e r e p r e p a r e d by c o m p a c t i n g the
OytJf=0.7 envelope m a t e r i a l t o t w o d e n s i t i e s o f a b o u t 1 8 . 7 a n d 19.0
150- u =110-1A0"/o »=17’. CD=^8kN/m‘ k N / m 3 . Test conditions and test results are sum­
Sr=85-90*/. m a r i z e d in T a b l e 6 , b a s e d o n t h e m e t h o d o f d a t a
pi =30 i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 94. A l t h o u g h no
Static failure
envelope Table 6 SUMMARY OF DYNAMIC TESTS ON TWO CLAYS
♦=17', C=20kN/nrf
Volcanic Volcanic Volcanic
clay(Izu) sandy clay sandy clay
(Shiroishi) (Shiroishi)
150 200 250 300 350
CT ( kN/m *) Unit weight 13.3 18.7 19.0
Y t (kN/m3)
Fig. 95 Failure envelopes obtained from static Water content
and dynamic loading test results u>(%) 110 ~ 140 22 ~ 23 20 — 21

Saturation
ratio Sr (%) 85 ~ 90 82 ~ 84 82 ~ 8 4
the v i s c o u s n a t u r e of c o h e s i v e soils.
Plasticity
O n the b a s i s o f the o o n c l u s i o n t h a t the a n g l e of 30 18 18
Index PI
i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n is i d e n t i c a l b o t h i n t h e s t a t i c
a n d d y n a m i c l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s , it b e c o m e s p o s s i ­ Static cohesion
ble to deduce some c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the strength 20 28 32
C( k N / m 2)
pa r a m e t e r s p e r t a i n i n g to these two l oading c o n d i ­
tions. L e t t h e a n g l e o f i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n , $, a n d Angle of int.
c o h e s i o n , C, i n t h e s t a t i c l o a d i n g b e k n o w n f o r a friction 17 14 16
g i v e n soil ; t h e n the a x i a l s t r e s s r e q u i r e d to 4>(degree)
cause failure, ‘ t ,
is g i v e n b y ; Dynamic cohesion
48 52 51
CD (kN/m2)

2 sin<f> 2 c coscfi
( 30) 2.4 1.86 1.59
CD / C
1 -sin<t 1 -sinij)

definitive conclusion can be drawn from the tests

W h e n a d y n a m i c t e s t is p e r f o r m e d u n d e r t h e s a m e o n o n l y t w o c l a y s , it m a y b e n o t e d t h a t t h e c l a y
c o n f i n i n g stress, the ax i al stress c a u s i n g failure, w i t h h i g h e r p l a s t i c i t y i n de x e x h i b i t s a la r g e r per-
c e n t a g e of i n c r e a s e in c o h e s i o n u n d e r d y n a m i c
Df 1 is g i v e n b y
loading o ver that for the static loading as c o m ­
p a r e d to a c l a y w i t h lower p l a s t i c i t y index.
2 sin<f> 2 c D cos4
Df (31)
1 -sin<t 1 -sin4>
XII EFFECTS OF TOPOGRAPHY ON GROUND MOTIONS

C o m b i n i n g Eqs. (30) and (31), o n e o b t a i n s

M a n y of landslides and r ockfalls d u r i n g e a rthquakes
t a k e p l a c e in a r e a s n e a r t o p o g r a p h i c a l p r o m i n e n c e s
such as steep slopes, m o u n t a i n wa l l s and roadcuts.
D °i' CTPf T h e g r o u n d m o t i o n s in s u c h a n a r e a c a n b e e x p e c t e d
- 1 = (1 - 1 ) ( 32)
C Ccot<)> Of to differ significantly from those on level ground
for w h i c h exte n s i v e studies hav e bee n mad e thus
far. The effects of topography on earthquake
Thus, k n o wing the static strength p a r a m e t e r s , C g r o u n d m o t i o n s h a v e b e e n h i g h l i g h t e d as an issue
a n d <f>, o n e c a n e s t i m a t e t h e d y n a m i c c o h e s i o n of p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e s i n c e a s e r i e s of i n - s i t u
v a l u e , C D , f r o m Eq. (32), if a s i n g l e d y n a m i c m e a s u r e m e n t s was mad e for the mot i o n s of a f t e r ­
te s t is r u n to d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e o f the d y n a m i c s h o c k s f o l l o w i n g the San F e r n a n d o e a r t h q u a k e of
s t r e n g t h , o D f, u n d e r a n a p p r o p r i a t e c o n f i n i n g F e b r u a r y 9, 1 971. O n the b a s i s of s e v e r a l sets of
stress. Once the value of the dynamic cohesion field d a t a r e c o r d e d d u r i n g e a r t h q u a k e s on the
is t h u s k n o w n , i t b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e t o e s t i m a t e t h e c r e s t , f l a n k a n d b a s e o f m o u n t a i n s , D a v i s a n d W e s t
dynamic strength for any other value of the c o n ­ (1973) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p e a k a m p l i ­
f i n i n g s t r e s s t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f Eq. (31). tude of a c c e l e r a t i o n at the crest of moun t a i n s
c o u l d b e g r e a t e r in m a n y c a s e s t h a n t h a t at the
Th e d y n a m i c t e s t p r o g r a m as d e s c r i b e d a b o v e has base. C h a n g_ (1976) i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e t o p o g r a p h i -
been i m p l e m e n t e d for ano t h e r cohes i v e soil obt a i n - C al effects on the g r ound m o t i o n could be inter-
e d f r o m a s i t e of m a n - m a d e f i l l s at S h i r o i s h i w h i c h p r e t e d in a s i m p l e m a n n e r as a f u n c t i o n of e l e v a -
had suffered a large-scale landslide at the time t i o n an d d i r e c t i o n of w a v e t r a n s m i s s i o n p at h for
o f t h e 1 978, J u n e 12 M i y a g i k e n - o k i e a r t h q u a k e the case of San Fernando area where the topography

366
has its h i g h e s t e l e v a t i o n at the e p i c e n t r a l r e g i o n
a n d d e c r e a s e s i n e l e v a t i o n t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g area.
It w a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e p e a k a m p l i t u d e o f r e c ­
o r d e d a c c e l e r a t i o n s i n c r e a s e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y in
p r o p o r t i o n to the e l e v a t i o n of t h e m o u n t a i n s .

