British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles

Mineral Deposit Profiles provide brief summaries of the types of mineral deposits found in British
Columbia. They include descriptions of host rocks, mineralogy, alteration, tectonic setting, associations,
genetic models, and exploration guides, and give typical examples with grades and tonnages. Contained
are over 100 profiles for metal, coal deposits and industrial minerals.
Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 7
Background ............................................................................................................................................... 7
Mineral deposit profiles ............................................................................................................................ 8
British Columbia deposit types ................................................................................................................. 8
Classification ............................................................................................................................................. 9
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................. 10
Selected references ................................................................................................................................ 10
Listed by Deposit Group.............................................................................................................................. 13
All Deposit Groups ...................................................................................................................................... 14
A - Organic................................................................................................................................................... 19
A01- Peat ................................................................................................................................................. 20
A02 - Lignite ............................................................................................................................................ 24
A04 – Bituminous coal ............................................................................................................................ 30
B - Residual/Surficial ................................................................................................................................... 37
C - Placer ..................................................................................................................................................... 52
C01 – Surficial placers ............................................................................................................................. 53
C03 – Marine placers .............................................................................................................................. 61
Examples of Placer Deposits ................................................................................................................... 64
D - Continental Sediments and Volcanics ................................................................................................... 65
D01 – Open-system zeolites ................................................................................................................... 66
D02 – Closed-basin zeolites .................................................................................................................... 71
D03 – Volcanic redbed Cu ....................................................................................................................... 75
D07 – Iron oxide breccias and veins P-Cu-Au-Ag-U ................................................................................ 79
E - Sediment-Hosted ................................................................................................................................... 85
E02 – Carbonate Hosted Cu±Pb±Zn ........................................................................................................ 86
E03 – Carbonate hosted disseminated Au-Ag ........................................................................................ 91
E05 – Sandstone-Pb ................................................................................................................................ 99
E06 - Bentonite ..................................................................................................................................... 103
E07 – Sedimentary kaolin ..................................................................................................................... 106
E08 – Carbonate hosted talc ................................................................................................................. 109
E09 – Sparry magensite......................................................................................................................... 113
 E12 – Mississippi Valley-type Pb-Zn ...................................................................................................... 117
E13 – Irish-type Carbonate hosted Zn-Pb ............................................................................................. 122
E14 – Sedimentary exhalative Zn-Pb-Ag ............................................................................................... 126
E15 – Blackbird sediment-hosted Cu-Co............................................................................................... 130
E16 – Shale-hosted Ni-Zn-Mo-PGE ....................................................................................................... 133
E17 – Sedimentary-hosted, stratiform barite ....................................................................................... 137
E18 – Carbonate-hosted, nonsulphide Zn (Hypogene) ......................................................................... 142
Examples of Sediment-hosted Deposits ............................................................................................... 148
F - Chemical Sediment .............................................................................................................................. 149
F01 – Sedimenatary manganese ........................................................................................................... 150
F02 – Bedded gypsum ........................................................................................................................... 155
F03 – Gypsum-hosted sulphur .............................................................................................................. 159
F07 – Sedimentary phosphate deposits................................................................................................ 163
G - Marine Volcanic Association ............................................................................................................... 171
G01 – Algoma-type iron formation ....................................................................................................... 172
G04 – Besshi massive sulphide Zn-Cu-Pb.............................................................................................. 176
G05 – Cyprus massiv sulphide Cu (Zn) .................................................................................................. 179
G06 - NORANDA/KUROKO MASSIVE SULPHIDE Cu-Pb-Zn .................................................................... 182
G07 - SUBAQUEOUS HOT SPRING Au-Ag .............................................................................................. 185
Examples of Marine Volcanic Association Deposits.............................................................................. 188
H - Epithermal ........................................................................................................................................... 189
H01 - TRAVERTINE................................................................................................................................. 190
H02 - HOT SPRING Hg............................................................................................................................ 193
H03 - HOT-SPRING Au-Ag ...................................................................................................................... 196
H04 - EPITHERMAL Au-Ag-Cu: HIGH SULPHIDATION ............................................................................ 200
H05 - EPITHERMAL Au-Ag: LOW SULPHIDATION .................................................................................. 204
H07 - Sn-Ag VEINS ................................................................................................................................. 208
H08 - ALKALIC INTRUSION-ASSOCIATED Au-Ag .................................................................................... 212
H09 - HYDROTHERMAL CLAYS .............................................................................................................. 215
Examples of Epithermal Deposits .................................................................................................... 219
I - Vein, Breccia, and Stockwork ................................................................................................................ 220
I01 - Au-QUARTZ VEINS ......................................................................................................................... 221
 I02 - INTRUSION-RELATED Au PYRRHOTITE VEINS ............................................................................... 226
I03 - TURBIDITE-HOSTED Au VEINS ....................................................................................................... 229
I04 - IRON FORMATION-HOSTED Au ..................................................................................................... 233
I05 - POLYMETALLIC VEINS Ag-Pb-Zn+/-Au........................................................................................... 237
I06 - Cu+/-Ag QUARTZ VEINS ................................................................................................................ 241
I08 - SILICA-CARBONATE Hg .................................................................................................................. 245
I09 - STIBNITE VEINS and DISSEMINATIONS ......................................................................................... 248
I10 - VEIN BARITE .................................................................................................................................. 251
I11 - VEIN FLUORITE-BARITE ................................................................................................................. 254
I14 - FIVE-ELEMENT VEINS Ag-Ni-Co-As+/-(Bi, U) ................................................................................. 257
I16 - UNCONFORMITY-ASSOCIATED U .................................................................................................. 264
I17 - CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE ULTRAMAFIC-HOSTED MAGNESITE VEINS ................................................. 269
Examples of Vein, Breccia, and Stockwork Deposits ............................................................................ 272
J - Manto ................................................................................................................................................... 273
J01 - POLYMETALLIC MANTOS Ag-Pb-Zn .............................................................................................. 274
J02 - MANTO AND STOCKWORK Sn .......................................................................................................... 277
J03 - MN VEINS AND REPLACEMENTS................................................................................................... 280
Examples of Manto Deposits ................................................................................................................ 281
K - Skarn .................................................................................................................................................... 282
K01 - Cu SKARNS ................................................................................................................................... 283
K02 - Pb-Zn SKARNS .............................................................................................................................. 286
K03 - Fe SKARNS ........................................................................................................................................ 289
K04 - Au SKARNS ................................................................................................................................... 292
K05 - W SKARNS .................................................................................................................................... 297
K06 - Sn SKARNS.................................................................................................................................... 300
K07 - Mo SKARNS .................................................................................................................................. 303
K08 - GARNET SKARNS .......................................................................................................................... 305
K09 - WOLLASTONITE SKARNS .............................................................................................................. 308
Examples of Skarn Deposits .................................................................................................................. 312
L - Porphyry ............................................................................................................................................... 313
L01 - SUBVOLCANIC Cu-Au-Ag (As-Sb) .................................................................................................. 314
L02 - PLUTONIC-RELATED AU QUARTZ VEINS ....................................................................................... 318
 L03 - PORPHYRY Cu-Au: ALKALIC .......................................................................................................... 319
L04 - PORPHYRY Cu+/-Mo+/-Au ............................................................................................................ 323
L05 - PORPHYRY Mo (LOW-F-TYPE)....................................................................................................... 328
L06 - PORPHYRY Sn ............................................................................................................................... 332
L07 - PORPHYRY W ................................................................................................................................ 335
L08 - PORPHYRY Mo (Climax-type) ....................................................................................................... 339
Examples of Porphyry Deposits ............................................................................................................ 343
M - Ultramafic/Mafic ............................................................................................................................ 344
M03 - PODIFORM CHROMITE ............................................................................................................... 345
M05 - Alaskan-type Pt+/-Os+/-Rh+/-Ir.................................................................................................. 352
M06 - Ultramafic-hosted chrysotile asbestos ....................................................................................... 356
M06 - Ultramafic-hosted talc-magnesite .............................................................................................. 361
M08 - Vermiculite ................................................................................................................................. 365
N - Carbonatites ........................................................................................................................................ 370
N01 - CARBONATITE-Associated deposits: MAGMATIC, REPLACEMENT AND RESIDUAL .................... 371
N02 - KIMBERLITE-Hosted DIAMONDS ................................................................................................. 376
N03 – LAMPROITE-HOSTED DIAMONDS ............................................................................................... 381
Examples of Industrial Rock Deposits ................................................................................................... 385
O – Pegmaite ............................................................................................................................................. 386
P - Metamorphic Hosted ........................................................................................................................... 388
P01 - ANDALUSITE HORNFELS ............................................................................................................... 389
P02 - KYANITE, MUSCOVITE, GARNET IN METASEDIMENTS ................................................................. 392
P03 - MICROCRYSTALLINE GRAPHITE ................................................................................................... 396
P04 - CRYSTALLINE FLAKE GRAPHITE .................................................................................................... 399
P05 - VEIN GRAPHITE IN METAMORPHIC TERRAINS............................................................................. 403
P06 - CORUNDUM IN ALUMINA-RICH METASEDIMENTS ..................................................................... 407
Examples of Metamorphic Hosted Deposits......................................................................................... 411
Q - Gems and Semi-Precious Stones ......................................................................................................... 412
Q01 - JADE (Nephrite) ........................................................................................................................... 413
Q02 - RHODONITE ................................................................................................................................. 417
Q06 - COLOMBIA-TYPE EMERALDS ....................................................................................................... 422
Q07 - SCHIST-HostED EMERALDS .......................................................................................................... 426
 Q08 - SEDIMENT-HOSTED PRECIOUS OPAL .......................................................................................... 432
Q09 - ULTRAMAFIC-RELATED CORUNDUM .......................................................................................... 436
Q10 - ALKALI BASALT AND LAMPROPHYRE-HOSTED SAPPHIRE and RUBY........................................... 441
Q11 - VOLCANIC-HOSTED PRECIOUS OPAL........................................................................................... 446
Examples of Gem and Semi-Precious Stone Deposits .......................................................................... 450
R - Industrial Rocks .................................................................................................................................... 451
R06 - Dimension Stone - Sandstone...................................................................................................... 469
R09 - Limestone .................................................................................................................................... 480
R10 - Dolomite ...................................................................................................................................... 484
R11 - Volcanic Ash/Cinder and Pumice ................................................................................................. 489
R12 - Perlite........................................................................................................................................... 493
Examples of Industrial Rock Deposits ................................................................................................... 505
S - Other .................................................................................................................................................... 506
S01 - BROKEN HILL-TYPE Pb-Zn-Ag+/-Cu............................................................................................... 507
Examples of Other Deposits .................................................................................................................. 511
Introduction

The British Columbia Geological Survey (BCGS) started a mineral potential assessment of the
province in 1992. The methodology for this resource assessment process is described by Grunsky et al.
(1994), Kilby (1995, 1996) and Grunsky (1995). A fundamental part of this process is compilation of
information about mineral deposits including descriptions, classification and resource data (Lefebure et
al., 1995a; Lefebure and Ray, 1995, Lefebure and Höy, 1996). The resulting deposit models can be used
to classify known deposits and occurrences, to guide experts in their estimation of the number of
possible undiscovered mineral deposits, and to group deposits to allow compilation of representative
grade and tonnage data.
The B.C. Geological Survey initially relied on mineral deposit models published by the United
States Geological Survey (USGS) and Geological Survey of Canada (GSC). However, it became apparent
that some models needed revision, and that there are British Columbia deposit types lacking published
USGS models.
This work proceeded using the Survey’s considerable in-house expertise (McMillan et al., 1991)
with assistance from economic geologists of the GSC, industry, academia and USGS. At the time the
USGS published an Open File of descriptive geoenvironmental mineral deposit models (du Bray, 1995)
and the GSC made an important contribution with the publication of a volume describing Canadian
mineral deposit types (Eckstrand et al., 1996). The British Columbia deposit models are called ‘deposit
profiles’ to distinguish them from other published descriptions, such as the USGS ‘deposit models’. One
value of the profiles is that they will provide geologists and prospectors with a reference guide to
deposits with which they have little familiarity. In some cases they may encourage consideration of new
exploration targets within the province (Lefebure, 1995). The BCGS has published additional industrial
mineral deposit profiles which are only available online. We welcome comments and criticisms of the
deposit profiles.

Background

“An ore deposit model is a conceptual and/or empirical standard, embodying both the
descriptive features of the deposit type, and an explanation of these features in terms of geological
processes.” Hodgson, 1993
In recent years there has been considerable discussion of the importance and dangers of deposit
models and their relevance to exploration (Cox, 1993). One of the points underscored by this debate is
that while models are an extremely useful method of organizing data, they may lead to over
simplification of complex natural phenomena.
Important data may be ignored because it does not fit the model. Every model has limitations,
particularly those attempting to portray the essential features of natural phenomena. Interactions
between the constructors of published models, who are often government and academic geologists, and
the explorationists, who use them, are critical to the evolution of more accurate and useable models
(Hodgson, 1993). Often it is the deposits that can not be classified, or the observation that can not be
explained by an existing model, which lead to an advance in our understanding of ore-forming processes
or products. Critical elements of mineral potential assessments are standard deposit-type descriptions
that are used to group similar deposits. These standard descriptions can then be used as "deposit
definitions" for expert analysis of the mineral potential of geological tracts and provide the basis for
selecting resource data for quantitative assessments, such as tabulations of grade and tonnage data
(Grunsky, 1995). Complete suites of deposit models are desirable, even though mineral assessments and
exploration programs tend to focus on a restricted number of deposit types at any given time. For
government, it is important to assess the resource values with an eye to future exploitation of
resources. The mineral potential of some land tracts will be increased if deposit types of little
significance today can be identified as possible mines of tomorrow. For industry, it is critical to be able
to decide whether a particular occurrence belongs to a deposit type that is economically interesting at
the present time. This helps focus exploration efforts on targets with a greater chance of economic
return. The USGS published the first comprehensive set of mineral deposit models and related grade
and tonnage probability curves (Cox and Singer, 1986). They presented 85 mineral deposit models and
60 associated grade and tonnage curves. Almost all the deposits described contain metallic
commodities.
Since then the USGS has produced a number of other publications containing summary deposit
models, including two significant Open File reports with a large number of industrial minerals models
(Orris and Bliss, 1991, 1992).

Mineral deposit profiles

British Columbia mineral deposit profiles are concise descriptions tied to a series of headings
which will fit on several pages; a format similar to those of deposit models published by the GSC and the
USGS (Eckstrand, 1984; Cox and Singer, 1986). They are primarily descriptive because the ore-forming
processes are sometimes poorly understood. As with the USGS models, the profiles are intended to be
global models with sufficient information to describe the deposit type anywhere in the world. However,
they incorporate more information specific to British Columbia with respect to tectonic setting, age of
mineralization, examples, references, resource data and economic factors. The guidelines for authors
are published in Open File 1995-13 in Appendix I (Lefebure and Ray, 1995). Profiles are based on a
combination of published information and the personal knowledge of the authors and, in many cases,
information provided informally by industry geologists. More than 150 general deposit models are
thought to be relevant to British Columbia, including more than 80 metal, 70 industrial mineral and four
coal profiles. The Survey is currently working towards completing descriptions for approximately 120 of
these deposit models. Grade and tonnage data for selected metallic models was published in Open File
1996-13 (Lefebure and Höy, 1996). With new data being produced every day by industry and research
geologists, it is expected that some of today’s models will be out-of-date tomorrow. The BCGS profiles
will change as we receive more information from industry and research geologists. Better models assist
both the exploration community and resource assessment geologists.

British Columbia deposit types

Over 90% of the occurrences (more than 9900) in the MINFILE provincial mineral occurrence
database have been classified by industry experts according to BCGS deposit type. This provided a check
on the effectiveness of existing deposit models to adequately describe the complete array of mineral
occurrences in British Columbia. Geologists classifying occurrences quickly pointed out that there were a
number that did not fit any of the existing profiles or any of the USGS models. In some cases this
reflected the difficulty of classifying poorly described showings and prospects. However, it also
identified new deposit models that applied to British Columbia. This exercise should be completed for
any area where mineral potential is being assessed, as it provides a very useful check on the applicability
of global models being applied. The most abundant groups of deposit types in British Columbia are vein,
porphyry and skarn. This reflects the mineral industry exploration emphasis over the last century, the
abundance of island arc volcanic terranes and the current levels of erosion of many of these terranes.
The single most abundant deposit type is polymetallic silver-lead-zinc veins which comprise 25% of the
occurrences in the province. No other deposit type exceeds 5%; porphyry copper, alkalic porphyry,
copper skarn, gold-bearing quartz veins and basaltic copper are the next most common deposit types.
 A number of deposit types that are thought to be irrelevant to British Columbia will not be
addressed by completing profiles. For example, there seems very little likelihood of Bushveld type Fe-Ti-
V or komatiitic nickel deposits occurring in the province. In other cases very specific deposit models have
been combined to provide a more general model. There are also some styles of mineralization which
have yet to produce any significant orebodies in a free market economy, but are believed by some to
have economic potential as a future metal resource. For example, the thin shale-hosted Ni- Zn-Mo-PGE
layers (Nick in the Yukon and the Chinese deposits) which have been the targets of a number of
exploration programs but still must be regarded more as mineralogical oddities than proven economic
resources. These deposits are difficult to include in resource assessments because they are typically
poorly understood and not widely known. These deposits can become more attractive development
targets with advances in technology. The British Columbia profiles include several of these as deposit
types because we believe they could be important resources in the future. However, some other styles
of mineralization, such as Prairie-style Au, are excluded until it becomes clearer that they are an
economic resource.

Classification

“ever since Agricola first classified ore deposits, successive writers have attempted classification of
mineral deposits, none of which has obtained unanimous endorsement” (Jensen and Bateman, 1979)”
The different methods of grouping of the different deposit types has generated considerable
discussion. This reflects the difficulties in any subdivision of complex natural phenomena, particularly
when some deposit types are end members of a continuum. The many classification systems developed
since Agricola are testimony to the elusive nature of a satisfactory classification scheme for mineral
deposits. This is not surprising given ongoing advances in our understanding of ore-forming processes.
The reader is directed to Jensen and Bateman (1979) and Peters (1978) for a review of different
classification systems.
With our profiles, the approach has been to regard the deposit models as the key element and
any classification system as merely an index for placing the models into a useful context for the user. An
admirable example of providing multiple indexes to mineral deposit types is Laznicka’s text (1985).
Three classification schemes for British Columbia deposit profiles are included with these files.
The first is organized by deposit groups which uses a combination of characteristics to separate deposits
into groupings frequently used by geologists. This is a single entry listing with headings, such as
porphyry, industrial rocks, organic and placer deposits, divisions which relate well to areas of expertise
of economic geologists. The second classification system classifies profiles according to the most
commonly associated host lithologies. This is a multiple entry index. It is particularly useful for mineral
potential assessments where the bedrock geology is often the most important criterion for estimating
the number of undiscovered deposits. For many users, the listing of deposit profiles by commodity could
easily prove the most useful. The first two tables provide some related information that may be of use
to the reader. Alternate deposit model names are included under synonyms. In many cases example
deposits from British Columbia and other parts of Canada and the world are listed for each profile.
These are meant to provide knowledgeable readers with suitable reference deposits. There has been
considerable effort put into checking that the examples are representative of the deposit type; however,
we are aware that some of the deposits, particularly those from outside the province, may be
incorrectly classified.
The BCGS alphanumeric reference code for the deposit profiles is recorded in all tables. This is a
single letter followed by a two digit number which provides a short code for the profiles. If the BCGS
does not yet have an existing draft profile for a deposit type, this is indicated by an asterisk after the
code (e.g. B01*). For the convenience of readers familiar with the USGS models published by Cox and
Singer (1986), Orris and Bliss (1991, 1992) and in a few scattered articles (for example, Rytuba, J. J. and
Cox, D. P. , 1991) the relevant codes of USGS models are listed in the deposit groups index. Note that we
have included codes for deposit types listed by Orris and Bliss (1991, page 66) that have not yet been
published. As with the BCGS profiles, these codes are marked by an asterisk (39f*) to show that they are
not published. In a few cases Orris and Bliss (1991) have created a USGS model code (13g*, 27e, 25ka*)
that also has been used by other USGS authors for a metallic deposit , therefore references to these
three industrial mineral models of Orris and Bliss are prefixed with IM.
Within the classification schemes the reader will notice several new deposit types that reflect
the influence of new discoveries or new data. For example, there is a deposit model for G07 -
“subaqueous hot spring Au-Ag”. This is based on the Eskay Creek deposit and recent research results
from the southeast Pacific (Hannington, 1993) documenting shallow, precious metal-rich, exhalative
sulphide deposits. As more data are collected on these new deposits our increased understanding may
allow them to be merged with an existing deposit model.

Acknowledgements

The British Columbia Geological Survey would like to thank all the geologists who have contributed
their input to the deposit profiles as this is truly a team effort. Survey geologists have contributed the
majority of the deposit models and participated in number of meetings to determine which deposit
types should be included. A number of geologists from government (GSC, USGS), universities and
industry have also written or co-authored profiles allowing us to tackle more deposit models. Currently
the author list includes Dani Alldrick, Chris Ash, Tyson Birkett, Robert Cameron, Peter Cerny, Neil
Church, E.R. Force, Dave Grieve, Gordon Gross, Eric Grunsky, Kirk Hancock, Dan Hora, Trygve Höy, W.M.
Kenan, Ian Knuckey, Dave Lefebure, Vic Levson, Don MacIntyre, Nick Massey, W.H. McCracken, Ron
McMillan, JoAnne Nelson, Graham Nixon, Greta Orris, Andre Panteleyev, Suzanne Paradis, C. Pilarski,
Howard Poulsen, Vic Preto, Gerry Ray, Barry Ryan, Don Sangster, R.A. Sheppard, A. Sabina, George
Simandl, Dave Sinclair, D.M. Sutphin, Tom Schroeter, and J. Townsend.

Selected references

Cox, D.P. (1993): Mineral Deposit Models, Their Use and Misuse - A Forum Review; Society of
Economic Geologists, Newsletter No. 14, pages 12-13.
Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors (1986): Mineral Deposit Models; U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin
1693, 379 pages.
du Bray, Edward A. (1995): Preliminary Compilation of Descriptive Geoenvironmental Mineral Deposit
Models; U.S. Geological Survey, Open File 95-831, 272 pages.
Eckstrand, O.R., Editor (1984): Canadian Mineral Deposit Types: A Geological Synopsis; Geological
Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report 36, 86 pages.
Eckstrand, O.R., Sinclair, W.D. and Thorpe, R.I, Editors (1996): Geology of Canadian Mineral Deposit
Types; Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada, Number 8, 640 pages.
Grunsky, E.C., Kilby, W.E. and Massey, N.W.D. (1994): Resource Assessment in British Columbia;
Nonrenewable Resources, Volume 3, No. 4, pages 271-283.
Grunsky, E.C. (1995): Grade-Tonnage Data for Mineral Deposit Models in British Columbia; in
Geological Fieldwork 1994, Grant, B. and Newell, J.M., Editors, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines
and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1995-1, pages 417-423.
Hannington, M.D. (1993): Shallow Submarine Hydrothermal Systems in Modern Island Arc Settings;
Geological Association of Canada, Mineral Deposits Division Newsletter, The Gangue, No. 43,
pages 6- 9.
Hodgson, C.J. (1993): Uses (and Abuses) of Ore Deposit Models in Mineral Exploration; Geoscience
Canada, Reprint Series 6, pages 1-11.
Jensen, M.L. and Bateman, A.M. (1979): Economic Mineral Deposits; John Wiley & Sons, New York,
593 pages.
Kilby, W. (1995): Mineral Potential Project -Overview; in Geological Fieldwork 1994, Grant, B. and
Newell, J.M., Editors, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1995-1,
411-416.
Kilby, W. (1996): Mineral Potential Project -Overview; in Geological Fieldwork 1995, Grant, B. and
Newell, J.M., Editors, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1996-1.
Laznicka, P. (1985): Empirical Metallogeny - Depositional Environments, Lithologic Associations and
Metallic Ores, Vol. 1: Phanerozoic Environments, Associations and Deposits, Elsevier, New
York, 1758 pages.
Lefebure, D.V. (1995): Two Intriguing Mineral Deposit Profiles for British Columbia, in Geological
Fieldwork 1994, Grant, B. and Newell, J.M., Editors, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Paper 1995-1, pages 491-499.
Lefebure, D.V., Alldrick, D.J.; Simandl, G.J. and Ray G.E. (1995a): British Columbia Mineral Deposit
Profiles; in Geological Fieldwork 1994, Grant, B. and Newell, J.M., Editors, B.C. Ministry of
Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1995-1, pages 469-490.
Lefebure, D.V., Alldrick, D.J. and Simandl, G.J. (1995b): Mineral Deposit Profile Tables - Listed by Deposit
Group and Lithological Affinities; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File
1995-8.
Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E. (1995): Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume I -
Metallics and Coal; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1995-
20, 136 pages.
Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T. (1996): Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume II -
More Metallic Deposits; B.C. Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, 172
pages.
McMillan, W.J.; Höy, T.; MacIntyre, D.G.; Nelson, J.L.; Nixon, G.T.; Hammock, J.L.; Panteleyev, A.;
Ray, G.E. and Webster, I.C.L. (1991): Ore Deposits, Tectonics and Metallogeny of the Canadian
Cordillera; B. C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1991-4, 276 pages.
Peters, W.C. (1978): Exploration and Mining Geology; John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 696 pages.
Orris, G.J. and Bliss, J.D. (1991): Some Industrial Mineral Deposit Models - Descriptive Deposit Models;
U.S. Geological Survey; Open-File Report 91-11A, 73 pages.
Orris, G.J. and Bliss, J.D. (1992): Industrial Mineral Deposit Models: Grade and Tonnage Models; U. S.
Geological Survey; Open-File Report 92-437, 84 pages.
Rytuba, J.J. and Cox, D.P. (1991): Porphyry Gold: A Supplement to U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin
1693, U.S. Geological Survey, Open File Report 91-116, 7 pages.
Singer, D.A. (1993): Development of Grade and Tonnage Models for Different Deposit Types; in
Kirkham, R.V., Sinclair, W.D., Thorpe, R.I. and Duke, J.M., Editors, Mineral Deposit Modeling,
Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 40, pages 21-30.
Singer, D.A. (1993): Basic Concepts in Three-part Quantitative Assessments of Undiscovered Mineral
Resources; Nonrenewable Resources, Volume 2, pages 69-81.
Singer, D.A. (1995): World Class Base and Precious Metal Deposits: a Quantitative Analysis; Economic
Geology, Volume 90, pages 88-104.
Singer, D.A.; Menzie, W.D.; DeYoung, J.H., Jr.; Sander, M. and Lott, A. (1980): Grade and Tonnage
Data Used to Construct Models for the Regional Alaskan Mineral Resource Assessment Program,
U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report 80-799, 58 pages.
Singer, D.A.; Mosier, D.L. and Menzie, W.D. (1993): Digital Grade and Tonnage Data for 50 Types of
Mineral Deposits; U.S. Geological Survey, Open File 93-280, digital file.
Listed by Deposit Group

The table also provides approximate synonyms, USGS mineral deposit numbers and example
deposits. You will note that each group is assigned a letter and each profile within the group a number
which produces codes, such as A01, A02, E03, R12, etc. These codes are used in British Columbia
Geological Survey databases and provide a short reference code for individual deposit types.

