The Time Operator of

Reals
Miloš Milovanović

Mathematical Institute of the

Serbian Academy of Sciences and
Arts, Belgrade, Serbia

Srđan Vukmirović

Faculty of Mathematics, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

Corresponding author: Miloš Milovanović, Mathematical Institute SASA, Kneza Mihaila 36,

11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]

Abstract

The Brouwerian continuum is considered in terms of the complex systems physics. It has been
demonstrated that such a processual designation of real number addresses the measurement problem
emerging at the very core of physical reality. The intrinsic time operator is used to give the concept an
effective definition corresponding to self-organization. The multiresolution it provides is suggesting a
complex description of the nature, designed by fractal geometry. The conception indicates a novel
method that has already been proved tremendously useful in applied mathematics.

1. Introduction

Announcing the decline and fall of reductionism in mathematics, Gregory Chaitin considers randomness
in arithmetic elucidated by some results of the computation theory. In the conclusion concerning an
experimental mathematics, he particularly points out a relation to contemporary physics wherein the
randomness is regarded to be a crucial agent. Thereat Chaitin (1995, p.156) refers to the chaos as well as
the quantum and the quantum field theory, having remarked an emergent paradigm with randomness
in the core, whose component is also mathematics. He ends by noting that the question of how one
should actually do mathematics requires at least another generation of work (Chaitin, 1995, pp.158-
159).

The phrase experimental mathematics comes up a lot in the field of chaos, fractals and
nonlinear dynamics. Occurrence of randomness in a formal theory set upon deterministic assumptions
corresponds to the complex systems physics that considers systems for which the best method of their
description is not clear a priori (Sambrook et al., 1997, p.203). The measure of a complex behavior
suggested by Grassberger (1986)n quantifies the intrinsic computation of a physical process. In that
regard, the statistical complexity that concerns stochastic computing in terms of the Bernoulli-Turing
machine is an analog of the deterministic one designed upon the Turing machine (Crutchfield et al.,
1990). Within stochastical computation theory, deterministic and random behaviors are considered to
be elemental extremes deprived of a vital component since they share common failure to support
emergent properties. Being an amalgam of both, the complex patterns have an inherent tendency
towards hierarchical organization (Sambrook et al., 1997, p.200).

The hierarchy of a system has substantial implications concerning cognition, since observation
and comprehension relate the neural architecture whose structure is inflicted by a cognitive complexity
(Sambrook et al., pp.204-206). It corresponds to the evolution in a hierarchical manner (Simon, 1962 pp.
470-477) indicating the concept of time operated not only physically or biologically but in terms of a
mathematical aesthetics (Milovanović et al., 2018). In that respect, time represents a primordial
intuition being the very basis of all conscious life – as stated by Brouwer in his attempt to found the
continuum upon such an intuitinism (Tasi

, 2001, pp.36-45). He considered mathematics to be an intellection of increasingly complex features

referring actually to self-organization in the complex systems physics, due to the definition originated by
Shalizi (et al., 2004) that bespeaks an increase of complexity over time.

The authors` aim is to re-establish an intuitionistic mathematics in respect to the contemporary

science. The time operator formulation of the complex systems physics developed by Pigogine (1980)
becomes a service for the purpose. Addressing the measurement problem, it concerns a processual
designation of the real number. Time operator corresponded to the wavelet basis of continual signals
(Antoniou et al., 2000) represents a hierarchy of the continuum in terms of commensuration. The
wavelet domain hidden Markov model, that recapitulates properties of the hierarchy, is applicable to a
wide range of signals having experimental verification (Crouse et al., 1998).

2. The Intuitionistic Mathematics

Brouwer`s contribution to the fundamentals of mathematics should be regarded in a context of the XIX
and XX centuries whose significant persons are Hilbert, Russell and Whitehead. It actually concerns their
completion being opposed to all of them. Russell`s and Whitehead`s view were based upon logic stating
that it represents the fundament of mathematical thought and Hilbert`s considered a formal language
to be the design of mathematics. They were labelled by Brouwer as the platonic ones, since implying a
timeless conception. Elucidated in physical terms, both of them were deterministic theories.

