Discussion questions for lecture; Nervous system

1. Describe the organization of the nervous system including the central nervous system and
the peripheral nervous system
The nervous system consists of two parts,
 The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.
 The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of nerves outside the CNS.
 Central Nervous System (CNS)-Consists of the brain and spinal cord. It processes
many different kinds of incoming sensory information. It is the source of thoughts,
emotions, and memories. Most nerve impulses that stimulates muscles to contract
and glands to secrete originate from the CNS.
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)-Includes all nervous tissue outside the CNS.
Components of the PNS are nerves, ganglia, enteric plexuses, and sensory receptors.
Divided into a somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system, and enteric
nervous system.
2. Distinguish among the three types of neurons: afferent neurons, efferent neurons,
and interneurons
Sensory ( afferent) neurons transmit impulses from skin and other
sensory organs or from various places within the body to the CNS.
Motor ( efferent) neurons transmit impulses from the CNS to effectors
(muscles or glands).

Sensory neurons, Also known as afferent neurons, sensory neurons convert a particular type of
stimulus into action potentials or graded potentials via their receptors. The process is called
sensory transduction. The sensory neurons’ cell bodies are located in a part of the spinal cord
known as the dorsal ganglia. Sensory information travels throughout the sensory nerve via afferent
nerve fibers, which are nerve fibers that arrive at a particular region, not exit the region.The information flows
from the sensory nerve to the brain via the spinal cord. Stimuli can come from outside the body, including
sound and light; or inside the body, including blood pressure or the sense of body position. Different
sensory neuron types have different receptors that respond to different types of stimuli