Alth o u g h the field data are not yet sufficiently

c o m p r e h e n s i v e to l e a d to a n y q u a n t i t a t i v e c o n c l u ­
s i o n , t h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t t o p o g r a p h y p l a y s a
s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e a n d is a n i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n
in d e t e r m i n i n g the s e i s m i c r e s p o n s e of the g r o u n d
in m o u n t a i n o u s areas. Since man y landslides and
r o c k f a l l s o c c u r in the a r e a of t o p o g r a p h i c a l p r o m i ­
n e nces, it w i l l be n e c e s s a r y to a l l o w for this
e f f e c t in e v a l u a t i n g t h e i n t e n s i t y o f s h a k i n g o r
seismic c o e f f i c i e n t to be i n c o r p o r a t e d into the
stability analysis of natural slopes d uring e a r t h ­
quakes .

XIII CASE STUDIES OF FAILURE OF NATURAL SLOPES

13.1 F a i l u r e of S l o p e s in R e s i d u a l soils

O n J a n u a r y 14, 1978, a d e s t r u c t i v e e a r t h q u a k e o f Fig. 97 Distribution of maximum horizontal

m a g n i t u d e 7.0 s h o c k the s o u t h - e a s t e r n a r e a of the a c c e l e r a t i o n s d u r i n g the 1978 Izu-
I z u p e n i n s u l a w h i c h is l o c a t e d a b o u t 120 K m s o u t h ­ O h s h i m a - K i n k a i e a r t h q u a k e (Ohashi
w e s t o f T o k y o , J a p a n (Fig. 96). T h e e p i c e n t e r of e t al. 1978)
t h e m a i n s h o c k w a s l o c a t e d a b o u t 15 K m o f f t h e
east coast of the peninsula, m i d w a y b e t w e e n the
p e ninsula and O h s hima island. L a c k i n g any d ata on
recorded motions, a comprehensive in-situ survey
w a s c o n d u c t e d b y O h a s h i e t al. (1978) o v e r t h e
d a m a g e f e a t u r e o f t o m b s t o n e s a t 44 c e m e t r y y a r d s
nea r the epi c e n t r a l area. On the basis of this
survey, approximate values of m a x i m u m horizontal
a c c e l e r a t i o n wer e i n f erred at e ach cem e t r y yard
and con t o u r lines c o n n e c t i n g l ocations of equal
a c c e l e r a t i o n w e r e d r a w n a s d i s p l a y e d in F i g . 97.

Fig. 98 Slides on the h i l l s i d e at Hokkawa, Izu

Fig. 96 E p i c e n t e r of the 1978 I z u - O h s h i m a -

Kinkai earthquake

(a) Land s l i d e at H o k k a w a Site

D o zens of landslides and r ockfalls took place dur-

ihg the e a r t h q u a k e on s t e e p slopes, m o u n t a i n wa l ls
and r o a dcuts along the east coast of the peninsula.
The h i g hway and railway running along the east
coast were crosscut at many places by slides and
slide debris. The location of one of the slides
w h i c h w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d i n d e t a i l is s h o w n in F i g .
98, w h e r e it m a y b e s e e n t h a t t h e d e b r i s a m o u n t i n g
to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1000 m 3 s l i d d o w n the s t e e p slope, Fig. 99 Cross section of the l andslide at Hok k a w a
b u r ying the h i g hway and spreading over the beach

367
downhill. S m a l l s c a l e s l i d e s a l s o o c c u r r e d in Using the stren g t h pa r a m e t e r s thus o b t a i n e d for
the v i c i n i t y of the m a i n slide. The cross-sec- the seismic loading condition, the stability analy­
t i o n , A - A ' , o f t h i s s l i d e is s h o w n i n F i g . 99. sis was mad e for the s liding surface a c t ually
T h e h i l l s i d e , a b o u t 50 m w i d e , s l o p e s a t a n a n g l e observed during the Izu-Ohshima-Kinkai earthquake.
o f 46° i n t o t h e sea. The bedrock consists mainly T h e f a c t o r o f s a f e t y , Ftf, w a s c a l c u l a t e d f o r d i f ­
of a n d e s i t e w i t h a m a n t l e of tuff and v o l c a n i c f e r e n t v a l u e s of the m a x i m u m a c c e l e r a t i o n , a max»
loam. T h e o u t c r o p of the a n d e s i t e a n d t u f f h a d using the following formula,
been wea t h e r e d near the surface of the cliff,
and the w e a t h e r e d surface was s t r i p p e d off at the I jwtan<t> + C D & c o s a j / [ c o s ’a (1 +tana- tan<t>/Fd )j
time of the earthquake.

B l o c k s a m p l i n g w a s c a r r i e d o u t at the s c a r p of the E [wtana+ w]

tuff d e p osit near the h i l ltop where the w e athered (33)
t u f f w a s s t i l l l e f t i n p l a c e , a s s h o w n i n F i g . 99.
Blocks of the w e a t h e r e d tuff w ere c a rved out of w h e r e W, I, a n d a d e n o t e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e t o t a l
t h r e e n e a r b y s i t e s , a s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 98. The weight, the length and the incli n a t i o n of the
results of static triaxial tests on these undis­ s l i d i n g p l a n e f o r e a c h s l i c e a s i l l u s t r a t e d in
t u r b e d s a m p l e s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 7. Three F i g . 100. T h i s f o r m u l a is m o d i f i e d v e r s i o n o f t h e
bat c h e s of the sample had v a r y i n g deg r e e s of f o r m u l a o r i g i n a l l y p r o p o s e d b y J a n b u (1955). The
w e a t h e r i n g a s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 7. It is o f c o m p u t e d f a c t o r s o f s a f e t y a r e p l o t t e d in F i g . 101
versus the maximum acceleration. V a l u e s of the
factor of safety incorporating the static cohesion
Table 7 STRENGTH PARAMETERS OF THE WEATHERED v a l u e w e r e a l s o c o m p u t e d a n d s h o w n i n F i g . 101.
TUFF FROM THE SITE OF LANDSLIDE AT It m a y b e s e e n in t h i s f i g u r e t h a t w h e n u s i n g t h e
HOKKAWA, IZU static c o h e s i o n the c o m p u t e d factor of safety
b e c o m e s e q u a l t o u n i t y f o r a n a c c e l e r a t i o n o f 230
Samplinq D e gree of Cohesion Angle of internal g a l , w h e r e a s a n a c c e l e r a t i o n a s h i g h a s 5 5 0 g a l is
location weathering C , ( k N / m 2 ) f r i c t i o n , $, r e q u i r e d to b r i n g the f a c t o r of s a f e t y d o w n to
(degree) u n i t y , if t h e d y n a m i c c o h e s i o n is u s e d in t h e
s t a b i l i t y analysis.
No. 8-1 strong 125 35.0
No. 8-2 medium 230 35.5 O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , it is o b s e r v e d i n F i g . 97 t h a t
t h e s i t e o f t h e H o k k a w a l a n d s l i d e is l o c a t e d in
No. 8-3 weak 305 34.0 the area where the est i m a t e d m a x i m u m acceleration