On the other hand, Brouwer claims irreducibility of mathematics to a language having aimed to
separate it both from formalism and logicism. 1 According to his opinion, the basis of a consciousness is
the time continuum transcending any language in order to provide the original creation. It represents a
continual activity of the free subject that is not formally determined. Consequently, for mathematics
there is no certain language (Mancosu, 1998, p.48). To clarify such a concept of time, he used the term

1Interpreting mathematics as being based on logic is like considering the human body to be an application of the
science of anatomy (Tasić, 2001, p.46).
choice sequence diverging intuitionism from constructive mathematics based upon deterministic
decision (Tasić, 2001, pp.38-39).

Cognizing the intuitionistic logic, one should mention its deviation from the laws of excluded
middle and double negation. Brouwer regarded a structure to be discrete if the law holds in the form ,
which is not generally applied.2 Intuitionism is, therefore, a logic of the continuum unlike formal logic
that is actually the discrete one. Hereupon, the double negation law is also violated allowing the
existence of infinitesimals since the equation is irreducible to a singleton . Consequently, the time
continuum is not reduced to pointwise space, considering that the primordial intuition is not about such
a formal spatiality. However, the sense of time has been seriously damaged by treating it as an
additional dimension of the space that science peddles for the ultimate reality (Tasić, 2001, pp.36-37).

Brouwer refers exactly to the elimination of time stated by Meyerson`s (1908) intellection of the
modern science history as a progressive realization of the fundamental bias in human reason that is
about reducing of the difference and change to an identity and constancy. As early as 1754, d`Alambert
noted in the Encyclopédie (p. 1009-1010) that one could regard the duration to be a fourth dimension
supplementing the common three-dimensional design and Lagrange (1796), more than hundred years
before Einstein and Minkowski, went so far to term it a four-dimensional geometry. The climax of such a
historical trail was Albert Einstein in his categorical rejecting the existence of change that was
considered by him to be a mere illusion (Prigogine, 1980, pp.201-203). 3 In that respect, restoration of
time in contemporary science is considered in terms of a postmodern, whose forerunner was Brouwer
(Tasić, 2001 p.49).

3. The Time Operator

To be a conception of postmodern science (Toulmin, 1985) is considered the quantum theory, whose
origins date back to the beginning of the XX century. Its operator formulation supplied with the
uncertainty relations, that postulated Werner Heisenberg in 1926, were used by Ilya Prigogine (1980) in
order to define an intrinsic time of complex systems.

The uncertainty principle concerns a pair of conjugate observables whose main example is
manifested by the position and the momentum operator . 4 Formulated in terms of the commutator , it
represents a relation . By an analogy, Prigogine defined the time operator to satisfy an uncertainty

2The Principle of Excluded Middle has only a scholastic and heuristic value and therefore the theorems that in their
proof cannot avoid the use of this principle lack any mathematical content (Mancosu, 1998, p.41).

3Einstein`s intension to reach the timeless world of supreme rationality was definitely manifested in the
celebrated Einstein-Bohr debate on the foundations of quantum theory. A core of the debate was about the
fundamental role of randomness in specifying a system`s state, that was emphatically denied by Einstein who was
supporting an objective epistemology of science. Although he overturned Newtonian mechanics, Einstein was
firmly holding the Cartesian intent of reducing physics to geometry in terms of the formal spatiality that was but a
deterministic assumption.
relation
involving the Liouvillian .

A system is specified by the Liouville equation governing the evolution of a variable on the
phase space. Consequently, the Liouvillian and the time operator correspond to conjugate observables
likewise position and momentum one in the quantum theory. 5 Solution of the Liouville equation evolves
by the action of a group whereby a distribution density of the random variable evolves in accordance
to . In terms of the group, the relation (1) is equivalent to
which comes down to supposing cyclic group generated by .