Interneurons consist of a large class of neurons that are found throughout the
human body. Interneurons enable communication between sensory, or motor
neurons, and the central nervous system.They do this by creating neural circuits,
which are groups of neurons that are interconnected by synapses and which carry
out specific functions whenever they are activated. There are two types of interneurons:
o Local interneurons. Local interneurons form circuits with neurons close by and
have short axons. They form these circuits in order to analyze small pieces of
information.
o Relay interneurons. These neurons have long axons and they connect the circuits
found in one region of the brain to circuits found in another region of the brain.
o A motor neuron (or motoneuron) is a neuron whose cell body is located in the motor
cortex, brainstem or the spinal cord, and whose axon (fiber) projects to the spinal
cord or outside of the spinal cord to directly or indirectly control effector organs,
mainly muscles and glands.[1] There are two types of motor neuron – upper motor
neurons and lower motor neurons. Axons from upper motor neurons synapse onto
interneurons in the spinal cord and occasionally directly onto lower motor neurons.
[2] The axons from the lower motor neurons are efferent nerve fibers that carry
signals from the spinal cord to the effectors.(3)Types of lower motor neurons are
alpha motor neurons, beta motor neurons, and gamma motor neurons.
3. List the three major levels of CNS function and describe their activities
1. Spinal Cord level: Walking movements, spinal reflexes, and reflex control of local
blood vessels, gastrointestinal movements and urinary excretion.
2. Sub-Cortical level: Control subconscious activities. Arterial blood pressure,
Respiration (Function of medulla and Pons), Equilibrium (Function of cerebellum,
vestibular nuclei and reticular formation), Feeding reflexes (Function of Brainstem
and Limbic System) & many emotional patterns.
3. Cortical level: The cerebral cortex is large memory storehouse, it is also essential
for most of our thought processes, intelligence and language. It converts lower brain
functions that are imprecise to determinative and precise operations.
4. Which somatic sensory receptors are encapsulated?
Touch, pressure, vibration
5. Why do some receptors adapt slowly, and others adapt rapidly?
Fast adapting alerts you if there is a change in the stimulus, like the onset of touch.
They are more sensitive to small changes because they fire rapidly. Slow adapting
fire slower, and are usually involved in static perception (e.g. holding an object).
6. Which somatic sensory receptors mediate touch sensations?
Meissner's corpuscles, hair root plexus, Merkel disc, Ruffini corpuscles.
7. How does fast pain differ from slow pain?
 Fast pain is perceived 0.1 seconds after the stimulus, it is sharp, acute pain. Slow
pain is perceived 1 second or more after the stimulus and tends to be chronic,
throbbing pain.
8. What is referred pain, Visceral pain that is felt at a site remote from its origin, such as
in an area of skin that is far away from the affected visceral organ. and how is it
useful in diagnosing internal disorders? It can be useful in diagnosing certain
disorders, such as problems with the heart, will be felt on the left side of the body or
the left arm. An example is the case of angina pectoris brought on by a myocardial
infarction (heart attack), where pain is often felt in the neck, shoulders, and back
rather than in the thorax (chest), the site of the injury.
9. What aspects of muscle function are monitored by muscle spindles and tendon organs?
Stretch and tension in the muscle.
10. What are the functional differences between the posterior column–medial lemniscus
pathway, the anterolateral pathway, and the trigeminothalamic pathway?
Medial lemniscus pathway: touch, pressure, vibration, conscious proprioception in
body, neck and back of head. Anterolateral pathway: pain, cold, heat, itch, tickle,
throughout body. Trigeminothalamic pathway: tactile, thermal, pain,
proprioception in face/head.
11. Which body parts have the largest representation in the primary somatosensory area?
Face, tongue, lips, fingertips/hands.
12. What type of sensory information is carried in the spinocerebellar tracts, and what is its
function?
proprioception. Helps to maintain balance, motor coordination, balance.
13. Trace the path of a motor impulse from the upper motor neurons through the final
common pathway.
14. Which parts of the body have the largest representation in the motor cortex?
vocalization, mastication (jaw, tongue, swallowing), salivation, hand Which have the
smallest? wrist, elbow, shoulder, trunk, hip, knee, ankle, toes, neck, brow, eyelid,
eyeball, face
15. Explain why the two main somatic motor pathways are called “direct” and “indirect.”
DMPs provide input to lower motor neurons via axons that extend directly from
cerebral cortex. IDMPs provide input to lower motor neurons from motor centers in
 brain stem. D & IDMPs both govern generation of nerve impulses in lower motor
neurons, neurons that stimulate contraction of skeletal muscles
16. Explain the role of the cerebellum in performing rapid, coordinated, highly skilled
movements.
cerebellum coordinates & smooths contractions of skeletal muscles during skilled
movements & helps maintain posture & balance. cerebellum monitors intentions for
movement by receiving impulses fr motor cortex & basal ganglia > pontine nuclei in
pons regarding what movements are planned.cerebellum monitors actual movement
by receiving input fr proprioceptors in joints & muscles revealing what's
happening. These nerve impulses travel in anterior & posterior spinocerebellar
tracts. Nerve impulses fr vestibular (equilibrium-sensing) apparatus in inner ear &
fr eyes also enter cerebellum.cerebellum compares command signals (intentions for
movement) w/ sensory info (actual movement performe If discrepancy b'ween
intend'd & actual movemnt cerebellum sends corrective f'back >upper motor
neurons. info goes > thalamus>UMNs in cerebral cortex & goes directly > UMNs in
brain stem motor centers As movements occur cerebellum provides error
corrections>upper motor neurons whch decrease error & smooth motion &
contribute over time > learning new motor skills
17. Distinguish among the three types of tracts in the CNS: projection tracts, association
tracts, and commissural tracts
association fibers-Fibers that connect areas of the cerebral cortex within the SAME
hemisphere
Example: Fornix
commissural fibers-Fibers that connect one cerebral hemisphere to the other
Example: Corpus Callosum
projection fibers-Fibers that connect the cerebrum and other parts of that brain
and/or spinal cord
Example: Internal Capsule
18. Describe the activity of each of the functional areas of the cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex is divided into sensory, motor and association areas. Sensory
areas receive sensory input, motor areas control movement of muscles. Association
 areas are involved with more complex functions such as learning, decision making
and complex movements such as writing.

