1.

Evolution of tombs in india

Today tombs or memorials are rarely constructed but centuries earlier the rulers laid emphasis on
constructing tombs. The tomb was an important concern for rulers, the Egyptian Pharaohs built
Pyramids during their lifetimes and in India the Mughal kings inspite of constant warfare took time
for building tombs during their rule. I n Egypt the shape of the pyramid was a triangle, in Stonehenge
the monument was set in a circular shape. In India the shape was a combination of the square and
circle with the plan being square in shape and a hemispherical dome placed over it.
The plan changed from square to octagonal to a combination of square and octagon as it may have
been easier to construct the dome over an octagon than a square.
The tomb architecture of the Slave dynasty was part of a complex and indigenous system; in the Lodi
and Mughal dynasties the scale of the tomb was monumental, set in landscaped gardens and had
Persian influence.
The Mughal rulers were powerful and wealthy giving importance to landscaping, with the monument
being placed in the Char-bagh (or four gardens). The tomb of Islamic rulers was generally lavishly
decorated and had expensive materials like marble and sandstone clad over it. In spite of poor
economic conditions in the Tughlaq period the practice of tomb building continued with the builders
resorting to inexpensive materials like rubble covered with plaster. Each of the tomb evolved blending
features of the earlier tomb with new ideas.
The tomb can be classified in two types the open and closed, the open consisting mostly of the
octagonal type with pillared verandahs and the square tombs being closed type with the entrance in
the form of a central archway.
The tomb of the Iltutmish (fig. 1) built during the Slave Dynasty marks the beginning of the tomb
architecture on which later tomb of Tughlaqs and Lodis developed. The tomb is situated at the North
western corner of the Qutb Mosque.The exterior of the building is relatively plain with horizontal
bands at intervals and a decorated central arch. The dome had collapsed due to inexperience of the
Hindu builders to construct a tomb. The basic concept of the Tomb of Iltutmish was the circular dome
supported on the square cube, involving a phase of transition from the square, octagon, a sixteen sided
polygon to finally a circle. The domes of Islamic monuments in India were supported by method of
squinches. In the tomb of Iltutmish the squinch took the form of a half dome with the facing of an
elaborately decorated arch. The tomb could also be a place for prayer with western side that included
three mihrabs in the interior face, intricately carved with inscriptions. Tomb of Iltutmish, 1235 AD
The tomb is placed diagonally and oriented towards the Mecca and is constructed of red sandstone
with the slope of the wall at an angle of 75 degrees with the ground. The slope could have been made
to imitate the nearby fort walls of Tughlaqabad. The finial at the apex of the marble dome resembles
the kalasa and amala of a Hindu Temple. The exterior is decorated with various elements like
merlons, paneled niches and a central recessed arch with spearhead fringes.The doorway has a slight
projection
The tomb of Ghiasuddin Tughlaq (fig. 2) was built on a fortress which stands within an artificial
lake. It is a combination of lintel and arch with a stone grille in between, the lintel being an
indigenous system of construction which loses its structural significance and becomes ornamental.
The arch of the doorway is surrounded by a marble band and also supported by nook shafts on either
side. During the rule of Firuz Tughlaq the tombs constructed were plain devoid of ornamentation with
inexpensive materials like rubble, lime and plaster. There was lack of skilled craftsmen and poor
economic conditions prevailed due to the shifting of the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad by his
predecessor, Muhammed Tughlaq.
The plain walls of the tomb of Firuz Shah (fig.3) have a slight slope and is decorated with merlons
on two tiers one above the cube and second above the octagonal dome. On the outer surface the there
is a slight projection towards the centre emphasizing the entrance of the door. On the southern side is
a low platform with a stone railing of horizontals and verticals. The exterior and interior of the tomb
has limited ornamentation. The tomb of Telengani, an official of Feroz Tughlaq is the first octagonal
tomb with verandahs on eight sides. On each side of the faces are three arches and a wide chajja, a
typical Hindu element projects on all the faces. The tomb also marks the development of octagonal
tombs of later Sayyids and Mughal Period.
The Eklakhi tomb (fig.4) in Bengal is a modified version of the cube and hemisphere of the Imperial
Style with the dome being supported by thick walls instead of squinches. Because of heavy rains in
the regions the roof of the tomb was designed with a slight curve and a heavy cornice to throw of the
excess rain water. The role of the indigenous craftsmen is seen in the exterior surface being decorated
with ornamental panels. The tomb is divided in to bays with pilasters and a string course giving the
appearance of a two storied structure. It evokes the Imperial style with octagonal turrets at each
corner. There is dominance of solid over void in the façade with a narrow doorway with pointed arch.
The tomb is octagonal in the interior with the door being a combination of the arch and beam
influenced by the tomb of Ghiasuddin Tughlaq.
The octagonal tomb of Mubarak Sayyid (1434 AD ) is placed in a landscaped garden unlike the
earlier tombs which were part of a complex. The tomb of Mubarak Sayyid was of experimental nature
as the upper dome is visually hidden behind the smaller kiosks and this error was rectified in the later
tombs. An innovative feature on face of the octagonal are arched verandahs shaded by chajjas and
decorated by merlons on top. The angles of the tomb are sloped by means of a sloping projection,
evocative of tomb of the Feroz Shah. A decorative feature which differentiates the design of the
domes from the earlier tombs is the petal like motif at the base of the dome.
The square shaped Shish Gumbad (fig.5) has no sloping parts and is reminiscent of the Alai Darwaza
with projecting entrance and blind arcades on the first floor giving an appearance of a two storied
structure. On the parapet wall are small turrets which define the exterior of the tomb and the drum of
the dome is decorated with petal shaped motif. The cornice and string course of the the tomb is
decorated with coloured glazed tile.
The tomb of Sikander Lodi (fig.6) is built without kiosks and has a double dome -a Persian concept
– an inner and outer shell. This creates an imposing exterior and reduces the scale of
disproportionately tall interior. On each of the octagonal side are arched verandahs taking the cue
from the earlier tomb of Mubarak Sayyid. The tomb is the focus of an elaborately landscaped garden
within a walled enclosure and gateways on all four surrounding sides. The later Mughal tombs were
based on the idea of double domes and tombs related to landscape.
The tomb of Sher Shah (fig. 7) proportions are placed on an artificial lake, connected by means of
causeway to the mainland. The form is pyramidal in five distinct stages not strikingly different from
its Sayyid Prototype. The height increases with kiosks at each angle the plan being octagonal in shape.
The lower storey is in the form of a verandah having triple arches in each of its sides with a projecting
chajja and a high parapet with merlon motifs. The shape of the structure changes at each level from a
square basement to octagonal tiers and a circular dome.
The plan of Humayun’s Tomb (fig.8) is composed of five octagons with chamfered corners and the
tomb is placed in the centre of a large walled garden. Some of the ideas developed for design of
Humayun’s Tomb like double dome, charbagh concept had precedence in the Sayyid and Lodi
Tombs. It has monumental gateways and stands on a large platform containing arcades and vaulted
chambers. The tomb is of a family more than individual tomb, the surrounding chambers contain
sarcophagus of his wife, and later Mughal emperors. The kiosks surrounding the marble dome in
tombs of Sayyid Dynasty had matured to chattris with chajja, an indigenous influence. An innovative
detail is the spandrel of the arches highlighted with light brown sandstone and marble bands
emphasizing its shape. The marble bands are a decorative feature which gives a sense of unity to the
whole structure. The central Iwan on all four sides of the monument resembles the maqsura screen of
a mosque and obscure the dome. The exterior has an undulating effect with various faces of the
octagonal mass producing a contrast of recessed arches with smaller blind arches. Slender minarets
and chattris are placed at corner of the building creating an interesting skyline. The Humayun’s tomb
has the characteristics of all earlier tombs with certain modifications with the kiosks transformed to
chattris, the simple square and octagonal shape of the earlier tombs have been combined in the
octagonal composition, rectangular panels of Alai Minar with arches incised in them, the arcades of
Mubarak Sayyid, merlon motifs on the parapet and is considered one of the crowning glories of
Mughal Architecture.
2. Rock Cut Caves Chaitya hall, Bhaje – Buddhist monument