A - Organic
B - Residual/Surficial
C - Placer
D - Continental Sediments and Vocanics
E - Sediment-Hosted
F - Chemical Sediment
G - Marine Volcanic Association
H - Epithermal
I - Vein, Breccia and Stockwork
J - Manto
K - Skarn
L - Porphyry
M - Ultramafic / Mafic
N - Carbonatites
O - Pegmatite
P - Metamorphic-hosted
Q - Gems and Semi-precious Stones
R - Industrial Rocks
S - Other

* Note: All BC deposit profile(s) with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s.
All Deposit Groups

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

A01 Peat -- --
A02 Lignite Brown coal --
A03 Sub-bituminous coal Thermal coal, Black lignite --
A04 Bituminous coal Coking coal, Thermal coal --
A05 Anthracite Stone coal --
B01* Laterite Fe Gossan Fe --
B02* Laterite Ni -- 38a
B03* Laterite-Saprolite Au Eluvial placers 38g
B04* Bauxite Al Lateritic bauxite 38b
B05 Residual kaolin Primary kaolin 38h*
B07* Bog Fe, Mn, U, Cu, Au -- --
B08 Surficial U Calcrete U --
B09 Karst-hosted Fe, Al, Pb-Zn -- --
B10 Gossan Au-Ag Residual Au; Precious metal --
gossans
B11* Marl -- --
B12 Sand and Gravel -- --
C01 Surficial placers Placer Au-PGE-Sn-diamond- 39a to e
mag-gar-gems
C02 Buried-channel placers Paleochannel placers 39a to e
C03 Marine placers Off-shore heavy mineral 39f*?
sediments
C04* Paleoplacer U-Au-PGE-Sn-Ti- Quartz pebble conglomerate 29a
diam-mag-gar-zir Au-U
D01 Open-system zeolites -- 25oa
D02 Closed-basin zeolites -- 25ob
D03 Volcanic redbed Cu Basaltic Cu 23
D04 Basal U -- --
D05* Sandstone U Roll front U, Tabular U 30c
D06 Volcanic-hosted U Epithermal U, Volcanogenic U 25f
D07 Iron oxide breccias & veins Olympic Dam type, Kiruna type 29b,25i
±P±Cu±Au±Ag±U
E01* Almaden Hg Carbonate-hosted Au-Ag 27b
E02 Carbonate-hosted Cu-Pb-Zn Kipushi Cu-Pb-Zn 32c
E03 Carbonate-hosted Carlin-type Au, Sediment- 26a,19c
disseminated Au-Ag hosted micron Au
E04 Sediment-hosted Cu Sediment-hosted stratiform Cu 30b
E05 Sandstone Pb -- 30a
E06 Bentonite Volcanic clay, Soap clay 28e?*
E07 Sedimentary kaolin Secondary kaolin 31k*
E08 Carbonate-hosted talc Dolomite-hosted talc 18?i*
E09 Sparry magnesite Veitsch-type, carbonate-hosted 18i*
magnesite
E10 Carbonate-hosted barite Mississippi Valley-type barite --
E11 Carbonate-hosted fluorspar Mississippi Valley-type fluorite 32d*
E12 Mississippi Valley-type Pb-Zn Carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn, 32a/32b
Appalachian Zn
E13 Irish-type carbonate-hosted Kootenay Arc-type Zn-Pb, --
Zn-Pb Remac-type
E14 Sedimentary exhalative Zn- Sedex, Sediment-hosted 31a
Pb-Ag massive sulphide
E15 Blackbird sediment-hosted Sediment-hosted Cu-Co massive 24d
Cu-Co sulphide
E16 Shale-hosted Ni-Zn-Mo-PGE Sediment-hosted Ni --
E17 Sediment-hosted barite Bedded barite 31b
E18 Carbonate-hosted, Hypogene
Nonsulphide Zn
F01 Sedimentary Mn -- 34b
F02 Bedded gypsum Marine evaporite gypsum 35ae
F03 Gypsum-hosted sulphur Frasch sulphur --
F04* Bedded celestite -- 35aa*
F05* Palygorskite Attapulgite 34e*
F06 Lacustrine diatomite Diatomaceous earth, Kieselguhr 31s
F07 Upwelling-type phosphate -- 34c
F08 Warm current-type -- 34d
phosphate
F09* Playa and Alkaline Lake Hydromagnesite, Na carbonate 35ba,bm(T)
Evaporites lake brines
F10* Lake Superior & Rapitan -- 34a
types iron-formation
F11* Ironstone Minette ores 34f
G01 Algoma-type iron-formation -- 28b
G02 Volcanogenic Mn -- 24c
G03* Volcanogenic anhydrite / -- --
gypsum
G04 Besshi massive sulphide Cu- Kieslager 24b
Zn
G05 Cyprus massive sulphide Cu -- 24a
(Zn)
G06 Noranda / Kuroko massive -- 28a
sulphide Cu-Pb-Zn
G07 Subaqueous hot spring Ag- -- --
Au
H01 Travertine Tufa 35d*
H02 Hot spring Hg -- 27a
H03 Hot spring Au-Ag -- 25a
H04 Epithermal Au-Ag-Cu; high Acid-sulphate, qtz-alunite Au, 25d
sulphidation Nansatsu-type
H05 Epithermal Au-Ag; low Adularia-sericite epithermal 25c
sulphidation
H06* Epithermal Mn -- 25g
H07 Sn-Ag veins Polymetallic Sn veins 25h, 20b
H08 Alkalic intrusion-associated Alkalic intrusion-related Au, Au- 22b
Au Ag-Te veins
H09 Hydrothermal alteration Kaolin, Alunite, Siliceous cap, 25lb*
clays-Al-Si Pyrophyllite
I01 Au-quartz veins Mesothermal, Motherlode, 36a
saddle reefs
I02 Intrusion-related Au Subvolcanic shear-hosted gold --
pyrrhotite veins
I03 Turbidite-hosted Au veins Meguma type 36a
I04 Iron formation-hosted Au Iron formation-hosted gold 36b
I05 Polymetallic veins Ag-Pb- Felsic intrusionassociated Ag- 22c, 25b
Zn±Au Pb-Zb veins
I06 Cu±Ag quartz veins Churchill-type vein Cu ?
I07* Silica veins -- --
I08 Silica-Hg carbonate -- 27c
I09 Stibnite veins and Simple and disseminated Sb 27d,27e
disseminations deposits
I10 Vein barite -- IM27e
I11 Barite-fluorite veins -- 26c*
I12* W veins Quartz-wolframite veins 15a
I13* Sn veins and greisens -- 15b, 15c
I14 Five-element veins Ni-Co-As- Ni-Co-native Ag veins, cobalt- --
Ag±(Bi, U) type veins
I15 Classical U veins Pitchblende veins, vein uranium --
I16 Unconformity-associated U Unconformity-veins, 37a
Unconformity U
I17 Cryptocrystalline magnesite Bone magnesite, Kraubath-type --
veins magnesite
J01 Polymetallic manto Ag-Pb-Zn Polymetallic replacement 19a
deposits
J02 Manto and stockwork Sn Replacement Sn, Renison-type 14c
J03* Mn veins and replacements covered by I05 and J01 19b
J04 Sulphide manto Au Au-Ag sulphide mantos --
K01 Cu skarns -- 18a,b
K02 Pb-Zn skarns -- 18c
K03 Fe skarns -- 18d
K04 Au skarns -- 18f*
K05 W skarns -- 14a
K06 Sn skarns -- 14b
K07 Mo skarns -- --
K08 Garnet skarns -- --
K09 Wollastonite skarns -- 18g
L01 Subvolcanic Cu-Ag-Au (As- Enargite Au, Transitional Au-Ag 22a/25e
Sb)
L02 Plutonic-related Au Quartz Intrusion-related gold systems --
Veins
L03 Alkalic porphyry Cu-Au Diorite porphyry copper --
L04 Porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au Calcalkaline porphyry 17, 20, 21a1
L05 Porphyry Mo (Low F- type) Calcalkaline Mo stockwork 21b
L06 Porphyry Sn Subvolcanic tin 20a
L07 Porphyry W Stockwork W-Mo 21c*
L08 Porphyry Mo (Climax-type) Granite molybdenite 16
L09* Porphyry-related Au Granitoid Au, Porphyry Au 20d
M01* Flood Basalt-Associated Ni- Basaltic subvolcanic Cu-Ni-PGE 5a/5b
Cu
M02 Tholeiitic intrusion-hosted Gabbroid-associated Ni-Cu 7a
Ni-Cu
M03 Podiform chromite -- 8a/8b
M04 Magmatic Fe-Ti±V oxide Mafic intrusion-hosted Ti-Fe 7b
deposits deposits
M05 Alaskan-type Pt±Os±Rh±Ir Zoned ultramafic, Uralian-type 9
M06 Ultramafic-hosted asbestos Serpentinite-hosted asbestos 8d
M07 Ultramafic-hosted talc- -- 8f*
magnesite
M08 Vermiculite deposits -- --
N01 Carbonatite-hosted deposits -- 10
N02 Kimberlite-hosted diamonds Diamond pipes 12
N03 Lamproite-hosted diamonds -- 12
O01 Rare element pegmatite - Zoned pegmatite (Lithium- 13a*,b*
LCT family Cesium-Tantalum)
O02 Rare element pegmatite - Niobium-Yttrium-Fluorine --
NYF family pegmatite
O03 Muscovite pegmatite Mica-bearing pegmatite 13f*
O04* Feldspar-quartz pegmatite Barren pegmatite IM13g*,e*
P01 Andalusite hornfels -- --
P02 Kyanite-sillimanite schists -- --
P03 Microcrystalline graphite Amorphous graphite 18k
P04 Crystalline flake graphite -- 37f
P05 Vein graphite Lump and chip graphite 37g
P06 Corundum in aluminous -- --
metasediments
Q01 Jade -- --
Q02 Rhodonite -- --
Q03* Agate -- --
Q04* Amethyst -- --
Q05* Jasper -- --
Q06 Columbia-type emerald -- 31c
Q07 Schist-hosted emerald Exometamorphic emerald --
deposit
Q08 Sediment-hosted opal Australian-type opal --
Q09 Gem corundum in contact -- --
zones
Q10 Gem corundum hosted by -- --
alkalic rocks
Q11 Volcanic-hosted opal -- --
R01 Cement shale -- --
R02 Expanding shale -- --
R03 Dimension stone - granite -- --
R04 Dimension stone - marble -- --
R05 ** Dimension stone - andesite -- --
(see R03)
R06 Dimension stone - sandstone -- 30d*
R07 Silica sandstone High-silica quartzite 30e*
R08 Flagstone -- --
R09 Limestone -- --
R10 Dolomite -- --
R11 Volcanic ash - pumice -- --
R12 Volcanic glass - perlite -- IM25ka*
R13 Nepheline syenite -- --
R14 Alaskite -- --
R15* Crushed rock Road metal, Riprap, Railroad --
ballast
S01 Broken Hill type Pb-Zn- Shuswap-type, Ammeburg-type --
Ag±Cu Pb-Zn

* Note: All BC deposit profile(s)with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s.

** Originally a R05 profile was planned, but R03 covers this deposit profile (ZDH, DVL; 2009).
A - Organic

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

A01 Peat -- --
A02 Lignite Brown coal --
A03 Sub-bituminous coal Thermal coal, Black lignite --
A04 Bituminous coal Coking coal, Thermal coal --
A05 Anthracite Stone coal --
A01- Peat

Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

Hora, Z.D. (2007): "Peat", in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Sphagnum moss, horticultural peat, peat bog, humus peat, fen peatland, muskeg, organics,
non-permafrost bogs.

Commodities (by-products): horticultural peat, pollution control peat, filtration peat, energy (fuel) peat.

Examples (British Columbia – Canada/International): Burns bog, Pitt River bog, Fort Nelson Lowland
peats, Peace River Lowland peats; Alberta, Quebec, New Brunswick, Ireland, Germany,
Netherlands, Finland, Russia.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Peatlands are classified into two categories: bogs and fens. Bogs receive their water
only from precipitation and have low water flow, whereas fens are affected by mineral-rich
ground and/or surface waters. Bogs have shallow water tables (generally about 50 cm below the
peat surface). Land surfaces are generally poorly drained, level and may be slightly raised above
the surrounding area. They may be treed. Peat bogs are acidic (pH below 4.5) and dominated by
species of Sphagnum, feather moss, lichens, and ericaceous shrubs. Fens also have water tables
at or just above surface and land surfaces are gently sloping to almost level. The vegetation is
dominated by sedges, reeds, brown mosses, Sphagnum moss and ericaceous shrubs.

Tectonic setting: Unimportant. Peat deposit formation is dependent largely on climatic and terrain
conditions.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Peat deposits occur in topographic depressions often

caused by melting ice in glacial tills or flat plains, usually overlying relatively impermeable
materials, such as glaciolacustrine sediments and clay-rich tills. They are common in areas with
poorly organized drainage systems and can occur locally on gentle slopes where precipitation is
high and evaporation low. Stable regional water tables, anaerobic conditions and decreased
nutrient availability are important for peat development. These factors lead to a substantial
decrease in decomposition rates and a net accumulation of peat.

Age of mineralization: In Canada, most peatlands have formed since the end of the last ice age, about 13
000 to 10 000 years BP. Significant peat formation typically occurred after large areas that had
been inundated by glacial lakes had drained, or after oceanic and lacustrine areas were uplifted
by the postglacial isostatic rebound of the land. In British Columbia, peatland development was
slow until after the warm and dry mid-Holocene period terminated around 4000 to 5000 years
ago.
Host/Associated rock types: Peatland. Associated sediments are marl deposits; organic-rich sediments;
gyjatta; diatomaceous earth; overlie a variety of surficial deposits including clay till,
glaciolacustrine and glaciofluvial sediments, ice contact deposits, and alluvium.

Deposit form: Commonly, surface layers of weakly decomposed Sphagnum moss, up to several metres
thick, are underlain by well decomposed sedge and/or Sphagnum peat, typically a few metres
thick. In most deposits, the total depth of organic material is less than 10 metres. Some
coalescing peat bogs can cover areas of several thousands of hectares in size.

Texture/Structure: Peat is a soft, fibrous material with moisture content in its natural state of over 90%.
Sphagnum moss has a high water-holding capacity (it can hold 15 to 20 times its weight in
water), high cation exchange capacity, high pore space, low bulk density and high permeability.

Ore mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Sphagnum peat, sedge peat, shrub and root fragments.
There are about 85 species of Sphagnum known in North America.

Gangue mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Surface vegetation, stumps, sediment or marl interbeds.

Alteration mineralogy: Well decomposed sedge and/or brown peat moss (suitable as fuel peat).

Weathering: Decomposition of the organic matter is required to produce peat; various degrees of
decomposition are preferred depending on the final product type.

Ore controls: The formation and localization of peat is a dynamic, continuous process, influenced by a
number of factors, including climate and topography. The best quality Sphagnum peat develops
as a slightly elevated dome that is raised above the water table. Boreal regions are the host of
most peatlands in Canada.

Genetic model: Peatland formation is largely dependent on climatic and hydrogeologic factors. Peat
accumulates in areas where water remains standing throughout the year due to a positive water
balance. Organic material derived from vegetation builds up when the rate of accumulation is
greater than the rate of decomposition. This balance is usually achieved in areas of temperate
climate. Under higher temperatures, such as those in the tropics, vegetation growth is favoured
but the rate of decomposition is rapid so that the accumulation of organic matter is low.
Stabilized water levels, anaerobic conditions and decreased nutrient availability lead to a
substantial decrease in decomposition rates, which results in the development of peat
accumulating ecosystems. The rate of accumulation can be as much as 1-2 mm/year, but
generally may average from 0.6-0.7 mm/ year in many Canadian peatlands.

Associated deposit types: Marl (B11), gyjatta, lacustrine diatomite (F06), glacial, glaciolacustrine and
glaciofluvial sand and gravel deposits.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: not applicable.

Geophysical signature: Ground penetrating radar has been used successfully in Sweden and Alaska to
obtain three-dimensional pictures of peat bogs.
Other exploration guides: Organic deposits occur in topographic depressions, along drainage ways,
particularly on nearly level areas with poor drainage, and also on some slopes where
precipitation is high and evaporation is low, such as northern coastal areas in BC. Air photo
interpretation and remote sensing can identify peat landforms on the surface but ground
truthing is needed to establish the subsurface nature of the deposit. Ground investigations
include evaluations of surface vegetation, depth of the peat, Von Post degree of decomposition,
size of the deposit, pH of the peat, botanical composition and identification of moss species
present.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Published data on individual deposits are rare, but according to Canadian
Sphagnum Peat Moss Association, peat quality must meet market requirements regarding
composition – the preferred composition is a weakly decomposed Sphagnum peat with a
minimum content of shrubs and roots. The majority of producing sites have Sphagnum layers 1
to 4 metres thick. An aerial extent of 50 hectares is usually required, but some bogs may cover
several thousands of hectares.

Economic limitations: In North America, a thickness of 2 metres and an area of 50 hectares is generally
considered the minimum for economic viability. The site must have good potential to build an
enhanced drainage system, be close to infrastructure (particularly road access), and have a low-
density tree cover. Local climate should have dry periods without much rain during the main
harvest period.

End uses: Most of the peat is sold as compressed bales for use in the horticultural and nursery
industries; some is used in soil mixes and other greenhouse and gardening products. Peat is
important in environmental clean-up operations as absorbent and filtration media. Globally,
about 13% is used as a fuel (e.g., in Russia, Finland, Ireland and Germany).

Importance: In Canada, peatlands comprise over 12% of the land surface area, although much of this
area is not viable for peat production. Less than 0.02% of the surface area of Canada has been
used for peat production. Canadian peat production averages 700 000 to 800 000 tonnes
annually with a value over $90 million/year. The main producing provinces are New Brunswick
and Quebec, with Alberta ranked third. British Columbia’s peat production was from the Fraser
delta, which was mined out in the 1970s. Peat in Canada is produced from 45 deposit areas in 8
provinces; most of the production is exported to the USA and overseas, particularly Japan.
Because of a steady growth of peat in Canada's boreal regions, over 50 million tonnes of peat
accumulates every year in Canada compared to 700 000 to 800 000 tonnes annually produced.
Reclamation and restoration of mined-out areas can be accomplished by impeding the drainage.
Experience from eastern Canada indicates that in 5 to 20 years (depending on local
circumstances) the mined-out areas can be restored into ecologically balanced systems.

5. References

Buteau, P. (2001): Peat in Canada; in Dunlop, S. and Simandl, G., Editors, Industrial Minerals in Canada,
Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, Special Volume 53, pages 275–284.
Hood, G. (2001): The Canadian Peat Moss Industry; in Dunlop. S. and Simandl, G., Editors, Industrial
Minerals in Canada, Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, Special Volume 53,
pages 285–290.
Keys, D. (1992): Canadian Peat Harvesting and the Environment, Issues Paper, Number 1992–3, North
American Wetlands Conservation Council (Canada), 29 pages.
Keys, D. (1982): The Assessment of New Brunswick Peatlands, Paper at the 84th Annual General
Meeting, The Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 22 pages.
Maynard, D.E. (1988): Peatland Inventory of British Columbia, Open File 1988-33, BC Ministry of Energy,
Mines and Petroleum Resources, 73 pages.
Monenco Ontario Limited (1981): Evaluation of the Potential of Peat in Ontario, Occasional Paper No.7,
Ministry of Natural Resources Ontario, 193 pages.
Thibault, J.J. (1993): The Development of the Canadian Peat Industry, Paper presented at the
Newfoundland Peat Opportunity Conference, 27 pages.
Van Ryswyk, A.L. and Broersma, K. (1992): Agriculture Use and Extent of British Columbia Wetlands,
Technical Bulletin 1992–3E, Agriculture Canada, 130 pages.
Vitt, D.H. (1994): An overview of factors that influence the development of Canadian peatlands,
Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Canada, Volume 169, pages 7–20.
Vitt, D.H., Halsey, L.A. and Zoltai, S.C. (1994): The bog landforms of continental Canada in relation to
climate and permafrost patterns, Arctic and Alpine Research, Volume 26, pages 1–13.
A02 - Lignite

B. Ryan
British Columbia Geological Survey

Ryan, B. (1995): Lignite, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallics and
Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment and
Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 5-7.

1. Identification

Synonym: Brown coal.

Commodities (by-products): Coal, coal liquids, (tar, gas, leonardite).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Hat Creek (092INW047); Skonun, Queen Charlotte
Islands; Coal River (mapsheet 094M10W); Estevan (Saskatchewan); Texas (USA).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Seams of brown to black coal hosted by clastic sedimentary rocks. It can still
contain some imprints of the original vegetation. Wet and dense with a dull lustre. Slacks
(disintegrates) on exposure to air.

Tectonic setting: Stable continental basins; shelves on the trailing edge of continents; foreland (molasse)
basins; back-arc basins; fault blocks, often associated with strike-slip movement to limit
sediment influx.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: An area of slow sedimentation, in fresh water, with few or
no marine incursions. Delta; shoreline swamp; raised swamp; lake; floating vegetation mats.

Age of mineralization: Quaternary; Tertiary; occasionally older.

Associated rock types: Sedimentary rocks exhibiting evidence of fresh and or shallow water deposition;
carbonaceous mudstones; siltstones and sandstones, often with cross-stratification and other
sedimentary structures of shallow water origin.

Deposit form: Lignite seams generally conform with regional bedding; sometimes seams are deposited
in areas of local subsidence such as fault-controlled blocks or sink holes in karst topography, in
which case deposits may be lens shaped. Occasionally seams can be thickened/deformed by
surface slump, glacial drift or faulting. Seams may pinch out or split on the regional scale.

Texture/Structure: Lignite retains a dull matted appearance and is composed mainly of the lithotype
huminite. It is banded and jointed. Footwall sediments are often penetrated by roots or
weathered to clay (seatearth).

Coal seams/Associated mineral matter: Lignite is defined as coal with an Rmax value of less than 0.4 %.
In outcrop it contains between 30 to 40 % moisture. It usually contains a high percentage of the
 maceral vitrinite and lower percentages of fusinite and liptinite. Mineral matter occurs in the
lignite seams as bands, as finely intermixed material of authogenic or detrital origin (inherent
mineral matter) and as secondary material deposited in fractures and open spaces. Inherent
mineral matter includes pyrite, siderite and kaolinite. It may be dissimilar to that of the
surrounding rocks.

Weathering: Weathering of lignite reduces the calorific value by oxidizing the carbon- hydrogen
complexes. Minerals such as pyrite oxidize to sulphates. Secondary carbonates are formed.

Ore controls: The regional geometry of coal seams is controlled by sedimentary features such as extent
of the delta, trend of the shoreline, and trend of sand-filled river channels. Subsequent
deformation, such as faulting and folding, is important for higher rank coals.

Associated deposit types: Peat (A01), sub-bituminous coal (A03), paleoplacers (C04).

Comments: Lignite has the lowest rank of all classes of coal (Rmax less than 0.4 %).

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Geochemistry is generally not used as a prospecting tool for lignite.

Geophysical signature: Lignite has a low density. Resistivity is variable but can be low for lignite. Surface
geophysical techniques include direct-current profiling, refraction and reflection seismic and
gravity. Subsurface or bore- hole techniques include gamma logs, neutron logs, gamma-gamma
density logs, sonic logs, resistivity logs and caliper logs.

Other exploration guides: Presence of: a down-slope coal bloom; nonmarine sediments; coal spar in the
sediments; small oily seeps. Presence of lignite seams can also be detected by methane escaping
through the surrounding sediments and burn zones where the lignite outcrop has burnt, baking
the surrounding sediments.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: The heat value of lignite is low. Gross heating value on a moist ash-free basis
is 15 to 20 MJ/kg. Net useable heat will be lower because of the high moisture content and
included mineral matter. Mine reserves range from tens to hundreds of million tonnes.

Economic limitations: Lignite is a bulk commodity which is expensive to transport. The low heating value
and tendency for spontaneous combustion usually restrict lignite to local uses. The ratio of
tonnage to useable heat is low so that there is a large amount of waste material generated.

End uses: Steam generation in turbines for electrical generation. Feed for liquefaction and gasification.

Importance: Major source of fuel used for local electrical power generation. Approximately 10 to 20 Mt
of lignite per year are required to support 1 MW of power generation capability.

5. References
Armstrong, W.M., Fyles, J.T., Guelke, C.B., Macgregor, E.R., Peel, A.L., Tompson, A.R. and Warren, I.H.
(1976): Coal in British Columbia, A Technical Appraisal; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Coal Task Force, 241 pages.
Cope, J.H.R., Duckworth, N.A., Duncan, S.V., Holtom, J.E.B., Leask, A.L., McDonald, K.A. and Woodman,
S.P. (1983): Concise Guide to the World Coalfields; compiled by Data Bank Service, World Coal
Resources and Reserves, IEA Coal Research.
Matheson, A. (1986): Coal in British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources,
Paper 1986-3, 169 pages.
Smith, G.G. (1989): Coal Resources in Canada; Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 1989-4, 146 pages.
A03 - Sub-bituminous coal

B. Ryan
British Columbia Geological Survey

Ryan, B. (1995): Sub-Bituminous Coal, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 -
Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 9-11.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Steam coal, thermal coal, black lignite.

Commodities (by-products): Coal, coal liquids, (tar, gas).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Princeton (092HSE089), Tulameen (092HSE209),

Quesnel (093B 036), Tuya River (104J 044); Whitewood and Highvale mines (Alberta, Canada),
Powder River Basin (USA).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Seams of black to brown coal hosted by clastic sedimentary rocks. The coal is
banded dull and bright. Generally hard, sometimes the texture of the original vegetation is
partially preserved.

Tectonic setting: Stable continental basins; shelves on the trailing edge of continents; foreland (molasse)
basins; back-arc basins.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: An area of slow sedimentation in fresh water with few or
no marine incursions. Can be produced by fault blocks associated with strike-slip movement to
limit sediment influx. Delta; shoreline swamp; raised swamp; lake; floating vegetation mats.

Age of mineralization: Often Tertiary but can be older.

Host/Associated rock types: Sedimentary rocks exhibiting evidence of non-marine deposition.

Carbonaceous mudstones, siltstones and sandstones are the most common, often with cross-
stratification and other sedimentary structures formed in shallow water.

Deposit form: Coal seams generally conform with regional bedding; sometimes seams are deposited in
areas of local subsidence, such as fault-controlled blocks or sink holes in karst topography, in
which case deposits may be lens shaped. Occasionally seams can be thickened/deformed by
surface slump, glacial drift or faulting. Seams may pinch out or split on a local or regional scale.

Texture/Structure: Sub-bituminous coal is usually composed mostly of clarain and vitrain. Footwall
sediments are often penetrated by roots or weathered to clay (seatearth).

Coal seams/Associated mineral matter: Sub-bituminous coal has Rmax values in the range of 0.4 to 0.6
%. In outcrop it can contain up to 30 % moisture. It usually contains a high proportion of vitrinite
 and lesser amounts of fusinite and liptinite. Mineral matter is in the coal as rock bands, as finely
intermixed material of authogenic or detrital origin (inherent mineral matter) and as secondary
material deposited in fractures and open spaces. Inherent mineral matter includes pyrite,
siderite and kaolinite.