The central sulcus divides the primary sensory and motor areas. Both the sensory
cortex and the motor cortex have been mapped out according to what part of the
body it controls. A larger portion of the cortex is involved with the lips, face, and
fingers which contain a greater number of sensory receptors.

Broca’s area, the motor speech area, is involved in translating thoughts into speech.
Impulses from this area control the muscles of the larynx, pharynx and mouth that
enable us to speak.

The visual area receives visual stimuli and the visual association area helps to
interpret those stimuli. It is also involved with memory and recognition.

The auditory area receives auditory information. The auditory association area is
where sound is interpreted as noise, music or speech.
19. Explain how language is processed in the cerebral cortex
Many cortical (and non-cortical!) regions are involved in language processing. The
primary language pathway begins in Wernicke’s area (posterior temporal lobe),
which receives information from the auditory and visual cortices and assigns
meaning (= language comprehension). The arcuate fasciculus connects Wernicke’s
area to Broca’s area (posterior inferior frontal lobe). Broca’s area is responsible for
the production of meaningful language. Output from Broca’s area goes to motor
cortex for initiation of the complex muscle movements necessary for speech.
20. Describe the functions of the ;
basal ganglia- The basal ganglia are a group of neurons (also called nuclei) located
deep within the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. The basal ganglia consist of the
corpus striatum (a major group of basal ganglia nuclei) and related nuclei. The
basal ganglia are involved primarily in processing movement-related information.
 They also process information related to emotions, motivations, and cognitive
functions.,
thalamus - The thalamus is a large mass of gray matter located in the dorsal part of
the diencephalon. Nerve fibers project out of the thalamus to the cerebral cortex in
all directions, allowing hub-like exchanges of information. It has several functions,
such as relaying of sensory signals, including motor signals to the cerebral cortex
and the regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness. ,
hypothalamus- To maintain homeostasis, the hypothalamus is responsible for
creating or controlling many hormones in the body. The hypothalamus works with
the pituitary gland, which makes and sends other important hormones around the
body , and
brainstem- The brainstem has many basic functions, including regulation of heart
rate, breathing, sleeping, and eating. It also plays a role in conduction. All
information
relayed from the body to the cerebrum and cerebellum and vice versa must traverse
the brainstem.
21. Distinguish among the three regions of the cerebellum and their functions –for
movement ,posture , Maintaining balance: The cerebellum has special sensors that
detect shifts in balance and movement. It sends signals for the body to adjust and
move.
Coordinating movement: Most body movements require the coordination of
multiple muscle groups. The cerebellum times muscle actions so that the body can
move smoothly.
Vision: The cerebellum coordinates eye movements.
Motor learning: The cerebellum helps the body to learn movements that require
practice and fine-tuning. For example, the cerebellum plays a role in learning to
ride a bicycle or play a musical instrument

Anatomically, the cerebellum is divided into three lobes by two deep fissures,(1) the
anterior lobe, (2) the posterior lobe, and (3) the flocculonodular lobe. The
flocculonodular lobe is the oldest of all portions of the cerebellum; it developed
 along with (and functions with) the vestibular system in Cerebellum Functional
Areas.Somatosensory projection areas in the cerebellar cortex
22. Compare and contrast the exchange of materials between the blood and peripheral tissues
with that of the blood and brain
23. Explain the functions of the blood–brain barrier
The blood-brain barrier is made up of tightly packed cells in the brain’s capillaries
that prevent harmful substances from entering the brain. It protects your brain
from injury and disease while also letting in substances that your brain needs, like
oxygen and water.
24. Explain the functions of cerebrospinal fluid
mechanical protection- serves as a shock-absorbing medium, and buoys the brain in
the cranial cavity
homeostatic function : - its pH affects pulmonary ventilation and cerebral blood
flow
- serves as a transport system for polypeptide hormones secreted by hypothalamic
neurons.
Circulation-medium for minor exchange of nutrients and waste products between
the blood and adjacent nervous tissue