 Constructed for residential purpose and meditation. Interior walls have smooth surface
 Architecture and construction detailing are derivatives of timber and thatched construction
hued out in stone The chaitya hall at Bhaja, Maharashtra (100–70BCE), besides being much
larger than the rest, dissolves the distinction between the stupa chamber, with its parikrama
path and antechamber. It fuses them into one large space while maintaining the distinctive
presence of the parikrama path by creating a long, U-shaped colonnade that extends the entire
length of the hall. The consequence is a simple and elegant building that has the effect of
separating an independent three dimensional form from within the larger excavation. The
hall’s presence is projected at the entrance in the form of a large opening with a horse shoe-
shaped top, reflecting the vaulted ceiling of the hall. As is the case with all Buddhist rock-cut
architecture, the caitya hall at Bhaja is carved out to faithfully imitate wood construction,
complete with ribs, inward leaning columns, and traces of joinery. The exterior facade carved
around the central opening consists of a number of miniaturized faux building facades,
complete with carved human figures leaning over railings. One of the largest and most
impressive of the Buddhist chaityas was built in 120 CE at Karli, on the western Deccan
Plateau. About 40m deep and 12 m wide

 the Karli cave is fronted by a recessed entrance of stone screens that has holes in it, indicating
that originally, a larger wooden construction was added to complete the building.

