1.

D’Argonval meter

The D’Argonval meter movement is a current-sensing device commonly used in

DC ammeters, voltmeters and ohm meters.

An electromagnetic core with a coil is suspended between the two poles of a

permanent magnet (see the Figure).

When a current flows through a D'Arsonval meter, a magnetic torque causes the
meter coil to rotate; in fact, the magnetic field produced by the current opposes
the field of the permanent magnet and causes the rotation of the core.

The magnitude of the current that flows through the D'Arsonval meter is
indicated by the scale position of a pointer which is attached to the rotated coil.
The core is restrained by springs so that the pointer will deflect or move in
proportion to the current intensity. The more current is applied to the core, the
stronger is the opposing field, the larger is the deflection up to the limit of the
current capacity of the coil. The limit of the current that can be applied to this
type of movement is called the full scale deflection current and is usually less than
one milliampere (mA).
When the current is interrupted, the opposing field collapses, and the pointer is
returned to zero by the restraining springs.

A D’Arsonval meter is characterized by two quantities:

a. its internal resistance RM
b. the current IFS that produces a full scale deflection
 D’Argonval Analog Meter

2. Electrostatic meter.
 Electrostatic meters measure voltage, field, and charge without transferring
the static charge to the instrument. They eliminate the need to modify parameters
due to changing loads. Electrostatic meters can determine if a static charge is
present, measure the amount of static (if any), and indicate the polarity of the charge.
Because electrostatic discharge (ESD) can damage sensitive electronics,
electrostatic meters are often used to monitor the presence of electrostatic charge in
environments where static electricity can damage these components or hinder
certain processes. They are used in the production of sensitive electronic
components for computers and medical devices, and can be used in laboratory or
research settings to monitor the potential buildup of static electricity.

Electrostatic meters include both electrostatic locator meters and electrostatic

field meters. Electrostatic locators meters are so named because they sense the
presence of a charge on the surface of an object. Electrostatic field meters measure
the electrostatic field produced by the charged surface by using a reference sensor. 
This sensor must be referenced to ground, and the distance between the sensor and
the surface being tested must be known to ensure an accurate measurement. Other
types of electrostatic meters include electrostatic volt meters, devices which
measures the actual potential voltage at the surface of an object. 

Product specifications for electrostatic meters include form factor, display type,
measurement range, device performance, and output interface. Choices for form
factor include bench or free-standing, clamp meter, rack-mounted, handheld, and
computer board. Electrostatic meters with analog or digital displays are commonly
available. Charge range, DC voltage range, and AC voltage range are important
measurement specifications to consider. Device performance is specified according
to bandwidth, sampling rate, maximum channels and operating temperature. Choices
for output interface include universal serial bus (USB), general-purpose interface bus
(GPIB), RS-232, binary coded decimal (BCD), and digital-to-analog (D/A).
Electrostatic meter.
3. Electrodynamo meter.

The  electrodynamometer  movement has  the  same  basic  operating

principle  as  the D’Arsonval meter movement, except that the permanent
magnet is replaced by fixed coils.   The moving coil and pointer, which are
attached to the coil, are suspended between and connected in series with the
two field coils.   The two field coils and moving coil are connected in series
such that the same current flows through each coil.

 Electrodynamometer Movement Current flow through the three coils in

either direction causes a magnetic field to be produced between  the  field
coils.   The  same  current  flow  through  the  moving  coil  causes  it  to  act
as  a magnet exerting a force against the spring.   If the current is reversed,
the field polarity and the polarity of the moving coil reverse, and the force
continues in the same direction.   Due to this characteristic of the
electrodynamometer movement, it can be used in both AC and DC systems to
measure current.   Some voltmeters and ammeters use the electrodynamo
meter.   However, its most important use is in the wattmeter, which will be
discussed later in this module.
Electrodynamo meter.
4. Moving Iron Vane Movement

The moving iron vane movement (Figure) can be used to measure both AC
current and voltage. By changing the meter scale calibration, the movement
can be used to measure DC current and voltage.   The moving iron vane
meter operates on the principle of magnetic repulsion between like poles.
  The measured current flows through a field coil which   produces a magnetic
field proportional to the magnitude of current.   Suspended in this field are two
iron vanes attached to a pointer.   The two iron vanes consist of one fixed and
one moveable vane.   The magnetic field produced by the current flow
magnetizes the two iron vanes with the same polarity regardless of the
direction of current through the coil.   Since like poles repel one another, the
moving iron vane pulls away from the fixed vane and moves the meter pointer.
 This motion exerts a force against a spring.   The distance the moving iron
vane will travel against the spring depends on the strength of the magnetic
field.  The strength of the magnetic field depends on the magnitude of current
flow.