Weathering: Weathering of sub-bituminous coal reduces the calorific value by oxidizing the carbon-
hydrogen complexes. Minerals in the mineral matter will also oxidize. Pyrite oxidizes to
sulphates. Secondary carbonates are formed.

Ore controls: The regional geometry of the seam/seams is controlled by sedimentary features, such as
the extent of the delta, trend of the shoreline, and trend of sand-filled river channels.
Deformation (faulting and folding) is important in some deposits.

Associated deposit types: Lignite (A02); bituminous coal (A04), Shale-hosted Ni-Zn-Mo- PGE (E16),
Phosphate - upwelling type (F07).

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Geochemistry is generally not used as a prospecting tool for coal.

Geophysical signature: Coal has a low density. Resistivity is variable to high. Surface techniques include
direct-current profiling, refraction and reflection seismic, and gravity. Subsurface or bore-hole
techniques include gamma logs, neutron logs, gamma-gamma density logs, sonic logs, resistivity
logs and caliper logs.

Other exploration guides: Presence of: a down-slope coal bloom; coal spar; small oily seeps or methane
escaping through the surrounding sediments. Zones where the coal outcrops have ignited and
burnt to some depth underground.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Gross heating value on an ash-free moist basis is 20 to 27 MJ/kg. Net useable
heat will be lower because of the high moisture content and the presence of ash. Mine reserves
range up to hundreds of millions of tonnes. The sub-bituminous coal resources of B.C. Tertiary
coal basins commonly range up to 200 Mt (Hat Creek exceptional with 1000 Mt).

Economic limitations: Coal is a bulk commodity which is expensive to transport. The moderate heating
value and tendency for spontaneous combustion means that sub- bituminous coal is usually
used locally for electrical power generation. The ratio of tonnage to useable heat is low so that
there is a larger proportion of waste material (water, fly ash and slag) generated when burnt
than for higher rank coals.

End uses: Steam generation in turbines for electrical generation. Feed for liquefaction or gasification.

Importance: Approximately 8 to 10 Mt of sub-bituminous coal is required to generate 1 MW per year.

5. References
Armstrong, W.M., Fyles, J.T., Guelke, C.B., Macgregor, E.R., Peel, A.L., Tompson, A.R. and Warren,
I.H. (1976): Coal in British Columbia, A Technical Appraisal; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines
and Petroleum Resources, Coal Task Force, 241 pages.
Cope, J.H.R., Duckworth, N.A., Duncan, S.V., Holtom, J.E.B., Leask, A.L., McDonald, K.A. and
Woodman, S.P. (1983): Concise Guide to the World Coalfields; compiled by Data Bank Service,
World Coal Resources and Reserves, IEA Coal Research.
Matheson, A. (1986): Coal in British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Paper 1986-3, 169 pages.
Smith, G.G. (1989): Coal Resources in Canada; Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 1989-4, 146 pages.
A04 – Bituminous coal

B. Ryan
British Columbia Geological Survey

Ryan, B. (1995): Bituminous Coal, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 -
Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 13-15.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Metallurgical coal, coking coal, humic coal.

Commodities (by-products): Coal, coke, (coal liquids, tar, gas).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Line Creek (082GNE020), Quintette

(093I 010, 011, 019, 020); Sydney coalfield (Nova Scotia, Canada), Sydney coalfield (Australia).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Seams of black coal hosted by clastic sedimentary rocks. Coal is banded bright and
dull. Generally hard with well developed cleats.

Tectonic setting: Stable continental basins; shelves on the trailing edge of continents; foreland (molasse)
basins; back-arc basins.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: An area of slow sedimentation in fresh water with few or
no marine incursions. Can be produced by fault blocks associated with strike-slip movement to
limit sediment influx. Delta; shoreline swamp; raised swamp; lake; floating vegetation mats.

Age of mineralization: Generally older than Tertiary; major deposits are Cretaceous, Permian or
Carboniferous in age.

Associated rock types: Sedimentary rocks exhibiting evidence of non-marine deposition; carbonaceous
mudstones; siltstones and sandstones often with cross- stratification and other sedimentary
structures of fluvial/alluvial or deltaic origin.

Deposit form: Coal seams generally conform with regional bedding; sometimes seams are deposited in
areas of local subsidence, such as fault-controlled blocks. Seams may be thickened/deformed by
faulting, folding and shearing. Seams may pinch- out or split on a local or regional scale.

Texture/Structure: Bituminous coal is usually composed mostly of clarain and vitrain. Footwall
sediments are often penetrated by roots or weathered to clay (seatearth).

Coal seams/Associated mineral matter: Bituminous coal has Rmax values in the range of 0.5 to 2.0 %. In
outcrop it can contain up to 15 % moisture. It usually contains a high percentage of the maceral
vitrinite; at higher ranks liptinite is difficult to detect; the amount of fusinite is variable. Mineral
matter is in the coal seams as rock bands, as finely intermixed material of authogenic or detrital
 origin (inherent mineral matter) and as secondary material deposited in fractures and open
spaces. Inherent mineral matter includes pyrite, siderite and kaolinite. It may be dissimilar to
that of the surrounding rocks.

Weathering: Weathering of the bituminous coal reduces the calorific value by oxidizing the carbon-
hydrogen complexes. It also destroys the agglomerating (coke making) properties. Minerals such
as pyrite oxidize to sulphates. Secondary carbonates are formed. These transformations may
further damage the coking properties.

Ore controls: The geometry of the seam/seams is controlled by sedimentary features, such as extent of
the delta, trend of the shoreline, and trend of sand-filled river channels. Deformation (faulting
and folding) is also important.

Associated deposit types: Sub-bituminous coal (A03), anthracite (A05), shale-hosted Ni-Zn-Mo-PGE
(E16), phosphate - upwelling type (F07).

Comments: Bituminous coal is widely used for coke making by the steel industry because of its
agglomerating properties.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Geochemistry is generally not used as a prospecting tool for coal.

Geophysical signature: Bituminous coal has a low density. Resistivity is variable to high. Surface
techniques include direct-current profiling, refraction and reflection seismic, and gravity.
Subsurface or bore-hole techniques include gamma logs, neutron logs, gamma-gamma density
logs, sonic logs, resistivity logs and caliper logs.

Other exploration guides: Presence of: a down-slope coal bloom; nonmarine sediments; coal spar.
Presence of methane escaping through the surrounding sediments.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Numerous tests quantify the coking ability of bituminous coal, they measure
rheology, melting and petrographic properties of the coal as well as the chemistry of the ash.
The gross heating value of bituminous coal is 27 to 33 MJ/kg on an ash-free moist basis. Net
useable heat will be lower because of the presence of ash. Mine tonnages generally range from
10 to 1000 Mt.

Economic limitations: Coal is a bulk commodity which is expensive to transport. Bituminous coal has a
high market value because of its coking properties and high heating value. The ratio of tonnage
to useable heat is good so that there is a lower proportion of waste material (such as water, fly
ash and slag) generated than for other ranks of coals.

End uses: Coke; steam generation in turbines for electrical generation.

Importance: Generally bituminous coal is used for coke making, weathered and non-agglomerating
bituminous coal is utilized for power generation. Only source for coke used in the steel industry.
 5. References

Armstrong, W.M., Fyles, J.T., Guelke, C.B., Macgregor, E.R., Peel, A.L., Tompson, A.R. and Warren,
I.H. (1976): Coal in British Columbia, A Technical Appraisal; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines
and Petroleum Resources, Coal Task Force, 241 pages.
Cope, J.H.R., Duckworth, N.A., Duncan, S.V., Holtom, J.E.B., Leask, A.L., McDonald, K.A. and Woodman,
S.P. (1983): Concise Guide to the World Coalfields; compiled by Data Bank Service, World Coal
Resources and Reserves, IEA Coal Research.
Matheson, A. (1986): Coal in British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Paper 1986-3, 169 pages.
Smith, G.G. (1989): Coal Resources in Canada; Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 1989-4, 146 pages
A05 – Anthracite

B. Ryan
British Columbia Geological Survey

Ryan, B. (1995): Anthracite, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallics
and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment and
Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 17-19.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Hard coal, stone coal, smokeless fuel.

Commodities: Coal, carbon.

Examples (British Columbia - International/Canada): Klappan (104H 020,021,022), Panorama South

(104A 082); Canmore (Alberta, Canada), Pennsylvania coalfields (USA).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Seams of black coal hosted by clastic sedimentary rocks. Coal is well cleated with
bright and dull bands. Anthracite often exhibits a high lustre and is not dusty.

Tectonic setting: Stable continental basins; shelves on the trailing edge of continents; foreland (molasse)
basins; back-arc basins.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: An area of slow sedimentation in fresh water with few or
no marine incursions. Can be produced by fault blocks associated with strike-slip movement to
limit sediment influx. Delta; shoreline swamp; raised swamp; lake; floating vegetation mats.

Age of mineralization: Generally older than Tertiary; major deposits are Cretaceous, Permian or
Carboniferous in age.

Host/Associated rock types: Sedimentary rocks exhibiting evidence of non-marine deposition;

carbonaceous mudstones; siltstones and sandstones often with cross- stratification and other
sedimentary structures formed in fluvial/alluvial deltaic settings.

Deposit form: Anthracite seams generally conform with regional bedding. Seams are often
thickened/deformed by faulting, folding, shearing and thrusting. Seams may pinch-out or split
on a local or regional scale.

Texture/Structure: Anthracite is usually composed mostly of the lithotypes clarain and vitrain.

Coal seams/Associated mineral matter: Anthracite has Rmax values over 2.0 %. In outcrop anthracite
can contain up to 5 % moisture. It usually contains a high percentage of the maceral vitrinite but
because of the high rank the rheological and chemical differences between vitrinite and the
inert macerals are small. Liptinite is difficult to identify at the anthracite rank. Mineral matter is
in the coal seams as rock bands, as finely intermixed material of authogenic or detrital origin
 (inherent mineral matter) and as secondary material deposited in fractures and open spaces.
Inherent mineral matter includes pyrite, siderite and kaolinite. It may be dissimilar to that of the
surrounding rocks.

Weathering: Weathering of anthracite reduces the calorific value by oxidizing the carbon-hydrogen
complexes. Minerals in the mineral matter will also oxidize. Pyrite oxidizes to sulphates.
Secondary carbonates are formed.

Ore controls: Deformation (folding, faulting and thrusting) is very important. The regional geometry of
the seam/seams may also be influenced by sedimentary features, such as extent of delta, trend
of the shoreline, and trend of sand- filled river channels.

Associated deposit types: Bituminous coal (A04), shale-hosted Ni-Zn-Mo-PGE (E16), phosphate -
upwelling type (F07).

Comments: Anthracite is the highest rank coal. At this rank agglomerating properties have been
destroyed and heating value decreased somewhat from the maximum obtained by low-volatile
bituminous coal. Anthracite releases little smoke when burnt.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Geochemistry is generally not used as a prospecting tool for anthracite.

Geophysical signature: Anthracite has a low density. Resistivity is variable to high. Surface techniques
include direct-current profiling, refraction and reflection seismic, and gravity. Subsurface or
bore-hole techniques include gamma logs, neutron adsorption logs, gamma-gamma density
logs, sonic logs, resistivity logs and caliper logs.

Other exploration guides: Presence of down-slope coal bloom; fresh water depositional structures; coal
spar. Presence of anthracite seams can also be detected by escaping methane.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: The heat value of anthracite is good and similar to that of medium-volatile
bituminous coal. Gross heating values are 30 to 33 Mj/Kg on an ash-free moist basis. Net
useable heat will be lower because of the presence of ash. The mine reserves of anthracite
generally range from 10 to 100 million tonnes. They are generally smaller than the strip or open
pit thermal or metallurgical coal mines.

Economic limitations: Anthracite is a bulk commodity which is expensive to transport. Anthracite as low-
ash lumps can be more than twice as valuable as bituminous coal, in which case it is shipped
widely. Sold as fine anthracite briquettes with a moderate ash content, it has about the same
dollar value as bituminous thermal coal.

End uses: Source for carbon. Specialized smelting applications, smokeless fuel for heating.

Importance: As low-ash large lumps it is an important source of carbon in the chemical industry.
 5. References

Armstrong, W.M., Fyles, J.T., Guelke, C.B., Macgregor, E.R., Peel, A.L., Tompson, A.R. and Warren,
I.H. (1976): Coal in British Columbia, A Technical Appraisal; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines
and Petroleum Resources, Coal Task Force, 241 pages.
Cope, J.H.R., Duckworth, N.A., Duncan, S.V., Holtom, J.E.B., Leask, A.L., McDonald, K.A. and
Woodman, S.P. (1983): Concise Guide to the World Coalfields; compiled by Data Bank Service,
World Coal Resources and Reserves, IEA Coal Research.
Matheson, A. (1986): Coal in British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Paper 1986-3, 169 pages.
Smith, G.G. (1989): Coal Resources in Canada; Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 1989-4, 146 pages.
Examples of Organic Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

A01 Ireland, Ontario, New Brunswick Fraser Delta, North Coast
A02 Estevan (Saskatchewan) Skonun Point (Graham Island)
A03 Highvale (Alberta), Powder River Basin Hat Creek, Princeton
(Wyoming)
A04 Gregg River (Alberta), Sydney Coalfield (Nova Quintette, Bullmoose, Greenhills,
Scotia) Fording
A05 Pennsylvannia Coalfields, Canmore (Alberta) Mt Klappan
B - Residual/Surficial

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

B01* Laterite Fe Gossan Fe --
B02* Laterite Ni -- 38a
B03* Laterite-Saprolite Au Eluvial placers 38g
B04* Bauxite Al Lateritic bauxite 38b
B05 Residual kaolin Primary kaolin 38h*
B07* Bog Fe, Mn, U, Cu, Au -- --
B08 Surficial U Calcrete U --
B09 Karst-hosted Fe, Al, Pb-Zn -- --
B10 Gossan Au-Ag Residual Au; Precious metal --
gossans
B11* Marl -- --
B12 Sand and Gravel -- --
B05 - Residual Kaolin

Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Primary kaolin, china clay, chinastone.

Commodities (by-products): Kaolin (sometimes silica sand, construction aggregate, mica).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Lang Bay (092F 137), Sumas Mountain
(092GSE004), Buse Lake (092INE123); Spruce Pine district (North Carolina, USA), Germany,
Cornwall, Saxony, France, CzechRepublic, Ukraine

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: In situ alteration (or kaolinization) of feldspathic rocks, such as granite, gneiss,
syenite, arkose and leucocratic volcanic ash, by tropical or sub-tropical weathering into kaolinite
saprolite. Weathered zones may thicken considerably where sheer and fracture zones or
hydrothermally altered zones act as conduit for groundwater of meteoric origin.

Tectonic setting: Continental and continental margin setting. Stable continental basins and lowlands,
foreland basins and shelves with grabens and downfaulted blocks.

Depositional environmental/geological setting: High rate of chemical weatherin with low rate of physical
erosion, basement composed of feldspathic rocks and their weathered or altered equivalents,
with ground water circulation. Lacustrine basins and tropical swamp environment. Kaolinization
should be taking place in areas lacking physical erosion.

Age of mineralization: Globally, most of producing deposits are of Carboniferous to Lower Tertiary age.
Kaolinite can be of any post Late Paleozoic age, and is forming currently in some tropical
regions.

Host/Associated rock types: Feldspathic rocks of metamorphic origin – gneisses (Denmark, Spain,
Ukraine), schists and phyllites (Germany, South Africa, Australia), granitic intrusions (North
Carolina, Saxony, Cornwall, Czech Republic), arkoses and arkosic sandstones (Czech Republic,
Germany, France) or volcanic ash (Buse Lake, Czech Republic) / Laterite, bauxite.

Deposit form: Slab, irregular mantle, trough. Weathered crust – saprolite with intensity and depth of
kaolinization depending on permeability of the original host. Along faults, mylonitic and
hydrothermally altered zones the kaolinic weathering can reach a depth of over 200 metres. The
depth of the economically viable zone is quite variable and usually up to 50 metres as it depends
on local subsidence, such as fault controlled blocks, the original surface morphology and host
rock permeability.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Kaolinite, halloysite, dickite, nakrite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, sometimes feldspar, mica, pyrite, siderite,
tourmaline, zircon, rutile.

Alteration mineralogy: Basic mineralogy is not changed by alteration, but it may remove dark organic
matter, iron hydroxide, carbonate, residual feldspar and in general improve the quality of
kaolinite resource.

Weathering: High alumina minerals like diaspor, gibbsite, boehmite. Lateritic and/or pisolitic bauxite.

Product controls: The intensity of kaolinization and the presence of detrimental components,
particularly iron and titanium are important. Some deleterious contamination depends on the
type of original host rock and presence of minerals, such as biotite.

Genetic models: The alteration results from surface weathering and groundwater movement below the
surface. Kaolin minerals form under physical and chemical conditions at relatively low
temperature and pressure. The most common parent minerals are feldspars and muscovite.
Feldspathic rocks weather readily to kaolinite and quartz under favourable conditions of high
rainfall, rapid drainage, temperate to tropical climate, a low water table and adequate water
movement to leach soluble components. Heat producing radiogenic decay within some granites
may lead to convective circulation of heated groundwater and enhance the alteration process.

Associated deposit types: Sedimentary kaolin (E07), residual bentonite, coal (A02, A03, A04), silica sand,
expanding shale (R02), cement "shales" (R01), some vermiculite deposits.

Comments: Some deposits have a multiple process of kaolinization, where hydrothermal alteration was
overprinted by residual weathering. Cornwall and New Zealand are two examples. In both cases
the residual overprint resulted in improved kaolin quality.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Absence of sodium and potassium, increase in aluminium and silica.

Geophysical signature: Seismic and resistivity techniques are successfully used in kaolin
exploration. Conductive clays respond to resistivity and low clay density provide enough
contrast for seismic survey. Aerial electromagnetic survey can delineate weathered profile even
under tens of metres thick overburden.

Other exploration guides: Regional unconformities, coal and basal claystone in sedimentary basins.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Residual deposits have in general 15 to 20% kaolin recovery. Different end
uses have specific requirements on the quality of processed kaolin. This may include presence of
impurities, like iron hydroxides, titanium dioxide, sodium and potassium, some other clay
minerals, brightness and particle size. Because of the need for sophisticated processing to
obtain a quality commercial product, present commercial producers operate plants with
capacity from 50,000 tonnes of processed kaolin per year and up.
Economic limitations: Distribution of kaolin deposits globally is very uneven. Therefore the trade in
processed kaolin is routinely crossing both the continents and oceans. In North America, for
example, the west coast paper industry is importing large quantities of kaolin from eastern
states like South Carolina and Georgia. Also, processed kaolin from Brazil is currently selling in
Europe and Asia. Replacement by other minerals is limited to only some end uses.

End uses: The annual US production of kaolin is in the order of 9 million tones per year. About half of
kaolin in North America is used by paper industry, and about 25% in variety of ceramics. The rest
is used in a numerous other end uses, like filler in plastics, rubber, and paints, cosmetics and
pharmaceutics, catalyst and catalyst carrier, silicon chemicals, specialty cement, and refractory
products.

Importance: Important kaolin source worldwide, less in North America because of large secondary
kaolin deposits in Alabama, Georgia and South Carolina.

5. References

Bristow, C.M. (1987): World Kaolins - Genesis, Exploitation and Application”, Industrial Minerals,
number 238, July, pages 45-59.
Clarke, G. (1985): Special Clays, Industrial Minerals, Number 216, September, pages 25-51.
Harben, P.W. and Kuzvart, M. (1996): Industrial Minerals – A Global Geology, Metal Bulletin PLC,
London. UK, 462 pages.
Harvey, C.C. and Murray, H.H. (1997): Industrial Clays in the 21st Century: A Perspective of Exploration,
Technology and Utilization, Applied Clay Science, Volume 11, pages 285-310.
Kuzvart, M. (1984): Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Elsevier, New York, 454 pages.
Malkovsky, M. and Vachtl, J., Editors, (1969): Kaolin Deposits of the World, A-Europe, B-Overseas
Countries, Proceedings of Symposium 1, 23th International Geological Congress, Prague, 1968,
460 pages.
Murray, H.H., Bundy, W. and Harvey, C.C., Editors, (1993): Kaolin Genesis and Utilization; The Clay
Minerals Society, Boulder, Colorado, 341 pages.
Pickering, S.M. and Murray, H.H. (1994): Kaolin; in Carr, D.D., Senior Editor, Industrial Minerals and
Rocks, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado, page 255-277.
Psyrillos, A., Manning, D.A.C. and Burley, S.D. (1998): Geochemical Constraints on Kaolinization in the
St Austell Granite, Cornwall, England, Journal of the Geological Society, London, Vol.155,
1998, pages 829-840.
Read, P.B. (1996): Industrial Mineral Potential of the Tertiary Rocks, Vernon and Adjacent Map Areas
(82L), Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Geological Fieldwork 1995, Paper
1996-1, pages 207-218.
B09 - Carbonate-hosted, Nonsulphide Zn-Pb (supergene)

S. Paradis and G.J. Simandl

Geological Survey of Canada and British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Zinc-oxides, Calamines, Galman

Commodities (by-products): zinc, lead (silver, copper, barite, cadmium).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Redbird (082FSW024), Lomond

(082FSW018), Reeves MacDonald (082FSW219), Caviar (082FSW060), HB (082FSW004), Oxide
(082FSW022), Cariboo Zinc (which comprises Canopener, DeBasher (093A 050), Flipper Creek,
Dolomite Flats, Main (093A 065), Gunn and Que (093A 062); Leadville (Colorado, USA), Balmat
(New York, USA), Sierra Mojada, Mapimi (Mexico), Accha, Mina Grande (Peru), Ariense (Brazil),
Tynagh, Silvermines and Galmoy (Ireland), La Calamine (Belgium), Reocin (Spain), Silesia-Cracow
district (Poland), San Giovanni (Italy), Lavrion (Greece), Touissit (Morocco), Um Gheig (Egypt),
Zamanti district (Turkey), Jabali (Yemen), Angouran, Mehdiabad, Irankuh, Kuh-e-Surmeh (Iran),
Shaimerden (Kazakhstan), Skorpion (Namibia), Padaeng (Thailand), Long Keng (Myanmar), Cho
Dien (Vietnam), Jinding, Qiandong Shen Shen (China), Magellan (Australia).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Nonsulphide deposits are commonly hosted in carbonate rocks. The main minerals
are hemimorphite, smithsonite, hydrozincite, cerussite, Fe-oxyhydroxides (including goethite),
and hematite. The deposits are broadly divided into three subtypes: the more common - 1)
direct replacement and 2) wallrock replacement; and the less common - 3) residual and karst-
fill. Direct replacement deposits have similar shape as the sulphide protore from which they are
derived and may contain vestiges of sulphide mineralization. Wallrock replacement deposits are
located at various distances from the protore, have simpler mineralogy and higher Zn/Pb ratio
than direct replacement deposits, and occur as irregular masses encrustations, tabular bodies,
and open-space fillings. Residual and karst-fill deposits form generally small, high grade,
irregular bodies of partly consolidated material that may have detrital component. Some
nonsulphide deposits may share characteristics of more than one of these subtypes.

Tectonic setting: Supergene nonsulphide deposits derived from Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) and Irish-
type deposits are located in carbonate platform settings, typically in relatively undeformed
orogenic foreland rocks, commonly in foreland thrust belts inboard of clastic rock-dominated
passive margin sequences, and in continental rift systems. Those derived from sedimentary
exhalative (SEDEX) deposits are located in intracratonic or continental margin environments in
fault-controlled basins and troughs. Volcanic-hosted massive sulphide (VHMS)-derived
supergene nonsulphide deposits are emplaced under extensional crustal regime, such as
oceanic or back-arc spreading ridges, continental rifts, back-arc basins, oceanic ridges close to
continental margins, and rift environment within, or perhaps behind, an oceanic or continental
margin arc.
Depositional environmental/geological setting: Hostrocks of supergene nonsulphide Zn-Pb deposits are
mostly deposited in platform successions within shallow and deep water environments. The
nonsulphide deposits are found in both arid and tropical environments; however, many of the
best supergene nonsulphide deposits recognized to date formed in semi-arid environments.
Some are found in cold, wet climates at higher latitudes.

Age of mineralization: Ages of nonsulphide mineralization are commonly poorly constrained. Ore
formation coincides with or postdates the exhumation of the hostrocks and generally postdates
the main tectono-metamorphic event. Most of the nonsulphide deposits formed during the late
Cretaceous to late Tertiary (i.e. Paleocene to Pliocene) and younger times.

Host/Associated rock types: Dolostone, limestone, dolomitized limestone and argillaceous carbonate are
the most common hostrocks. Siliciclastic rocks, such as calcsilicate rocks, carbonaceous black
shale, siltstone, cherty argillite, quartz-rich conglomerate and arkosic meta-arenites, and
volcaniclastic and metasedimentary rocks are also potential hosts.

Deposit form: The direct replacement deposits (also referred to as "red ores") occur as a) irregular and
poorly defined masses that replaced primary sulphides and carbonate hostrocks, whereby
selective replacement within specific horizons may yield stratabound morphologies; and b) veins
and open-space fillings within primary breccias of sulphide mineralization and carbonate
hostrocks, where the morphologies of the nonsulphide zones are comparable to those of the
related primary sulphides (i.e. stratabound zones and/or crosscutting pipes, fracture-fill zones,
veins). The depth of oxidation can be variable from a few metres to several hundred metres. The
wallrock replacement deposits are Zn-rich irregular and lens-shaped or tabular (subvertical to
subhorizontal) bodies adjacent to or distal to direct replacement bodies. The residual and karst-
fill deposits occur as accumulations of ferruginous, "earthy" and hemimorphite-clay mixtures,
within karst cavities that cut through the replacement or open-space filling mineralization.
These deposits have, irregular geometry, and can form high-grade nonsulphide bodies.
Geometry is controlled by basement topography.

Texture/Structure: Nonsulphides form irregular stratabound masses, pods or lenses; breccias of

sedimentary and tectonic origin, disseminations, fracture fill, and veins are also very common.
Due to intense oxidation, the primary textures of sulphides and hostrock are often obscured.
Ore textures are varied and complex, ranging from massive to highly brecciated, from compact
to powdery and from vuggy to dense. Nonsulphide minerals occur as earthy to crystalline
aggregates replacing primary sulphides and/or carbonate hostrocks. The form crusts,
concretions, and stalactites on outer surfaces, and botryoidal, colloform and crystalline
aggregates of euhedral and subhedral crystals in intergranular voids, cavities, fractures, and
breccias.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Smithsonite, hemimorphite, hydrozincite, sauconite,

cerussite, anglesite, litharge, pyromorphite, mimetite, and plumbojarosite; minrecordite, zincian
aragonite, willemite, goslarite, loseyite, descloizite, hetaerokite, hydrohetaerolite, chalcophanite,
hopeite, aurichalcite, woodruffite, tarbuttite, scholzite.

Where the sulphide-bearing protolith was not entirely converted to nonsulphides, primary sulphides
remain intermixed with the nonsulphide minerals to form "mixed ores". The primary sulphides
 may contain anglesite-coated nodules of galena and remnants of sphalerite. Chalcocite,
malachite and azurite are present in some deposits.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Carbonates (dolomite, calcite, aragonite), hematite,
goethite, other Fe-oxyhydroxides, gypsum, minor quartz.