The existence of time operator in the system induces a change of representation , 6 transforming
with no loss of information the group to a semigroup action (Misra et al., 1979). The semigroup
corresponds to an irreversible evolution of a complex system, 7 conjugated to the reversible one
designated by the group. It addresses a stochastic process irreducible to deterministic description,
whose existence is an analog of Gödel's incompleteness theorem (Misra et al., 1983). In the modern
science based upon elimination of time, irreversibility is cognized concerning the measurement problem
that demands a departure from determinism in favor of the statistical causality (Prigogine, 1980, pp. 65-
67).8

4. The Continuum of Reals

The notion of continuum implies a concept of real number related to the measurement problem since
originating from the geometrical algebra of Euclid. In the fifth book of the Elements, he elaborates a
doctrine of proportion that concerns the commensuration of magnitudes. According to the Euclidean
algorithm, magnitudes and measure each other in the form

that is termed to be a continued fraction having spectrum The proportion , indicated by matching of the
respective terms in both spectrums, induces an identity in the continuum of reals. 9 Consequently, the

4Operators relating the observables act on functions defined in the domain of phase space having a coordinate . In
the quantum theory, the position is related to multiplication and the momentum to derivation by a coordinate.
5The value , however, is not a coordinate of the phase space and, in accordance to that, there is no guarantee of
the time operator existence. In a case it exists, the system is termed to be complex.
6 is an operator function in the sense of operational calculus.
7Although there is also an inverse operator , it is not positivity preserving and therefore does not map one
distribution to another (Misra et al., 1979, p.23).
8In the quantum theory, the measurement corresponds to reduction of the wave packet, which is a nonunitary
transformation. Von Neumann (1955) has expressed its difference from a unitary evolution by the Schrödinger
equation in terms of the entropy increase invoking a substantial role of the observer. Therefore, the problem of
irreversibility appears at the very core of physics.
9Defining proportion in terms of the continued fraction spectrum is not done by Euclid but by Omar Khayyam in A
commentary on the difficulties concerning the postulates of Euclid's Elements. The conception presented in the
Elements, that originates from Eudoxus of Cnidus, means that the proportion holds if each of propositions is
equivalent to the respective one of . Displeased with such a philosophy, Khayyam redefined it by the use of a
real number corresponds to a fraction expansion (4) implying the measurement process taken place step
by step in a manner of time (Figure 1).

Figure 1. The Euclidean algorithm. Steps of the measurement process are dyed in different colors

The evolution of time continuum is represented by the Ford diagram of circles, whose intersections with
a vertical line correspond to the sequence
identifying a real number (Figure 2). Its members are termed the Diophantine approximations of , being
the most approxiate to the real number in regard to the fractions with denominators not greater than
that of . Denominators and numerators of the sequence are given by recurrence equations of the same
form
considering the initial conditions and . The difference of successive members is
supposing which implies
and having in mind one gets , i.e.,
Accordingly, the continued fraction concerning a real number takes the form of an alternating series
that is a sparse representation (Mallat, 2009) composed of terms from the redundant dictionary

continuous fraction, where the concept of real number was established. Eudoxus` definition was employed by
Richard Dedekind concerning his construction of the real line in terms of its cuts.
 Figure 2. The Ford diagram of circles.The real number corresponds to progression of a vertical line

The representation (10) corresponds to a binary code whereby values alters instead of terms
participating in the series and a residual of the dictionary is assigned a zero value. Such a record of the
real number is, however, highly redundant since not every term in the dictionary can be involved in a
series. Therefore, one should eliminate excess zeros, which is achieved by coding the spectrum The
binary code like that is composed of alternative values different from zero at the positions , which
defines the Minkowski question mark function (Figure 3)
transfiguring the continued fraction record to the binary one. It is an automorphism of the continuum
mapping the real number to an analog value .

Figure 3. The Minkowski question mark function. The automorphism transfigures representation of the continuum from
continued fraction to binary one

The Ford diagram is structured hierarchically in a manner of scales, each corresponding to a

term of the redundant dictionary. In such a hierarchy, the fractions having denominator 1 are
established first, those having denominator 2 afterwards and so on, which makes each circle attributed
to an irreducible fraction that represents its contact to the real line. The successive scales are built by
insertion of circles tangent to two of the previous circles, as well as to the real line (Figure 4).
 Figure 4. Inserting new scale of the Ford diagram

Assuming designations of the circles to be and , an inserted circle between them is attributed
to fraction . One denotes it ,which defines an operation termed mediant or the Farey sum.10 The
question mark function transfigures mediant to arithmetic mean (Minkowski, 1904)
being an isomorphism of the topological quasigroups whose action turns the Ford diagram of circles
into squarelike diamonds (Figure 5). Such a diagram has the binary tree structure wherewith each node
corresponds to a paracomplex number , , forming the algebra of intervals (Warmus, 1956). Branching of
the intervals designates binary digits of real number and, in that regard, hierarchy of continuum is
related to the positional system. The Renyi map
that is a shift upwards in term of the diagram, represents self-similarity of the structure mapping both
left and right subtree to the entire one.