 Just beyond the screen, on the left, is a large pillar carved from the same matrix as the rest of
the cave.
 The central panel of the cave entrance is dominated by several panels of male female couples,
 The end wall of the entrance portico displays a stamped-out, repeated set of horseshoe-arched
building motifs that sit a top a plinth composed of life-size elephants, as if they were
supporting the weight of the superstructure
 The entrance panels also contain bodhisattvas, but these were carved in the late 5th century
CE, when the iconography was “modernized.”)
 Compared to earlier chaitya caves, the width of Karli’s central space is much more generous
in relation to its height and depth.
 pillars separating the central nave from the aisles have a pot base, an octagonal shaft, inverted
lotus capital with an abacus.
 The abacus has exquisitely carved pairs of elephants kneeling down, each with a couple in
front and caparisoned horses with riders on them.
 The stupa at the apse end is tall and cylindrical with two tiers of railings around the drum. It is
crowned by the original wooden chhatra.
 The Karli stupa the focus of a hierarchical composition. The stupa itself is relatively simple in
form. simple hemisphere sits atop a slightly tapered base, ornamented with carved vedikas.
 its chattri rises simply from a rectangular base, or harmika, which expands into mushrooming
tiers of horizontal bands.
 then it suddenly projects into space on a high vertical stambha, upon which sits the final
chattri, which becomes the focus of the entire composition. The chattri catches the light in the
dark surroundings and there by appears as a horizontal flash in the vertical composition. The
chattri denotes the umbrella of the Buddhist ideal under which the monk finds shelter and
faith.)
3. Dravid style
characteristics:
 A temple consisted of -- Vimanas, Gopurams, Mantapams and Chaultries.The parts of
the temple followed the ritual
 The Vimana was the central plot, the land on which the temple is built. And it was
generally a square-large area, where the main idol was placed.
 A vast gateway, which led to different parts of the temple with pillars the length of its
path, was known as the Mantapam-the porch.
 The “Koil” cannot be pictured without the quadrangular beautifully decorated towers,
with the Kalasham on top. This tapering Gopuram is divided into many storeys and is
decorated with sculptures and paintings, of the respective temple’s deity or instances
from Hindu Mythology.
 The premier Vaishnava temple in Srirangam, Tamilnadu-The SriRangam Koil has the
tallest Hindu Gopuram in the world.
 Chaultries or vast pillard halls were also a part of most large temples and they were
used to perform Yagnas, weddings or even dance/music performances in front of the
king.
 The entire temple revolves around the main deity. The stone or bronze idol of this
deity resides in the innermost room of the Sanctum Sanctorum, the ‘GharbhaGriha’
which literally means the ‘house like a womb’, where only priests are allowed.
 With a skilfully decorated entrance and a surrounding circumambulatory path, this
GharbhaGriha is the square-room of peace and equilibrium. And the front porch
usually has a big metallic bell that hangs from the ceiling. Devotees entering and
leaving the porch ring this bell to declare their arrival and departure.
 south Indian temples (12th century onwards) were surrounded by series of concentric
protective walls called the prakaras.
 Towers erected over the entrance gateways of these walls are known as Gopuras or
Gopurams. These towers can go over fifty meters tall ( 100 – 150 Feet tall). A Gopura
is generally constructed with a massive stone base and a superstructure of brick and
pilaster.
 Gopura is rectangular in plan and topped by a barrel-vault roof crowned with a row of
finials. It differs from the Vimana over the central shrine in that it need not
necessarily be square-based.
 the Gopura too resembles a Mandala; With sculptures and carvings of Yalis and
mythical animals located in the outer enclosure.
 Humans and divine beings are in the inner enclosures.
 The peak of the Gopura, the Kalasha, is at the centre of the Mandala. These
sculptures follow a variety of themes derived from the Hindu mythology, particularly
those associated with the presiding deity of the temple where the gopuram is located.
 Symbolically, the Gopura or the entrance to the temple represent the feet of the deity.
 A devotes bows at the feet of the Lord at the entrance as he steps into the temple and
proceeds towards the sanctum, leaving behind the world of contradictions.
  the crest of the Gopuram has the same significance of representing the central
Brahmasthan which is the energy field of any building.
 This energy field in three dimension is taken to the top level of the gopuram and this
confers spiritual benefits to the visitors of the temple.
 In the Sri Rangam temple the seven concentric prakara walls are said to represent the
seven layers of matter-earth, water, fire, air, either, mind and intelligence-that
envelop the consciousness of the living entities in the material world

• Unlike the nagara temple, the dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.

• The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as Gopura/ Gopuram.
• The shape of the main temple tower is known as Vimana (shikhara in nagara style).
• The vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rise up geometrically rather than the curving
shikhara of north India.
• In south India, the word Shikhara is used only for the crowning element at the top of the
temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola (this is equivalent
to the amalaka or kalasha of north Indian temples).

Parts of the temple common in most temples in south

sanctum sanctorum is the PRADAKSHINAPATHA, which is a circumambulatory passage for
devotees.
 In front of the Garbha Griha is the MUKHA MANTAPA, also called ARDHA MANTAPA,
which is normally used for keeping articles of worship.
 ANTARALA is the narrow passage, which connects GARBHA GRIHA and MUKA
MANTAPA to the hall called MANTAPA This the place where religious discourses or the
recitation of mythological verses takes place.
 All temples have a DHVAJASTAMBHA or flag post in front of the MANTAPA. On top of
this is the LANCHANA or insignia of the deity.
 For example in Vishnu temples it is GARUDA. Near the DHVAJASTAMBHA is the
BALIPEEDA, which is a pedestal for sacrificial offering. High walls called PRAKARA are
built on the perimeter of the temple complex and in the main entrance is the GOPURAM,
which is the main gate with a high tower.