interest to note that the value of cohesion a p ­

p a r e n t l y d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g d e g r e e of
weathering, whe r e a s the angle of internal friction
is v i r t u a l l y u n a f f e c t e d . In v iew of the fact
that a landslide can fr e q u e n t l y be t r i g g e r e d by
l ocal c o l l a p s e of the w e a k e s t soils, it m i g h t w e l l
be assumed that the strongly weathered tuff with
stren g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as r e p r e s e n t e d by sample
No. 8-1 c o u l d h a v e b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i n i t i a t i n g
the s l i d e a t t h i s site. It c o u l d a l s o be c o n ­
c e i v e d t hat the h i g h l y w e a t h e r e d m a n t l e of the
a n d e s i t e n e a r t h e c l i f f h a d b e e n i n v o l v e d in t r i g ­
g e r i n g t h e s l i d e , b u t in t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y i n f o r ­
m a t i o n o n t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h i s m a t e r i a l , it w i l l
b e a s s u m e d in t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y t h a t the w e a t h e r e d
tuff with the smallest strength parameters will Fig. 100 N o t a t i o n s in the s l iced m e t h o d of
r e p r e s e n t the general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the soils seismic slope stability analysis
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the in i t i a t i o n of the slide.

S m a l l s a m p l e s t r i m m e d f r o m t h e b l o c k s a m p l e No.
8- 1 w ere also test e d in the laboratory u n d e r ir­
regular loading conditions. Details of the test
r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d in a p a p e r b y I s h i h a r a a n d
N a g a o (1981). In the i r r e g u l a r l o a d i n g t e s t s
e m p l o y i n g a c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s o f a 0' = 50 k N / m ,
the axial stress causing failure, , was about
1.5 t i m e s t h e a x i a l s t r e s s c a u s i n g f a i l u r e i n t h e
static loading. T h e r e f o r e , e n t e r i n g i n t o Eq. (32)
w i t h the set of k n o w n v a l u e s as follows,

Df /Of = 1.5, = 50 k N / m 2

C = 125 k N / m 2 = 35“

one can evaluate the ratio b e t ween the dynamic

c o h e s i o n a n d s t a t i c c o h e s i o n as,
Fig. 101 C o m p u t e d factors of safe t y versus
'D/c = 1.64, 205 k N / m 2 maximum ground acceleration

368
is g r e a t e r t h a n 4 0 0 g a l . In v i e w o f t h e t o p o g r a ­
phy at the site of the landslide, involving a
s t e e p l y s l o p i n g h i l l s i d e , i t is r e a s o n a b l e to
b e l i e v e that the i n t e n s i t y of m o t i o n s d u r i n g the
earthquake might have been significantly amplified
n e a r the h i l l t o p and, t h e r e f o r e , the a c t u a l v a l u e
of the m a x i m u m a c c e l e r a t i o n e n c o u n t e r e d at the
l a n d s l i d e site m i g h t h a v e b e e n w e l l o v e r 400 gal.
F r o m t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , it w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t
for t h es e types of soil, s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s e s
based on the c o n v e n tionally used static strength
leads to an u n d e r s t i m a t e of the factor of safety
a n d t h a t if t h e s t r e n g t h p a r a m e t e r s a r e p r o p e r l y
c h o s e n a l l o w i n g for the e f f e c t of d y n a m i c loading,
the c o m p u t e d factor of safety bec o m e s more c o i n c i ­
d e n t w i t h w h a t w a s a c t u a l l y e n c o u n t e r e d in the
field during the earthquake.

T h e t e s t r e s u l t s in the l a b o r a t o r y o n the u n d i s ­
turbed wea t h e r e d tuff indicated that the m a gnitude Fig. 103 C r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h e s l i d e a r e a in
of a x i a l s t r a i n at f a i l u r e in d y n a m i c l o a d i n g was Ni s h i m o t o , Izu
as s m a l l as a b o u t 1 % r e f l e c t i n g the b r i t t l e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a w e a t h e r e d rock. Whe n the
s t a b i l i t y is t o b e e x a m i n e d f o r s l o p e s w i t h s u c h
br i t t l e materials, the m e t h o d of a p p r o a c h to e s t i ­
m a t e p e r m a n e n t d i s p l a c e m e n t s loses its p o t e n t i a l
m e r i t a n d the s t a b i l i t y m u s t b e d i s c u s s e d in terms
of the safety factor i n d i cating w h e t h e r or not a
given slope will slide under a specified intensity
of earthquake motions. This p o i n t of vie w was
d i s c u s s e d in t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n w i t h r e f e r e n c e
t o F i g . 89.

