MAIN TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMICS

Introduction
This topic will discuss the basic concepts of dynamics, position, displacement, velocity,
and acceleration.

Learning Outcomes
Intended Learning Outcomes
1. Acquire awareness of the principles governing the motion of particles.

Topic Outcomes
1. Learn the concept of dynamics.
2. Learn the concepts of position, displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
3. Solve problems related to displacement, velocity and acceleration.

WHAT IS DYNAMICS?
Dynamics is the branch of mechanics which deals with the study of bodies in motion.
The experiments which form the foundation of dynamics require the use of three kinds of units:
force, length, and time. (Singer)
It is divided into two branches called kinetics and kinematics.
1. Kinematics is the geometry of motion and used to define the motion of a particle or body
without consideration of the forces causing the motion. (e.g. displacement, velocity, and
acceleration). (Singer)

2. Kinetics is the analysis of the forces causing the motion. (Hibbeler, 2015). It relates the
force acting on a body to its mass and acceleration. (Singer)

The motion of the particle may either be rectilinear motion or curvilinear motion.
Rectilinear motion refers to the particle as it moves along a straight line while particle in a
curvilinear motion moves along a curved line in two or three dimensions. (Beer, 2019)

Application of Dynamics in Engineering

1. Structural design of any vehicle such as automobile or airplane. (Hibbeler,2015)
2. Design of mechanical devices such as motors, pumps, movable tools, industrial
manipulators, and machinery. (Hibbeler,2015)
 3. Predictions of the motions of artificial satellites, projectiles, and spacecraft.
(Hibbeler,2015)

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Body. It denotes a system of particles which form an object of appreciable size. (Singer)
Particle. It usually denotes an object of point size. (Singer). It has a mass but negligible size and
shape.
Position. It is used to specify the location of a particle at any given instant.

DISPLACEMENT
Displacement is defined to be the change in position of an object. (Hibbeler, 2015). Say,
a particle moves from the initial position 𝑠0 to a final position 𝑠𝑓 , then the displacement is the
difference in distance between the two positions.

Source: Beer, 2019

Mathematically, displacement can be defined as:

∆𝒔 = 𝒔𝒇 − 𝒔𝒐
where:
Δs – displacement
sf – final position
so – initial position
If the final position (sf) is to the right of the initial position (s0), the displacement is
positive. Likewise, if the final position (sf) is to the left of the initial position (s0), the
displacement is negative. (Hibbeler,2015)
 The displacement is a vector quantity. (Hibbeler,2015). This means it has a direction as
well as a magnitude and is represented visually as an arrow that points from the initial position to
the final position. (Khanacademy.org)
VELOCITY

Velocity is defined as a vector measurement of the rate and direction of motion; the
speed at which something moves in one direction. The speed of a car traveling north on a major
freeway and the speed a rocket launching into space can both be measured using velocity.

In calculus terms, velocity is the first derivative of position with respect to time. You can
calculate velocity by using a simple formula that includes rate, distance, and time.

𝑑𝑠
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡

The average velocity of the particle over the time interval Δt is defined as the quotient
of the displacement Δs and the time interval Δt as

∆𝑠
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
∆𝑡

The average velocity is expressed in meters per second (m/s) or in feet per
second (ft/s).

The instantaneous velocity v of a particle at the instant t is determined by allowing

the time interval Δt to become infinite similarly small. Thus,

∆𝑠
𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

The instantaneous velocity is also expressed in m/s or ft/s.

The most common way to calculate the constant velocity of an object moving in a straight
line is with this formula:

𝑠
𝑣=
𝑡

where:

v - velocity or rate of speed

s - distance travelled

t - time it takes to complete the movement

 The SI (international) units for velocity are m/s (meters per second), but velocity may
also be expressed in any units of distance per time [e.g. miles per hour (mph), kilometers per
hour (kph), and kilometers per second (km/s)].

Difference Between Speed and Velocity

Speed is a scalar quantity that indicates the rate of motion distance per time. Its units are
length and time. Speed is often described simply as the distance traveled per unit of time. It is
how fast an object is moving.

Velocity is a vector quantity that gives the rate of motion of a particle in a certain
direction.

ACCELERATION
Acceleration is defined as a vector quantity that indicates the rate of change of velocity.
It has dimensions of length and time over time.

Acceleration is often referred to as “speeding up”, but it really measures changes in

velocity. An object is accelerating if it is changing its velocity.

Acceleration can be experienced every day in a vehicle. You step on the accelerator and
the car speeds up, increasing its velocity.