Figure 5. Isomorphic representations of the Ford diagram related by the question mark function

5. Wavelets and Multiresolution

Dealing with continual signals, one suggests the space consisted of square integrable functions.
The finite energy requirement enables a discretization of the signal space in terms of a basis concerning
the measurement process. In that respect, crucial is the hierarchy of a basis consentient to the
continuum structure as is the case of wavelet bases. The function is termed the mother wavelet if
is an orthonormal basis of the signal space, whereat indexes vertical scale and horizontal position in the
hierarchical structure. A signal is represented in the form
by means of the coefficients measuring details at a scale and a position of the hierarchy. The Haar basis
is obtained by translations and dilatations of the mother wavelet , considering the functions are zero
valued almost elsewhere.

10It is due to John Farey (1816) who noticed that the successive fractions , whose denominators in the reduced
form are up to a value, relate by . For example, the fractions up to the denominator value 5 form the order
whereby each successive threesome is related by the Farey sum.
 In order to transfer the structure on the signal space whose domain is an interval , one
implements periodization . In terms of such a periodized basis , the decomposition (15) becomes
whereas . is an averaging addend of the sum due to constant functions that belong to the signal space
(Daubechies, 1992, pp.304-307). The hierarchical structure of a wavelet basis is reflected to the detail
coefficients forming the binary tree. Each node at a scale of the tree has two successors at the next one
sharing its position in the hierarchy (Figure 6). The succession is related to the measurement process
whose steps correspond to the scales of the hierarchy. In that respect, the time operator of a wavelet
basis is
wherewith the eigenvalues are scales of the basis eigenvectors, increased by unity in order to be zero
for the constant signals only. It is an invertible operator defined on a dense subset of , including the
finite sums . The components make detail subspaces whose wandering by the unilateral shift operator
generates a timeline succession of the space . 11 It forms a multiresolution analysis of the signal space,
the basic axiom of which is the shift property 12
Presented in the form
whereat each projector
corresponds to the details at a resolution scale, the time operator is regarded to be a straightforward
generalization of the standard multiresolution (Antoniou et al., 2003, p.107). The basic axiom (20) is
equivalent to an uncertainty relation
that concerns its definition in the complex systems physics (2).

Figure 6. The tree of detail coefficients. Each node at a scale has two successors at the next one in the
hierarchy

To generate a group action, the operator should be extended naturally (Antoniou et al. 2003,
p.35-38) to bilateral shift induced by the baker map
To that end, the signal space is embedded in by the rule , i.e., . In terms of the extension, projectors
onto the detail subspaces interrelate by conjugation
being a consequence of the relation
that holds on the space . The time operator of the baker map is constructed (Antoniou, pp. 47-60),
whose natural projection onto the space corresponds to the Haar multiresolution (15). However, any
wavelet mulitiresolution (14) could be obtained likewise, since the change of basis is consistent to the
shift property (20) and therefore an operator also satisfies the uncertainty relation (23).

The time operator induces a change of representation transforming the group evolution
generated by to a semigroup one (3) by

whose adjoint operator corresponds to the Markov process (Misra et al., 1979, p.9)

11Mutually orthogonal subspaces are termed to be wandering if the shift property holds. They are termed
generating if the sequence is a cover of the space (Antoniou et al.,2000, p.446).
12Taking the bilateral shift , on gets a standard multiresolution of the space .
The semigropup action signifies blurring the signal, related to an extension of the spatial domain (Figure
7).

Figure 7. The semigroup action that corresponds to a blurring of the signal. A result of action is
presented by the dash line

6. Self-organization of the Time Continuum

In the poem On the Nature of Reality, Lucretius (1948, p. 156) describes not only how things
vanish at a distance, but also how they appear to change.13 The effect corresponds to a blurring of the
signal wherewith details are successively suppressed. On the other hand, the emergence of details
unfolding the intrinsic time of a system is termed self-organization that is the increase of statistical
complexity (Shalizi, 2004). The concept originates from Grassberger (1986) who defined the complexity
to be the minimal information required for optimal prediction. Crutchfield and Young (1990) extended
the conception by accurate definitions of the optimal predictor and its state. In that manner, the causal
structure has been established corresponding to the intrinsic computability of a process in terms of the
Bernoulli-Turing machine.