(b) Land s l i d e at N a s h i m o t o site

Traffic was p a ralyzed by the large-scale landslid-

ing w h i c h o c c u r r e d at several sites al o n g the
m o u n t a i n highway crossing the Izu peninsula. The
mos t d estructive of these was the slide that took
p l a c e a t N a s h i m o t o s o m e 10 K m i n l a n d f r o m t h e e a s t
c o a s t a s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 97. A p l a n v i e w of the
l a n d s l i d e s i t e is s h o w n i n F i g . 102. In t h i s area,
two slides o c c u r r e d on the slopes uphill from the
h i g h w a y a n d one o n t h e d o w n h i l l side. To clarify
the cause of the slides, an e x t e n s i v e i n v e s t i g a ­
t i o n w a s c a r r i e d o u t b y I w a s a k i e t al. (1980) F i g . 104 S o i l p r o f i l e a t the l a n d s l i d e site at
i nvolving in-situ Swedish cone tests, static cone Nashimoto
p e n e t r a t i o n t e st s and s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n tests.
Two cross sections i n v estigated for detailed study
a r e i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 102. The cross section, a n d t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n , A - A 1 , is l o c a t e d o n t h e
B - B' w a s s e l e c t e d o n t h e s l o p e w i t h n o d a m a g e , slope d a m aged by the landslides both uphill and
downhill from the highway. The cross section,
A - A ' , is s h o w n in F i g . 103. On the ba s i s of the
standard p e n e t ration tests perf o r m e d on the slope
a l o n g t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n , B' - B 1 , (Fig. 1 0 2), t h e
s o i l p r o f i l e w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s s h o w n i n F i g . 104,
w h e r e it m a y b e s e e n t h a t a m a n t l e of c o l l u v i u m
overlies the wea t h e r e d andesite formation. It
s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t , a t a d e p t h o f 3 t o 4 m, a
highly weathered andesite layer exists with a blow
count value of the order of 8 . The c o l l u v i u m b e ­
ne a t h the surface o rganic soil appears to be the
debris r e s u l t i n g from previ o u s slides h igh up on
the slope. F r o m t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n , A - A ' , s h o w n in
F i g . 103, it c a n b e s e e n t h a t t h e s l i d i n g p l a n e
runs for the most part through the h ighly w e athered
layer of the andesite just be l o w the colluvium.

Co n s i d e r i n g the results of the in-situ p enetration

te s t s as w e l l as the l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s o n soils r e ­
c o v e r e d n e a r b y , the s t r e n g t h p a r a m e t e r s for the
w e a t h e r e d a n d e s i t e w e r e e s t i m a t e d t o b e C = 30 k N / m 2
Fig. 102 S l i d e s o n the m o u n t a i n f l a n k at a n d <(> = 30° f o r o n e c a s e a n d C = 50 k N / m 2 a n d 4> = 0
N a s h i m o t o , Izu, ( I w a s a k i e t a l 1980) for another. H o w e v e r , in v i e w of the f a i r l y large

369
p e r c e n t a g e o f c o a r s e - g r a i n e d f r a c t i o n i n c l u d e d in 120' 121’ 122’
this material, the e s t i m a t e of the former case
w h e r e C = 30 k N / m 2 a n d <}) = 30° a p p e a r s t o b e a
b etter choice. In t h e a b s e n c e of the l a b o r a t o r y
test data us i n g the irregular loads, an a c c urate
e s t i m a t e of t h e c o h e s i o n in d y n a m i c l o a d i n g c a n
not be made. However, from the several test r e ­
s u l t s o n o t h e r s o i l s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 6 , it m a y
be assumed that the dynamic cohesion value was
p r o b a b l y a b o u t 1.5 t i m e s t h e c o h e s i o n in s t a t i c
loading. T h e n , w i t h t h e v a l u e s o f C = 45 k N / m 2 ,
a n d <t> = 30°, t h e f a c t o r o f s a f e t y w a s c o m p u t e d
t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f Eq. (33) . T h e r e s u l t o f t h e
s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e d that the m a g n i t u d e
of the m a x i m u m ho r i z o n t a l a c c e l e r a t i o n r e q uired
to b r i n g the c o m p u t e d safe t y fa c to r to u n i t y was
on the o r d e r of 450 gal for the slide u p h i l l the
h i g h w a y a n d o n t h e o r d e r of 500 g a l for the s l i d e
downhill from the highway. T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
t h e m a x i m u m a c c e l e r a t i o n s h o w n i n F i g . 97 i n d i ­
cates on the o t h e r h a n d that this a r e a m i g h t have
probably been shaken with a maximum acceleration
of 400 gal at the time of the I z u - O h s h i m a - K i n k a i Fig. 105 Location of Tsaoling slide area
e a r t h q u a k e o f 1 9 78. H o w e v e r , in v i e w of the
effects of to p o g r a p h y at the site of l a ndsliding
as d i s c u s s e d in t h e f o r e g o i n g s e c tion, the m a x i m u m
a c c e l e r a t i o n a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n l a r g e r t h a n 400
gal. T h e r e f o r e , it m a y b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t the r e ­
sults of the stab i l i t y a n a lysis as d e s c r i b e d above
a r e r o u g h l y in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the e s t i m a t e o f the
intensity of shaking based on other considerations.

13.2 F a i l u r e of S l o p e s in I n t e r b e d d e d S a n d s t o n e s
and Shales

The island of T a i w a n was shaken by a s t rong e a r t h ­

quake kn o w n as the Chi a - y i ea r t h q u a k e on Decem b e r
17, 1941. I t s m a g n i t u d e o f 7.1 w i t h a f o c a l d e p t h
o f 10 K m p l a c e d t h i s e v e n t a m o n g t h e g r e a t e s t
e a r t h q u a k e s to h a v e o c c u r r e d in T a i w a n in r e c e n t
years. T h e e p i c e n t e r w a s l o c a t e d a b o u t 10 K m
s o u t h e a s t of C h i a - y i c i t y in the s o u t h w e s t p a r t of
T a i w a n a s s h o w n in F i g . 105. A number of land­
s l i d e s a n d r o c k s l i d e s t o o k p l a c e in the m o u n t a i n s Fig. 106 T s a o l i n g m o u n t a i n slope b e f o r e the
w i t h i n a n a r e a o f a b o u t 50 K m f r o m t h e e p i c e n t e r . 1941 e a r t h q u a k e (Hung, 1977)
The m a i n features of the d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s of this
e v e n t a r e d e s c r i b e d b y H u n g (1977, 1 9 8 0 ) . By far
the most d e s t r uctive and geolog i c a l l y alluring
aspe c t of this e a r t h q u a k e was a c a t a c l y s m i c l a n d ­
s l i d e t h a t o c c u r r e d in t h e m o u n t a i n o f T s a o l i n g .
T h i s l a n d s l i d e a p p e a r s to b e a n e v e n t that, in
terms of the scale and volume, far exceeds any
l a n d s l i d e k n o w n to h a v e o c c u r r e d in h i s t o r i c time.