Alteration mineralogy: Coarse crystalline dolomite spatially associated with MVT-type protore may
survive in proximity to nonsulphide deposits and contrast with regional finely crystalline
dolostone. Local alteration may also include silicification and rare secondary barite, both a result
of the alteration and breakdown of feldspar (e.g. Skorpion). The sulphide weathering and near
surface alteration of protore corresponds to formation of supergene mineralization.

Weathering: The nonsulphide mineralization forms by weathering of sulphides. Multicyclic oxidation and
leaching of nonsulphides is part of the ore-forming process and may affect even previously
formed wallrock replacement bodies. Such bodies may be gradually converted into porous
brown to reddish smithsonite intergrown with hemimorphite. Further leaching may result in
mixture of hemimorphite, sauconite, hematite- or goethite-dominated iron oxides, and
hematitic chalcedonic silica, and ultimately transformed into a barren goethite-chalcedonic silica
rock.

Ore controls: Most favourable conditions for oxidation are achieved in hot, arid or semiarid climates,
which maximize the quantity of metals available for transport by supergene solutions.
Sedimentary successions containing carbonate rocks are the most common regional hosts for
nonsulphide lead and zinc deposits. In general, the oxidation of the protore takes place above
water table. Karst, faulting, fracturing and to lesser extent porosity are important in enhancing
the depth and intensity of the oxidation. Major faults represent channels for oxygenated
solutions and permit oxidation to depths exceeding 500 metres. Faults also increase the reactive
surface of the hostrocks (i.e. provoking changes in pH and Eh). Direct replacement deposits are
confined to protore envelope. Wallrock replacement orebodies are commonly located near the
level of the paleo and/or present water table.

Genetic model: Supergene nonsulphide Zn-Pb deposits form when base metal sulphide mineralization is
subject to intense weathering and metals are liberated by the oxidation of sulphide minerals.
The formation of nonsulphide minerals is influenced by the composition, size and morphology of
the pre-existing sulphide body. During the formation of a direct replacement deposit, primary
ore (protore) is oxidized, and base metals pass into solution and are redistributed and trapped
within space originally occupied by the protore. If the base metals liberated by the oxidation of
sulphides are not trapped locally, they are transported by percolating waters down and/or away
from the sulphide protore, and under favourable geological conditions may form wallrock
replacement deposits. Wallrock replacement deposits can be located in proximity to protore or
several hundreds of metres away. Lead is less mobile in the supergene environment than zinc,
so in general, it is left behind as relict galena nodules and lead carbonate or lead sulphates.
Wallrock replacement deposits tend to have higher Zn content and higher Zn/Pb ratios than
direct replacement deposits. Residual and karst-fill deposits are formed as accumulations of
mechanically and/or chemically transported zinc-rich material in karstic cavities or lows in
basement topography. Some nonsulphide zinc deposits are assigned a hypogene origin. These
deposits are characterized by willemite-franklinite-zincite assemblages (Hitzman et al..2003) and
 formed at higher temperatures than the supergene deposits. Their temperature of formation is
estimated from less than 100 degrees to nearly 300 degrees celsius.

Associated deposit types: Mississippi Valley-type Pb-Zn (E12), Irish-type carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb (E13),
sedimentary exhalative Pb-Zn-Ag (E14), veins, and Pb-Zn skarns (K02); rarely volcanic hosted
massive sulphide (G04 to G06).

Comments: British Columbia has prospective strata for supergene nonsulphide deposits in the
miogeoclinal carbonate platform rocks of the Ancestral North America continental margin and in
pericratonic rocks of the Kootenay terrane. The association of many known carbonate-hosted
nonsulphide zones with directly underlying massive sulphide ore bodies, in combination with
nonsulphide mineralogical characteristics, suggests that a large proportion of known
nonsulphide mineralized zones in southern and central British Columbia are of the direct
replacement type.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Colorimetric field test for secondary zinc minerals ("Zinc Zap") is very useful.
Portable hand-held x-ray fluorescence spectrometry was successfully tested in British Columbia
on supergene nonsulphide Pb-Zn deposits. Depletion in zinc, lead, copper, iron and manganese
in and around former zinc-bearing sulphide gossans. Readily detectable positive anomalies of
zinc and lead in residual soils and stream sediments; elevated concentrations of copper, iron,
silver, manganese, arsenic and cadmium can also be detected. Analysis of heavy mineral
concentrates (identification of Zn-Pb nonsulphides) in stream and overburden may be effective
in areas lacking deep weathering. Where residual sulphide oxidation is taking place, soil gas
geochemical techniques (SO2 surveys) may be an applicable exploration technique. Many
supergene minerals, such as hydrozincite and smithsonite, give distinct spectral responses in the
short-wave infrared portion of the spectrum. Hyperspectral imaging holds promise as a useful
tool for accurate mapping of structures, lithologies, and alteration .

Geophysical signature: There is no simple approach to use geophysical methods in exploration for
nonsulphide-bearing Pb-Zn deposits. The mineralogy, textures, homogeneity, friability, porosity,
and degree of saturation by water vary widely. These properties affect the density, resistivity,
magnetic susceptibility, and seismic properties of the rocks. Interpretation methodologies may
be district specific. Where sulphide mineralization is present at depth, methodology used in
exploration for MVT, VHMS, and SEDEX deposits applies.

Other exploration guides: Most of the supergene nonsulphide base metal deposits are derived from the
oxidation, or near-surface weathering, of primary carbonate-hosted sulphide deposits, such as
Mississippi Valley-type, sedimentary exhalative, Irish-type or vein-type deposits and, to lesser
extent, Pb-Zn skarns and rarely volcanic-hosted massive sulphide. Any carbonate-hosted,
sulphide zinc district that has undergone geochemically mature weathering in semiarid to wet
climatic (or paleoclimatic) conditions and concomitant tectonic uplift and/or water table
depression is prospective for supergene nonsulphide deposits. Within these settings,
exploration could be further focused on areas where favourable water table level, optimum
oxido-reduction conditions, permissive hydrological characteristics (permeability and porosity of
the hostrocks, karsts, and fracture and fault zones), rocks with ability to control the pH of the
metal-bearing solutions, topography and slow(?) rate of uplift, coexisted. Discovery of
 outcropping supergene Zn-Pb nonsulphide deposits depends on recognition of common
nonsulphide ore minerals. Areas not affected by glaciation have higher potential to contain
preserved, soft, nonsulphide deposits than glaciated ones.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Tonnages for nonsulphide Zn-Pb deposits range from <1 Mt to 50 Mt with
grades of 2% to more than 30% zinc. If mixed ores are considered, some deposits and districts
have tonnages comparable to world-class sulphide deposits. Skorpion (Namibia) has 60 Mt of
mixed resource grading 6-8% zinc and 1-2% lead, and 24.6 Mt of oxide resource grading 10.6%
zinc. Mehdiabad (Iran) has a mixed oxide-sulphide resource of 218 Mt grading 7.2% zinc, 2.3%
lead and 51 grams per tonne silver. Direct replacement nonsulphide Zn-Pb deposits could be
also significant sources of lead, as illustrated by the exploitation of the Magellan deposit, which
has ore reserves of 8.5 Mt grading 7.12% lead.

Economic limitations: The economic value of nonsulphide ores is dependent on the physical setting of
individual deposit, the specific characteristics of the mineralogical association and the nature of
the gangue minerals. The large, near-surface deposits are amenable to high volume, open pit
mining. Underground mining is less common. Depending on the type of ore and mineralogy, a
dedicated processing plant may be required. However, there is also the possibility that limited
quantities of zinc-rich carbonates or silicate-bearing material (with low levels of impurities) may
be used by conventional smelters as a sweetener (instead of Ca carbonate that is commonly
used to control the pH) or as source of silica; this should be investigated.

Importance: Nonsulphide deposits were the main source of zinc prior to the 1930s. Following the
development of differential flotation and breakthrough in smelting technology, the mining
industry turned its attention almost entirely to sulphide ores. Today, most zinc is derived from
sulphide ore. The nonsulphide deposits provided roughly 7% of the world's zinc production in
2009. The successful operation of a dedicated processing plant at the Skorpion mine to extract
zinc, through direct acid leaching, solid-liquid separation, solvent extraction and electro winning
from nonsulphide ore has attracted more attention to these types of deposits. These deposits
are attractive targets because they are characteristically low in lead, sulphur and other
deleterious elements, offer low-cost onsite production and are environmentally friendly.

5. References

Gorzynski, G. (2001): REMAC zinc project, Reeves property and Redbird property - 2000 summary
report, trenching and drilling program; Redhawk Resources Inc., 47 pages.
Heyl, A.V. and Bozion, C.N. (1962): Oxidized zinc deposits of the United States, Part 1, General geology;
United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 1135-A, 52 pages.
Hitzman, M.W., Reynolds, N.A., Sangster, D.F., Cameron, R.A. and Carman, C.E. (2003): Classification,
genesis, and exploration guides for nonsulphide zinc deposits; Economic Geology, Volume 98,
Number 4, pages 685-714.
Paradis, S., Simandl, G.J., Bradford, J., Leslie, C., Brett, C., and Schiarizza, P. (2010): Carbonate-hosted
sulphide and nonsulphide Pb-Zn Mineralization in the Barkerville area, British Columbia, Canada;
in Geological Fieldwork 2009, British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Paper 2010-1, pages 69-82.
Enkin, R. Paradis, S. and Simandl, G.J. (in press): Physical properties of carbonate-hosted nonsulphide Zn-
Pb mineralization in southern (NTS082F/03) and central British Columbia (NTS 093A/14E); in
Geoscience BC Summary of Activities, Geoscience BC Report 2011-1.
Pirajno, F., Burlow R., and Huston, D. (2010): The Magellan Pb deposit, Western Australia; a new
category within the class of supergene non-sulphide mineral systems; Ore Geology Reviews,
Volume 37, pages 101-113.
Reichert, J. (2009): A geochemical model of supergene carbonate-hosted nonsulphide zinc deposits; in
Titley, S.R., ed., Supergene, Environments, Processes, and Products, Society of Economic
Geologists, Special Publication number 14, pages 69-76.
Reichert, J., and Borg, G. (2008): Numerical simulation and geochemical model of supergene carbonate-
hosted non-sulphide zinc deposits; Ore Geology Reviews, Volume 33, pages 134-151.
Sangster, D.F. (2003): A special issue devoted to nonsulphide zinc deposits: a new look; Economic
Geology, Volume 98, Number 4, pages 683-684.
Simandl, G.J. and Paradis, S. (2009): Carbonate-hosted, nonsulphide, zinc-lead deposits in the Southern
Kootenay Arc, British Columbia (NTS 082F/03); in Geological Fieldwork 2008, British Columbia
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 2009-1, pages 205-218.
Paradis, S. and Simandl, G.J. (2011): Carbonate-hosted, Nonsulphide Zn-Pb (supergene) Mineral Deposit
Profile B09; in Geological Fieldwork 2010, BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Paper 2011-1, pages 189-193.
B12 - Sand and Gravel

Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Aggregate, granular deposits, fluvial and glaciofluvial sediments, ice-contact deposits,
outwash, alluvial sand and gravel, beach sand and gravel.

Commodities (by-products): All-purpose construction aggregate, special fill, railroad ballast (sometimes
gold, platinum group elements, garnet, ilmenite, cassiterite, gemstones – diamond, emerald,
ruby and sapphire, spinel).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Colwood Delta, Coquitlam Valley,

Sechelt, Stuart River esker complex, small deposits almost everywhere.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Surficial sediment of sand and gravel deposited as a stream channel fill, fan or
delta, usually in late-glacial or post-glacial period. Deposition may have occurred in contact with
glacier ice (e.g., esker, kame complexes, crevasse fillings), or beyond the ice margin (e.g.,
outwash plain, raised delta).

Tectonic setting: Generally unimportant. Sand and gravel deposits occur in high-energy stream
sediments in all tectonic belts. In coastal areas, isostatic or tectonic uplift produces raised
landforms that are readily mined.

Depositional environmental/geological setting: Advancing glaciers incorporate significant quantities of

bedrock and surficial materials that are freed during glacial melting and transported by
meltwater downstream. Sand and gravel deposits can be divided into glaciofluvial sediments:
mainly eskers, crevasse fill and kame complexes and outwash, and fluvial/alluvial sediments that
form stream channel deposits, terraces, alluvial fans and deltas. In the early stages of
deglaciation, meltwater streams deposited deltaic accumulations where high-energy water flow
suddenly entered low-energy lacustrine or marine environments. Those deposits were lifted up
during isostatic rebound and can be found along the BC coastline up to 200 metres above
present sea level. In the BC interior, raised deltaic gravels and sands are granular facies of
glaciolacustrine silts in basins (e.g. the Okanagan Valley, Rocky Mountain Trench, or Kamloops
and Prince George areas). Alluvial fills in present drainage channels are usually reworked
products of earlier glaciofluvial sediments.

Age of mineralization: Mainly Holocene and Pleistocene in glaciated areas, Holocene to Tertiary in
unglaciated regions. Pre-Holocene sand and gravel deposits in glaciated terrain in Canada are
not usually preserved. In BC, older sand and gravel sediments occur locally (e.g., in the lower
part of the sequence in the Coquitlam Valley and in most gravel pits on Saanich Peninsula).

Host/Associated rock types: Usually poorly to moderately well-sorted pebble, cobble and/or boulder
gravel with variable proportions of fine- to coarse-grained sand; deltaic deposits locally
 interbedded with glaciomarine or glaciolacustrine silts and clays; ice–proximal glaciofluvial
deposits commonly interbedded with till or glaciogenic debris flow deposits; fluvial sands and
gravels often overlain by floodplain silts and organic deposits.

Deposit form: Depending on their origin, sand and gravel deposits may exhibit a variety of shapes and
geomorphic forms including: floodplains, terraces (raised valley-side benches), fans (cone-
shaped) and deltas (triangular in plane view) and glaciofluvial kames (irregular hills or
hummocks), eskers (ridges up to tens of kilometres long), outwash plains and raised deltas.

Texture/Structure: Particle size decreases as stream energy decreases and with distance of transport.
Particle roundness also decreases with transport distance. In high-energy environments, the
deposits are generally more poorly sorted. Internal structure varies with the type of deposit as
follows:

Channel and terrace deposits: mainly trough cross-bedded sand and/or gravel sequences; cut-and-fill
structures common; capped by floodplain silts, fine sands and organics.

Alluvial delta: usually sand-dominated, grading out into silts and clays; interbedded organic silts and
peats common in the topset.

Alluvial fan: poorly sorted sands and gravels, often with diamicton interbeds; crude bedding dips toward
the valley centre, generally fining down-dip and from the fan centre to the sides.

Glaciofluvial delta: coarse-grained, steeply dipping, foreset beds; underlain by fine-grained bottomset
beds; often capped by fining-up channel-fill (topset) sequences.

Kames and eskers: poorly sorted sands to boulder gravels; commonly with collapse features and kettle
holes.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Composition of aggregate particles depends on the source
areas. Provenance is also a major factor in determining the quality of the resulting aggregate
product. Bedded and schistose rocks usually provide lower quality products, while massive
igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks, such as gneisses and quartzites, produce better quality
aggregate. In sedimentary source areas, limestones and cemented sandstones are better than
shales, siltstones or weak sandstones.

Gangue mineralogy (principal): Clay and silt particles and organic pockets must be separated by
screening and washing the final product. Also, cobbles and boulders have to be removed or
separated and processed by crushing.

Alteration mineralogy: Soft and weak rocks are a deleterious component of every type of construction
aggregate. Prolonged weathering may weaken some otherwise competent rock types. This is
particularly true for older Pleistocene and Tertiary deposits in glaciated areas, and for all
deposits in non-glaciated areas. Percolating groundwater may result in coating of gravel
particles with calcium carbonate, clay or iron hydroxides. Such coatings may negatively affect
the strength and durability of bonding with cement in concrete structures.
Weathering: Soft and weak rocks and those with high porosity are sensitive to increased physical
weathering and deterioration.

Ore controls: The composition of the bedrock in the source area has a major impact on aggregate
quality. A variety of factors influence the usability of granular sediment for individual products,
which frequently have distinct quality requirements. Quality of construction aggregate for
particular end uses is controlled by a number of physical and chemical parameters specified in
ASTM and CSA Standards. The main factors influencing suitability for different end uses are the
relative proportions of competent rock types, components reactive with cement like chert,
other amorphous silica varieties, volcanic glass, sulphides and organics like peat. Other
important criteria include the absence of clay and silt; clean clast surfaces; isometric shapes and
granulometric composition. Sometimes in the absence of a quality aggregate, some granular
deposits can be improved by more sophisticated processing. Use of a different type or higher
proportion of cement in a concrete mix may be another solution.

Genetic model: Sand and gravel deposits are deposited by high-energy streams draining continental
areas, mainly during deglaciation. The main source of the granular material is melting glacier ice
containing large quantities of eroded bedrock and sediment. This outwash material is
transported by flowing water and deposited in a variety of landforms with granular material as a
main component.

Associated deposit types: Placer deposits of gold, PGE, gemstones and garnet (C01, C02, C03).

Comments: Quarried crushed aggregate is an alternative to sand and gravel. Dredging of off-shore sand
and gravel or deposits in river channels is taking place locally in B.C.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: None.

Geophysical signature: Ground penetrating radar can delineate the geometry, structure and thickness of
granular deposits provided they are not overlain by clay or clay-rich till. Shallow seismic and
resistivity surveys can help outline the thickness and homogeneity of a granular deposit,
particularly the presence of clay layers or till, and depth of the groundwater level.

Other exploration guides: Remote sensing and air photo interpretation are used to identify the granular
landforms.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Grade is determined by ASTM or CSA specifications and can be highly
variable, depending on location and intended use. Tonnage also can vary widely. For example,
even a small deposit of a few hundred thousand tonnes may be an important source for local
use in populated areas. Such a deposit, however, must contain aggregate that does not require
complicated processing. Similar examples are borrow pits used in road construction and
maintenance. Large, sophisticated operations, like BC tidewater pits (e.g., Colwood, Port
Mellone, Sechelt, Jervis Inlet) that produce a variety of special products and supply more distant
markets, can have tens of millions of tonnes of resource.
Economic limitations: In populated areas, the main limiting factors for developing aggregate resource
are availability of land and support of the local community. Transportation costs are often the
main economic factor controlling deposit development and may favour the development of
hard rock crushing operation closer to the market.

End uses: A broad variety of construction products including ‘pit run’ for general uses and fill, natural
stone for buildings and roads, crushed rock for landscaping, road bases, asphalt, gravel
driveways and parking lots, concrete aggregate, drainage gravel, and specialty sands, such as
those used for sandblasting and masonry sand for mortar and stucco.

Importance: Sand and gravel are the main, basic construction materials for building cities and
infrastructure. British Columbia uses between 40 and 50 million tonnes of aggregate annually in
construction. Building an average family home requires about 100 tonnes of aggregate; for a
school it takes approximately 15 000 tonnes; for 1 kilometre of 4-lane highway, between 40 and
60 thousand tonnes of aggregate are needed.

5. References

Bobrowsky, P.T., Massey, N.W.D. and Matysek, P.F. (1996): Aggregate Forum. Developing an Inventory
That Works for You. BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Information
Circular 1996-6, 61 pages.
Bobrowsky, P.T., editor (1998): Aggregate Resources: A global perspective. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam,
637 pages.
Barksdale, R.D., editor (1991): The Aggregate Handbook. National Stone Association, Washington, D.C.,
640 pages.
Bolen, W.P. (2000): Construction Sand and Gravel; in Mineral Industry Surveys, U.S. Geological Survey,
pages 66.1–66.19.
Hora, Z.D. (1988): Sand and Gravel Study 1985. Transportation Corridors and Populated Areas. B.C.
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1988-27, 41 pages.
Hora, Z.D. and Basham, F.C. (1980): Sand and Gravel Study 1980. B.C. Lower Mainland. BC Ministry of
Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1980-10, 74 pages.
Langer, W.H. (1988): Natural Aggregates of the Conterminous United States, US Geological Survey
Bulletin 1594, US Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., 33 pages
McCarl, H.N. (1994): Aggregates: Markets and Uses; in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, D.D. Carr, senior
editor , Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. Littleton, Colorado, pages 287–293.
Vagt, O.(2002): Mineral Aggregates; in Canadian Minerals Yearbook, Minerals and Metals Sector, Natural
Resources Canada, pages 34.1–34.8
Examples of Residual/Surficial Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

B01* Glenravel (Ireland) --
B02* Riddle (Oregon), Mt. Vernon (Washington) --
B03* Mt. Gibson (Australia), Akaiwang (Guyana) --
B04* Queensland, Pocos de Caldas (Brazil), Salem Florence (Sooke)
Hills (Oregon)
B05 Germany, North Carolina, Idaho Lang Bay, Sumas Mountain
B07* Trois Riviéres (Québec) Whipsaw Creek, Limonite Creek, Iron
King
B08 Flodelle Creek (Washington) Prairie Flats
B09 Transvaal (Pb-Zn, South Africa), Sardinia (Pb-Zn), Villalta (Fe)
Jamaica (Al)
B10 Rio Tinto (Spain) Villalta
B11* -- Cheam Lake (Chiliwack)
B12 -- --

* Note: All BC deposit profile(s) with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s.
C - Placer

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

C01 Surficial placers Placer Au-PGE-Sn-diamond-mag- 39a to e
gar-gems
C02 Buried-channel placers Paleochannel placers 39a to e
C03 Marine placers Off-shore heavy mineral sediments 39f*?
C04* Paleoplacer U-Au-PGE-Sn-Ti- Quartz pebble conglomerate Au-U 29a
diam-mag-gar-zir
C01 – Surficial placers

V.M. Levson
British Columbia Geological Survey

Levson, V.M. (1995): Surficial Placers, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 -
Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 21-23.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Holocene placer deposits; terrace placers; fluvial, alluvial, colluvial, eolian (rare) and glacial
(rare) placers.

Commodities (by-products): Au, PGEs and Sn, {locally Cu, garnet, ilmenite, cassiterite, rutile, diamond
and other gems - corundum (rubies, sapphires), tourmaline, topaz, beryl (emeralds), spinel -
zircon, kyanite, staurolite, chromite, magnetite, wolframite, sphene, barite, cinnabar}. Most of
the minerals listed in brackets are recovered in some deposits as the principal product.

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Fraser River (Au), Quesnel River (Au), Tulameen
district (PGEs); North Saskatchewan River (Au, Alberta, Canada), Vermillion River (Au, Ontario,
Canada), Rivière Gilbert (Au, Québec, Canada), Klondike (Au, Yukon, Canada), Rio Tapajos (Au,
Brazil), Westland and Nelson (Au, New Zealand), Yana-Kolyma belt (Au, Russia), Sierra Nevada
(Au, California, USA), Goodnews Bay( PGE, Alaska, USA), Emerald Creek (garnet, Idaho, USA), Rio
Huanuni and Ocuri (Sn, Bolivia), Sundaland belt (Sn, Thailand).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Detrital gold, platinum group elements and other heavy minerals occurring at or
near the surface, usually in Holocene fluvial or beach deposits. Other depositional
environments, in general order of decreasing importance, include: alluvial fan, colluvial,
glaciofluvial, glacial and deltaic placers.

Tectonic setting: Fine-grained, allochthonous placers occur mainly in stable tectonic settings (shield or
platformal environments and intermontane plateaus) where reworking of clastic material has
proceeded for long periods of time. Coarse, autochthonous placer deposits occur mainly in
Cenozoic and Mesozoic accretionary orogenic belts and volcanic arcs, commonly along major
faults.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Surficial fluvial placer concentrations occur mainly in

large, high-order, stream channels (allochthonous deposits) and along bedrock in high-energy,
steep-gradient, low-sinuosity, single-channel streams (autochthonous deposits). Concentrations
occur along erosional surfaces at the base of channel sequences. Alluvial fan, fan-delta and delta
deposits are distinct from fluvial placers as they occur in relatively unconfined depositional
settings and typically are dominated by massive or graded sands and gravels, locally with
interbedded diamicton. Colluvial placers generally develop from residual deposits associated
with primary lode sources by sorting associated with downslope migration of heavy minerals.
Glaciofluvial and glacial placers are mainly restricted to areas where ice or meltwater has
 eroded pre-existing placer deposits. Cassiterite, ilmenite, zircon and rutile are lighter heavy
minerals which are distributed in a broader variety of depositional settings.

Age of mineralization: Mainly Holocene (rarely Late Pleistocene) in glaciated areas; generally Tertiary or
younger in unglaciated regions.

Host/Associated rock types: Well sorted, fine to coarse-grained sands; well rounded, imbricated and
clast-supported gravels.

Deposit form: In fluvial environments highly variable and laterally discontinuous; paystreaks typically
thin (< 2 m), lens shaped and tapering in the direction of paleoflow; usually interbedded with
barren sequences.

Texture/Structure: Grain size decreases with distance from the source area. Gold typically fine grained (<
0.5 mm diameter) and well rounded; coarser grains and nuggets rare, except in steep fluvial
channel settings where gold occurs as flattened flakes. Placer minerals associated with colluvial
placer deposits are generally coarser grained and more angular.

Ore mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Au, PGE and cassiterite (Cu, Ag and various industrial
minerals and gemstones).

Gangue mineralogy: Quartz, pyrite and other sulphides and in many deposits subeconomic
concentrations of various heavy minerals such as magnetite and ilmenite.

Alteration mineralogy: Fe and Mn oxide precipitates common; Ag-depleted rims of Au grains increase in
thickness with age.

Ore controls: In fluvial settings, placer concentrations occur at channel irregularities, in bedrock
depressions and below natural riffles created by fractures, joints, cleavage, faults, foliation or
bedding planes that dip steeply and are oriented perpendicular or oblique to stream flow.
Coarse- grained placer concentrations occur as lag concentrations where there is a high
likelihood of sediment reworking or flow separation such as at the base of channel scours,
around gravel bars, boulders or other bedrock irregularities, at channel confluences, in the lee of
islands and downstream of sharp meanders. Basal gravels over bedrock typically contain the
highest placer concentrations. Fine-grained placer concentrations occur where channel
gradients abruptly decrease or stream velocities lessen, such as at sites of channel divergence
and along point bar margins. Gold in alluvial fan placers is found in debris- flow sediments and in
interstratified gravel, sand and silt. Colluvial placers are best developed on steeper slopes,
generally over a weathered surface and near primary lode sources. Economic gold
concentrations in glaciofluvial deposits occur mainly along erosional unconformities within
otherwise aggradational sequences and typically derive their gold from older placer deposits.

Genetic model: Fluvial placers accumulate mainly along erosional unconformities overlying bedrock or
resistant sediments such as basal tills or glaciolacustrine clays. Basal gravels over bedrock
typically contain the highest placer concentrations. Overlying bedded gravel sequences
generally contain less placer minerals and reflect bar sedimentation during aggradational
phases. Frequently the generation of more economically attractive placer deposits involves
multiple cycles of erosion and deposition.
Associated deposit types: Fluvial placers commonly derive from hydrothermal vein deposits and less
commonly from porphyry and skarn deposits. PGE placers are associated with Alaskan-type
ultramafics. Allochthonous fluvial placers are far traveled and typically remote from source
deposits.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Anomalous concentrations of Au, Ag, Hg, As, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ti or Cr in stream
sediments. Au fineness (relative Ag content) and trace element geochemistry (Hg, Cu) of Au
particles can be used to relate placer and lode sources.