To that aim, the detail coefficients of a signal , are considered to be distorted measurements of
a hidden variable evolving stochastically. The variabletermed the causal state is factorized into local
ones corresponding to each coefficient. The causal structure contains all correlations in a signal, that

13For instance, distant square towers look rounded. A pair of distant islands appear to merge into single one.
When distance is increased, details generalize and distinctions may merge or vanish (Koenderink, p. xv).
occur only along branches linking the local states (Figure 8). The wavelet domain hidden Markov model
established like that has been proved tremendously useful in a variety of applications including speech
recognition and artificial intelligence (Crouse et al., 1998, p.887).

Figure 8. The wavelet domain hidden Markov model. Black nodes represent the detail coefficients and
blue ones the hidden states

Elaborating the statistical model of the wavelet transform, the signal and its coefficients are
regarded to be a random realization. In that respect, one suggests the space whose constituent is a
variable over the signal space parametrized by an interval 𝕀 implying the Lebesgue measure. The
coefficient distributions are given by
since from (21) and (24) it follows that the projection onto a detail subspace is
having thereby in mind . The detail coefficients at a common scale are considered equally distributed
which is reflected in the causal variable whose distribution is independent of the position index . 14 An
information contained in local states
dependent on the scale only, is termed the local complexity whose increase in the temporal domain
concerns self-organiozation. One implies the Shannon entropy being an extensive measure of the
random variable.

The intrinsic time is unfolding in a manner of the complexity increase, and so it is significant to
find an optimal basis of a signal wherein self-organization is the most prominent. The complexity
termed the global one, is proven to be a measure of the optimal representation (Milovanovi

, 2013). The signal information is decomposed through canonical equation

whereat the first term corresponds to the complexity and the extensive term represents an irreducible
randomness that remains even after all correlations are subsumed. Adding a noise to the signal, only the
randomness should increase while the complexity remains unchanged. Thereby the optimal basis has
performed superior denoising since it best respects self-organization of a system corresponded to the
time operator. A multiresolution it provides is temporally decomposing the signal whose significance is
specified by a complexity insight. In that regard, the multiscale pyramids are proposed to be likely
models of visual perception (Koenderink, 1997, p. xx).

An incisive phenomenology of the fact has been presented by John Ruskin (1844, p. 174) who
names it mystery giving complete description:

Go to the top of Highgate Hill on a clear summer morning at Jive o'clock, and look at
Westminster Abbey. You will receive an impression of a building enriched with multitudinous
vertical lines. Try to distinguish one of these lines all the way down from the one next to it: You
cannot. Try to count them: You cannot. Try to make out the beginning or end of any of them: You
14Statistical stationarity of a system that concerns translational invariance of the signal distribution enables
reduction of model parameters. The practice is known as tying in the hidden Markov model literature (Rabiner,
1989), purposed to estimate the parameters robustly using the Baum-Welch algorithm given an observation from
the signal space . It is about sharing statistical information between related variables at certain scales, whose
distribution parameters are tied to a common value. The algorithm usually converges in as few as ten iterations
supposing a locally two state causal structure (Crouse et al., 1998, p. 893).
 cannot. Look at it generally, and it is all symmetry and arrangement. Look at it in its parts, and it
is all inextricable confusion.

Yet Ruskin adamantly insists that the draughtsman should render the confusion veridically, meaning that
the complexity is optimally represented. Such a rendering is however done in a hierarchical manner as is
generally the case when one describes a complex object (Simon, 1962, p. 477).

Koendreink (1997, pp. xvii-xx) indicates that one is faced with a fundamental and important,
though unfortunately ill understood, aspect of perception. Having taken a first look at the subject, he
admitted a shock by the fact that there existed essentially no science on the topic. The only discipline
that carried about such phenomena turned out to be cartography (Greenwood, 1964). Although there is
certainly a lot of science in cartography, its arguably the most important aspect has always remained an
art conducted largely on intuition. It corresponds to an aesthetical criterion relating truth to the original
creation (Milovanović, 2018), that has been termed by Gaston Bachelard (1961) to be the poetics of
space.

