162 MACHINE DESIGN - An Integrated Approach

ratio. This explains why I-beams are commonly used as floor and roof beams in large
flange structures. Their shape puts most of the material at the outer fibers where the bending
stress is maximum. This gives a large area moment of inertia to resist the bending
moment. As the shear stress is maximum at the neutral axis, the narrow web connect-
neutral
ing the flanges (called the shear web) serves to resist the shear forces in the beam. In a
x long beam, the shear stresses due to bending are small compared to the bending stresses,
axis
web which allows the web to be thin, reducing weight. An approximate expression for the
maximum shear stress in an I-beam uses only the area of the web and ignores the flanges:
4
flange V
τ max ≅ ( 4.16)
Aweb
(a) I-beam shape
Figure 4-21b shows the shear-stress distribution across the I-beam section depth. Note
the discontinuities at the flange-web interfaces. The shear stress in the flange is small
load due to its large area. The shear stress jumps to a larger value on entering the web, then
rises parabolically to a maximum at the neutral axis.
shear
stress

4.10 DEFLECTION IN BEAMS

x
In addition to the stresses in a beam, a designer also needs to be concerned with its de-
flections. Any applied bending load will cause a beam to deflect, since it is made of
an elastic material. If the deflection does not create strains in excess of the material’s
V
τ max ≅ strain at its yield point, the beam will return to its undeflected state when the load is re-
Aweb moved. If the strain exceeds that of the material’s yield point, the beam will yield and
“take a set” if ductile, or possibly fracture if brittle. If the beam is sized to prevent
(b) Stress distribution
stresses that exceed the material’s yield point (or other appropriate strength criterion),
FIGURE 4-21 then no permanent set or fracture should occur. However, elastic deflections at stresses
well below the material’s failure levels may still cause serious problems in a machine.
Shear-Stress Distribution and
Maximum in an I-Beam
Deflections can cause interferences between moving parts or misalignments that
destroy the required accuracy of the device. In general, designing to minimize deflec-
tions will lead to larger beam cross sections than will designing only against stress fail-
ure. Even in static structures such as buildings, deflection can be the limiting criterion
in sizing floor or roof beams. You have probably walked across a residential floor that
bounced noticeably with each step. The floor was undoubtedly safe against collapse due
to excessive stresses, but had not been designed stiff enough to prevent undesirable
deflections under normal working loads.

The bending deflection of a beam is calculated by double integration of the beam

equation,

M d2y
= ( 4.17)
EI dx 2
which relates the applied moment M, the material’s modulus of elasticity E, and the cross
section’s area moment of inertia I to the second derivative of the beam deflection y. The
independent variable x is the position along the beam length. Equation 4.17 is only valid
for small deflections, which is not a limitation in most cases of beam design for machine
or structural applications. Sometimes beams are used as springs, and their deflections
may then exceed the limitations of this equation. Spring design will be covered in a later
 Chapter 4 STRESS, STRAIN, AND DEFLECTION 163

chapter. Equation 4.17 also does not include the effects of deflection due to transverse
shear loads. The transverse-shear component of deflection in long beams is small com-
pared to that due to bending and is typically ignored unless the beam’s length/depth ratio
is < about 10.
Equation 4.17 can be differentiated twice and integrated twice to create the set of
five equations 4.18 (including Eq. 4.17 repeated as Eq. 4.18c), which define beam be-
havior. Section 3.9 showed the relationship between the loading function q(x), the shear
function V(x), and the moment function M(x). V is the first derivative and q the sec-
4
ond derivative of equation 4.17 with respect to x. Integrating equation 4.17 once gives
the beam slope θ and integrating a second time gives the beam deflection y. These re-
lationships form the following set of beam equations:

q d4y
= 4 ( 4.18a)
EI dx

V d3y
= 3 ( 4.18b)
EI dx

M d2y
= ( 4.18c)
EI dx 2
dy
θ= ( 4.18d )
dx
y = f ( x) ( 4.18e)