As stated previously, this type of meter movement may also be used to

measure voltage.   When this type of movement is used to measure voltage,
the field coil consists of many turns of fine wire used to generate a strong
magnetic field with only a small current flow.
 Iron vane meter.

5. Thermocouple meter.
Thermocouples are the most popular temperature sensors. They are cheap,
interchangeable, have standard connectors and can measure a wide range of
temperatures. The main limitation is accuracy, system errors of less than 1°C can be
difficult to achieve. Although almost any two types of metal can be used to make a
thermocouple, a number of standard types are used because they possess
predictable output voltages and large temperature gradients. The diagram below
shows a K type thermocouple, which is the most popular:

To make accurate measurements, must be compensated for by using a technique

known as cold junction compensation (CJC). In case you are wondering why
connecting a voltmeter to a thermocouple does not make several additional
thermocouple junctions (leads connecting to the thermocouple, leads to the meter,
inside the meter etc), the law of intermediate metals states that a third metal, inserted
between the two dissimilar metals of a thermocouple junction will have no effect
provided that the two junctions are at the same temperature. This law is also
important in the construction of thermocouple junctions. It is acceptable to make a
thermocouple junction by soldering the two metals together as the solder will not
affect the reading. In practice, however, thermocouples junctions are made by
welding the two metals together (usually by capacitive discharge) as this ensures that
the performance is not limited by the melting point of solder.

All standard thermocouple tables allow for this second thermocouple junction by
assuming that it is kept at exactly zero degrees centigrade. Traditionally this was
done with a carefully constructed ice bath (hence the term 'cold' junction
compensation). Maintaining a ice bath is not practical for most measurement
applications, so instead the actual temperature at the point of connection of the
thermocouple wires to the measuring instrument is recorded.

Typically cold junction temperature is sensed by a precision Thermistor in good

thermal contact with the input connectors of the measuring instrument. This second
temperature reading, along with the reading from the thermocouple itself is used by
the measuring instrument to calculate the true temperature at the thermocouple tip.
For less critical applications, the CJC is performed by a semiconductor temperature
sensor. By combining the signal from this semiconductor with the signal from the
thermocouple, the correct reading can be obtained without the need or expense to
record two temperatures. Understanding of cold junction compensation is important;
any error in the measurement of cold junction temperature will lead to the same error
in the measured temperature from the thermocouple tip.

Linearisation

As well as dealing with CJC, the measuring instrument must also allow for the fact
that the thermocouple output is non linear. The relationship between temperature and
output voltage is a complex polynomial equation (5 th to 9th order depending on
thermocouple type). Analogue methods of linearization are used in low cost
thermocouple meters. High accuracy instruments such as the Pico TC-08 store
thermocouple tables in computer memory to eliminate this source of error.

Thermocouples are available either as bare wire 'bead' thermocouples which offer
low cost and fast response times, or built into probes. A wide variety of probes are
available, suitable for different measuring applications (industrial, scientific, food
temperature, medical research). One word of warning: when selecting probes take
care to ensure they have the correct type of connector. The two common types of
connector are 'standard' with round pins and 'miniature' with flat pins, this causes
some confusion as 'miniature' connectors are more popular than 'standard' types.

When choosing a thermocouple consideration should be given to both the

thermocouple type, insulation and probe construction. All of these will have an effect
on the measurable temperature range, accuracy and reliability of the readings. Listed
below is our guide to thermocouple types.

Thermocouple meter.
 JABATAN KEJURUTERAAN ELEKTRIK
E 4100

NAMA AHLI KUMPULAN:

KHAIRUL FATHURRAHMAN B.MAZELAN (07DET08F2001)
EMELOYD DENIO TIKOM (07DET08F2046)
JACKY LIAN (07DET08F2041)
SPANCEMETROYAL (07DET08F2034)
NURUL ANIS AHMAD (07DET08F2007)

PENSYARAH: PN. NORIMAH

TARIKH HANTAR: 28 Dis 2010