Geophysical signature: Ground penetrating radar especially useful for delineating the geometry,
structure and thickness of deposits with low clay contents, especially fluvial terrace placers.
Shallow seismic, electromagnetic, induced polarization, resistivity and magnetometer surveys
are locally useful. Geophysical logging of drill holes with apparent conductivity, naturally
occurring gamma radiation and magnetic susceptibility tools can supplement stratigraphic data.

Other exploration guides: Panning and other methods of gravity sorting are used to identify
concentrations of gold, magnetite, hematite, pyrite, ilmenite, chromite, garnet, zircon, rutile and
other heavy minerals. Many placer gold paystreaks overlie clay beds or dense tills and in some
camps these ‘false bottom’ paystreaks are important.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Deposits are typically high tonnage (0.1 to 100 Mt) but low grade (0.05-0.25
g/t Au, 50-200 g/t Sn). Placer concentrations are highly variable both within and between
individual deposits.

Economic limitations: The main economic limitations to mining surficial placer deposits are typically low
grades and most deposits occur below the water table. Environmental considerations are also
an important limiting factor as these deposits often occur near, or within modern stream
courses.

Importance: Placer gold deposits account for more than two-thirds of the world's gold reserves and
about 25% of known total production in British Columbia. Recorded placer production has
represented 3.5% of B.C.’s total gold production in the last twenty years. Prior to 1950, it was
approximately 160 000 kg. Actual production was significantly larger. Placer mining continues to
be an important industry in the province with annual average expenditures of more than $30
million over a survey period from 1981 to 1986. Shallow alluvial placers also account for a large
part of world tin (mainly from SE Asia and Brazil) and diamond (Africa) production.

5. References

Boyle, R.W. (1979): The Geochemistry of Gold and its Deposits; Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin
280, 584 pages.
Giusti, L. (1986): The Morphology, Mineralogy and Behavior of "Fine-grained" Gold from Placer Deposits
of Alberta, Sampling and Implications for Mineral Exploration; Canadian Journal of Earth
Sciences, Volume 23, Number 11, pages 1662-1672.
Herail, G. (Editor) (1991): International Symposium on Alluvial Gold Placers, Abstract Volume; La Paz,
Bolivia.
Levson, V. M. and Giles, T.R. (1993): Geology of Tertiary and Quaternary Gold-bearing Placers in the
Cariboo Region, British Columbia. B. C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources,
Bulletin 89, 202 pages.
Levson, V.M. and Morison, S.R. (in press): Geology of Placer Deposits in Glaciated Environments; in
Glacial Environments - Processes, Sediments and Landforms, Menzies, J., Editor, Pergamon
Press, Oxford, U.K., 44 pages.
Minter, W.E.L. (1991): Ancient Placer Gold Deposits; in Gold Metallogeny and Exploration, Foster, R.P.,
Editor, Blackie, pages 283-308.
Morison, S.R. (1989): Placer Deposits in Canada; in Quaternary Geology of Canada and Greenland,
Fulton, R.J., Editor, Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada, Number 1, pages 687-694.
Sutherland, D.G. (editor) (1991): Alluvial Mining; Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, Elsevier Applied
Science, London, 601 pages.
C02 – Buried-channel placers

V.M. Levson and T.R. Giles

British Columbia Geological Survey

Levson, V.M. and Giles, T.R. (1995): Buried-Channel Placers, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit
Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia
Ministry of Energy and Mines, Open File 1995-20, pages 25-28.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Paleoplacer deposits; paleochannel deposits; fluvial and alluvial placers.

Commodities (by-products): Mainly Au and PGE {also Cu, Ag, garnet, cassiterite, rutile, diamond and
other gems: corundum (rubies, sapphires), tourmaline, topaz, beryl (emeralds), spinel; zircon,
kyanite, staurolite, chromite, magnetite, ilmenite, barite, cinnabar}. Most of the minerals listed
in brackets are recovered as by-products.

Examples (British Columbia and Canada/International): Williams Creek (Au, 093H 119), Bullion (Au, 093A
025), Lightning Creek (Au, 093H 012), Otter Creek (Au, 104N 032), Spruce Creek (Au, 104N 034);
Chaudière Valley (Au, Québec, Canada), Livingstone Creek (Au, Yukon, Canada), Valdez Creek
(Au, Alaska, USA), Ballarat (Au, Victoria, Australia), Bodaibo River (Au, Lena Basin, Russia),
Gibsonville (Sn, New South Wales, Australia), Ringarooma (Sn , Tasmania, Australia).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Detrital gold, platinum group elements and other heavy minerals occurring in
buried valleys (typically with at least several metres of overlying barren material, usually till, clay
or volcanic rocks), mainly as channel-lag and gravel-bar deposits. See description of surficial
placers (C01) for general information about alluvial placer deposits.

Tectonic setting: Coarse-grained, paleochannel placer Au deposits occur mainly in Cenozoic and
Mesozoic accretionary orogenic belts and volcanic arcs, commonly along major faults that may
also control paleodrainage patterns. PGE-bearing deposits commonly associated with accreted
and obducted oceanic terranes. Fine-grained paleoplacers also may occur in stable tectonic
settings (shield or platformal environments) where reworking of clastic material has proceeded
for long periods of time.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Mainly incised paleochannels in mountainous areas

including: high-gradient (generally >0.05, less commonly >0.1), narrow bedrock-floored valleys
(paleogulches); high-level, abandoned tributary valleys with intermediate gradients (typically
0.01 to 0.1); large, buried trunk valleys (on the order of 100 m deep, a few hundred metres wide
and >1 km long) with low channel gradients (generally <0.02 in mountainous reaches and <0.001
in plateau areas); channels buried in modern alluvial valleys with gradients similar to the
modern streams. The first two settings are dominated by high-energy, low-sinuosity, single-
channel, coarse-grained autochthonous placer deposits, whereas the latter two are
characterized by autochthonous and allochthonous placers deposited in wandering gravel-bed
river, braided stream and alluvial fan environments. In most paleochannels, coarse-grained
 placer concentrations occur mainly along channel floors or along other erosional surfaces such
as at the base of cut-and-fill sequences; in meandering stream environments finer grained
placers also occur along point bar margins and in other areas of slack water.

Age of mineralization: Tertiary and Pleistocene. Older paleoplacers (excepting the Proterozoic
Witwatersrand placers) are rare, due to poor long-term preservation of deposits in high-relief,
subaerial environments. Pleistocene paleoplacer deposits in British Columbia generally predate
at least the last glaciation.

Host/Associated rock types: Coarse (pebble to boulder), rounded gravels (or conglomerate), commonly
with sandy interbeds or lenses. Gravels usually imbricated, clast supported, open work or with a
sandy matrix, and typically with abundant resistant rock types (quartzite, vein quartz, chert,
basalt, granite) and minor, less resistant, lithologies (shale, siltstone, schist, etc.). Au placers are
commonly associated with rock types hosting epithermal or mesothermal vein deposits. PGE
placers occur with ultramafic hostrocks. Paleoplacers can be buried under a variety of materials,
including glacial till, glaciolacustrine silts and clays, glaciofluvial sands and gravels, marine
sediments and basalt flows.

Deposit form: Highly variable and laterally discontinuous; paystreaks typically thin (< 2 m), lens shaped
and tapering in the direction of paleoflow; usually interbedded with barren sequences.

Texture/Structure: Typically well rounded, flattened flakes or plates of low sphericity; coarse, more
spherical nuggets common in high-gradient channels; fine (flour) gold common in distal stream
reaches; evidence of primary crystal structure very rare.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Au nuggets, flakes and grains and PGE minerals, (Cu,
Ag, and various industrial minerals and gemstones).

Gangue mineralogy: Quartz, pyrite and other sulphides and in many deposits subeconomic
concentrations of various heavy minerals, especially magnetite and ilmenite.

Alteration mineralogy: Fe and Mn oxide precipitates common. Clay alteration of unstable clasts and
matrix in some deposits.

Ore controls: Dominant controls on the geographic distribution of ore include the location of
paleodrainage channels, proximity to bedrock sources, and paleorelief. Paleochannels are locally
controlled by faults and less resistant rock units. Stratigraphically, placers accumulate mainly at
the base of erosional successions along unconformities overlying bedrock or resistant sediments
such as basal tills or glaciolacustrine clays. Overlying bedded gravel sequences generally contain
less placer minerals and reflect bar sedimentation during aggradational phases. Sedimentologic
factors controlling placer accumulations are discussed in Profile C01 (Surficial Placers).

Genetic model: For an explanation of formation of alluvial placers see surficial placers (C01). Placer
deposits are buried when base level rises or channel abandonment occurs. Factors inducing
these changes include glaciation, volcanism, stream capture and cutoff, or rising sea level.

Associated deposit types: Paleochannel placer deposits are associated with alluvial fan and fan-delta
paleoplacer deposits in some areas (see comments below). Autochthonous fluvial and alluvial
 placers commonly derive from hydrothermal vein deposits. PGE placers are associated with
Alaskan-type ultramafics.

Comments: Alluvial fan and fan delta paleoplacer sequences comprise a distinct subtype of buried placer
deposits. They occur in relatively unconfined depositional settings compared to paleochannel
placer deposits and typically are dominated by massive or graded, poorly sorted gravels and
sands, locally with interbedded diamicton. They are generally lower grade and larger volume
than fluvial deposits but they contain relatively uniform placer concentrations. Paleofan
deposits are mainly local in origin as indicated by high clast angularity and local derivation.
Placer minerals occur in both poorly sorted debris-flow sediments and interstratified fluvial
gravels and sands. Concentrations are commonly highest at sites of subsequent fluvial
degradation.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Anomalous concentrations of Au, Ag, Hg, As, Cu, Fe and Mn in stream
sediments. Gold fineness (relative Ag content) and trace element geochemistry (Hg, Cu) can be
used as a signature to identify lode sources.

Geophysical signature: Shallow seismic refraction and reflection techniques are useful for delineating
paleochannel geometry and depth to bedrock. Electromagnetic, induced polarization, resistivity
and magnetometer surveys are locally useful. Geophysical logging of drill holes with apparent
conductivity, naturally occurring gamma radiation and magnetic susceptibility tools can
supplement stratigraphic data.

Other exploration guides: Exploration should focus on sites of natural overburden removal, such as
along glacial meltwater channels, and areas underlain by Tertiary fluvial deposits. Buried placers
are commonly preserved below glacial lake sediments, on the lee-side of bedrock highs where
glacial erosion was minimal and along narrow valleys oriented transversely to the regional ice-
flow direction. Airphoto interpretation and satellite imagery data can aid exploration for buried
valley placers. Concentrations of magnetite, hematite, pyrite, ilmenite, chromite, garnet, zircon,
rutile and other heavy minerals can be used to indicate placer potential.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Placer concentrations in fluvial deposits are highly variable both within and
between individual deposits. In paleochannel gold placers, grades of 0.5 to 5 g/m3 Au are
typical, although grades as high as 75 g/m3 Au are reported. The values, however, do not
include overburden dilution factors which can reduce grades tenfold or more. Deposit sizes are
also highly variable, ranging from 1000 t to 10 Mt.

Economic limitations: The main economic limitation to locating, evaluating and mining paleochannel
placer deposits is the thick overburden which results in high stripping ratios. Over-consolidation
of tills and other sediments due to glaciation makes overburden stripping difficult and is a major
limitation inhibiting exploitation of these buried deposits.

Importance: Placer gold deposits account for more than two-thirds of the world's gold reserves and
about 25% of known total production in British Columbia. Buried- channel placers have been
 under developed in British Columbia and other countries because of difficulties in locating
deposits and high overburden to ore stripping ratios.

5. References

Boyle, R.W. (1979): The Geochemistry of Gold and its Deposits; Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin
280, 584 pages.
Johnston, W. A. and Uglow, W.L. (1926): Placer and Vein Gold Deposits of Barkerville, Cariboo District,
British Columbia; Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 149, 246 pages.
Kartashov, I.P. (1971): Geological Features of Alluvial Placers; Economic Geology, Volume 66, pages 879 -
885.
Levson, V.M. (1991): Geologic Controls on Alluvial Gold Mining in the Cariboo District, British Columbia,
Canada; in Alluvial Mining, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London, pages 245 - 267.
Levson, V.M. (1992): The Sedimentology of Pleistocene Deposits Associated with Placer Gold Bearing
Gravels in the Livingstone Creek Area, Yukon Territory; in Yukon Geology - Volume 3, Bremner,
T., Editor, Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Yukon Exploration and Geological Services
Division, Whitehorse, pages 99-132.
Levson, V.M. and Giles, T.R. (1993): Geology of Tertiary and Quaternary Gold-Bearing Placers in the
Cariboo Region, British Columbia; B. C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources,
Bulletin 89, 202 pages.
Levson, V.M. and Blyth, H. (1994): Applications of Quaternary Geology to the Study of Glacial Placer
Deposits; A Case Study of the Otter Creek Paleoplacer, British Columbia; Quaternary
International, Volume 20, pages 93-105.
Levson, V.M. and Morison, S.R. (in press): Geology of Placer Deposits in Glaciated Environments; in
Glacial Environments - Processes, Sediments and Landforms, Menzies, J., Editor, Pergamon
Press, Oxford, U.K., 44 pages.
Minter, W.E.L. (1991): Ancient Placer Gold Deposits; in Gold Metallogeny and Exploration, Foster, R.P.,
Editor, Blackie, pages 283-308.
Morison, S.R. (1989): Placer Deposits in Canada. in Quaternary Geology of Canada and Greenland, R.J.
Fulton, Editor, Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada, Number 1, pages 687-694.
Reger, R.D. and Bundtzen, T.K. (1990): Multiple Glaciation and Gold-placer Formation, Valdez Creek
Valley, Western Clearwater Mountains, Alaska; Alaska Department of Natural Resources,
Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys, Professional Report 107, 29 pages.
Smith, N.D. and Minter, W.E.L. (1980): Sedimentologic Controls of Gold and Uranium in Two
Witwatersrand Paleoplacers; Economic Geology, Volume 75, pages 1-14.
Shilts, W.W. and Smith, S.L. (1986): Stratigraphy of Placer Gold Deposits; Overburden Drilling in
Chaudière Valley, Quebec; Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 86-1A, pages 703-712.
C03 – Marine placers

V.M. Levson
British Columbia Geological Survey

Levson, V.M. (1995): Marine Placers, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 -
Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 29-31.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Beach, coastal or shoreline placers; offshore placer deposits; coastal dune placers (rare).

Commodities (by-products): Ti (ilmenite, rutile), Zr (zircon), Sn, Au, PGEs (locally Ag, Th, REE, monazite,
yttrium, magnetite, garnet, diamonds and other gems).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Graham Island (PGE, Au), Queen Charlotte Sound
(Au); Country Harbour (Au, Nova Scotia, Canada), Nome (Au, Alaska, USA), Bermagui (Au,
Australia), Westland and Nelson provinces (Au, New Zealand), Starke (ilmenite, Florida, USA),
Atlantic beaches ( ilmenite, zircon, Brazil), Sherbo deposit; rutile (Sierra Leone), Rosetta sand spit
(ilmenite, magnetite, zircon, Egypt), Kerala and Quilon (ilmenite, zircon, monazite, India).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Detrital gold, ilmenite, cassiterite, platinum group elements and other heavy
minerals occurring at the present or paleoseafloor surface. They usually occur in Holocene
raised or submarine beach or strandline deposits along wave-dominated shorelines, but can also
be found in coastal dunes, drowned fluvial channels, or as offshore relict lag concentrations.

Tectonic setting: Placers occur mainly along cratonic margins where reworking of clastic material has
proceeded for long periods of time. The margins of Cenozoic and Mesozoic accretionary
orogenic belts and volcanic arcs are also important settings.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Marine placers form in exposed, shoreline or nearshore

environments in areas of active winnowing by waves and long-shore or tidal currents. They
occur along present beaches and are also preserved as relict submerged deposits or raised
strandlines that formed during glacially induced, low or high sea level stands. Beach placers
accumulate mainly in the upper foreshore and backshore depositional environments. Geological
settings include sand spits, barrier islands, coastal dunes, buried marine scarps, drowned fluvial
deposits and submerged residual or lag deposits overlying bedrock or till.

Age of mineralization: Mainly Holocene (rarely Late Pleistocene) in glaciated areas; generally Tertiary or
younger in unglaciated regions.

Host rock types: Well sorted, medium to coarse-grained sands overlying fine-grained shallow marine
deposits; some lag gravel concentrations over till or bedrock.
Deposit form: Paystreaks follow strandlines in shoreline environments and are thin (often <1 m), long
(>100 m, often > 1 km) and narrow (<50 m); usually interbedded with barren sequences;
titaniferous sands are up to 20 m thick in Queen Charlotte Sound.

Texture/Structure: Au is typically very fine grained (< 0.5 mm diameter), well rounded, flattened and of
high fineness; coarser Au (~1 mm diameter) occurs in relict lag gravels.

Ore mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Native Au, ilmenite, rutile, cassiterite, PGEs, zircon,
magnetite (Ag, gemstones, garnet, monazite, various industrial minerals).

Gangue mineralogy: Quartz, pyrite and other sulphides and in many deposits subeconomic
concentrations of various heavy minerals.

Weathering: Leaching (e.g. Fe from ilmenite) and destruction of unstable minerals may result in residual
enrichment of the deposit.

Ore controls: Heavy mineral concentrations occur along stable shorelines where long- term sorting and
winnowing by wave or current action occurs; richest pay streaks usually follow strandlines
marked by beach gravels or coquina accumulations; common over clay beds, till or bedrock;
occurrence often controlled by the extent of onshore placer or bedrock sources.

Associated deposit types: Coastal placer concentrations commonly associated with present or former
fluvial or deltaic surficial placers (C01).

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Anomalous concentrations of Au, As, Fe, Sn, Ti, Zr, REE, Th, Y and U in shoreline
or nearshore sediments.

Geophysical signature: Ground penetrating radar useful for delineating the geometry, structure and
thickness of sandy shoreline deposits. Shallow seismic, electromagnetic, induced polarization,
resistivity and magnetometer surveys are locally useful (e.g. IP anomalies from ilmenite).

Other exploration guides: Panning and other methods of using gravity sorting to identify concentrations
of gold, ilmenite, zircon, rutile, magnetite or other heavy minerals.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Deposits are typically high tonnage (0.1 to 100 Mt) but low grade (e.g. 0.05-
0.25 g/t Au, 50-200 g/t Sn); higher grade deposits are small (e.g. Graham Island beach deposits
120 m long, 15 m wide and 15 cm thick [1000 t ] contain up to 20 g/t Au and 70 g/t Pt). Surface
relict gravels offshore of Nome contain 920 ppb Au. Placer concentrations are highly variable
both within and between individual deposits.

Economic limitations: The main economic limitations to mining surficial placer deposits are the typically
low grades and their location near or below the water table. Offshore placers may occur as
much as 100 m below present sea level. Environmental concerns have placed severe restrictions
on development in many areas.
Importance: Beach placers account for a significant part of the world’s Ti production (mainly from
Australia, India, Brazil and Florida) and are an important source of Au, zircon, magnetite, garnet,
monazite and diamonds.

5. References

Barker, J.C., Robinson, M.S. and Bundtzen, T.K. (1989): Marine Placer Development and Opportunities in
Alaska; Mining Engineering, volume 42, pages 551-558.
Barrie, J.V. (1990): Contemporary and Relict Titaniferous Sand Facies on the Western Canadian
Continental Shelf; Continental Shelf Research, Volume 11, pages 67-80.
Barrie, J.V. (1994): Western Canadian Marine Placer Potential. Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy
and Petroleum, Bulletin, Volume 87 (977), pages 27-30.
Barrie, J.V. Emory-Moore, M., Luternauer, J.L. and Bornhold, B.D. (1988): Origin of Modern Heavy
Mineral Deposits, Northern British Columbia Continental Shelf. Marine Geology, Volume 84,
pages 43-51.
Emory-Moore, M. (1991): Placer Gold Potential of the Northern Newfoundland Shelf; Geological Survey
of Canada, Open File 2417, 113 pages.
Hein, F.J., Syvitski, J.P.M., Dredge, L.A. and Long, B.F. (1993): Quaternary Sedimentation and Marine
Placers along the North Shore, Gulf of St. Lawrence; Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Volume
30, pages 553-574.
Laznicka, P. (1985): Empirical Metallogeny - Depositional Environments, Lithologic Associations and
Metallic Ores - Volume 1: Phanerozoic Environments, Associations and Deposits, Part A; Elsevier
Science Publishers, Developments in Economic Geology, 19, 1002 pages.
Nelson, C.H. and Hopkins, D.M. (1972): Sedimentary Processes and Distribution of Particulate Gold in
the North Bering Sea; U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper 689, 27 pages.
Examples of Placer Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

C01 North Saskatchewan River (Saskatchewan), Fraser River, Quesnel River, Graham
Nome (Alaska) Island
C02 Livingstone Creek (Yukon), Valdez Creek (Alaska) Williams Creek, Otter Creek, Bullion
mine
C03 New South Wales & Queensland (Australia) Middlebank (off north end of
Vancouver Island)
C04* Elliot Lake & Blind River (Ontario), Mulvehill
Witwatersrand (South Africa)

* Note: All BC deposit profile(s) with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s
D - Continental Sediments and Volcanics

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

D01 Open-system zeolites -- 25oa
D02 Closed-basin zeolites -- 25ob
D03 Volcanic redbed Cu Basaltic Cu 23
D04 Basal U -- --
D05* Sandstone U Roll front U, Tabular U 30c
D06 Volcanic-hosted U Epithermal U, Volcanogenic U 25f
D07 Iron oxide breccias & veins Olympic Dam type, Kiruna type 29b,25i
±P±Cu±Au±Ag±U
D01 – Open-system zeolites

R.A. Sheppard 1 and G.J. Simandl 2

1
United States Geological Survey, Federal Center, Denver, Colorado, USA
2
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

Sheppard, R.A. and Simandl, G.J. (1999): Open-system Zeolites; in Selected British Columbia Mineral
Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure,
Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, 1999-10.

1. Identification

Synonym: In the field it may be practically impossible to distinguish these deposits from burial
metamorphic zeolites.

Commodities: Clinoptilolite, mordenite, chabazite, phillipsite, heulandite.

Examples: (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/ International): Clinoptilolite, Asp Creek (092HSE164),
Bromley Vale Zeolite (092HSE166), Tailings Tephra (092HSE167), Sunday Creek (092HSE168);
clinoptilolite, John Day Formation, (Oregon, USA), clinoptilolite and mordenite, Miocene
Paintbrush Tuff, Calico Hills and Crater Flat Tuffs, Nye County (Nevada, USA), phillipsite and
chabazite, Yellow tuffs near Naples (Italy), clinoptilolite, Death Valley Junction, (California, USA).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Microcrystalline zeolites (clinoptilolite, chabazite, mordenite, phillipsite) hosted by

relatively thick, generally non-marine, tephra sequences. The ore zones are 10s to 100s of
metres thick and commonly exhibit a more or less vertical zonation of zeolites and associated
silicate minerals within the host sequence. The zeolites crystallized in the post-depositional
environment over periods ranging from thousands to millions of years.

Tectonic setting: Active or unmetamorphosed, continental, arc-related or other insular volcanic

complexes.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Non-marine and shallow marine basins in volcanic

terrains. Depositional basins may be fault bound. Many deposits form in fluviatile and lacustrine
volcanic sequences, but some are hosted by shallow marine or subaerial tuffaceous deposits.
Typical regional depositional environments contain thick sequences of vitric tuffs affected by
diagenesis or very low grade metamorphism.

Age of mineralization: Mesozoic to Holocene, but most are Cenozoic. Zeolite deposits in British Columbia
are Cretaceous or Tertiary.

Host/Associated rock types: The zeolite-bearing rocks are hosted by volcanic ash and tuff beds with
minor intercalated flows. Silicic tuffs commonly were deposited as non-welded ash flows. Other
rock types include fluviatile mudstone, sandstone, conglomerate and diatomite.
Deposit form: Stratabound, stratiform or lens-shaped, mineral zonation may cross-cut the bedding.
Thickness of the zeolitic tuffs in major deposits may range from 100's to 1000's of metres. Areal
extent is commonly 100's to 1000's of square kilometres. Minor deposits and minable portions
of above described zeolitic tuffs may be less than 30 metres in thickness.

Texture/Structure: Finely crystalline, commonly bedded, similar to bedded diatomite or bentonite. The
common local attribute is vertical zonation of authigenic silicate minerals. In silicic tuff
sequences, the alkali-rich siliceous zeolites (clinoptilolite and mordenite) in the upper part of the
deposit are commonly replaced at depth by analcime, potassium feldspar and/or albite. A
similar sequence occurs in burial diagenetic deposits.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Clinoptilolite, chabazite, mordenite, phillipsite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Authigenic smectite, mixed layer illite-smectite, opal -
(cristobalite/tridymite), quartz, plagioclase, microcline, sanidine, biotite, muscovite, calcite;
pyrogenic crystal fragments, volcanic rock fragments, unreacted vitric material.

Alteration mineralogy: Zeolitization is the ore forming process (see ore mineralogy). Early zeolite
minerals are further modified during burial diagenesis. In silicic tuff sequences, the alkali-rich
siliceous zeolites (clinoptilolite and mordenite) in the upper part of the deposit are commonly
replaced at depth by analcime, potassium feldspar and/or albite. In some cases the zonation
may be enhanced or overprinted by hydrothermal alteration related to intrusive activity.

Weathering: Zeolitic tuffs commonly resist weathering and may be ledge formers.

Ore controls: Grain size and permeability of host tuff; flow of meteoric water downward in an open
hydrologic system; hydrolysis and solution of vitric material by the subsurface water in the
upper part of the system raised the pH, activity of SiO2and content of dissolved solids to values
where zeolites crystallized. These result in a vertical or near-vertical zonation of zeolites and
other authigenic minerals. Composition of the vitric material and the characteristics of the
solutions may have dictated which zeolite species precipitated. For example, clinoptilolite and
mordenite are common in silicic tuffs, but chabazite and phillipsite are common in mafic or
trachytic tuffs. In many cases the composition of the glassy protolith is believed to determine
the mineralogy of the deposit. Trachyte to phonolite glassy protoliths with low Si/Al ratios (£
3.0) may favour the formation of phillipsite and chabazite, while a more felsic protolith may
favour formation of clinoptilolite. Chabazite forms within the systems characterized by low Na/K
ratio, whereas phillipsite dominates where the protolith has a high Na/K ratio. Conversion of
zeolite to an assemblage of alkali feldspar-quartz can occur at a later stage if the stability field of
zeolites is exceeded.

Associated deposit types: Deposits that may occur in the same geographic area include pumice (R11),
bentonite (E06), diatomaceous earth (F06), volcanic-hosted precious opal (Q11), peat (A01) and
coal (A02 and possibly A03).

Genetic models: It is nearly universally accepted that zeolite formation is linked to syn- and post-
depositional reaction of volcanic glass with relatively alkaline solutions. The zonation of the
open-system type of zeolite deposit is in many cases similar to the upper zones of burial
diagenesis (burial metamorphism) that affected thick sequences of silicic, vitric tuffs.
 Zeolitization temperatures are believed to be less than 100° C, but higher temperatures are
estimated for some of the deposits. In many cases, there is controversy as to whether the fluids
are "low temperature hydrothermal solutions", "diagenetic fluids" or "heated meteoritic
waters". The genetic process probably varies from one deposit to an other. There may be some
overlap between different fluid types in the same deposit and also in the terminology used by
individual authors.