Nagara style
Characteristics
Garbhagriha:
 It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like sanctum.
 In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance.
 Later it grew into a larger complex.
 The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of
much ritual attention.
Mandapa:
 It is the entrance to the temple.
 It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that
incorporate space for a large number of worshippers.
 Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here.
 Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa
and Mahamandapa.
Shikhara or Vimana:
 They are mountain like spire of a free standing temple.
 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.
 Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal like structure.
Amalaka:
 It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North Indian
temples.
  Kalasha:
 It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.
  Antarala (vestibule):
 Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall (mandapa).
 Jagati:
 It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.
Vahana:
 It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar
or Dhvaj which is placed axially before the sanctum.
Sculptures, Iconography and Ornamentation
 Iconography is a branch of art history which studies the images of deities.
 It consists of identification of image based on certain symbols and mythology associated with
them.
 Even though the fundamental myth and meaning of the deity may remain the same for
centuries, its specific usage at a spot can be a response to its local or immediate social, political
or geographical context.
 Every region and period produce its own distinct style of images with its regional variations
in iconography.
 The temple is covered with elaborate sculptures and ornament that form a fundamental part of
its conception.
 The placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned: for instance,river goddesses
(Ganga and Yamuna) are visually found at the entrances in a Nagara temple, Dwarapalas are
usually found on the gateway or gopurams of Dravida temples, similarly mithunas (erotic
images), navagrahas ( the 9 auspicious planets) and Yakshas are also placed at the entrances to
guard them.
 Various forms or aspects of the main divinity are to be found on the outer walls of the
sanctum.
 The ashtadikpalas (deities of direction) face eight key directions on the outer walls of the
sanctum and/or on the outer walls of the temple.
 Subsidiary shrines around the main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of the
main deity.
 The various elements of ornamentation are gavaksha, vyala/ yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka,
kalasha, etc.
 4. St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome – early Christian building
The Saint Peter’s Church, also called St. Peter’s Basilica is a late Renaissance church within
Vatican City. It is Europe’s largest Christian church. • It is the second church to stand above the
crypt (tomb) believed to hold the body of Saint Peter, the first pope. • St. Peter’s is built in the
shape of a cross. There has been a church on this site since the 4th century. • Construction of
the present basilica, over the old Constantinian basilica, began on 18 April 1506 and was
completed on 18 November 1626. • As a work of architecture, it is regarded as the greatest
building of its age.
HISTORY
The first St. Peter’s Church was begun by Constantine the Great about 325. He built the church
to celebrate his acceptance of Christianity. • The church was modeled on the Basilica, a
rectangular building used as a meeting hall by the Romans. Four rows of columns, extending
almost the length of the church, divided it into a nave with two aisles on either side.
In 1452, Pope Nicholas V began to restore and expand the church. The restoration continued
until 1506, when Pope Julius II decided to rebuild the church completely. • During its
construction, 10 different architects worked on St. Peter’s and changed its design. • The first
architect was Donato Bramante. He designed a domed, perfectly symmetrical church in the form
of a Greek cross(a cross with four arms of equal length).
PLANNING
1.  BRAMANTE’S PLAN Donato Bramante won Pope Julius II Della Rovere’s design
contest for the new church. Bramante proposed a Greek Cross plan, the centre of which
would be surmounted by a dome slightly larger than that of the Pantheon.
2. . RAPHAEL’S PLAN Raphael’s plan was for a basilica in the form of a Roman Cross with
a short pronaos and a façade.
3.  MICHELANGELO’S PLAN Michelangelo changed Bramante’s plan for a balanced and
restful dome into a dynamic construction. He put a drum(ring) at the base of the dome
that appears to be squeezing the dome and forcing its sides to spring upwards. He
shortened Raphael’s nave, but Carlo Maderno added back the nave and added the
famous façade.
4. CARLO MADERNO’S PLAN He made the most significant contribution since
Michelangelo, because he pulled down the remaining parts of Old St. Peter's and
proceeded to transform Michelangelo's centralized Greek-cross design into a Latin cross
with a long nave.
5.  MADERNO’S PLAN • This extension of the basilica was undoubtedly necessary from the
point of view of practical requirements, but it destroyed Michelangelo's great conception
and substituted something less impressive, since the great dome can no longer be
appreciated from every point of view. • As a result of these alterations, Maderno had to
design a facade which would not detract too much from the dome and, at the same time,
would be worthy of its setting and also contain a central feature, the Benediction Loggia,
to provide a frame for the figure of the pope when he appeared in public. • These
conflicting requirements were met as far as possible by Maderno's adaptation of a typical
Roman palace facade, with decorative motives taken from Michelangelo's works. •The
plan to provide bell towers at the ends to enframe the dome in distant views had to be
abandoned because the foundations gave trouble. The work, including the decoration,
was completed and consecrated on Nov. 18, 1626.
6.  MADERNO’S FAÇADE. •The façade designed by Maderno, is 114.69 metres (376.3 ft)
wide and 45.55 metres (149.4 ft) high. •It is built of travertine stone, with a giant order of
Corinthian columns and a central pediment rising in front of a tall attic surmounted by
thirteen statues: Christ flanked by eleven of the Apostles (except Peter, whose statue is
left of the stairs) and John the Baptist.
7. THE EXTERIOR • The church was given an impressive setting by Gian Lorenzo Bernini,
one of its architects. • An avenue almost 1.5 kilometers long leads from the Tiber River to
the Piazza Di San Pietro (Square Of St. Peter), a large open space in front of the church.
• A red granite obelisk (shaft) stands 26 meters high in the piazza’s centre. It was brought
to Rome from Egypt about A.D. 37, and was moved to the piazza in 1586. • The Piazza
 which was completed in 1667, contains two fountains and two colonnades (rows of
columns) arranged in semicircles on opposite sides of the Piazza.
8.  THE INTERIORS • The interior of the church is decorated in Baroque style. • Bernini,
who was also a sculptor, created many of its famous features in the 1650s. • He built the
elaborate bronze baldacchino (canopy) over the main alter, which stands beneath the
dome. It closes the extremely long sweep of the nave and is 95 Ft. high. • As may be
seen in the accompanying plan, the four principal divisions of the basilica extend from the
dome and are connected with each other by passages behind the dome piers. • To the
right and the left of the nave lie the smaller and lower aisles, the right of which is
bordered by four lateral chapels, the left by three chapels and the passage to the roof.
9. THE INTERIORS • The general decoration consists of colored marble incrustations,
stucco figures, rich gilding, mosaic decoration, and marble figures on the pilasters,
ceiling, and walls. • The paneling of the pavement in geometric figures is of colored
marble after the designs of Giacomo della Porta and Bernini. • Beneath it is the
Confession of St. Peter, where the body of the Prince of Apostles reposes – the tomb of
St. Peter’s. • No chairs or pews obstruct the view; the eye roves freely over the glittering
surface of the marble pavement, where there is room for thousands of people.
10. DIMENSIONS • Major axis of the piazza - 1115.4 feet. • Minor axis of the piazza - 787.3
feet. • Vestibule of the basilica - 232.9 feet wide, 44.2 deep, and 91.8 high. • Height and
width of the nave - 151.5 feet and 90.2 feet respectively. • Entire length of the basilica
including the vestibule - 693.8 feet. • From the pavement of the church (measured from
the Confession) to the oculus of the lantern resting upon the dome the height - 404.8
feet; • To the summit of the cross surmounting the lantern - 434.7 feet. • The
measurements of the interior diameter of the dome vary somewhat, being generally
computed at 137.7 feet, thus exceeding the dome of the Pantheon by a span of 4.9 feet.
•The surface area of St. Peter's is 163,182.2 sq. feet.