T h e t o p o g r a p h y in t h i s m o u n t a i n a r e a b e f o r e the
1941 e a r t h q u a k e is s h o w n i n F i g . 106. In the
v a l l e y south of the mountain, the Chinshui river
flows from e ast to west. A s tretch of a small
scarp ab o u t 800 m long had exi s t e d at an altitude
of a b o u t 800 m b e f o r e the e a r th q ua k e. This scarp
was p u r p o r t e d to h ave b een formed by an ea r t h q u a k e
w h i c h h i t t h i s a r e a i n 1 862. A t the time of the
1941 e v e n t , a c a t a c l y s m i c r o c k s l i d e t o o k p l a c e
w i t h a d e a f e n i n g n o i s e on the s o u t h e r n fl a nk of the
mountain. T h e l e n g t h of the s l i d e a r e a w a s as
l o n g as 800 K m a t the t o p a n d a b o u t 2 K m a t the
toe. The total amou n t of debris i n v olved was
e s t i m a t e d t o b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 m i l l i o n m 3 . A Mud w a te r
t o p o g r a p h i c m a p p u b l i s h e d 3 mont h s after the
e a r t h q u a k e is s h o w n i n F i g . 107. The slide debris
moved down the m o u n t a i n slope and over the col-
l uv i u m o n t o the o t h e r side of the C h i n g s h u i river.
The stream b l o c k e d by the slide debris formed a Fig. 107 Tsaoling mountain slope after
lake thereby changing the river course. The 1941 e a r t h q u a k e (Hung, 1977)

370
nat u r a l e a r t h d a m thus formed was e s t i m a t e d to be (a ) Before the 1941 earthquake
a b o u t 140 m h i g h a b o v e t h e r i v e r b e d a n d a b o u t
20 0 m w i d e a t t h e c r e s t e l e v a t i o n . O n A u g u s t 10, Old scarp
form ed by
1 9 42, t h e s l i d e a r e a s u f f e r e d h e a v y r a i n f a l l a n d
an o ther round of sliding took place on the same
s l o p e i n v o l v i n g t h e m o v e m e n t o f a b o u t 150 m i l l i o n
Old Chunshu
m 3 of debris. As a result of the seco n d slide,
t he t o p o g r a p h y in the slide a r e a w a s c h a n g e d to
some e xtent and the ele v a t i o n of the natural dam
w a s r a i s e d a b o u t 30 m a n d t h e w i d t h w a s e n l a r g e d
b y a b o u t 100 m a t t h e c r e s t l e v e l . O n A u g u s t 15, S liding
1 9 79, a t h i r d r o u n d o f l a n d s l i d e s t o o k p l a c e o n
(b ) Im m ediately a fte r
t h e same s l o p e as a r e s u l t o f f u r t h e r h e a v y r a i n ­ th e f ir s t slide due
fall, b u t the e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e of the topography to the 1941 Eq.
remained unchanged.

F o llowing the third landslide, some in-situ i n v e s ­ Upper stage

t i g a t i o n w a s c a r r i e d o u t b y H u n g e t al. (1981), scarp
i n c l u d i n g s u r v e y i n g an d b o r i n g at two sites. Lower stage
The locations of the b o r ings and a more detailed scarp
t o p o g r a p h i c m a p a r e s h o w n i n F i g . 108. The approx­ (c) A fte r th e second
s lid e in th e 1941
imate g e o l o g i c a l p r o f i l e t h r o u g h the c r os s section, earthquake
A - A', is p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 1 0 9 ( c ) , w h e r e i t m a y
New Chunshui

500 m 4 00-|
\Upperx
A ltitu de
\

Fig. 109 S c hematic pic t u r e of p r o g r e s s i v e

f ailure in the T s a o l i n g landslide
in 1941 a t c r o s s - s e c t i o n A - A'