The only material parameter in these equations is Young’s modulus E, which defines
its stiffness. Since most alloys of a given base metal have essentially the same modu-
lus of elasticity, equations 4.18 show why there is no advantage in using a stronger and
more expensive alloy when designing to minimize deflection. Higher-strength alloys
typically only provide higher yield or break strengths, and designing against a deflec-
tion criterion will usually result in relatively low stresses. This is the reason that I-beams
and other structural-steel shapes are made primarily in low-strength, low-carbon steels.
Determining the deflection function of a beam is an exercise in integration. The
loading function q is typically known and can be integrated by any one of several meth-
ods, analytical, graphical, or numerical. The constants of integration are evaluated from
the boundary conditions of the particular beam configuration. Changes in section modu-
lus across the beam require creating the M/EI function from the moment diagram be-
fore integrating for the beam slope. If the beam’s area moment of inertia I and material
E is uniform across its length, the moment function can just be divided by the constant
EI. If the beam’s cross section changes over its length, then the integration must be done
piecewise to accommodate the changes in I. The integral forms of the beam equations are

V=
∫ q dx + C1 0<x<l ( 4.19a)

M=
∫ V dx + C x + C
1 2 0<x<l ( 4.19b)

∫ EI dx + C x
M 2
θ= 1 + C2 x + C3 0<x<l ( 4.19c)
 164 MACHINE DESIGN - An Integrated Approach

∫ θ dx + C1x
3
y= + C2 x 2 + C3 x + C4 0<x<l ( 4.19d )

The constants C1 and C2 can be found from boundary conditions on the shear and
moment functions. For example, the moment will be zero at a simply supported beam
end and either zero (or known if applied) at an unsupported free end of a beam. The
shear force will be zero at an unloaded free end. Note that if the reaction forces are
included in the loading function q(x), then C1 = C2 = 0.
4 The constants C3 and C4 can be found from boundary conditions on the slope and
deflection functions. For example, the deflection will be zero at any rigid support, and
the beam slope will be zero at a moment joint. Substitute two known combinations of
values of x and y or x and θ along with C1 and C2 in equations 4.19c and 4.19d and solve
for C3 and C4. Many techniques for solution of these equations have been developed
such as graphical integration, the area-moment method, energy methods, and singular-
ity functions. We will explore the last two of these.

Deflection by Singularity Functions

Section 3.9 presented the use of singularity functions to represent loads on the beam.
These functions make it relatively simple to perform the integration analytically and can
easily be programmed for computer solution. Section 3.9 also applied this approach to
obtain the shear and moment functions from the loading function. We will now extend
that technique to develop the beam’s slope and deflection functions. The best way to
explore this method is by way of examples. Accordingly, we will calculate the beam
shear, moment, slope, and deflection functions for the beams shown in Figure 4-22.

EXAMPLE 4-4
Finding Beam Slope and Deflection of a Simply Supported
Beam Using Singularity Functions

Problem: Determine and plot the slope and deflection functions for the simply
supported beam shown in Figure 4-22a.

Given: The load is uniform over part of the beam length. Let beam length
l = 10 in, and load location a = 4 in. The beam’s I = 0.163 in4 and E = 30
Mpsi. The distributed force is w = 100 lb/in.

Assumptions: The weight of the beam is negligible compared to the applied load and
so can be ignored.

Solution: See Figures 4-22a and 4-23.

1 Solve for the reaction forces using equations 3.3 (p. 78). Summing moments about
the right-hand end and summing forces in the y direction:

w(l − a ) 2
∑ Mz = 0 = R1l − 2
( a)
w(l − a)2 100(10 − 4)2
R1 = = = 180
2l 2(10)
 Chapter 4 STRESS, STRAIN, AND DEFLECTION 165

l l

a a F 〈x–a〉–1
〈x–a〉0
w
M1
x x
l
R1 R2 R1
M1 4
(a) Simply supported beam with (b) Cantilever beam with
uniformly distributed loading concentrated loading w
A
x
l l
RR RA
b F 〈x–l〉–1 b
a a (e) Cantilever beam with
w 〈x–0〉0 w 〈x–a〉0 redundant support

x x

R1 R2 R1 R2 R3
(c) Overhung beam with concentrated force (d) Statically indeterminate beam with
and uniformly distributed loading uniformly distributed loading

FIGURE 4-22
Various Beams and Beam Loadings

∑ Fy = 0 = R1 − w(l − a) + R2
(b)
R2 = w(l − a) − R1 = 100(10 − 4) − 180 = 420

2 Write equations for the load function in terms of equations 3.17 (pp. 113–114) and
integrate the resulting function four times using equations 3.18 (pp. 114–115) to
obtain the shear, moment, slope, and deflection functions. For the simply supported
beam with a distributed load over part of its length:
−1 0 −1
q = R1 x − 0 −w x−a + R2 x − l (c )