5. Badami Chalukya architecture – monolithic rock cut temple

The Badami Chalukya architecture was a temple building idiom that evolved in the 5th – 8th centuries
in the Malaprabha river basin, in present-day Bagalkot district of Karnataka state, under the Chalukya
dynasty. This style is sometimes called the Vesara style and Chalukya style, a term that also includes
the much later Western Chalukya architecture of the 11th and 12th centuries. Early Chalukya
architecture, used by George Michell and others, equates to Badami Chalukya. The earliest Badami
Chalukya temples date back to around 450 A.D. in Aihole when the Badami Chalukyas were vassals
of the Kadambas of Banavasi. According to historian K.V. Sounder Rajan, the Badami
Chalukyas contribution to temple building matched their valor and their achievements in battle. About
450 CE, the Early Chalukya style originated in Aihole and was perfected in Badami and Pattadakal.
[1]
 The unknown architects and artists experimented with different styles, blended the Nagara
and Dravidian styles.
Their style includes two types of monuments: rock cut halls or "cave temples", and "structural"
temples, built above ground.
Badami cave temples have rock-cut halls with three basic features: pillared veranda, columned hall
and a sanctum cut out deep into rock.
Early experiments in rock-cut halls were attempted in Aihole where they built three cave temples, one
each in Vedic, Buddhist and Jaina styles. Later they refined their style and cut out four marvellous
cave temples at Badami. One noteworthy feature of these cave temples is the running frieze
of Ganas in various amusing postures caved in relief on each plinth.
The outside verandas of the cave temples are rather plain, but the inner hall contains rich and prolific
sculptural symbolism. Art critic Dr. M. Sheshadri wrote of the Chalukya art that they cut rock
like Titans but finished like jewellers. Critic Zimmer wrote that the Chalukya cave temples are a fine
balance of versatility and restrain.
The finest structural temples are located in Pattadakal. Of the ten temples in Pattadakal, six are
in Dravidian style and four in Rekhanagarastyle. The Virupaksha temple in many ways holds
resemblance to the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram which came into existence a few years
earlier.
This is a fully inclusive temple, it has a central structure, nandi pavilion in front and has a walled
enclosure that is entered by a gateway. The main sanctum has a Pradakshinapatha and mantapa.
The mantapa is pillared and has perforated windows (pierced window screens). The external wall
surface is divided by pilasters into well-spaced ornamental niches filled with either sculptures or
perforated windows. Art critic Percy Brown says about the sculptures that they flow into the
architecture in a continuous stream. It is said that the Virupaskha temple is one of those monuments
where the spirit of the men who built it, still lives.
Many centuries later, the serene art of the Badami Chalukya reappeared in the pillared architecture of
the Vijayanagar Empire. Their caves include finely engraved sculptures
of Harihara, Trivikrama, Mahisa
Mardhini, Tandavamurthi, Paravasudeva, Nataraja, Varaha, Gomateshvara and others. Plenty of
animal and foliage motifs are also included.
Some important sculptors of their time were Gundan Anivaritachari, Revadi Ovajja and Narasobba.

6. Difference between nagara and dravis

Feature Nagara architecture Dravidian architecture

Main
Vimana that may be multistorey
temple
Sikhara above sanctum (talas), the top of which is called
spire
the sikhara
(tower)

Mandapa
spire Yes No
(tower)
 Straight-edged pyramidal,
Curvature Curvilinear centred over the sanctum, also
sometimes curvilinear centred
of the spire straight-edged pyramidal
over the sanctum[note 2]

Typically single (Vimana may be

Sanctum Single or multi-storey
multi-storey)

Mandapa, sanctum and tower plans are

predominantly Chaturasra (square);
Plan uncommon: Ashtasra, Vritta, Ayatasra, Ayat same, plus Prana Vikara
a Ashtasra, Ayata Vritta, Hasti
Prishta, Dwayasra Vrita

Characteristic, but not essential;

after 10th century often higher
Gopuram Not a prominent feature than the vimana. May be several,
on all sides of the compound,
serving as landmarks for pilgrims

sacred pools, many pillared

mandapas in temple grounds
sacred pools, fewer pillared mandapas in
(used for rites of passage
temple grounds (separate dharmashala),
Other ceremonies, choultry, temple
prakara walls rare (e.g. Odisha after 14th
features rituals), prakara walls became
century), single or multiple entrances into
common after 14th century,
temple
single or multiple entrances into
temple

Major sub- Tamil (upper and lower

Latina, Phamsana, Sekhari, Valabhi
styles Dravidadesa), Karnata, Andhra

northern, western and central of the Indian southern parts of the Indian
Geography
subcontinent subcontinent, southeast Asia

Chronology
of surviving
stone- Late Kushana era, early Gupta: rudimentary Late Gupta era: rudimentary; 6th-
masonry archaic; 6th-10th century: zenith 10th century: zenith
monument
s
 7. Renaissance architecture

Renaissance architecture is European architecture between the early 15th and early 17th centuries. It
demonstrates a conscious revival and development of certain elements of classical thought and
material culture , particularly symmetry and classical orders. Stylistically, Renaissance architecture
came after the Gothic period and was succeeded by the Baroque . During the High Renaissance ,
architectural concepts derived from classical antiquity were developed and used with greater surety.