Consider the velocity v of the particle at time t and also its velocity v + Δv at a later time t
+ Δt.

If the velocity of the particle is known at any two points, the average acceleration during
the time interval ∆t is defined as:

∆𝑣
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
∆𝑡

The average acceleration is expressed in m/s2 or in ft/s2.

 The instantaneous acceleration a of the particle at the instant t is obtained by again
allowing the time interval Δt to approach zero.

The instantaneous acceleration at time t is a vector that is found by taking the smaller
and smaller values of ∆t and corresponding small values of ∆v, so that

Thus,
∆𝑣
𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

The instantaneous acceleration is also expressed in m/s2 or ft/s2.

The limit of the quotient, which is, the derivative of v with respect to t, measures the rate
of change of the velocity. We have

𝑑𝑣 𝑑2𝑠 𝑑𝑣
𝑎= 𝑜𝑟 𝑎= 𝑜𝑟 𝑎=𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

The acceleration a is represented by an algebraic number that can be positive or negative.

A positive value of a indicates that the velocity (i.e., the algebraic number v) increases. This may
mean that the particle is moving faster in the positive direction or that it is moving more slowly in
the negative direction; in both cases, Δv is positive. A negative value of a indicates that the velocity
decreases; either the particle is moving more slowly in the positive direction, or it is moving faster
in the negative direction.

Sometimes the term deceleration is used to refer to a when the speed of the particle (i.e.,
the magnitude of v) decreases; the particle is then moving more slowly. For example, the particle
of Fig. 11.5 is decelerating in parts b and c; it is truly accelerating (i.e., moving faster) in parts a
and d.
 Another way to define acceleration is,

𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝒐
𝒂=
𝒕
where:
a- acceleration
vf – final velocity
vo – initial velocity
t – time

Relationship Between Velocity and Acceleration

Velocity and acceleration are all related to each other, though they represent different
measurements. Velocity is a vector quantity that indicates displacement, time, and direction
while acceleration is the rate at which an object changes its velocity.

Procedure for Analysis: Velocity and Acceleration

A. Coordinate System

1. Establish a position coordinate s along the path and specify its fixed origin and positive
direction.
2. Since motion is along a straight line, the vector quantities position, velocity, and
acceleration can be represented as algebraic scalars. For analytical work the sense of s, v,
and a is then defined by their algebraic signs.
3. The positive sense for each of these scalars can be indicated by an arrow shown alongside
each kinematic equation as it is applied.

B. Kinematic Equations.
1. If a relation is known between any two of the four variables a, v, s, and t, then a third
variable can be obtained by using one of the kinematic equations, a = dv/dt, v = ds/dt or
a ds = v dv, since each equation relates all three variables.
2. Whenever integration is performed, it is important that the position and velocity be
known at a given instant in order to evaluate either the constant of integration if an
indefinite integral is used, or the limits of integration if a definite integral is used.
EXAMPLE 1.1:
The car in the figure moves in a straight line such that for a short time its velocity is
𝑓𝑡
defined by 𝑣 = (3𝑡 2 + 2𝑡) 𝑠 , where t is in seconds. Determine its position and
acceleration when (a) t= 3s, (b) t=0 and (c) s= 0

Given:
𝑣 = (3𝑡 2 + 2𝑡)
Required:
position =?
acceleration =?
Solution:
Since v is f(t) , the car’s position can be determined from 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑠⁄𝑑𝑡 , since
this
equation relates velocity (v), distance (s) and time (t).

𝑑𝑠
𝑣= = (3𝑡 2 + 2𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑠 = (3𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 )𝑑𝑡
𝑠 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ (3𝑡 2 + 2𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0 0

[𝑠]0𝑠 = [𝑡 3 + 𝑡 2 ]𝑡0

𝑠 = 𝑡3 + 𝑡2

(a) When t = 3s, 𝑠 = (3)3 + (3)2 s = 36

ft
(b) When t =0, 𝑠 = (0)3 + (0)2 s=0
(c) When s = 0, 0 = 𝑡 3 + 𝑡 2 t=0
EXAMPLE 1.2:
A small projectile is fired vertically downward into a fluid medium with an initial
velocity of 60 m/s. Due to the drag resistance of the fluid the projectile experiences a
𝑚
deceleration of 𝑎 = (−0.4𝑣 3 ) 𝑠 2 , where v is in m/s. Determine the projectile’s velocity
and position 4s after it is fired.