∫
0 1 0
V = q dx = R1 x − 0 −w x−a + R2 x − l + C1 (d )

w
∫
1
M = V dx = R1 x − 0 1 − x−a 2
+ R2 x − l + C1 x + C2 (e)
2

⎛ R1 w R 2⎞
x−0 2 − x−a 3 + 2 x−l
M 1 ⎜ 2 6 2 ⎟
θ=
∫ EI
dx = ⎜
EI ⎜ Cx 2 ⎟
⎟⎟
(f)
⎜ + 1 + C2 x + C3
⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛ R1 w R 3⎞
x−0 3 − x−a 4 + 2 x−l
1 ⎜ 6 24 6 ⎟
∫
y = θ dx = ⎜
EI ⎜ Cx 3
C x 2 ⎟
⎟⎟
( g)
⎜ + 1 + 2 + C3 x + C4
⎝ 6 2 ⎠

Ch 04 4ed Final 165 1/2/10, 7:44 PM

 166 MACHINE DESIGN - An Integrated Approach

3 There are four constants of integration to be found. The constants C1 and C2 are zero
Loading Diagram (lb)
because the reaction forces and moments acting on the beam are included in the
400 loading function. The deflection y is zero at the supports. The constants C3 and C4
200 are found by substituting the boundary conditions x = 0, y = 0 and x = l, y = 0 into
equation (g).
0 x
1 ⎛ R1 w R ⎞
–200 y( 0 ) = 0 = 0−0 3 − 0 − a 4 + 2 0 − l 3 + C3 (0) + C4
⎝
EI 6 24 6 ⎠
0 5 10
R w R
4 C4 = − 1 0 − 0 3 + 0 − 4 4 − 2 0 − 10 3 − C3 (0)
6 24 6
Shear Diagram (lb)
R w R
200 C4 = − 1 (0) + (0) − 2 (0) − C3 (0) = 0 (h)
6 24 6
0 x
–200
1 ⎛ R1 w R2 ⎞
–400 y( l ) = 0 = l−0 3
− l−a 4
+ l−l 3
+ C3l + C4
EI ⎝ 6 24 6 ⎠
–600
0 5 10 C3 =
w
24l [
(l − a ) 4 − 2 l 2 (l − a ) 2 ]
Moment Diagram (lb-in)
1000
C3 =
100
24(10) [
(10 − 4) 4 − 2(10)2 (10 − 4)2 = −2 460 ] (i )

800
600 4 Substitution of the values or expressions for C3, C4, R1, and R2 from equations (a),
400 (b), (h), and (i) into equation (g) gives the resulting deflection equation for the beam
200 in part (a) of Figure 4-22 (p. 165):
0 x
0 5 10
y=
w
24lEI {[ ] [ ]
2( l − a ) 2 x 3 + ( l − a ) 4 − 2 l 2 ( l − a ) 2 x − l x − a 4
} ( j)

Slope Diagram (rad)

5 The maximum deflection will occur at the point in x where the slope of the deflection
0.001 curve is zero. Set the beam-slope equation (f) to zero and solve for x:*

1 ⎛ R1 2 w ⎞
0 x θ= x − ( x − a)3 + C3 = 0
EI ⎝ 2 6 ⎠

–0.001 0=
1
3E 7(0.163)
2
(
90 x − 16.67( x − 4)3 − 2 460 )
0 5 10

x = 5.264 (k )
Deflection Diagram (in)
0 x Note that either Viete’s method or a numerical root-finding algorithm is needed to
find the roots of this cubic equation.
–0.001 6 Use this value of x in equation (g) to find the largest deflection magnitude, either
positive or negative.
–0.002
0 5 10
ymax =
100 ⎪
⎨
[ ] [
⎧ 2(10 − 4) 2 (5.264)3 + (10 − 4) 4 − 2(10) 2 (10 − 4) 2 (5.264)⎫
⎪
⎬
]
24(10)( 4.883E 6) ⎪
FIGURE 4-23 −10(5.264 − 4) ⎪⎭
4
⎩
Example 4-4 Plots

ymax = −0.00176 in (l )
* Because the value of x at the
maximum deflection of a simply 7 Plots of the loading, shear, moment, slope, and deflection functions for part (a) are
supported beam must be less than shown in Figure 4-23. The files EX04-04 can be opened in the program of your
the length between supports, l,
the third term in equation (f) is choice to examine the model and see larger-scale plots of the functions in Figure 4-23.
zero.

Ch 04 4ed Final 166 1/2/10, 7:44 PM