this elevation. F o l l o w i n g the c h a i n o f s l i d i n g as

above a large amount of muddy water was reportedly
seen c o m i n g out of the debris near the sliding s u r ­
f a c e a s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 107. It m a y b e s p e c u ­
lated, therefore, that the first slide m u s t have
b e e n i n i t i a t e d in t h e l a y e r o f s h a l e o v e r l y i n g the
sandstone formation. The shale unit might have
probably been saturated with water which had infil­
t r a t e d t h r o u g h the cracks formed at the time of
the 1862 e ar t h q u a k e . T h u s , b y t h e t i m e o f t h e 1941
earthquake, seams of m y I o n i t e m i g h t h ave b een
Fig. 108 T s a o l i n g m o u n t a i n slope in 1980 formed in the shale unit, th e r e b y r e d u c i n g the
strength of the material. The aggravated condi­
tions as above m u s t h ave b e e n a d i r e c t cause of
be seen that the b e d rock consists of interbedded the de e p - s e a t e d slide w h i c h occu r r e d at the e l e v a ­
s h a l e s a n d s a n d s t o n e s d i p p i n g t o w a r d s the r i v e r at t i o n o f 800 m in T s a o l i n g . The frequent occurrence
a n a n g l e o f a b o u t 12°. T h e t o p o g r a p h i c a l m a p in o f t h i s t y p e o f s l i d e is p o i n t e d o u t b y D e e r e a n d
F i g . 108 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e h u g e l a n d s l i d e i n i t i a l ­ P a t t o n (1971). T h e s e c o n d s l i d e t o o k p l a c e in t h e
l y t r i g g e r e d b y t h e 1941 e a r t h q u a k e c o n s i s t e d o f near-surface rock formation consisting of inter­
two parts which occurred at different altitudes. b e d d e d s a n d s t o n e s a n d s h a l e s , a s i l l u s t r a t e d in
I t is s p e c u l a t e d t h a t a s l i d e w a s f i r s t t r i g g e r e d Fig. 109(c). T h u s it a p p e a r s l i k e l y t h a t in this
f r o m the o l d s c a r p at the a l t i t u d e of a b o u t 800 m c a s e also, s a t u r a t e d s a n d s t o n e b e d s o r s e a m s of
i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 106 w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e mylonite shales dipping downwards created a series
l o w e r s t a g e s c a r p s h o w n i n F i g . 108. This slide o f s l i d i n g p l a n e s , r e l e a s i n g a h u g e v o l u m e of
was followed by the second slide starting from the d e b r i s o v e r the m o u n t a i n slope.
u p p e r stage scarp at the a l t i t u d e of about 1000 m
i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 108. The chain of events in­ I n t h e a b s e n c e 'o f a n y d a t a o n t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e
v o l v e d in the s l i d i n g a l o n g the c r o s s s e c t i o n w e a t h e r e d s a n d s t o n e s a n d t h e m y l o n i t e s h a l e s , it
A - A' i n F i g . 108 m a y b e s p e c u l a t e d a s i l l u s t r a t ­ is i m p o s s i b l e a t p r e s e n t t o d i s c u s s t h e c a u s e o f
e d i n Fig. 109. It a p p e a r s l i k e l y t h a t a h u g e the slides quantitatively, but the overall c o n s i d ­
b l o c k of r ock first slid d o w n fro m the lower stage erations disc u s s e d above indicate that the s t a b i l i ­
s c a r p t h r o u g h a d i s t a n c e of a b o u t 100 m t h e r e b y ty of interbedded sandstone and shales during
f o r m i n g a g r a b e n b e h i n d i t a s s h o w n i n F i g . 109 e a r t h q u a k e s s h o u l d b e e x a m i n e d w i t h t h e h e l p of
(b) . The rock existing downslope was pushed knowledge on the geological and hydrological c on­
d o w n w a r d a n d b r o u g h t t o t h e r i v e r s i t e w h e r e it d i t i o n s at the site.
col l a p s e d into scree or debris. The first slide
might have induced the second slide upslope leav­
ing t h e u p p e r s t a g e s c a r p a t t h e e l e v a t i o n of 13.3 F a i l u r e of S l o p e s in C o l l u v i u m
a b o u t 1 0 0 0 m. The direct cause of this second
slide appears to be the u n d e r c u t t i n g at the a l t i ­ T h e b i g g e s t e v e n t in s c a l e a t the t i m e o f the
tude of 800 m r e s u l t i n g from the first slide b e l o w M o n t e N e g r o e a r t h q u a k e of 1979 w as a l a n d s l i d e

371
t hat o c c u r r e d in the v i l l a g e of K a l i m a n located T he m a i n poin t s d e r i v e d from the o v e r v i e w of the
a b o u t 10 K m i n l a n d in t h e r u g g e d c o a s t a l m o u n t a i n c u r r e n t s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t m a y b e s u m m a r i z e d as
r a n g e (Fig. 72) . T h e s l i d e w h i c h c o v e r e d a s l o p e follows.
a r e a a b o u t 300 m w i d e a n d 700 m long, w a s i n i t i ­
ated two days after the earthquake and involved
the m o v e m e n t of soils a m o u n t i n g to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1. The liquefaction and cyclic mobility charac­
1 , 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 m. At the top of the slide, a junction t e r i s t i c s o f s o i l s o t h e r t h a n c l e a n s a n d s h a v e not
exists b e t ween the limestone uphill and the u n d e r ­ bee n the s ubject of c o m p r e h e n s i v e investi g a t i o n
l y i n g c l a y s t o n e f o r m a t i o n (flysh) a s i l l u s t r a t e d or discussion. Ev a l u a t i o n of the liquefaction
i n F i g . 110. A c c o r d i n g to a n a c c o u n t of a v i l l a g ­ pote n t i a l of f i n e - g r a i n e d soils and coarse-grained
er, s e v e r a l s e r i e s o f c r a c k s w e r e o p e n e d a t t h e soils are important p r o blems requ i r i n g further in­
vestigation. W i t h r e s p e c t to f i n e - g r a i n e d soils,
c l a y o r s i l t w i t h l o w p l a s t i c i t y i n d e x s u c h as
ta i lings m a t e r i a l has bee n found to be as v u l n e r a ­
b l e to l i q u e f a c t i o n as a r e l o o s e c l e a n sands.
H o w e v e r , l i t t l e is k n o w n a b o u t t h e l i q u e f a c t i o n
potential of clay or silt wit h hig h p l a sticity
index. Since the p h y s i c a l pr o p e r t i e s of these
s o i l s a r e s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d b y l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s of
d e p o s i t i o n , e f f o r t s s h o u l d be m a d e to t e s t local
s o i l s b o t h in the l a b o r a t o r y o r i n - s i t u to s u p p l e ­
m e n t i n f o r m a t i o n in t h i s r e g a r d .