The most representative architect of Italian Renaissance Architecture is Bramante (1444–1514), who
developed the applicability of classical architectural elements to contemporary buildings, a style that
was to dominate Italian architecture in the 16th century. In the late 15th century and early 16th
century architects such as Bramante, Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, and others showed a mastery
of the revived style and ability to apply it to buildings such as churches and city palazzos, which were
quite different from the structures of ancient times. Although studying and mastering the details of the
ancient Romans was one of the important aspects of Renaissance architectural theory, the style also
became more decorative and ornamental, with a widespread use of statuary, domes, and cupolas.

Foundational Architectural Concepts- Renaissance façades are symmetrical around their vertical axis.
For instance, church façades of this period are generally surmounted by a pediment and organized by
a system of pilasters, arches, and entablatures . The columns and windows show a progression
towards the center. One of the first true Renaissance façades was the Cathedral of Pienza (1459–62),
which has been attributed to the Florentine architect Bernardo Gambarelli (known as Rossellino).

Principal phases
Historians often divide the Renaissance in Italy into three phases. [8] Whereas art historians might talk
of an "Early Renaissance" period, in which they include developments in 14th-century painting and
sculpture, this is usually not the case in architectural history. The bleak economic conditions of the
late 14th century did not produce buildings that are considered to be part of the Renaissance. As a
result, the word "Renaissance" among architectural historians usually applies to the period 1400 to ca.
1525, or later in the case of non-Italian Renaissances.
Historians often use the following designations:

 Renaissance (ca. 1400–1500); also known as the Quattrocento[9] and sometimes Early

Renaissance[10]
 High Renaissance (ca.1500–1525)
 Mannerism (ca. 1520–1600)
Quattrocento
In the Quattrocento, concepts of architectural order were explored and rules were formulated. (See-
Characteristics of Renaissance Architecture, below.) The study of classical antiquity led in particular
to the adoption of Classical detail and ornamentation.
Space, as an element of architecture, was used differently from the way it had been in the Middle
Ages. Space was organised by proportional logic, its form and rhythm subject to geometry, rather than
being created by intuition as in Medieval buildings. The prime example of this is the Basilica di San
Lorenzo in Florence by Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446).[
High Renaissance
During the High Renaissance, concepts derived from classical antiquity were developed and used
with greater confidence. The most representative architect is Bramante (1444–1514) who expanded
the applicability of classical architecture to contemporary buildings. His San Pietro in
Montorio (1503) was directly inspired by circular Roman temples. He was, however, hardly a slave to
the classical forms and it was his style that was to dominate Italian architecture in the 16th century. [12]
Mannerism
During the Mannerist period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize
solid and spatial relationships. The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more
imaginative rhythms. The best known architect associated with the Mannerist style
was Michelangelo (1475–1564), who frequently used the giant order in his architecture, a large
pilaster that stretches from the bottom to the top of a façade. [13] He used this in his design for
the Campidoglio in Rome.
Prior to the 20th century, the term Mannerism had negative connotations, but it is now used to
describe the historical period in more general non-judgemental terms. [14]
From Renaissance to Baroque
As the new style of architecture spread out from Italy, most other European countries developed a sort
of Proto-Renaissance style, before the construction of fully formulated Renaissance buildings. Each
country in turn then grafted its own architectural traditions to the new style, so that Renaissance
buildings across Europe are diversified by region.
Within Italy the evolution of Renaissance architecture into Mannerism, with widely diverging
tendencies in the work of Michelangelo and Giulio Romano and Andrea Palladio, led to the Baroque
style in which the same architectural vocabulary was used for very different rhetoric.
Outside Italy, Baroque architecture was more widespread and fully developed than the Renaissance
style, with significant buildings as far afield as Mexico[15] and the Philippines.[16]

Characteristics
The obvious distinguishing features of Classical Roman architecture were adopted by Renaissance
architects. However, the forms and purposes of buildings had changed over time, as had the structure
of cities. Among the earliest buildings of the reborn Classicism were churches of a type that the
Romans had never constructed. Neither were there models for the type of large city dwellings
required by wealthy merchants of the 15th century. Conversely, there was no call for enormous
sporting fixtures and public bath houses such as the Romans had built. The ancient orders were
analysed and reconstructed to serve new purposes. [17]
The plans of Renaissance buildings have a square, symmetrical appearance in which proportions are
usually based on a module. Within a church, the module is often the width of an aisle. The need to
integrate the design of the plan with the façade was introduced as an issue in the work of Filippo
Brunelleschi, but he was never able to carry this aspect of his work into fruition. The first building to
demonstrate this was St. Andrea in Mantua by Alberti. The development of the plan in secular
architecture was to take place in the 16th century and culminated with the work of Palladio.
Façades are symmetrical around their vertical axis. Church façades are generally surmounted by
a pediment and organised by a system of pilasters, arches and entablatures. The columns and windows
show a progression towards the centre. One of the first true Renaissance façades was the Cathedral of
Pienza (1459–62), which has been attributed to the Florentine architect Bernardo Gambarelli (known
as Rossellino) with Alberti perhaps having some responsibility in its design as well.
Domestic buildings are often surmounted by a cornice. There is a regular repetition of openings on
each floor, and the centrally placed door is marked by a feature such as a balcony, or rusticated
surround. An early and much copied prototype was the façade for the Palazzo Rucellai (1446 and
1451) in Florence with its three registers of pilasters
Renaissance architects also incorporated columns and pilasters, using the Roman orders of columns
(Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite) as models. The orders can either be structural,
supporting an arcade or architrave , or purely decorative, set against a wall in the form of pilasters.
During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, pilasters, and entablatures as an integrated
system. One of the first buildings to use pilasters as an integrated system was the Old Sacristy (1421–
1440) by Brunelleschi.