Elaborating the physical reality, Koenderink concludes the same as Mandelbrot (1983)
concerning the fractal geometry, that a complex description of nature is required. The conception is
concisely exposed in the book Powers of Ten (Morrison et al., 1982) giving to the number a significance
corresponded to multiresolution. A link between the number of ten and multiscaling is about the
continuum structure designed by the measurement process. According to Lochs` theorem, the number
of terms in continued fraction requisite for determination a decimal digit tends to be , meaning that
each step of measurement roughly determines digit by digit almost certainly. A significance of the
decimal system in coding real numbers is thus based on the very definition of time continuum that is an
archetype of complex systems. The number values in the tree representation correspond to the choice
sequences unfolding in time, since the continual signals are equally distributed with no dependence on
the horizontal position of the hierarchy (31).

In that manner, the time continuum appears to be a model of intuitionistic logic wherein the
excluded middle does not hold, considering the identity unfolded by a choice. The law of excluded
middle is however valid concerning the diversity since it holds
Respecting the intuitionism, a negation of identity is diversity , but its negation is undiversity that is a
discrete relation. The negation of undiversity is diversity , and thus the law (35) takes a form
indicating a discrete structure corresponded to the formal logic. It is obtained by a negative translation
of the intuitionistic one (Mancosu, 1998, pp. 301-305), meaning that the formalism is an extreme of the
intuitionistic mathematics reduced to the discrete method. 15

The discretization due to the double negation of identity makes a pointwise structure base upon
the undiversity of elements.16 In terms of the signal space, it gives rise to a point operator that is

15The extreme concerns deterministic computation based upon the Turing machine that is a reduction of the
stochastic one using the Bernoulli-Turing machine. In that manner, the concept of statistical complexity is reduced
to algorithmic one (Crutchfield, 1990).
16It also emerges in the JavaScript language being legendary Cast-to-bool operator writable in a form of the
double negation (!!).
required to be sufficiently smooth in order to transfer the concepts of continuity and differentiation
onto the discrete functions (Florack, 1997, pp.57-65). 17 Concerning the time continuum, however, all
functions on the domain have been considered continuous since representing morphisms of the
structure (Mancosu, 1998, pp. 36-39).

7. Conclusion

Elaborating relation between wavelets and stochastic processes, Ioannis Antoniou (1999, p.96) asserted
that wavelets had not been motivated by any underlying dynamics. He concludes that the ergodic
theory is richer than the wavelet one since the former involves fundamentally an underlying dynamical
system of point trajectories. However, it has been demonstrated that the wavelet theory evolves by
action of the baker map in the domain underlying the space of signal distributions. A motivation
concerns the continuum structure indicating an intrinsic time corresponded to complex systems. The
time operator defining the complex systems physics is implied by the very concept of real numbers that
addresses the measurement problem.

According to Brouwer`s view, time is a primordial intuition being the basis of conscious life.
Mathematics is regarded to be the paradigm of self-organization, i.e., an intellection of increasingly
complex features. In that respect, a basic structure is the time continuum that is an archetype of
complex systems. The dynamical identity it implies is unfolded by a choice, similar to one of Jungian
psychology whereby the natural number emerges to be a timestamp (von Franz, 1974).

The complex description of nature consistent to the underlying dynamics is designed by fractal
geometry whose intrinsic time is established in terms of multiresolution. The wavelet domain hidden
Markov model considering the statistics of continual signals has been proved tremendously useful in a
variety of applications (Crouse et al., 1998). It is, however, obtained in a manner of experimental
mathematics elucidating the complex systems physics to be a paradigmatic framework for such an
activity. Referring to Chaitin (1995, p. 158-159), one concludes that another generation of mathematics
has come in line to the Brouwerian method.

Acknowledgement

The authors acknowledge support by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development
of the Republic of Serbia through the projects OI 174014 and III 44006, also by the Joint Japan-Serbia
Center for the Promotion of Science and Technology of the University in Belgrade and the Ito
Foundation for International Education Exchange.

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