W i t h r e gard to c o a r s e - g r a i n e d soils, the p o s s i b i l i ­

t y o f l i q u e f a c t i o n e x i s t s f o r s a n d c o n t a i n i n g some
a mount of gravel. It a p p e a r s n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r ­
Fig. 110 Profile of lands l i d i n g at Velji m i n e t h e r e f o r e h o w r e s i s t a n c e t o l i q u e f a c t i o n is
K a l i m a n , 1979 M o n t e N e g r o e a r t h q u a k e i ncr e a s e d wit h i n c r easing p e r c e n t a g e s of gravel.
This m ay be done through the use of large-scale
t e s t e q u i p m e n t s o r s h a k i n g t a b l e s in t h e l a b o ratory.
j u n c t i o n d u r i n g the e a r t h q u a k e , and f o l l o w i n g the
r ainfall two days later, the soil mass started For b o t h of these types of soil , there are no
g r a d u a l l y to move downhill, l eaving scarps about w i d e l y a c c e p t e d p r o c e d u r e s f o r t e s t i n g b o t h i n the
5 m h igh at the top of the slide. I t is s p e c u ­ l a b o r a t o r y a n d in t h e field. D e v e l o p m e n t of appro­
lated that the d e v e l o p m e n t of the cracks might p r i a t e t e s t p r o c e d u r e s is a n e c e s s a r y s t e p f o r
have al t e r e d seepage paths under the ground, m a k ­ e v a l u a t i n g t h e c y c l i c b e h a v i o r o f f i n e - g r a i n e d and
i n g it e a s i e r f o r t h e r a i n w a t e r t o s e e p i n t o t h e c o a r s e - g r a i n e d soils.
debris near the surface. W ith a supply of more
w a t e r , t h e d e b r i s a b o u t 5 t o 15 m t h i c k c o n s i s t i n g
of wea t h e r e d limestone and claystone well have 2. F o r c l e a n sand, i n f o r m a t i o n on the cyc l ic
b e c o m e w a t e r - s a t u r a t e d a n d softer, l e a d i n g to the m o b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d e n s e s a n d is n o t s u f ­
m a s s i v e e a r t h f l o w t h r o u g h a d i s t a n c e o f a b o u t 50 ficiently available to derive any clear-cut conclu­
t o 1 0 0 m. sions. Since undist u r b e d samples of dense sand
a r e h i g h l y s u s c e p t i b l e to d i s t u r b a n c e , e f f o r t s
Th e e x p e r i e n c e in the K a l i m a n l a n d s l i d e i n d i c a t e s s ho u l d be m a k e to e l i m i n a t e this d e l e t e r i o u s effect
that while the earthquake shaking may not have a n d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e a l b e h a v i o r o f i n - s i t u d ense
b e e n t h e d i r e c t c a u s e of the slide, it a l t e r e d the sands by means of l a b o ratory tests.
ground water conditions by local ruptures thereby
enha n c i n g the s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to a l a rge-scale
earth flow which took place following the earth­ 3. The d e v e l o p m e n t of liqu e f a c t i o n d u r i n g e a r t h ­
quake . q u a k e s in s o m e ' l a y e r of the g r o u n d d o e s n o t always
m e a n that g r o u n d dama g e such as sand b o i l i n g and
fissuring will result. If a t h i c k l a y e r of u n l i q -
uefiable soil exists near the g round surface and
CONCLUDING REMARKS if t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g l a y e r o f l i q u e ­
f i e d s a n d is t h i n , t h e n t h e d a m a g i n g e f f e c t s o f
liquefaction will not be m a n i f e s t e d at the ground
N o w that two decades have p assed since the d e v a s ­ surface. Therefore, there a p p e a r to be some
t a t i n g e a r t h q u a k e s in N i i g a t a a n d A l a s k a , t h e s u b ­ t h reshold thicknesses of the surface layer and
ject of soil liq u e f a c t i o n has g r o w n into a major underlying liquefiable sand layer differentiating
f i e l d in s o i l d y n a m i c s f o r w h i c h a v a s t a m o u n t o f b et w e e n co n d i t i o n s p r o d u c i n g d a mage and no
k n o w l e d g e b o t h in r e s e a r c h a n d p r a c t i c e h a s b e e n damage at the ground surface. A correlation bet­
accumulated. It a p p e a r s t h a t t h e b a s i c a s p e c t s of w e e n t h e s e t h r e s h o l d t h i c k n e s s e s is u s e f u l t o
the soil l i q u e f a c t i o n p h e n o m e n o n s u c h as the t r i g ­ i d e n t i f y a s i t e w i t h a g i v e n s o i l p r o f i l e f r o m the
gering mechanisms, influencing factors and p r e ­ v i e w p o i n t o f w h e t h e r o r n o t s u r f a c e d a m a g e is l i k e ­
dictive methods have been throughly investigated, ly t o b e b r o u g h t a b o u t a s a r e s u l t o f l i q u e f a c t i o n .
but there still r e main m any issues ope n to q u e s ­ This problem also requires further investigation,
tion and also novel features yet to be explored s i n c e i t is n e c e s s a r y f o r c a r r y i n g o u t m i c r o z o n i n g
w i t h r espect to f u n d a mentals and p r a ctice of l i q ­ w o r k in a p a r t i c u l a r area.
uefaction during earthquakes.

T h e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e f o r e g o i n g p a g e s is i n t e n d ­ 4. A n a l y s i s o f l i q u e f a c t i o n is g e n e r a l l y m a d e
ed to identify focal p o ints of c o n t r o v e r s y and u n ­ using the simple pro c e d u r e based on the total
c e r t a i n t y in the p r e s e n t s t a t e of k n o w l e d g e a n d stress principle. In t h i s m e t h o d , s h e a r s t r e s s e s
p r a c t i c e in the s u b j e c t a r e a of t h i s a d d ress. induced by motions during earthquakes are roughly