The dome is used frequently in this period, both as a very large structural feature that is visible from
the exterior, and also as a means of roofing smaller spaces where they are only visible internally.
Domes were used in important structures such as the Pantheon during antiquity, but had been used
only rarely in the Middle Ages . After the success of the dome in Brunelleschi’s design for the
Florence Cathedral and its use in Bramante’s plan for St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome , the dome became
an indispensable element in Renaissance church architecture and carried over to the Baroque.

Windows may be paired and set within a semicircular arch and may have square lintels and triangular
or segmental pediments, which are often used alternately. Emblematic in this respect is the Palazzo
Farnese in Rome, begun in 1517. In the Mannerist period, the “Palladian” arch was employed, using a
motif of a high semicircular topped opening flanked with two lower square-topped openings.
Windows were used to bring light into the building and in domestic architecture, to show the view.
Stained glass, although sometimes present, was not a prevalent feature in Renaissance windows.

Arches
Arches are semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental. Arches are often used in arcades,
supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the capital
and the springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to use the arch on a monumental scale at
the St. Andrea in Mantua.
Vault
Vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothic
vault which is frequently rectangular. The barrel vault is returned to architectural vocabulary as at
the St. Andrea in Mantua.
Ceiling
Roofs are fitted with flat or coffered ceilings. They are not left open as in Medieval architecture. They
are frequently painted or decorated.
Door
Doors usually have square lintels. They may be set within an arch or surmounted by a triangular or
segmental pediment. Openings that do not have doors are usually arched and frequently have a large
or decorative keystone.
Wall
External walls are generally constructed of brick, rendered, or faced with stone in highly
finished ashlar masonry, laid in straight courses. The corners of buildings are often emphasized by
rusticated quoins. Basements and ground floors were often rusticated, as at the Palazzo Medici
Riccardi (1444–1460) in Florence. Internal walls are smoothly plastered and surfaced with lime wash.
For more formal spaces, internal surfaces are decorated with frescoes.
Detail
Courses, mouldings and all decorative details are carved with great precision. Studying and mastering
the details of the ancient Romans was one of the important aspects of Renaissance theory. The
different orders each required different sets of details. Some architects were stricter in their use of
classical details than others, but there was also a good deal of innovation in solving problems,
especially at corners. Mouldings stand out around doors and windows rather than being recessed, as in
Gothic Architecture. Sculptured figures may be set in niches or placed on plinths. They are not
integral to the building as in Medieval architecture. [2]
 st. peter’s plan renaissance arch

8. Romanesque architecture
Romanesque art is the architecture of Europe which emerged in the late 10th century and
evolved into the Gothic style during the 12th century. The Romanesque style in England is more
traditionally referred to as Norman architecture.
The style can be identified across Europe with certain significant architectural features occurring
everywhere. There are other characteristic which differ greatly from region to region.
Most of the buildings that are still standing are churches, some of which are very large abbey
churches and cathedrals. The majority of these are still in use, some of them having been
substantially altered over the centuries.[1]
This list presents a comparison of Romanesque churches, abbeys and cathedrals of different
countries. The second section describes the architectural features that can be identified within
pictures of major architectural elements.
Features of Romanesque architecture that is seen in different areas around Europe

 Small churches are generally without aisles, with a projecting apse.

 Large churches are basilical with a nave flanked by aisles and divided by an arcade. [2]
 Abbey churches and cathedrals often had transepts.[2]
 Round arches in arcades, windows, doors and vaults.[3]
 Massive walls[3]
 Towers[2]
 Piers[3]
 Stout columns[3]
 Buttresses of shallow projection[3]
 Groin vaulting[3]
 Portals with sculpture and mouldings
 Decorative arcades as an external feature, and frequently internal also [3]
 Cushion capitals[3]
 Murals[3]
Features which are regionally diversified
These features often have strong local and regional traditions. However, the movement of senior
clergy, stonemasons and other craftsmen meant that these traditional features are sometimes found at
distant locations.

 Ground plan
 Facade
 Position and number of tower
 Shape of towers
 Presence and shape of spires
 Shape of the east end
 Shape of columns
 Shape of piers
 Building materia
 Local diversity in decorative details that was dependent on local craftsmen.

9. Gothic architecture

10. The Gothic technique - extending from the 12th to 16th

centuries - was a predominant architectural style of the
medieval era, bookended by the Romanesque and the
Renaissance periods. It marks a definitive shift from the earlier
'dumpy' Romanesque churches to lighter, taller cathedrals - the
changing socio-religious climate wrought structural innovations
that revolutionized ecclesiastical architecture.

11. The name 'Gothic' is retrospective; Renaissance builders

scoffed at the whimsical construction devoid of symmetry, and
used the term as a derisive reference to the barbarous Germanic
tribes that pillaged Europe in the third and fourth centuries - the
Ostrogoths and the Visigoths. Gothic architecture was
erroneously seen as the product of a largely uncouth, chaotic,
and superstitious era, while the truth was very different. It has
since come to be regarded as the ultimate icon of scholasticism -
a movement which sought to reconcile spirituality and religion
with rationality.

12. Gothic architecture is acknowledged for spawning new

structural marvels, phantasmagorical plays of light and raising
the bar for cathedral construction everywhere - even by
contemporary standards. Here are some characteristics your
standard Gothic cathedral will showcase.
13. Spires

14.