Comments: In British Columbia, clinoptilolite is a major constituent of zeolite deposits.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: None recognized. In most cases, zeolites can be detected and positively
identified only by direct analytical techniques, such as x-ray diffraction. Lithogeochemistry may
be a useful tool.

Geophysical signature: Possible use of color-composite imagery from airborne multispectral scanner
data to distinguish zeolitic tuffs.

Other exploration guides: Very low grade or unmetamorphosed volcaniclastic sequences typically
containing large proportions of ignimbrites. Vertical zonation of zeolites and associated
authigenic silicate minerals in thick (100s to 1000s of metres) tuffaceous sequences. This vertical
zonation commonly is (from top to bottom) unaltered vitric material - smectite to clinoptilolite
to mordenite to opal-(cristobalite-tridymite) to analcime to potassium feldspar to quartz and
then to albite and quartz. This zonation may cut across bedding.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: The value of zeolite deposits varies depending on the end product use and
zeolite species present. Properties, such as cation exchange capacity for radionuclides, heavy
metals or NH+4, are more meaningful than grade. This is because these properties are
commonly different for the same zeolite species originating from two distinct deposits. The
zeolite content of better deposits currently mined is estimated to have zeolite content above 60
%, but may reach over 80%. Deposits supplying materials to control the odor to local farms may
have zeolite content well below 50%, but must be close to the market.

Economic limitations: Virtually all mines are open pit. The cost of the transportation to the market is the
most important non-technical parameter. The Si/Al ratio, cation exchange capacity and
adsorption capacity for various gases are important technical parameters. Hardness and
attrition resistance of zeolitic tuff (commonly affected by abundance of opal-cristobalite-
tridymite or quartz) are important in processing and end use. Crystal size of the zeolite is < 2m
m to 30m m and can affect the adsorption of gases and the extent and rapidity of cation
exchange. Color (due to iron staining) and the abundance of non-zeolitic minerals may limit use.
Environmental regulations vary from one jurisdiction to another. Some of the zeolite minerals
such as erionite and mordenite may be classified as asbestiform. Free silica occurs commonly in
the zeolite ores. Excessive concentrations of asbestiform particles or free silica in the ground
product may limit its marketability.
End uses: Natural zeolites are used for effluent treatment, mine waste management, pet litter, barn
deodorizers, soil conditioners, aquaculture, animal feed additive and construction materials,
including pozzolan materials. Higher-priced synthetic zeolites dominate in manufacturing, oil
industry / chemical applications and detergent industry. Natural zeolites are used in ion-
exchange and adsorption applications, for example, clinoptilolite to remove NH4+ in tertiary
sewage treatment and phillipsite to remove Cs and Sr from radioactive materials. Removal of
heavy metals from industrial and mine drainage, currently achieved by direct addition of lime or
soda, may be done in the future by zeolites. Heavy metal removal, particularly in acid mine
drainage, has potential for a growing market.

Importance: Important sources of natural clinoptilolite and mordenite. Bentonite, attapulgite and other
materials known for their high absorbency may be cost effective alternatives to zeolites for
specific ion exchange applications.

5. References

Broxton, D.E., Bish, D.L. and Waren, R.G. (1987): Distribution and Chemistry of Diagenetic Minerals at
Yucca Mountain, Nye County, Nevada; Clays and Clay Minerals, Volume 35, pages 89-110.
Colella, C. (1996): Ion Exchange Equilibria in Zeolite Minerals; Mineralium Deposita, Volume 31, pages
554-562.
de’Gennarro, M. and Langella, A. (1996): Italian Zeolitized Rocks of Technological Interest; Mineralium
Deposita, Volume 31, pages 452-472.
Ghiara, M.R., Franco, E., Luxoro, S., Gnazzo, L. (1995): Diagenetic Clinoptilolite from Pyroclastic Flows of
Northern Sardinia; in Proceedings III, Convegno Nazionale di Scienza e Tecnologia delle zeoliti,
Cetraro, Sept. 1995: De Rose Montalto, Cosenza; Editor R. Aiello, pages 349-353.
Gottardi, G. and Obradovic, J. (1978): Sedimentary Zeolites in Europe; Fortschritte der Mineralogie,
Volume 56, pages 316-366.
Hay, R.L. (1963): Stratigraphy and Zeolitic Diagenesis of the John Day Formation of Oregon; Berkley,
University of California Publications in Geological Sciences, Volume 42, pages 1999-262.
Hay, R.L., and Sheppard, R.A. (1981): Zeolites in Open Hydrologic Systems; in Mineralogy and Geology of
Natural Zeolites, F.A. Mumpton, Editor, Mineralogical Society of America Reviews in Mineralogy,
Volume 4, pages 93-102.
Holmes, D.A. (1994): Zeolites; in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 6th edition , D.D. Carr, Senior Editor,
Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., Littleton, Colorado, pages 1129-1158.
Mumpton, F.A. (1983): Commercial Utilization of Natural Zeolites; in; Industrial Minerals and Rocks, S.J.
Lefond, Chief Editor, American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers Inc.,
New York, pages 1418-1431.
Pansini, M. (1996): Natural Zeolites as Cation Exchangers for Environmental Protection; Mineralium
Deposita, Volume 31, pages 563-575.
Sheppard, R.A. (1991): Descriptive Model of Sedimentary Zeolites - Deposit Subtype: Zeolites in Tuffs of
Open Hydrologic Systems; in Some Industrial Mineral Deposit Models: Descriptive Deposit
Models, G.J. Orris and J.D. Bliss, Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report 91-11A, pages
13-15.
Sheppard, R.A. (1985): Death Valley Junction - Ash Meadows Zeolite Deposit, California and Nevada:
1985 International Clay Conference, Field Trip Guidebook, pages 51-55.
Stamatakis, M.G., Hall, A., and Hein, J.R. (1996): The Zeolite deposits of Greece; Mineralium Deposita,
Volume 31, pages 473-481.
Temel, A. and Gundogdu, M.N. (1996): Zeolite Occurrences and the Erionite-mesothelioma Relationship
in Cappadocia, Central Anatolia, Turkey; Mineralium Deposita, Volume 31, pages 539-547.
D02 – Closed-basin zeolites

R.A. Sheppard 1 and G.J. Simandl 2

1
United States Geological Survey, Federal Center, Denver, Colorado, USA
2
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

Sheppard, R.A. and Simandl, G.J. (1999): Closed-basin Zeolites; in Selected British Columbia Mineral
Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure,
Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, Open File 1999-10.

1. Identification

Synonyms: "Closed-system" zeolite deposits.

Commodities: Analcime, chabazite, clinoptilolite, erionite, mordenite, phillipsite.

Examples: (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Lake Tecopa (California, USA), Bowie
Deposit (Arizona, USA), Jersey Valley Deposit (Nevada, USA), Lake Magadi (Kenya).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Microcrystalline zeolite-bearing vitric tuff that consists chiefly of analcime,
chabazite, clinoptilolite, mordenite, phillipsite and sometimes erionite. Deposit may consist of
one or several stacked zeolite layers separated by sub-economic or barren beds.

Tectonic setting: Varied tectonic settings. Closed hydrographic basins in either block-faulted terrains
(such as the Basin and Range province), trough valleys associated with rifting (such as the
Eastern Rift Valley of Kenya) or as Tibet-type grabens formed in a compression environment
(such as Emet and Kirka basins, Turkey).

Depositional environment/Geological setting: These deposits form in lacustrine basins that receive silica-
rich, vitric, volcanic material. The saline lake water is commonly of sodium carbonate-
bicarbonate variety, with a pH of 9 or greater. These lakes are common in arid and semi-arid
regions where annual evaporation exceeds rainfall.

Age of mineralization: Late Paleozoic to Holocene; most deposits are Cenozoic.

Host/Associated rock types: Most favourable hostrocks are rhyolitic to dacitic, vitric tuffs, especially
those that are alkali-rich. Associated rocks are bedded evaporites (trona, halite, borates),
mudstone, diatomite, bedded or nodular Magadi-type chert, oil shale, conglomerates and
sandstones.

Deposit form: Stratabound; several distinct, overlying beds may be zeolitized. The thickness of the
zeolitic tuffs commonly ranges from 10 cm to 10 m. Areal extent is commonly tens to hundreds
of square kilometres.

Texture/Structure: Finely crystalline individual tuff beds show lateral zonation from unaltered glass near
the shore, to zeolites and then to potassium feldspar in the center of the paleobasin.
Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Analcime, chabazite, clinoptilolite, erionite, mordenite,
phillipsite. Several of these ore minerals commonly coexist within a given deposit.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Authigenic smectite, mixed layer illite/smectite, silica
(opal, cristobalite/tridymite), quartz, searlesite, dawsonite, potassium feldspar, ± calcite, ±
dolomite, biotite, sanidine, sodic plagioclase, hornblende, volcanic glass.

Alteration mineralogy: In certain highly alkaline and saline lacustrine deposits, siliceous and alkalic
zeolites have been replaced during late burial diagenesis by analcime or potassium feldspar in
the central part of the basin.

Weathering: Zeolitic tuffs resist weathering and are ledge formers in the lacustrine sequence. Local
yellow to brown stains related to hydrous iron oxides.

Ore controls: Chemical composition of the protolith glass and grain size and permeability of the host
vitric tuff are the key parameters. Salinity, pH, and ratios of alkali and alkaline-earth ions in the
pore water are other important factors. Zeolite deposits are not preserved in rocks where
metamorphism exceeded zeolite facies conditions.

Associated deposit types: Continental-basin bedded evaporites (trona, halite, borates), diatomite (F06),
and finely crystalline, disseminated fluorite in lacustrine rocks. Li-rich trioctahedral smectites
(hectorite, saponite and stevensite) may be closely associated with borates.

Genetic models: Microcrystalline zeolites form during early diagenesis of silicic, vitric tuffs deposited in
closed hydrographic basins. The zeolites crystallize in the post-depositional environment over
thousands to hundreds of thousands of years by reaction of the vitric material with saline,
alkaline pore water trapped during lacustrine sedimentation. Locally, zeolites also form from
detrital clays, feldspar, and feldspathoids and from chemically precipitated aluminosilicate gels
in the same depositional environment.

Comments: There are zeolite-bearing tuffs in British Columbia; however, no associated evaporite
minerals, no boron enrichment, and no lateral zonation characteristic of closed-basin zeolites
are reported.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: The lacustrine environment of sodium carbonate-bicarbonate type that is

favourable for closed basin zeolites may also be enriched in boron and lithium.

Geophysical signature: Possible use of color-composite imagery from airborne multispectral scanner
data to distinguish zeolitic alteration.

Other exploration guides: Unmetamorphosed or very low metamorphic-grade environments. Molds of

evaporitic minerals, associated dolomitic mudstone, occurrence of Magadi-type chert.
Concentric zonation and lateral gradation in a basinward direction of unaltered volcanic glass to
alkali-rich, silicic zeolites to analcime and then to potassium feldspar in the central part of the
depositional basin. Zeolites are finely crystalline and resemble bedded diatomite, feldspar or
 bentonite in outcrop. Combination of X-Ray diffraction and ammonia cation exchange capacity
(CEC) are essential in the early screening of zeolite prospects.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: The cutoff grade varies greatly. For example, a 10 to 20 centimetre thick ore
bed at Bowie contains 60 to 80% chabasite. Obviously, this zone would not have been economic
if the main ore mineral was clinoptilolite. Most of the commercial clinoptilolite deposits contain
between 50% and 90% zeolite.

Economic limitations: Distance to the market is an important limitation for materials used in agricultural
and construction applications. High-value specialty zeolites are international travelers.
Production is typically from open pits with as much as 30 m of overburden. Mining costs
reported by Holmes (1994) vary from US$ 3 to 6 per ton. Ground natural zeolites are selling for
US$30 to 120 for low-value industrial use, but small tonnages of specialty products for the
radioactive waste market can sell for more than $US 1000.00 per ton. Environmental regulations
vary from one jurisdiction to an other. Some of the zeolite minerals, such as erionite and
mordenite, may be classified as asbestiform, a designation that reduces the market for the
product. Free silica occurs commonly in the zeolite ores. Excessive concentrations of free silica
or fibrous particles in the ground product may severely limit its marketability.

End uses: Zeolites have many agricultural uses, for example as preservative agents (desiccants), soil
conditioners, fertilizer extenders, herbicides, pesticide and fungicide carriers, animal food
additives and odor controllers. They are used in aquaculture for ammonia removal. Other uses
are as dimension stone, light weight aggregate, pozzolan and for treatment processes, such as
natural gas purification, nuclear waste treatment and disposal, and oil spill, sewage and effluent
cleanup. Chabazite and clinoptilolite are used in heat exchange systems. Most of the non-
construction uses are based on the ion-exchange and adsorption properties of zeolites. Cation
exchange capacity and adsorption capacity for various gases are important. For example,
chabazite is used to remove CO2 and H2S from sour natural gas while clinoptilolite can remove
NH4+ in tertiary sewage treatment and in pet-litter and base metals from effluents. The Si/Al
ratio and exchangeable cation ratios of the zeolites affect certain uses. Crystallite size of the
zeolite is < 2 m m to 30 m m and can affect the adsorption of gases and the extent and rapidity
of cation exchange.

Importance: This deposit type contains the largest variety of zeolite species and it is an important source
of chabazite, erionite, and phillipsite. Naturally occuring zeolites are substantially less expensive
than synthetic zeolites; however, the latter are preferred in many applications because they are
monomineralic, have less variability in product properties, or have useful properties that can not
be matched by natural products. Bentonite, attapulgite, activated carbon, silica gel are viable
substitutes for zeolite in a number of applications.

5. References

Colella, C. (1996): Ion Exchange Equilibria in Zeolite Minerals; Mineralium Deposita, Volume 31, pages
554-562.
Gündogdu, M.N., Yalçin, H., Temel, A. and Claue, N. (1996): Geological, Mineralogical and Geochemical
Characteristics of Zeolite Deposits Associated with Borates in the Bigadiç, Emet and Kirka
Neogene Lacustrine Basins, Western Turkey; Mineralium Deposita, Volume 31, pages 492-513.
Gottardi, G. and Obradovic, J. (1978): Sedimentary Zeolites in Europe; Fortschritte der Mineralogie,
Volume 56, pages 316-366.
Holmes, D.A. (1994): Zeolites; in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 6th edition , D.D. Carr, Senior Editor,
Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., Littleton, Colorado, pages 1129-1158.
Ibrahim, K. and Hall, A. (1996): The Authigenic Zeolites of the Aritayn Volcanic Formation, Northeast
Jordan; Mineralium Deposita, Volume 31, pages 514-522.
Mumpton, F.A. (1983): Commercial Utilization of Natural Zeolites; in; Industrial Minerals and Rocks, S.J.
Lefond, Chief Editor, American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers Inc.,
New York, pages 1418-1431.
Pansini, M. (1996): Natural Zeolites as Cation Exchangers for Environmental Protection; Mineralium
Deposita, Volume 31, pages 563-575.
Sheppard, R.A. (1991): Zeolitic Diagenesis of Tuffs in the Miocene Chalk Hills Formation, Western Snake
River Plain, Idaho; U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper 1963, 27 pages.
Sheppard, R.A. (1982): Model for Zeolites in Alkaline-Lake Deposits; Characteristics of Mineral Deposit
Occurrences, compiled by R.L. Erickson, U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report 82-795, pages
241-243.
Sheppard, R.A. and Gude, A.J., 3rd (1968): Distribution and Genesis of Authigenic Silicate Minerals in
Tuffs of Pleistocene Lake Tecopa, Inyo Country, California; U.S. Geological Survey, Professional
Paper 547, 38 pages.
Sheppard, R.A. and Gude, A.J., 3rd (1973): Zeolites and associated Authigenic Silicate Minerals in
Tuffaceous Rocks of the Big Sandy Formation, Mohave County, Arizona; US. Geological Survey,
Professional Paper 830, 36 pages.
Surdam, R.C. and Sheppard, R.A. (1978): Zeolites in Saline, Alkaline-Lake Deposits; in: Natural Zeolites:
Occurrences, Properties, Use, L.B. Sand and F.A. Mumpton, Editors, Pergamon Press, New York,
pages 145-174.
Temel, A. and Gundogdu, M.N. (1996): Zeolite Occurrences and the Erionite-mesothelioma Relationship
in Cappadocia, Central Anatolia, Turkey; Mineralium Deposita, Volume 31, pages 539-547.
D03 – Volcanic redbed Cu

D.V. Lefebure and B.N. Church

British Columbia Geological Survey

Lefebure, D.V. and Church, B.N. (1996): Volcanic Redbed Cu, in Selected British Columbia Mineral
Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T, Editors, British
Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 5-7.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Basaltic Cu, volcanic-hosted copper, copper mantos.

Commodities (by-products): Cu (Ag)

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Sustut Copper (094D 063), Shamrock (092HNE092),
NH (093L 082), North Star (094D 032); White River (Yukon, Canada), 47 Zone and June,
Coppermine River area (Northwest Territories, Canada) Mountain Grill and Radovan (Alaska,
USA), Calumet-Hecla and Kearsarga, Keweenaw Peninsula (Michigan, USA), Mantos Blancos,
Ivan and Altamira (Chile).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Chalcocite, bornite and/or native copper occur in mafic to felsic volcanic flows, tuff
and breccia and related sedimentary rocks as disseminations, veins and infilling amygdules,
fractures and flowtop breccias. Some deposits are tabular, stratabound zones, while others are
controlled by structures and crosscut stratigraphy.

Tectonic setting: These deposits occur in intracontinental rifts with subaerial flood basalt sequences and
near plate margins with island-arc and continental-arc volcanics.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Continental to shallow-marine volcanic settings which

formed in “low to intermediate latitudes” with arid to semi-arid environments. The
metamorphic grade is sub-greenschist.

Age of mineralization: Proterozoic to Tertiary.

Host/Associated rock types: Amygdaloidal basaltic lavas, breccias and coarse volcaniclastic beds with
associated volcanic tuffs, siltstone, sandstone and conglomerate are the most common rock
types. The volcanics may cover the spectrum from basalt to rhyolite composition. Redbed
sedimentary rocks are common and often exhibit shallow water sedimentary structures (small-
scale crossbedding, mud cracks, algal mats). Any of these units may host the deposits, although
typically it is the mafic volcanics that have widespread elevated background values of copper
due to the presence of native copper or chalcocite in amygdules, flow breccias or minor
fractures.

Deposit form: Many deposits are tabular lenses from a few to several tens of metres thick which are
roughly concordant with the host strata over several hundred metres. Other deposits are
 strongly influenced by structural controls and crosscut the stratigraphy as veins, veinlets, fault
breccias and disseminated zones.

Texture/Structure: Disseminations, open-space fillings, veins and some replacement textures. Open
spaces may be amygdules, cavities in flowtop breccias or fractures. Mineralization is commonly
fine-grained, although spectacular examples of copper “nuggets” are known.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Chalcocite, bornite, native copper, digenite, djurleite,
chalcopyrite, covellite, native silver and greenockite. Iron sulphides, including pyrite, typically
peripheral to the ore. Some deposits are zoned from chalcocite through bornite and chalcopyite
to fringing pyrite. Copper-arsenic minerals, such as domeykite, algodonite and whitneyite, occur
in fissure veins in the Keewenaw Peninsula.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Typically minor gangue; hematite, magnetite, calcite,
quartz, epidote, chlorite and zeolite minerals.

Alteration mineralogy: Generally no associated alteration, although many deposits occur in prehnite-
pumpellyite grade regionally metamorphosed volcanic rocks with minerals such as calcite,
zeolites, epidote, albite, prehnite, pumpellyite, laumontite and chlorite.

Weathering: These deposits commonly have no associated gossans or alteration; locally minor malachite
or azurite staining.

Ore controls: Deposits appear to be confined to subaerial to shallow-marine volcanic sequences

commonly with intercalated redbeds. One of the major ore controls is zones of high
permeability due to volcaniclastics, breccias, amygdules and fractures.

Associated deposit types: Sediment-hosted copper deposits (E04) often occur in the same stratigraphic
sequences. The carbonate-hosted copper deposits at Kennicott, Alaska are associated with
basaltic Cu deposits in the Nikolai greenstone.

Genetic models: Most authors have favoured metamorphism of copper-rich, mafic volcanic rocks at
greater depth for the source of the metal-bearing fluids, and subsequent deposition higher in
the stratigraphic sequence, in oxidized subaerial hostrocks at lower metamorphic grade. More
recently analogies have been drawn to diagenetic models for sediment-hosted Cu deposits
which predate the metamorphism. Low-temperature fluids migrating updip along permeable
strata to the margins of basins, or along structures, deposit copper upon encountering oxidized
rocks. These rocks are typically shallow-marine to subaerial volcanic rocks which formed in arid
and semi-arid environments. Both models require oxidized rocks as traps, which requires the
presence of an oxygen-rich atmosphere; therefore, all deposits must be younger than ~2.4 Ga.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Simple ore mineralogy produces a very specific geochemical signature for Cu
and usually Ag. Lithogeochemical and stream sediment samples may return high values of
CuñAg, typically high Cu/Zn ratios and low gold values.
Geophysical signature: Induced polarization surveys can be used to delineate mineralized lenses and
areas of more intense veining.

Other exploration guides: Malachite-staining. A red liverwort-like organism (Tentopholia iolithus) is

often found in abundance on the surface of outcrops with copper mineralization in northern
British Columbia.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: The deposits range in size from hundreds of thousands to hundreds of
millions of tonnes grading from less than 1% Cu to more than 4% Cu. Silver values are only
reported for some deposits and vary between 6 and 80 g/t Ag. Sustut contains 43.5 Mt grading
0.82% Cu. The Calumet conglomerate produced 72.4 Mt grading 2.64% Cu.

Economic limitations: Only a few deposits have been high enough grade to support underground mines
and the majority of occurrences are too small to be economic as open pit operations.

Importance: The Keweenaw Peninsula deposits in Michigan produced 5 Mt of copper between 1845 and
1968. Otherwise production from basaltic copper deposits has been limited; the only currently
operating mines producing significant copper are in Chile. However, there are numerous
deposits of this type in British Columbia which underlines the potential to find significant copper
producers.

5. References

Butler, B.S. and Burbank, W.S. (1929): The Copper Deposits of Michigan; U.S.Geological Survey,
Professional Paper 144, 238 pages.
Cox, D.P. (1986): Descriptive Model of Basaltic Cu; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A.,
Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, page 130.
Kindle, E.D. (1972): Classification and Description of Copper Deposits, Coppermine River; Geological
Survey of Canada, Bulletin 214, 109 pages.
Kirkham, R.K. (1984): Volcanic Redbed Copper; in Canadian Mineral Deposit Types, A Geological
Synopsis, Eckstrand, O.R., Editor, Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report 36,
page 37.
Kirkham, R.K. (in press): Volcanic Redbed Copper; in Geology of Canadian Mineral Deposit Types,
Eckstrand, O.R., Sinclair, W.D. and Thorpe, R.I., Editors, Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of
Canada, Number 8, pages 243-254.
Lortie, R.H. and Clark, A.H. (1987): Strata-bound Cupriferous Sulphide Mineralization associated with
Continental Rhyolitic Volcanic Rocks, Northern Chile: I. The Jardin Silver Copper-Silver Deposit;
Economic Geology, Volume 82, pages 546-570.
Sato, T. (1984): Manto Type Copper Deposits in Chile; Bulletin of the Geological Society of Japan, Volume
35, pages 565-582.
Sood, M.K., Wagner, R.J. and Markazi, H.D. (1986): Stratabound Copper Deposits in East South-central
Alaska: Their Characteristics and Origin; in Geology and Metallogeny of Copper Deposits,
Friedrich, G.H. et al., Editors, Springer- Verlag, Berlin, pages 422-442.
White, W.S. (1968): The Native-Copper Deposits of Northern Michigan; in Ore Deposits of the United
States, 1933-1967; The Graton-Sales Voume, Ridge, J.D., Editor, American Institute of Mining,
Metallurgy and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., New York, pages 303-325.
Wilton, D.H.C. and Sinclair, A.J. (1988): The Geology and Genesis of a Strata-bound Disseminated Copper
Deposit at Sustut, British Columbia, Economic Geology, Volume 83, pages 30-45.
D07 – Iron oxide breccias and veins P-Cu-Au-Ag-U

D.V. Lefebure
British Columbia Geological Survey

Lefebure, D.V. (1995): Iron Oxide Breccias and Veins P-Cu-Au-Ag-U, in Selected British Columbia Mineral
Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British
Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 33-36.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Olympic Dam type, Kiruna type, apatite iron ore, porphyrite iron (Yangtze Valley), iron oxide
rich deposits, Proterozoic iron oxide (Cu-U-Au-REE), volcanic-hosted magnetite.

Commodities (by-products): Fe, P, Cu, Au, Ag, U (potential for REE, Ba, F).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Iron Range (082FSE014; 082FSE015; 082FSE016;

082FSE017; 082FSE018; 082FSE019; 082FSE020; 082FSE021; 082FSE022; 082FSE023;
082FSE024; 082FSE025; 082FSE026; 082FSE027; 082FSE028); Sue-Dianne (Northwest Territories,
Canada); Wernecke breccias (Yukon, Canada), Kiruna district(Sweden), Olympic Dam (Australia),
Pea Ridge and Boss-Bixby (Missouri, USA), El Romeral (Chile).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Magnetite and/or hematite breccia zones and veins which form pipes and tabular
bodies hosted by continental volcanics and sediments and intrusive rocks. The deposits exhibit a
wide range in their nonferrous metal contents. They vary from Kiruna type monometallic (Fe ±
P) to Olympic Dam type polymetallic (Fe ± Cu ± U ± Au ± REE).

Tectonic setting: Associated with stable cratons, typically associated with grabens related to rifting.
Intracratonic extensional tectonics coeval with hostrock deposition. Upper crustal igneous or
sedimentary rocks.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Found crosscutting a wide variety of sedimentary and

igneous rocks; magnetite-apatite deposits show an affinity for volcanics and associated
hypabyssal rocks.

Age of mineralization: Proterozoic to Tertiary and believed to be virtually contemporaneous with

associated suite of intrusive and/or volcanic rocks. Polymetallic Fe oxide deposits are commonly
mid-Proterozoic age varying from 1.2 to 1.9 Ga.

Host/Associated rock types: Veins and breccias crosscut, or are conformable with, a wide variety of
continental sedimentary and volcanic rocks and intrusive stocks, including felsic volcanic breccia,
tuff, clastic sedimentary rocks and granites. There may be a special association with a felsic
alkalic rock suite ranging from “red” granite, and rapakivi granite to mangerite and charnockite
and various volcanic equivalents. Fe oxides have been reported as common accessories in the
associated igneous rocks. In some deposits the Fe oxide forms the matrix to heterolithic breccias
which are composed of lithic and oxide clasts (usually hematite fragments), hematite-quartz
 microbreccia and fine-grained massive breccia. Some deposits have associated hematite-rich
breccias, bedded Fe oxides and Fe oxide-bearing volcanic rocks which are conformable with
associated volcanic rocks. Magnetite lavas and feeder dikes exist on the El Laco volcano in Chile.
Deposit form: Discordant pod-like zones, veins (dike-like), tabular bodies and stockworks; in some
deposits dikes are overlain by Fe oxide tuffs and flows. The veins and tabular zones extend
horizontally and vertically for kilometres with widths of metres to hundreds of metres.