372
e s t i m a t e d from a force e q u i l i b r i u m r e l a t i o n for Engineering, Bucharest, Romania ; Mrs. Liu Huishan
soil c o lumn located near the g r o u n d surface or of Cen t r a l R e s e a r c h I nstitute of B u i l d i n g and
they can be more accurately determined by wave C onstruction, Mini s t r y of M e t a llurgy Industry,
p r o p a g a t i o n a n a l y s i s w h i c h takes into a c c o u n t the B e i j i n g , C h i n a ; P r o f e s s o r L. T. Y o u d o f B r i g h a m
effects of soil d e f o r m a b i l i t y . How e v e r be c a u s e Y o u n g U n i v e r s i t y a n d Dr. K. K a w a s h i m a o f P u b l i c
p o r e p r e s s u r e b u i l d - u p in t h e s o i l is n o t d i r e c t l y Works R e s e a r c h Institute, M i n i s t r y of Construction,
c o n s i d e r e d in t o t a l s t r e s s a n a l y s i s , t h e c o m p u t e d Japan.
shear stresses are sometimes greater than those
a c t u a l l y d e v e l o p e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n t h e s o i l is P r o f e s s o r Y. Y o s h i m i o f T o k y o I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o ­
d e f o r m e d to a s t a t e of n e a r - f a i l u r e . In o r d e r to logy k indly o f f e r e d the information on liquefaction
eliminate this error, a more exact method of a p ­ c a s e r e c o r d s a n d P r o f e s s o r L. W. D. F i n n o f U n i v e r ­
p r o a c h h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d in r e c e n t y e a r s b a s e d on sity of British Columbia provided invaluable sug­
the e f f e c t i v e str e ss pr i nc i pl e . This approach re­ g e s tion on the w r i t i n g of this report. The kindest
quires a more complete mod e l l i n g of soil behavior o f f e r w a s p r o v i d e d b y P r o f e s s o r H. B. S e e d o f U n i ­
under cyclic loading conditions about which many v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a for the e n o r m o u s w o r k to r e ­
p o ints of c o n t r o v e r s y still exist. In v i e w o f the v i e w the o r i g i n a l m a n u s c r i p t of this paper.
g r e a t i n t e r e s t in t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e l i q u e f a c t i o n
p h e n o m e n o n , i t is h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e t o h a v e f u r t h e r M o s t o f the r e c e n t t e s t d a t a i n t r o d u c e d in this
d i s c u s s i o n s of this subject. p a p e r a r e t h o s e o b t a i n e d b y K. H a g a f o r h i s b a t c h -
elor d e g r e e a n d b y H. N a g a s e f o r h i s P h D d i s s e r t a ­
tion at the U n i v e r s i t y of Tokyo.
5. In c o n t r a s t t o t h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e e f f o r t s in
the study of soil liquefaction, probl e m s of s e i s ­ The a u t h o r w i shes to express his dee p and sincere
mic s tability of n atural slopes have not b een in ­ thanks to all the per s o n s as above for their k i n d ­
v e s t i g a t e d or d i s c u s s e d extensively. One reason nesses and overall cooporations. Thanks are also
f o r t h i s l a c k o f i n t e r e s t w o u l d p r o b a b l y l i e in t o b e e x p r e s s e d t o t h e c o l l e a g u e , M r . K. S u g o , f o r
the d i f f i c u l t y of asse s s i n g s t r ength c h a r a c t e r i s ­ his enormous work for d r a wing all the figures d e m ­
tics of s l o p e - f o r m i n g soil m a t e r i a l s under seismic o n s t r a t e d in t h i s p aper.
loading conditions. Gen e r a l l y slopes are composed
o n p a r t i a l l y s a t u r a t e d c o h e s i v e s o i l s f o r w h i c h it
is d i f f i c u l t t o e v a l u a t e s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n a
unified fashion. The o t h e r r e ason w o u l d be that REFERENCES
s l i d i n g of s l o p e s o c c u r s in m a n y c a s e s in m o u n t a i n
areas where needs for e n g i n eering c o n s ideration A n i c i c , D., B e r z , G., B o o r e , D . , B o u w k a m p , J.,
are not stringent. H a k e n b e c k , U. , M c G u i r e , R . , S i m s , J. a n d
W i e c z o r e k , G. ( 1 9 80), " R e c o n n a i s s a n c e R e p o r t ,
The first step towards coping with slope stability M o n t e N e g r o , Y u g o s l a v i a E a r t h q u a k e A p r i l 15,
p r o b l e m d u ring e arthquakes will thus be to d e v elop 1979," E a r t h q u a k e E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h Institute,
a methodology to define strength-deformation char­ Berkeley, California.
ac t e r i s t i c s of n atural soil d e p osits under slopes.
One possible approach to this goal has been sug­ A r u l a n a n d a n , K., H a r v e y , S. J. a n d C h a k , J. S.
g e s t e d in the p r e c e d i n g p a g e s of this p a p e r a n d (198 1 ) , " E l e c t r i c a l C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f S o i l
other methods will u n d o u b t e d l y be used for this for In-Situ M e a s u r e m e n t of L i q u e f a c t i o n P o t e n ­
purpose. For further progress, the a q u i sition of tial," International Conference on Recent
mor e test dat a on soil pro p e r t i e s appears to be a A d v a n c e s in G e o t e c h n i c a l E a r t h q u a k e E n g i n e e r i n g
necessary prerequisite. a n d S o i l D y n a m i c s , " St. L o u i s , V o l . Ill, pp.
1223-1229.

6. A s is t h e c a s e w i t h t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l s l o p e B o t e a , E., P e r l e a , V a n d P e r l e a , M. (198 0 ) , " L i q ­

stab i l i t y problems, the a s s e s s m e n t of the seismic u e f a c t i o n S u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f S a n d D e p o s i t s in
stability of slopes can not be succ e s s f u l l y made the D a nube F l o o d Plain," Proc. 6 th Danube-
u n l e s s d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n is g i v e n t o l o c a l Euro p e a n C o n ference on Soil Mechanics and F o u n ­
geological and hydrological conditions prevailing d a t i o n E n gi n e e r i n g , Varna, Bulgar i a, p p . 51-64.
in a r e a s o f l a n d s l i d i n g . In v i e w of this, s t u d i e s
of individual cases of e a r t h q u a k e - t r i g g e r e d l a n d ­ C a s a g r a n d e A. (193 3 ) , " R e s e a r c h o n t h e A t t e r b e r g
slides are extremely important to obtain a better L i m i t s o f S o i l s , " P u b l i c R o a d s , V o l . 13, pp.
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the p h e n o m e n a and to d e v e l o p a 121-136.
truly realistic and meaningful state-of-the-art
in this s u b j e c t area. I t is s u g g e s t e d h e r e i n t h a t C a s t r o , G. (197 5 ) , " L i q u e f a c t i o n a n d C y c l i c M o b i l i ­
the most frequently en c o u n t e r e d cases are land- t y o f S a t u r a t e d S a n d s , " P r o c . A S C E , V o l . 101,
s l i d i n g in a r e a s o f r e s i d u a l s o i l s s u c h as w e a t h e r ­ G T 6 , p p . 551-569.
e d s h a l e s , w e a t h e r e d l i m e s t o n e s and v o l c a n i c soils.
C a s e s t u d i e s of s l o p e f a i l u r e s in t h e s e a r e a s d u r ­ C h a n g , F. K. ( 1 9 7 6 ) , " A n E m p i r i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n
ing e a r t h q u a k e s s h o u l d b e e n c o u r a g e d . of the Effects of Top o g r a p h y on G r ound Motion
of the San Fernando, California, Earthquake, 9
F ebr u a r y 1971," Misce l l a n e o u s paper S - 7 6 - 1 ,
U. S. A r m y E n g i n e e r W a t e r w a y s E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n ,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Vicksburg, Miss.

D u r i n g the r e v i e w of l i teratures a n d e v a l u a t i o n of C o u l t e r , H. W. a n d M i g l i a c c i o , R. R. (196 6 ) , "

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