15. These are tapering architectural elements that often

replaced the steeple to lend an impression of loftiness. Gothic
cathedrals often feature profuse spiring, giving the impression
of battlements - symbolic of a religious fortress protecting the
faith. Openwork spires are perhaps the most common; this
elaborate spire consisted of stone tracery held together by metal
clamps. It had the ability to achieve radical heights while
lending a feeling of lightness through its skeletal structure.
16. Flying Buttress

17.

18. Spider-leg like in appearance, a flying buttress was

originally instated as an aesthetic device. Later, they were
converted into ingenious structural devices that transferred the
dead-load of the vaulted roof to the ground. To add a degree of
stiffness to the structure, they were stepped back from the main
wall and connected to the roof via arching supports. The
buttress now ‘carried’ the vault, freeing the walls of their load-
bearing function. This allowed the walls to become thinner or
almost completely replaced by glass windows, unlike in the
Romanesque where walls were massive affairs with very less
glazing. The buttresses enabled Gothic architecture to become
lighter, taller and afford a greater aesthetic experience than
before.
19. Gargoyles

20.

21. The gargoyle (derived from the French word gargouille,

meaning gargle) is a sculptural waterspout, placed to prevent
rainwater from running down masonry walls. These numerous
grimacing sculptures divided the flow among them, minimizing
potential water damage. Gargoyles were sculpted on the ground
and placed as the building neared completion. St. Romanus is
often associated with the gargoyle; legend speaks of him saving
Rouen from a snarling dragon that struck terror even in the
heart of spirits. Known as La Gargouille, the beast was
vanquished and its head mounted on a newly built church, as an
example and warning. While the gargoyle has been around
since Egyptian times, prolific use of the element in Europe is
attributed to the Gothic era. Profusely grouped upon several
cathedrals, it heightens a sense of allegory and the fantastic.
22. Pinnacles

23.

24. Unlike the flying buttress, the pinnacle started out as a

structural element meant to deflect the pressures of the vaulted
roof downward. They were imbued with lead, literally ‘pinning
down’ the sideways pressures of the vault, served as
counterweights to extended gargoyles and overhanging corbels
and stabilized flying buttresses. As their aesthetic possibilities
began to be known, pinnacles were lightened and the flying
buttress was structurally developed to handle the vaulted roof.
Pinnacles are profusely used to break the abrupt change in
slenderness, as the church building gives way to the mounted
spire, lending the building a distinctively Gothic, tapering
appearance.
25. Pointed Arch

26.

27. Recorded for the first time in Christian architecture during

the Gothic era, the pointed arch was used to direct the weight of
the vaulted roof downward along its ribs. Unlike the earlier
Romanesque churches which depended solely on the walls to
carry the immense weight of the roof, the pointed arches helped
restrict and selectively transfer the load onto columns and other
load-bearing supports, thereby freeing up the walls. It no longer
mattered what the walls were made of, since (between the flying
buttress and the pointed arch) they were no longer carrying any
loads - thus the walls of Gothic cathedrals began to be replaced
by large stained-glass windows and tracery.
28. Tracery

29.

30. Tracery refers to a series of thin stone frames, inlaid in

window openings to support the glass. Bar tracery found
expression in the Gothic period, with its lancet-and-oculus
pattern that aimed at conveying a slenderness of design, and
increasing the amount of glass paneling. Unlike in plate tracery,
thin stone mullions were used to divide the window opening
into two or more lancets. Y tracery was a specific variety of bar
tracery that separated the window head using thin bars of stone,
splitting in the shape of a Y. These delicate web-like tracings
helped increase the glass-to-stone ratio and grew into florid
detail as Gothic architecture developed further.
31. The Oculus

32.

33. Two specific window designs were established during the

Gothic period - the narrowly pointed lancet reinforced height,
while the circular oculus held stained-glass. As height grew less
of an objective with Gothic builders, the latter half of the
Rayonnant Gothic saw structures reduced to an almost-skeletal,
diaphanous frame. Windows were expanded and walls replaced
by traceried glass. An immense oculus on the triforium wall of
churches formed a rose window, the largest of which is found at
St. Denis. Divided by stone mullions and bars, it held radiating
stone spokes like a wheel and was placed below a pointed arch.
34. Ribbed Vault

35.

36. Gothic architecture replaced Romanesque groin vaults

with ribbed vaults to counteract complexities of construction
and limitations that allowed it to only span square rooms. Also
known as ogival vaulting, ribbed vaulting developed with the
need to transfer roof-loads better, while freeing up inner walls
for tracery and glass. More ribs were added to the basic
Romanesque barrel vault to increase the transfer of loads to the
ground. As the Gothic era achieved its zenith, complex vaulting
systems such as the quadripartite and sexpartite vaulting
techniques were developed. The development of ribbed vaulting
reduced the need for inner load-bearing walls, thereby opening
up the inner space and providing visual and aesthetic unity.
37. Fan Vault

38.

39. One of the most obvious distinctions between the English

and French Gothic styles, fan vaulting was used exclusively in
English cathedrals. The ribs of the fan vault are curved equally
and equidistantly spaced, giving it the appearance of an open
fan. The fan vault was also applied during the reconstruction of
Norman churches in England, doing away with the need for
flying buttresses. Fan vaulting was used profusely in
ecclesiastical buildings and chantry chapels.
40. Statue Column

41.

42. The Early Gothic era showcases some of the most detailed
sculpture of the period. It was not uncommon to find statues
that were of ‘structural’ nature, carved from the same stone as
the column that held up the roof. Often depicting patriarchs,
prophets, and kings, they were placed in the porches of later
Gothic churches to lend an element of verticality. These larger-
than-life depictions may also be spotted in the embrasures on
either side of cathedral entrances. In France, column-statues
often depicted rows of finely-dressed courtiers, reflecting the
prosperity of the kingdom.