Texture/Structure: Cu-U-Au mineralization is typically hosted in the Fe oxide matrix as disseminations

with associated microveinlets and sometimes rare mineralized clasts. Textures indicating
replacement and microcavity filling are common. Intergrowths between minerals are common.
Hematite and magnetite may display well developed crystal forms, such as interlocking mosaic,
tabular or bladed textures. Some of the deposits (typically hematite rich) are characterized by
breccias at all scales with Fe oxide and hostrock fragments which grade from weakly fractured
hostrock on the outside to matrix-supported breccia (sometimes heterolithic) with zones of
100% Fe oxide in the core. Breccias may be subtle in hand sample as the same Fe oxide phase
may comprise both the fragments and matrix. Breccia fragments are generally angular and have
been reported to range up to more than 10 m in size, although they arefrequently measured in
centimetres. Contacts with hostrocks are frequently gradational over scale of centimetres to
metres. Hematite breccias may display a diffuse wavy to streaky layered texture of red and black
hematite.

Ore mineralogy (principal and subordinate): The deposits vary between magnetite-apatite deposits with
actinolite or pyroxene (Kiruna type) and hematite-magnetite deposits with varying amounts of
Cu sulphides, Au, Ag, uranium minerals and REE (Olympic Dam type). Hematite (variety of
forms), specularite, magnetite, bornite, chalcopyrite, chalcocite, pyrite; digenite, covellite,
native copper, carrolite, cobaltite, Cu-Ni-Co arsenates, pitchblende, coffinite, brannerite,
bastnaesite, monazite, xenotime, florencite, native silver and gold and silver tellurides. At
Olympic Dam, Cu is zoned from a predominantly hematite core (minor chalcocite-bornite) to
chalcocite-bornite zone then bornite-chalcopyrite to chalcopyrite-pyrite in the outermost
breccia. Uraninite and coffinite occur as fine-grained disseminations with sulphides; native gold
forms fine grains disseminated in matrix and inclusions in sulphides. Bastnaesite and florencite
are very fine grained and occur in matrix as grains, crystals and crystal aggregates.

Gangue mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Gangue occurs intergrown with ore minerals, as veins or
as clasts in breccias. Sericite, carbonate, chlorite, quartz, fluorite, barite, and sometimes minor
rutile and epidote. Apatite and actinolite or pyroxene with magnetite ores (Kiruna type).
Hematite breccias are frequently cut by 1 to 10 cm veins with fluorite, barite, siderite, hematite
and sulphides.

Alteration mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): A variety of alteration assemblages with differing
levels of intensity are associated with these deposits, often with broad lateral extent. Olympic
Dam type: Intense sericite and hematite alteration with increasing hematite towards the centre
of the breccia bodies at higher levels. Close to the deposit the sericitized feldspars are rimmed
by hematite and cut by hematite veinlets. Adjacent to hematite breccias the feldspar, rock flour
and sericite are totally replaced by hematite. Chlorite or k-feldspar alteration predominates at
depth. Kiruna type: Scapolite and albite?; there may also be actinolite-epidote alteration in
mafic wallrocks. With both types of deposits quartz, fluorite, barite, carbonate, rutile, orthoclase
± epidote and garnet alteration are also reported.
Weathering: Supergene enrichment of Cu and U, for example, the pitchblende veins in the Great Bear
magmatic zone.

Ore controls: Strong structural control with emplacement along faults or contacts, particularly narrow
grabens. Mid-Proterozoic rocks particularly favourable hosts. Hydrothermal activity on faults
with extensive brecciation. May be associated with felsic volcanic and alkalic igneous rocks. In
some deposits calderas and maars have been identified or postulated. Deposits may form linear
arrays more than 100 km long and 40 km wide with known deposits spaced 10-30 km along
trend.

Associated deposit types: Volcanic-hosted U (D06); alkaline porphyry Cu-Au deposits (L03); supergene
uranium veins.

Comments: Hitzman et al. (1992) emphasize that these are low-Ti iron deposits, generally less than 0.5%
TiO2 and rarely above 2% TiO2 which allows distinction from Fe oxides associated with
anorthosites, gabbros and layered mafic intrusions. Fe and Cu sulphides may be more common
with hematite Fe oxides.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Anomalously high values for Cu, U, Au, Ag, Ce, La, Co, ± P, ± F, and ± Ba in
associated rocks and in stream sediments.

Geophysical signature: Large positive gravity anomalies because of Fe oxides. Regional aeromagnetic
anomalies related to magnetite and/or coeval igneous rocks. Radiometric anomaly (such as
airborne gamma-ray spectrometer survey) expected with polymetallic deposits containing
uranium.

Other exploration guides: Proterozoic faulting with associated Fe oxides (particularly breccias), possibly
related to intracratonic rifting. Widespread hematite, sericite or chlorite alteration related to
faults. Possibly form linear arrays 100 or more kilometres long and up to tens of kilometres
wide.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Deposits may exceed 1000 Mt grading greater than 20 % Fe and frequently
are in 100 to 500 Mt range. Olympic Dam deposit has estimated reserves of 2000 Mt grading
1.6% Cu, 0.06% U3O8, 3.5 g/t Ag and 0.6 g/t Au with a measured and indicated resource in a
large number of different ore zones of 450 Mt grading 2.5% Cu, 0.08 % U3O8, 6 g/t Ag and 0.6
g/t Au with ~5,000 g/t REE. The Ernest Henry deposit in Australia contains 100 Mt at 1.6% Cu
and 0.8 g/t Au. Sue-Dianne deposit in the Northwest Territories contains 8 Mt averaging 0.8% Cu
and 1000 g/t U and locally significant gold. The Kiruna district contains more than 3000 Mt of Fe
oxide apatite ore grading 50-60% Fe and 0.5 -5 % P. The largest orebody at Bayan Obo deposit in
Inner Mongolia, China contains 20 Mt of 35 % Fe and 6.19% REE.

Economic limitations: Larger Fe oxide deposits may be mined for Fe only; however, polymetallic deposits
are more attractive.
Importance: These deposits continue to be significant producers of Fe and represent an important
deposit type for producing Cu, U and possibly REE.

5. References

Acknowledgements: This deposit profile represents the results of a literature review. The only “ground
truthing” is thanks to instructive conversations with Sunil Gandhi of the Geological Survey of
Canada and Tom Setterfield of Westminer Canada Ltd.

Cox, D.P. (1986): Descriptive Model of Olympic Dam Cu-U-Au; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and
Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, 379 pages.
Einaudi, M.T. and Oreskes, N. (1990): Progress Toward an Occurrence Model for Proterozoic Iron Oxide
Deposits - A Comparison Between the Ore Provinces of South Australia and Southeast Missouri;
in The Midcontinent of the United States - Permissive Terrane for an Olympic Dam
Deposit?,Pratt, W.P. and Sims, P.K. Editors, U. S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1392, pages 589-69.
Gandhi, S.S. (1994): Geological Setting and Genetic Aspects of Mineral Occurrences in the Southern
Great Bear Magmatic Zone, Northwest Territories; in Studies of Rare- metal Deposits in the
Northwest Territories, Sinclair, W.D. and Richardson, D.G, Editors, Geological Survey of Canada,
Bulletin 475, pages 63-96.
Gandhi, S.S. and Bell, R.T. (1993): Metallogenetic Concepts to Aid in Exploration for the Giant Olympic
Dam Type Deposits and their Derivatives; Proceedings of the Eighth Quadrennial IAGOD
Symposium, in Ottawa, Ontario, August 12-18, 1990, International Asssociation on the Genesis
of Ore Deposits, Maurice, Y.T., Editor, Schweizerbar’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stutggart, pages
787-802.
Hauck, S.A. (1990): Petrogenesis and Tectonic Setting of Middle Proterozoic Iron Oxide- rich Ore
Deposits; An Ore Deposit Model for Olympic Dam Type Mineralization; in The Midcontinent of
the United States - Permissive Terrane for an Olympic Dam Deposit?, Pratt, W.P. and Sims, P.K.
Editors, U. S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1932, pages 4-39.
Hildebrand, R.S. (1986): Kiruna-type Deposits: Their Origin and Relationship to Intermediate Subvolcanic
Plutons in the Great Bear Magmatic Zone, Northwest Canada; Economic Geology, Volume 81,
pages 640-659.
Hitzman, M. W., Oreskes, N. and Einaudi, M. T. (1992): Geological Characteristics and Tectonic Setting of
Proterozoic Iron Oxide (Cu-U-Au-REE) Deposits; Precambrian Research, Volume 58, pages 241-
287.
Laznicka, P. and Gaboury, D. (1988): Wernecke Breccias and Fe, Cu, U Mineralization: Quartet Mountain-
Igor Area (NTS 106E); in Yukon Exploration and Geology, Exploration and Geological Services
Division, Yukon, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, pages 42-50.
Oreskes, N. and Einaudi, M.T. (1990): Origin of Rare Earth-enriched Hematite Breccias at the Olympic
Dam Deposit, Roxby Downs, South Australia; Economic Geology, Volume 85, pages 1-28.
Parak, T. (1975): Kiruna Iron Ores are not “Intrusive-magmatic Ores of the Kiruna Type”; Economic
Geology, Volume 68, pages 210 -221.
Reeve, J.S., Cross, K.C., Smith, R.N. and Oreskes, N. (1990): Olympic Dam Copper- Uranium-Gold- Silver
Deposit; in Geology of the Mineral Deposits of Australia and Papua New Guinea, Hughes, F.E.,
Editor, The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, pages 1009-1035.
Research Group of Porphyrite Iron Ore of the Middle-Lower Yangtze Valley (1977): Porphyrite Iron Ore -
A Genetic Model of a Group of Iron Ore Deposits in Andesitic Volcanic Area; Acta Geological
Sinica, Volume 51, No. 1, pages 1-18.
Roberts, D.E. and Hudson, G.R.T. (1983): The Olympic Dam Copper-Uranium-Gold Deposit, Roxby
Downs, South Australia; Economic Geology, Volume 78, pages 799-822.
Examples of Continental and Volcanic Deposits
BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples
D01 Ash Meadows (California), John Day Formation (Oregon) Princeton Basin, Cache
Creek area
D02 Bowie (Arizona), Lake Magadi (Kenya)
D03 Keewenaw (Michigan), Coppermine (Northwest Territories) Sustut Copper, Shamrock,
NH
D04 Sherwood (Washington) Blizzard, Tyee
D05* Colorado Plateau, Grants (New Mexico) --
D06 Marysvale (Utah), Aurora (Oregon) Rexspar, Bullion (Birch
Island)
D07 El Romeral (Chile), Sue-Dianne (Northwest Territories) Iron Range

* Note: All BC deposit profile(s) with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s.
E - Sediment-Hosted

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

E01* Almaden Hg Carbonate-hosted Au-Ag 27b
E02 Carbonate-hosted Cu-Pb-Zn Kipushi Cu-Pb-Zn 32c
E03 Carbonate-hosted disseminated Carlin-type Au, Sediment- 26a,19c
Au-Ag hosted micron Au
E04 Sediment-hosted Cu Sediment-hosted stratiform Cu 30b
E05 Sandstone Pb -- 30a
E06 Bentonite Volcanic clay, Soap clay 28e?*
E07 Sedimentary kaolin Secondary kaolin 31k*
E08 Carbonate-hosted talc Dolomite-hosted talc 18?i*
E09 Sparry magnesite Veitsch-type, carbonate-hosted 18i*
magnesite
E10 Carbonate-hosted barite Mississippi Valley-type barite --
E11 Carbonate-hosted fluorspar Mississippi Valley-type fluorite 32d*
E12 Mississippi Valley-type Pb-Zn Carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn, 32a/32b
Appalachian Zn
E13 Irish-type carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb Kootenay Arc-type Zn-Pb, --
Remac-type
E14 Sedimentary exhalative Zn-Pb-Ag Sedex, Sediment-hosted 31a
massive sulphide
E15 Blackbird sediment-hosted Cu-Co Sediment-hosted Cu-Co 24d
massive sulphide
E16 Shale-hosted Ni-Zn-Mo-PGE Sediment-hosted Ni --
E17 Sediment-hosted barite Bedded barite 31b
E18 Carbonate-hosted, Nonsulphide Zn Hypogene --
E02 – Carbonate Hosted Cu±Pb±Zn

E.A.G. (Ted) Trueman

Trueman Consulting Ltd.

Trueman, E.A.G. (1998): Carbonate Hosted Cu±Pb±Zn, in Geological Fieldwork 1997, British Columbia
Ministry of Employment and Investment, Paper 1998-1, pages 24B-1 to 24B-4.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Tsumeb or Kipushi type.

Commodities (by-products): Cu, Pb, Zn, Ge (Ag, Ga, As, Cd).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Blue (MINFILE 094F 005); Grinnell and Kanuyak
Island (Northwest Territories, Canada), Kennecott, Ruby Creek and Omar (Alaska, USA), Apex
(Utah, USA), Gortdrum (Ireland), Tsumeb and Kombat (Namibia), Kipushi (Zaire), M'Passa
(Congo), Timna (Israel), Nifty (Australia), and portions of Dongchuan deposits (China).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Irregular, discordant bodies of Cu sulphides (bornite, chalcopyrite, chalcocite,

tennantite), sometimes with significant galena and sphalerite, form massive pods,
breccia/fracture fillings and stockworks in carbonate or calcareous sediments. Igneous rocks are
absent or unrelated to the deposition of metals.

Tectonic setting: Intracratonic platform and rifted continental margin sedimentary sequences; typically
gently folded and locally faulted.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Host carbonate sediments were deposited in shallow

marine, inter-tidal, sabkha, lagoonal or lacustrine environments and are often overlain
disconformably by oxidized sandstone-siltstone-shale units. Largest deposits are within thick
sedimentary sequences.

Age of mineralization: Hosts rocks are Middle Proterozoic to Triassic; the largest deposits are in Upper
Proterozoic rocks. Mineralization is at least slightly younger than host lithologies and may have
spanned a large time interval.

Host / Associated rock types: Dolomite or limestone, often stromatolitic or arenaceous, hosts the
mineralization within a sequence which typically includes fine to coarse grained clastic
sediments and evaporite. Occasionally basalt flows are nearby or part of sequence. Intrusive
rocks are absent or different age than mineralization.

Deposit form: The pipe-like to tabular deposits are irregular, discordant and often elongated in one
direction up to 2 000 m or more. In cross section, deposits can be up to 100 by 200 m or 60 by
500 m in size. Sometimes Zn-Pb rich mantos project from the main zone of mineralization as
replacement bodies parallel to bedding.
Texture/Structure: Massive, stringer/stockwork and disseminated mineralization styles occur and grade
into one another; clots of sulphides are common. Features characteristic of a karst environment,
including collapse breccias, are typical. Two or more breccia types may be present as a result of
karst dissolution and hydrothermal fracturing. Open spaces within deposits are common.
Narrow bodies or irregular masses of arenaceous sediment may occur within deposit. These
clastics may have developed as a result of dissolution of an arenaceous carbonate host, with
accumulation of clastic lag sediments, or by clastic sedimentation into karst openings as a result
of submergence.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, tennantite (tetrahedrite),
galena, sphalerite, pyrite, enargite, renierite, germanite, arsenopyrite, marcasite, magnetite,
gallite, Co-Ni arsenides, carrollite, molybdenite and others. Deposits contain low to moderate
Fe; pyrite may be common or virtually absent. Cu is sometimes crudely zoned vertically in
deposits relative to Fe with the Cu-rich phases closer to surface. Cu may also be spatially
partitioned with respect to Pb-Zn.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Dolomite, quartz, calcite, barite, fluorite, clay minerals,
sericite, hematite, siderite and minor pyrobitumen.

Alteration mineralogy: Dolomite, silica, calcite and argillic alteration. Deposits are usually coincident
with a zone of dolomitization. Dolomitization may be pre-, syn- and/or post-mineralization, and
may extend 100's of metres beyond mineralization. Vuggy openings are often lined with calcite
or baroque dolomite.

Weathering: Wide variety of secondary products form especially limonite, goethite, Cu minerals
(malachite, azurite, dioptase), cerussite and smithsonite. Some deposits are deeply oxidized
(Kennecott, Tsumeb, Apex) as a result of fluid circulation through/along solution cavities,
faults/fractures and bedding planes. Oxidation is typically developed at surface but there may
also be an oxidized profile at considerable depth (>1,000m) as a result of
continuation/reactivation of fluid flow along bedding planes aquifers.

Ore controls: The openings in carbonate rocks are created by brecciation, karsting, faulting, and/or
alteration. Deposits form in proximity to a redox boundary between reduced carbonates and
oxidized clastic sediments or ocassionally oxidized basalt. Evaporites in the sedimentary
sequences may have enhanced brine salinity and contributed sulphur.

Genetic model: Pre-mineralization plumbing systems were created by karsting, collapse zones,
faulting/fracturing, collapse related to evaporite removal, and/or bedding plane aquifers and
were enhanced by volume reduction during dolomitization, ongoing carbonate dissolution and
hydrothermal alteration. Oxidized, diagenetic fluids scavenged metals from clastic sediments
and their source area, with deposition in open spaces in reduced carbonates, often immediately
below an unconformity. In a few examples, nearby basalts could have provided Cu. Fluid
inclusion data indicate mineralizing solutions were saline and generally low temperature, in the
100-240 oC range. Mineralization may have been initiated soon after host sediments became
indurated and was likely a prolonged event, possibly continuing intermittently over 100's of
millions of years in larger deposits. Deposits are basically formed through diagenetic processes
and are an integral part of basin evolution. In some deposits, different fluids could have
 prevailed within oxidized and reduced strata leading to different metal sources - this could
explain why only some deposits have a significant Zn-Pb-Ge component.

Associated deposit types: Genetic processes which form carbonate-hosted CuPbZn may be analogous to
stratiform Cu (E04), carbonate hosted Zn-Pb (E12), unconformity U (I16) and sandstone U (D05)
deposit types. Carbonate hosted CuPbZn deposits have many similarities with carbonate hosted
Zn-Pb deposits (E12), and are possibly a link between these deposits and stratiform Cu (E04).

Comments: Deposits often occur in the same basin as stratiform Cu or carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb deposits.
Other possible candidates for this type include: Mount Isa Cu, Kilgour, Yah Yah and Cooley
(Australia), Nite and Ellesmere (Northwest Territories, Canada), Lord Aylmer and Acton Vale
(Quebec, Canada).

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Dominantly elevated Cu but Zn, Pb, As, Ag and Ge are key indicators in rock
samples; subtle Cu-stream silt geochemical anomalies occur in proximity to some deposits.
Other elements which may be useful pathfinders are Co, Ga, Bi, Cd, V, Mo and Ba.

Geophysical signature: Resistivity, IP and gravity could be useful but there are no definitive tools.

Other exploration guides: Tectonically disturbed zones and karsted areas within carbonate/oxidized
clastic couplets of major basins are regional targets. Dolomitized zones should be carefully
examined. Deposits often occur in clusters and/or in proximity to associated deposit types.
Deposits oxidize readily forming gossans with secondary Cu and Fe minerals; many other
secondary products and malachite-coated nuggets of copper sulphides may be present. Thermal
maturation anomalies and clay mineral zoning, as applied to carbonate hosted Zn-Pb and
unconformity uranium deposits, may be useful tools.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Tsumeb produced ~30 million tonnes at 4.0% Cu, 9.0% Pb and 3.2% Zn.
Production plus reserves at Kipushi are believed to be about 70 million tonnes at 4.8% Cu, 8.8%
Zn and 0.5% Pb. Kennecott production was 4.4 million tonnes at 12.4% Cu and 95 g/t Ag. These
three deposits are the most significant producers and also reflect the highest average grades for
Cu (Kennecott), Pb (Tsumeb) and Zn (Kipushi). The Ruby Creek resource is 90 million tonnes
grading 1.2% Cu. Ge and Ga were produced at Tsumeb, Kipushi(?) and Apex; Apex grades were
in the order of 0.06% Ge and 0.03% Ga.

Economic limitations: Although several deposits have been partially mined by open pit methods, the
elongate morphology usually requires underground mining. The complex suite of metallic
minerals in some deposits could complicate metallurgy.

Importance: Gross and unit metal values can be very high. Few significant deposits are recognized;
however, the type is poorly understood and exploration efforts have been minimal.

5. Selected bibliography
Acknowledgements: Work leading to this summary was supported by BHP Minerals Canada Ltd. and
their Canadian Exploration Manager, Neil le Nobel. Numerous other geologists have enhanced my
understanding of this deposit type, including Tom Pollock, Murray Hitzman, Rod Kirkham, Hans Trettin
and Arno Günzel. Dave Lefebure and Trygve Höy reviewed drafts and significantly improved this profile.

Bateman, A.M. and McLaughlin, D.H. (1920): Geology of the Ore Deposits of Kennecott, Alaska;
Economic Geology, Volume 15, pages 1-80.
Bernstein, L.R. (1986): Geology and Mineralogy of the Apex Germanium-Gallium Mine, Washington
County, Utah; U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1577, 9 pages.
Bernstein, L.R. and Cox, D.P. (1986): Geology and Sulfide Mineralogy of the Number One Orebody, Ruby
Creek Copper Deposit, Alaska; Economic Geology, Volume 81, pages 1675-1689.
Blockley, J.G. and Myers, J.S. (1990): Proterozoic Rocks of the Western Australian Shield - Geology and
Mineralisation; in Geology of the Mineral Deposits of Australia and Papua New Guinea, F.E.
Hughes, Editor, Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Monograph 14, pages 607-615.
British Columbia Department of Mines and Petroleum Resources (1971): Blue; in Geology, Exploration
and Mining in B.C., pages 72-75.
Buffet, G., Amosse, J., Mouzita, D. and Giraud, P. (1997): Geochemistry of the M'Passa Pb-Zn Deposit,
Niari syncline, People's Republic of the Congo - Arguments in Favor of a Hydrothermal Origin;
Mineralium Deposita, Volume 22, pages 64-77.
Chabu, M. (1990): Metamorphism of the Kipushi Carbonate Hosted Zn-Pb-Cu deposit, Shaba, Zaire; in
Regional Metamorphism of Ore Deposits, P.G. Spry and L.T. Bryndzia, Editors, Proceedings of
28th International Geological Conference, VSP, pages 27-47.
Cox, D.P. and Bernstein, L.R. (1986): Descriptive Model of Kipushi Cu-Pb-Zn; in Mineral Deposit Models,
D.P. Cox and D.A. Singer, Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, 227 pages.
Deane, J.G. (1995): The Structural Evolution of the Kombat Deposits, Otavi Mountainland, Namibia;
Communications, Geological Survey of Namibia, Volume 10, pages 99-107.
De Magnee, I. and Francois, A. (1988): The Origin of the Kipushi (Cu, Zn, Pb) Deposit in Direct Relation
with a Proterozoic Salt Diapir, Copperbelt of Central Africa, Shaba, Republic of Zaire; in Base
Metal Sulphide Deposits, G.H. Friedrich and P.M. Herzig, Editors, Springer-Verlag, pages 74-93.
Folger, P.F. and Schmidt, J.M. (1986): Geology of the Carbonate-hosted Omar Copper Prospect, Baird
Mountains, Alaska; Economic Geology, Volume 81, pages 1690-1695.
Hitzman, M.W. (1986): Geology of the Ruby Creek Copper Deposit, Southwestern Brooks Range, Alaska;
Economic Geology, Volume 81, pages 1644-1674.
Hoeve, J. and Quirt, D. (1989): A Common Diagenetic-hydrothermal Origin for Unconformity-type
Uranium and Stratiform Copper Deposits?; in Sediment-hosted Stratiform Copper Deposits, R.W.
Boyle et al., Editors, Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 36, pages 151-172.
Innes, J. and Chaplin, R.C. (1986): Ore Bodies of the Kombat Mine, South West Africa/Namibia; in
Mineral Deposits of Southern Africa, C.R. Anhaeusser and S. Maske, Editors, Geological Society
of South Africa, pages 1789-1805.
Lhoest, J.J. (1995): The Kipushi Mine, Zaire; Mineralogical Record, Volume 26, Number 3, pages 163-192.
Lombaard, A.F., Günzel, A., Innes, J. and Kruger, T.L. (1986): The Tsumeb Lead-copper-zinc-silver
Deposit, South West Africa/Namibia; in Mineral Deposits of Southern Africa, C.R. Anhaeusser
and S. Maske, Editors, Geological Society of South Africa, pages 1761-1787.
Ran, C. (1989): Dongchuan-type Stratabound Copper Deposits, China - a Genetic Model; in Sediment-
hosted Stratiform Copper Deposits, R.W. Boyle et al., Editors, Geological Association of Canada,
Special Paper 36, pages 667-677.
Ruan, H., Hua, R. and Cox, D.P. (1991): Copper Deposition by Fluid Mixing in Deformed Strata Adjacent
to a Salt Diapir, Dongchuan Area, Yunnan Province, China; Economic Geology, Volume 86, pages
1539-1545.
Sagev, A. (1992): Remobilization of Uranium and Associated Metals through Karstification Processes - a
Case Study from the Timna Formation (Cambrian), Southern Israel; Ore Geology Reviews,
Volume 7, pages 135-148.
Steed, G.M. (1986): The Geology and Genesis of the Gortdrum Cu-Ag-Hg Orebody; in Geology and
Genesis of Mineral Deposits in Ireland, C.J. Andrew, et al., Editors, Irish Association, Economic
Geology, pages 481-499.
E03 – Carbonate hosted disseminated Au-Ag

T. Schroeter and H. Poulsen

British Columbia Geological Survey

Schroeter, T. and Poulsen, H. (1996): Carbonate-hosted Disseminated Au-Ag, in Selected British

Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T.,
Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 9-
12.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Carlin-type gold, sediment-hosted micron gold, siliceous limestone replacement gold,
invisible ("no-seeum") gold.

Commodities (by-products): Au (Ag). In rare cases Ag dominates over Au.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Golden Bear (104K 079); parts of
Brewery Creek (Yukon, Canada), Carlin, Getchell, Cortez, Gold Acres, Jerrett Canyon, Post and
Gold Quarry (Nevada, USA), Mercur (Utah, USA), Mesel? (Indonesia),Guizhou (China).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Very fine grained, micron-sized gold and sulphides disseminated in zones of
decarbonated calcareous rocks and associated jasperoids. Gold occurs evenly distributed
throughout hostrocks in stratabound concordant zones and in discordant breccias.

Tectonic setting: Passive continental margins with subsequent deformation and intrusive activity, and
possibly island arc terranes.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Host rocks to the Nevadan deposits were deposited in
shelf-basin transitional (somewhat anoxic) environments, formed mainly as carbonate turbidites
(up to 150 m thick), characterized by slow sedimentation. These rocks are presently
allochthonous in thrust fault slices and have been overprinted by Miocene basin and range
extension. There are Mesozic to Tertiary felsic plutons near many deposits.

Age of mineralization: Mainly Tertiary, but can be any age.