Given:

t = 4s
Required:
Velocity, v =?
Position =?
Solution:
𝑑𝑣
(a) Since a = f(v), we must determine the velocity as a function of time using 𝑎 = ,
𝑑𝑡
because this equation relates velocity, acceleration, and time.
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = −0.4𝑣 3
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑡
𝑑𝑣
∫ 3
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡
60 −0.4𝑣
𝑚
0
𝑠

1 1 1
( ) 2 |𝑣60 = 𝑡 − 0
−0.4 −2 𝑣

1 1 2
[ 2 − ]=𝑡
0.8 𝑣 (60)2
 1
−
1 2 𝑚
𝑣 = {[ + 0.8𝑡] }
(60)2 𝑠

Here , the positive roots is taken since the projectile will continue to move
downward.

When t = 4s,
1
−
1 2 𝑚
𝑣 = {[ 2
+ 0.8(4)] }
(60) 𝑠

𝒎
𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟗 ↓
𝒔
𝑑𝑠
(b) Since v = f(t), we can obtain the projectile’s position from 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 , because the
equation relates distance, velocity, and time. Using the initial condition distance, s = 0
and time, t =0 then:
1
−
𝑑𝑠 1 2
𝑣= = [ + 0.8𝑡]
𝑑𝑡 (60)2
1
𝑠 𝑡 1 −
2
∫0 𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 [(60)2 + 0.8𝑡] 𝑑𝑡

1
2 1 2
𝑠= [ + 0.8𝑡] |𝑡0
0.8 (60)2

1
1 1 2 1
𝑠= {[ + 0.8𝑡] − }𝑚
0.4 (60)2 60

When t = 4s

1
1 1 2 1
𝑠 = {[ + 0.8(4)] − }𝑚
0.4 (60)2 60

𝒔 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟑 𝒎
Important Points
1. Dynamics is concerned with bodies in motion.
2. Kinematics is the study of the geometry of motion.
3. Kinetics is the study of the forces that causes the motion.
4. The motion of the particle may move either in a straight line or in a curved line.
5. Speed refers to the magnitude of velocity.
6. A particle that is slowing down is decelerating,
7. The differential equations of kinematics are given by the equations:
𝑑𝑠
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑠
𝑎= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑡

𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑠
CHAPTER TEST

A. Concepts
1. Cite the applications of dynamics.
2. What is the difference between kinetics and kinematics?
3. Differentiate speed and velocity.
4. Differentiate velocity and acceleration.

B. Problems
𝑚
1. A particle travels along a straight line with an acceleration of 𝑎 = (10 − 0.2𝑠) 𝑠 2 , where s
𝑚
is measured in meters. Determine the velocity of the particle when s= 10m if 𝑣 = 5 𝑠 at s=
0.
2. Starting from rest, a particle moving in a straight line has an acceleration of 𝑎 =
𝑚
(2𝑡 − 6) 2 , where t is in seconds. What is the particle’s velocity when t =6s and what is the
𝑠
position when t = 11s?

𝑓𝑡
3. A freight train travels at 𝑣 = 60 ( 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡 ) 𝑠 , where t= is the elapsed time in seconds.
Determine the distance travelled in 3 seconds, and the acceleration at this time.
 𝑓𝑡
4. Car B is travelling a distance d ahead of A. Both cars are travelling a at 60 when the
𝑠
𝑓𝑡
driver of B suddenly applies the brakes, causing his car to decelerate at 12 𝑠 2 . It takes the
driver of car A 0.75s to react (this is the normal reaction time for drivers). When he applies
𝑓𝑡
his brakes, he decelerates at 15 𝑠 2 . Determine the minimum distance d between the cars to
avoid collision.

5. The acceleration of a rocket traveling upward is given by a = (6 + 0.02s) m>s2, where s is

in meters. Determine the time needed for the rocket to reach an altitude of s = 100 m.
Initially, v = 0 and s = 0 when t = 0.

6. A sphere is fired downward into a medium with an initial speed of 27 m/s. If it

𝑚
experiences a deceleration of 𝑎 = (−6𝑡) 𝑠 2, where t is in seconds, determine the distance
traveled before it stops.

References
Books
1. Hibbeler, R. C. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, Fourteenth Edition. Pearson
Prentice Hall
 2. Beer, Ferdinand et al. (2019) Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics,
Twelfth Edition, McGraw-Hill Education
3. Singer, Ferdinand L, Engineering Mechanics, Harper and Row Publisher’s Incorporated

Websites
1. https://byjus.com /
2. https://www.real-world-physics-problems.com
3. https://brainly.in
4. onlinetutoring.zohosites.com
5. https://www.fisicalab.com
6. https://www.math.arizona.edu
7. https://msu.edu
8. https://aapt.scitation.org