Host/Associated rock types: Hostrocks are most commonly thin-bedded silty or argillaceous
carbonaceous limestone or dolomite, commonly with carbonaceous shale. Although less
productive, non-carbonate siliciclastic and rare metavolcanic rocks are local hosts. Felsic plutons
and dikes are also mineralized at some deposits.

Deposit form: Generally tabular, stratabound bodies localized at contacts between contrasting
lithologies. Bodies are irregular in shape, but commonly straddle lithological contacts which, in
some cases, are thrust faults. Some ore zones (often higher grade) are discordant and consist of
breccias developed in steep fault zones. Sulphides (mainly pyrite) and gold are disseminated in
both cases.
Texture/Structure: Silica replacement of carbonate is accompanied by volume loss so that brecciation of
hostrocks is common. Tectonic brecciation adjacent to steep normal faults is also common.
Generally less than 1% fine-grained sulphides are disseminated throughout the hostrock.

Ore mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Native gold (micron-sized), pyrite with arsenian rims,
arsenopyrite, stibnite, realgar, orpiment, cinnabar, fluorite, barite, rare thallium minerals.

Gangue mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Fine-grained quartz, barite, clay minerals, carbonaceous
matter (late-stage calcite veins).

Alteration mineralogy: Strongly controlled by local stratigraphic and structural features. Central core of
strong silicification close to mineralization with silica veins and jasperoid; peripheral argillic
alteration and decarbonation (“sanding”) of carbonate rocks common in ore. Carbonaceous
material is present in some deposits.

Weathering: Nevada deposits have undergone deep supergene alteration due to Miocene weathering.
Supergene alunite and kaolinite are widely developed and sulphides converted to hematite.
Such weathering has made many deposits amenable to heap- leach processing.

Genetic models:
a) Epithermal model: Once widely accepted but now discounted for most deposits.
Mineralization was thought to result from shallow Miocene magmatism related to basin and
range extension. New discoveries of deep orebodies, overprinting basin and range
deformation, and recognition of a supergene origin of alunite have cast doubt on this
model.
b) Distal skarn model: Currently very popular because many deposits occur near intrusions,
skarns and calcsilicate rocks. Carbonate-hosted disseminated gold is thought to be related
to collapse of intrusion-centred porphyry-type hydrothermal systems. Although compelling
for many deposits, this model fails to explain several districts (e.g., Jerritt Canyon; Guizhou,
China) where no related magmatism has been observed.
c) Deep crustal fluid model: Recently proposed to account for inferred deep mixing of different
fluids from different reservoirs as demanded by light stable isotopic and fluid inclusion data.
Variants of this model imply only indirect links to magmatism, suggest a single Paleogene
age for the Nevadan deposits and relate them to a unique period of pre-basin and range
crustal extension and associated faults that are controlled by pre-existing Paleozoic and
Mesozoic structures.

Ore controls:
1. Selective replacement of carbonaceous carbonate rocks adjacent to and along high-angle
faults, regional thrust faults or bedding.
2. Presence of small felsic plutons (dikes) that may have caused geothermal activity and
intruded a shallow hydrocarbon reservoir or area of hydrocarbon-enriched rocks, imposing a
convecting geothermal system on the local groundwater.
3. Deep structural controls are believed responsible for regional trends and may be related to
Precambrian crystalline basement structures and/or accreted terrane boundaries.
Associated deposit types: Porphyry (L04, L05), Au, W or Mo skarns (K04, K05, K07), polymetallic manto
(J01).

Comments: B.C.:
1. Limestone fault slices (part of accreted Stikine terrane) which have been intruded by felsic
plutons, especially near high-angle fault zones, may host deposits (e.g., Golden Bear mine area).
2. Interior Plateau region - if carbonate units present - potential basin and range setting.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Two geochemical asemblages - Au+As+Hg+W or ? Mo and As+Hg+ Sb+Tl or Fe.
NH3 important in some deposits. Au:Ag 10:1 or greater. Anomalous values in rock: As (100-1000
ppm); Sb (10-50 ppm); Hg (1-30 ppm).

Geophysical signature: Resistivity lows for some deposits. Aeromagnetic surveys may highlight spatially
associated intrusions, skarns if present and possibly regional trends.

Other exploration guides: In Nevada the deposits exhibit regional alignments or trends. Satellite imagery
is useful to identify regional structures.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Grades range from 1 to 35 g/t Au and deposit sizes from 1 to 150 Mt of ore.
For 43 significant deposits the median tonnages and grades for low-grade oxide and higher
grade hypogene deposits are 20 Mt grading 1.2 g/t Au and 6 Mt containing 4.5 g/t Au,
respectively. Supergene deposits amenable to heap leaching typically grade 1-2 g/t Au; whereas,
production grades for deposits with hypogene ore typically grade 5 to 10 g/t or greater.

Economic limitations: Parts of deposits are amenable to open-pit mining and heap leaching (especially
oxidized zones), but roasting and autoclave extraction is required for more refractory ores. New
discoveries of high-grade hypogene ore have resulted in increased underground mining.

Importance: Between 1965 and 1995, deposits along the Carlin Trend (70 x 10 km), have yielded
approximately 750 t of Au. Deposits that are unquestionably of this type are not presently
known in Canada but may be present.

5. References

Bagby, W.C. and Berger, B.R. (1985): Geologic Characteristics of Sediment-hosted, Disseminated
Precious-metal Deposits in the Western United States; in Geology and Geochemistry of
Epithermal Systems, Berger, B.R. and Bethke, P.M., Editors, Reviews in Economic Geology,
Volume 2, Society of Economic Geologists, pages 169-202.
Bakken, B.M. and Einaudi, M.T. (1986): Spatial and Temporal Relations Between Wallrock Alteration and
Gold Mineralization, Main Pit, Carlin Gold Mine, Nevada; in Proceedings of Gold '86 Symposium,
Macdonald, A.J. , Editor, Geological Association of Canada, pages 388-403.
Berger, B.R. and Bagby, W.C. (1991): The Geology and Origin of Carlin-type Gold Deposits; in Gold
Metallogeny and Exploration, Foster, R.P., Editor, Blackie, Glasgow and London, pages 210-248.
Christensen, O.D., Editor (1993): Gold Deposits of the Carlin Trend, Nevada; Society of Economic
Geologists, Guidebook Series, Volume 18, 95 pages.
Cunningham, C.G., Ashley, R.P., I.-Ming, C., Huang, Z., Wan, C. and Li, W. (1988): Newly Discovered
Sedimentary Rock-hosted Disseminated Gold Deposits in the People’s Republic of China;
Economic Geology, Volume 83, pages 1462-1467.
Kuehn, C.A. and Rose, A.W. (1992): Geology and Geochemistry of Wall-rock Alteration at the Carlin Gold
Deposit, Nevada; Economic Geology, Volume 87, pages 1697-1721.
Radtke, A.S., Rye, R.O. and Dickson, F.W. (1980): Geology and Stable Isotope Studies of the Carlin Gold
Deposit, Nevada; Economic Geology, Volume 75, pages 641-672.
Romberger, S.B. (1988): Disseminated Gold Deposits, in Ore Deposit Models, Roberts, R.G. and Sheahan,
P.A., Editors, Geoscience Canada, Ore Deposits #9, Volume 13, No. 1, pages 23-31.
Sawkins, F.J. (1990): Sediment-hosted Gold Deposits of the Great Basin; in Metal Deposits in Relation to
Plate Tectonics, Springer-Verlag, pages 159-162.
Schroeter, T.G. (1986): Muddy Lake Project; in Geological Fieldwork, 1985, B. C. Ministry of Energy,
Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1986-1, pages 175-183.
Sillitoe, R.H. and Bonham, H.F. Jr. (1990): Sediment-hosted Gold Deposits: Distal Products of Magmatic-
Hydrothermal Systems; Geology, Volume 18, pages 157-161.
E04 – Sediment hosted Cu+/-Ag+/-Co

D.V. Lefebure and D. J. Alldrick

British Columbia Geological Survey

Lefebure, D.V. and Alldrick, D.J. (1996): Sediment-hosted Cu+/-Ag+/-Co, in Selected British Columbia
Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors,
British Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 13-16.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Sediment-hosted stratiform copper, shale-hosted copper, Kupferschiefer-type, redbed Cu,

Cu-shale, sandstone Cu.

Commodities (by-products): Cu, Ag (Co, Pb, Zn, rarely PGE, Au, U, Va).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Roo (082GSW020), Commerce

(082GSE065, Chal 4 (092K 068); Redstone (Northwest Territories, Canada), Kennicott (Alaska,
USA), Spar Lake (Troy), Rock Creek and Montanore (Montana, USA), White Pine (Michigan, USA),
Creta (Oklahoma, USA), Corocoro (Bolivia), Mansfield-Sangerhausen and Spremberg,
Kupferschiefer district (Germany), Konrad and Lubin (Poland), Dzherkazgan (Kazakhstan), Copper
Claim (Australia), Kamoto and Shaba, Zambia-Zaire copperbelt (Zaire).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Stratabound disseminations of native copper, chalcocite, bornite and chalcopyrite
in a variety of continental sedimentary rocks including black shale, sandstone and limestone.
These sequences are typically underlain by, or interbedded with, redbed sandstones with
evaporite sequences. Sulphides are typically hosted by grey, green or white strata.

Tectonic setting: Predominantly rift environments located in both intracontinental and continental-
margin settings; they can also occur in continental-arc and back- arc settings.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: The characteristic presence of redbed and evaporite

sequences points to deposition of sediments in a hot, arid to semi-arid paleoclimate near the
paleoequator. The host rocks are produced in a variety of local anoxic depositional
environments, including deltaic sediments, Sabkha-type lagoonal carbonate basins or high
intertidal mudflats, and shallow “coal basins”.

Age of mineralization: Proterozoic or younger; Middle Proterozoic, Permian and early Mesozoic most
favourable ages.

Host/Associated rock types: Most deposits are hosted by pale gray to black shale, but some are found in
sandstone, siltstone, limestone, silty dolomite, laminated carbonate units (sabkha origin) and
quartzites. Favourable horizons contain reactive organic matter or sulphur. Algal mats,
mudcracks and scour-and-fill structures indicative of shallow-water deposition are common.
Local channel- conglomerate beds sometimes contain wood fragments. The associated
 sequence includes redbed sediments, evaporites and sometimes volcanics. In many cases the
rift-related layered rocks rest unconformably on older basement rocks.

Deposit form: Orebodies are generally conformable with the bedding, although in detail ore may
transgress bedding at low angles and is typically more transgressive near the margins of the
deposit. Mineralized horizons are from tens of centimetres to several metres thick (rarely more
than 5 m); they are often contained within broader zones of anomalous copper values. Tabular
ore zones extend laterally for kilometres to tens of kilometres. Less commonly the deposits are
elongate lobes. Some deposits have a C-shaped, “roll front” configuration in cross-section.
Common lateral and/or vertical zoning is from hematite (barren) > chalcocite > bornite >
chalcopyrite > pyrite, or from a chalcociteñbornite core grading to chalcopyrite with peripheral
galena and sphalerite.

Texture/Structure: Sulphides are fine grained and occur as disseminations, concentrated along bedding,
particularly the coarser grained fractions, or as intergranular cement. Sharp-walled cracks or
veinlets (< 1 cm thick, < than a metre in length) of chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, galena,
sphalerite or barite with calcite occur in some deposits, but are not an important component of
the ore. Pyrite can be framboidal or colloform. Cu minerals often replace pyrite grains,
framboids and nodules; less commonly they form pseudomorphs of sulphate nodules or blade-
shaped gypsum/anhydrite grains. They also cluster around carbonaceous clots or fragments.

Ore mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Chalcocite, bornite and chalcopyrite; native copper in some
deposits. Pyrite is abundant in rocks outside the ore zones. Enargite, digenite, djurleite,
sphalerite, galena, tennantite, native silver with minor Co-pyrite and Ge minerals. In many
deposits carrollite (CuCo2S4) is a rare mineral, however, it is common in the Central African
Copperbelt.

Gangue mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Not well documented; in several deposits carbonate,
quartz and feldspar formed synchronously with the ore minerals and exhibit zonal patterns that
are sympathetic with the ore minerals. They infill, replace or overgrow detrital or earlier
authigenic phases.

Alteration mineralogy: Lateral or underlying reduced zones of green, white or grey colour in redbed
successions. In the Montana deposits these zones contain chlorite, magnetite and/or pyrite.
Barren, hematite-rich, red zones grade into ore in the Kupferschiefer. Kupferschiefer ore hosts
also show elevated vitrinite reflectances compared to equivalent stratigraphic units.

Weathering: Surface exposures may be totally leached or have malachite and azurite staining. Near
surface secondary chalcocite enrichment is common.

Ore controls: Most sediment-hosted Cu deposits are associated with the sag phase of continental rifts
characterized by deposition of shallow-water sediments represented by redbed sequences and
evaporites. These formed in hot, arid to semi-arid paleoclimates which normally occur within
20-30øof the paleoequator. Hostrocks are typically black, grey or green reduced sediments with
disseminated pyrite or organics. The main control on fluid flow from the source to redoxcline is
primary permeability within specific rock units, commonly coarse-grained sandstones. In some
districts deposits are located within coarser grained sediments on the flanks of basement highs.
Growth faults provide local controls in some deposits (e.g. Spar Lake).
Associated deposit types: Sandstone U (D05), volcanic redbed Cu (D03), Kipushi Cu-Pb-Zn (E02),
evaporite halite, sylvite, gypsum and anhydrite (F02); natural gas (mainly CH4) in Poland.

Genetic models: Traditionally these deposits have been regarded as syngenetic, analogous to sedex
deposits or late hydrothermal epigenetic deposits. Currently most researchers emphasize a two-
stage diagenetic model. Carbonaceous shales, sandstones and limestones deposited in reducing,
shallow subaqeuous environments undergo diagenesis which converts the sulphur in these
sediments to pyrite. At a later stage during diagenesis, saline low-temperature brines carrying
copper from a distant source follow permeable units, such as oxidized redbed sandstones, until
they encounter a reducing unit. At this point a redoxcline is established with a cuperiferous zone
extending “downstream” until it gradually fades into the unmineralized, often pyritic, reducing
unit. The source of the metals is unresolved, with possible choices including underlying volcanic
rocks, labile sediments, basement rocks or intrusions.

Comments: Sediment-hosted Cu includes Sabkha Cu deposits which are hosted by thin- bedded
carbonate-evaporite-redbed ‘sabkha’ sequences.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Elevated values of Cu, Ag, Pb, Zn and Cd are found in hostrocks, sometimes with
weaker Hg, Mo, V, U, Co and Ge anomalies. Dark streaks and specks in suitable rocks should be
analysed as they may be sulphides, such as chalcocite.

Geophysical signature: Weak radioactivity in some deposits.

Other exploration guides: Deposits often occur near the transition from redbeds to other units which is
marked by the distinctive change in colour from red or purple to grey, green or black. The basal
reduced unit within the stratigraphy overlying the redbeds will most often carry the highest
grade mineralization.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Average deposit contains 22 Mt grading 2.1 % Cu and 23 g/t Ag (Mosier et
al., 1986). Approximately 20% of these deposits average 0.24 % Co. The Lubin deposit contains
2600 Mt of >2.0% Cu and ~ 30-80 g/t Ag. Spar Lake pre-production reserves were 58 Mt grading
0.76% Cu and 54 g/t Ag. Montanore contains 134.5 Mt grading 0.74% Cu and 60 g/t Ag, while
Rock Creek has reserves of 143.7 Mt containing 0.68 % Cu and 51 g/t Ag.

Economic limitations: These relatively thin horizons require higher grades because they are typically
mined by underground methods. The polymetallic nature and broad lateral extent of sediment-
hosted Cu deposits make them attractive.

Importance: These deposits are the second most important source of copper world-wide after porphyry
Cu deposits. They are an interesting potential exploration target in British Columbia, although
there has been no production from sediment-hosted Cu deposits in the province. The
stratigraphy that hosts the Spar Lake, Montanore and Rock Creek deposits in Montana extends
into British Columbia where it contains numerous small sediment-hosted Cu-Ag deposits.
 5. References

Acknowledgements: Nick Massey contributed to the original draft of the profile.

Bartholom, P., Evrard, P., Katekesha, P., Lopez-Ruiz, J. and Ngongo, M. (1972): Diagenetic Ore-forming
Processes at Kamoto, Katanga, Republic of the Congo; in Ores in Sediments, Amstutz, G.C. and
Bernard, A.J., Editors, Springer Verlag, Berlin, pages 21-41.
Bateman, A.M. and McLaughlin, D.H. (1920): Geology of the Ore Deposits of Kennecott, Alaska;
Economic Geology, Volume 15, pages 1-80.
Boyle, R.W., Brown, A.C., Jefferson, C.W., Jowett, E.C. and Kirkham, R.V., Editors, (1989): Sediment-
hosted Stratiform Copper Deposits; Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 36, 710
pages.
Brown, A.C. (1992): Sediment-hosted Stratiform Copper Deposits; Geoscience Canada, Volume 19, pages
125-141.
Ensign, C.O., White, W.S., Wright, J.C., Patrick, J.L., Leone, R.J., Hathaway, D.J., Tramell, J.W., Fritts, J.J.
and Wright, T.L. (1968): Copper Deposits of the Nonesuch Shale, White Pine, Michigan; in Ore
Deposits of the United States, 1933- 1967; The Graton-Sales Volume, Ridge, J.D., Editor,
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., New York, pages 460-
488.
Fleischer, V.D., Garlick, W.G. and Haldane, R. (1976): Geology of the Zambian Copperbelt; in Handbook
of Strata-bound and Stratiform Ore Deposits, Wolf, K.H., Editor, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Volume 8,
pages 223-352.
Gustafson, L.B. and Williams, N. (1981): Sediment-hosted Stratiform Deposits of Copper, Lead and Zinc;
in Economic Geology Seventy-Fifth Anniversary Volume, Skinner, B.J., Editor, Economic Geology
Publishing Company, pages 139-178.
Hayes, T.S. and Einaudi, M.T. (1986): Genesis of the Spar Lake Strata-bound Copper- Silver Deposit,
Montana: Part I. Controls Inherited from Sedimentation and Preore Diagenesis; Economic
Geology, Volume 81, pages 1899-1931.
Kirkham, R.V. (1989): Distribution, Settings, and Genesis of Sediment-hosted Stratiform Copper
Deposits, in Sediment-hosted Stratiform Copper Deposits, Boyle, R.W., Brown, A.C., Jefferson,
C.W., Jowett, E.C. and Kirkham, R.V., Editors, Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 36,
pages 3-38.
Kirkham, R.V., Carriere, J.J., Laramie, R.M. and Garson, D.F. (1994): Global Distribution of Sediment-
hosted Stratiform Copper Deposits; Geological Survey of Canada, Open File Map 2915, 1: 35 000
000.
Mosier, D.L., Singer, D.A. and Cox, D.P. (1986): Grade and Tonnage Model of Sediment- hosted Cu; in
Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin
1693, pages 206-8.
Renfro, A.R. (1974): Genesis of Evaporite-associated Stratiform Metalliferous Deposits - a Sabkha
Process; Economic Geology, Volume 69, pages 33-45.
E05 – Sandstone-Pb

D.F. Sangster
Geological Survey of Canda, Ottawa

Sangster, D.F. (1996): Sandstone-Pb, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 -
Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment
and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 17-19.

1. Identification

Commodities (by-products): Pb (Zn, Ag).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): None in British Columbia; only two are known in
Canada; Yava (Nova Scotia) and George Lake (Saskatchewan), Laisvall (Sweden), Largentière
(France), Zeida (Morocco), Maubach and Mechernich (Germany).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Disseminated galena with minor sphalerite, in transgressive basal quartzite or
quartzofeldspathic sandstones resting on sialic basement.

Tectonic setting: Platformal deposits commonly found in sandstones resting directly on basement
(usually cratonic) of sialic composition.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Hostrocks were deposited in environments ranging from

continental fluvial to shallow marine or tidal beach. The most common environment is one of
mixed continental and marine character (i.e., paralic). Host rocks in most districts are succeeded
by marine sediments, suggestive of marine transgression onto the craton. Terrestrial organic
debris, ranging from trace to abundant, is present in most of the post- Devonian deposits.
Paleomagnetic data available in several districts indicate a low paleolatitude position (0-30 ) for
all deposits. Paleoclimatic conditions ranged from warm arid to cool humid but in a majority of
cases, were semiarid and warm.

Age of mineralization: Mineralization age has not been established with certainty; however, deposits are
found in rocks ranging from Middle Proterozoic to Cretaceous age. Rocks of Late Proterozoic -
Early Cambrian and Triassic ages contain a majority of deposits of this type.

Host/Associated rock types: Hostrocks are grey or white (never red) quartzitic or quartzo-feldspathic
sandstones and conglomerates; they are rarely siltstone or finer grained clastics. Sialic basement
rocks, typically granites or granitic gneisses, underly sandstone lead deposits. Shales and
associated evaporites as beds, nodules or disseminations are intercalated with the host
sandstones.

Deposit form: Orebodies are commonly conformable with bedding in the sandstone, especially on a
mine scale. In detail, however, the ore zones may actually transgress bedding at a low angle.
Sedimentary channels in the sandstone are preferentially mineralized; consequently, most
deposits have a generally lensoid form. In plan, ore zones tend to be sinuous and laterally
 discontinous. Ore zones tend to be delimited by assay, rather than geological, boundaries.
Characteristically, a higher grade core is surrounded by material that progressively decreases in
grade outward. Rarely, higher grade zones occur in, and adjacent to, steep faults; consequently,
in these deposits, many ore zones are narrow, lenticular bodies oriented at high angles to
bedding.

Texture/Structure: The preferred site of ore minerals is as cement between sand grains resulting in
disseminated sulphide blebs or spots in massive sandstones or concentrations of sulphides along
the lower, more porous portions of graded beds. The disseminated sulphides are not normally
homogeneously dispersed throughout the sandstone. Two very common textures are:
i) spots, representing local accumulations of galena, as much as 2 cm in diameter.
Spots may be randomly distributed in the sandstone or may show a slight
preferential alignment parallel to bedding;
ii) discontinous galena-rich streaks distributed parallel to bedding, including
crossbedding. Where carbonaceous material is present, sulphides fill wood cells or
replace cell walls.

Concretionary-like sulphide concentrations are abundant in some deposits. Epitaxial quartz

overgrowths on detrital quartz grains are very common and in some deposits more abundant
within or near ore zones than regionally. Paragenetic studies indicate the epitaxial quartz
predates galena.

Ore mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Galena, sphalerite, and pyrite, chalcopyrite and various Ni-
Co-Fe sulphides. Replacement of sulphides by secondary analogues has been reported in one or
more deposits.

Gangue mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Silica, usually chalcedonic, and various carbonate
minerals constitute the most abundant non-sulphide cement.

Alteration mineralogy: If the hostrocks were originally arkosic, pre-mineralization alteration (sometimes
referred to as "chemical erosion") of the host sandstones commonly results in complete, or
near-complete, destruction of any feldspars and mafic minerals which may have been present.
Otherwise, alteration of quartz sandstone hosts is nil. Neomorphic formation of quartz
overgrowths and authigenic clay minerals, however, is a common feature of these deposits;
calcite and sulphates are less common cements. Pre-sandstone weathering of granitic
basement, as evidenced by the presence of paleoregolith and the destruction of feldspar and
mafic minerals, has been observed beneath several deposits.

Ore controls:
1. Sialic basement; those with average lead content greater than ~30 ppm are particularly
significant.
2. Basal portion of grey or white (not red) quartzitic sandstone of a transgressive sequence on
sialic basement. The "cleaner" portions, with minimum intergranular material, are the preferred
host lithologies because they are more porous.
3. Channels in sandstone, especially on the periphery of the sedimentary basin. These channels
may also be evident in the basement.
Genetic model: Groundwater transport of metals leached from lead-rich basement, through porosity
channels in sandstone; precipitation of metals by biogenically- produced sulphide. A genetic
model involving compaction of brine-bearing basins by over-riding nappes has been proposed
for deposits in Sweden.

Associated deposit types: Sandstone Cu and sandstone U (D05).

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Stream sediment and soil geochemical surveys; analyze for Pb and Zn.

Geophysical signature: Induced polarization anomalies (?)

Other exploration guides: Epitaxial quartz overgrowths are abundant, especially within and near the ore
zones. Host sandstones deposited at low paleolatitudes. Sialic basement with high lead content
(>30 ppm). Basal quartz sandstone of a transgressive sequence, overlying basement. Channels in
sandstone as evidenced by thickening, lateral conglomerate-to-sandstone facies changes, etc.
Permeable zones in sandstone (i.e., “cleanest” sandstone, minimum of intergranular clayey
material).

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Deposits range in grade from 2 to 5% Pb, 0.2 to 0.8% Zn, 1 to 20 g/t Ag; most
are less than 10 Mt in size. Because of the disseminated nature of the ore, tonnages and grades
can be markedly affected by changes in cut-off grades. At Yava, for example, at cut-off grades of
1, 2, and 3%, tonnages and grades are as follows: 71.2 Mt at 2.09% Pb, 30.3 Mt at 3.01%, and
12.6 Mt at 3.95%, respectively.

Economic limitations: Because of the typically low Pb grades and the general paucity of byproduct
commodities, this deposit type has always been a minor player in the world's base metal
markets.

Importance: In some countries where other sources of Pb are limited, sandstone-Pb deposits have
constituted major national resources of this metal (e.g. Sweden).

5. References

Bjírlykke, A. and Sangster, D.F. (1981): An Overview of Sandstone-Lead Deposits and their Relation to
Red-bed Copper and Carbonate-Hosted Lead-Zinc Deposits; in Economic Geology 75th
Anniversary Volume, 1905- 1980, Skinner, B.J., Editor, Economic Geology Publishing Co., pages
179-213.
Bjírlykke, A., Sangster, D.F. and Fehn, U. (1991): Relationships Between High Heat-producing (HHP)
Granites and Stratabound Lead-Zinc Deposits; in Source, Transport and Deposition of Metals,
Proceedings of the 25th Anniversary Meeting, Pagel, M. and Leroy, J.L., Editors, Society of
Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits, pages 257-260.
Bjírlykke, A. and Thorpe, R.I. (1983): The Source of Lead in the Olsen Sandstone-Lead Deposit on the
Baltic Shield, Norway; Economic Geology, Volume 76, pages 1205-1210.
Rickard, D.T., Wildn, M.Y., Marinder, N.E. and Donnelly, T.H. (1979): Studies on the Genesis of the Laisval
Sandstone Lead-Zinc Deposits; Economic Geology, Volume 74, pages 1255-1285.
Sangster, D.F. and Vaillancourt, P.D. (1990): Paleo-geomorphology in the Exploration for Undiscovered
Sandstone-lead Deposits, Salmon River Basin, Nova Scotia; Canadian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, Bulletin, Volume 83, pages 62-68.
Sangster, D.F. and Vaillancourt, P.D. (1990): Geology of the Yava Sandstone- Lead Deposit, Cape Breton
Island, Nova Scotia, Canada; in Mineral Deposit Studies in Nova Scotia, Volume 1, Sangster, A.L.,
Editor, Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 90-8, pages 203-244.
E06 - Bentonite

Z.D. Hora
British Columbia Geological Survey

Hora, Z.D. (1999): Bentonite; in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial
Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy
and Mines, pages 27-29.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Sodium and calcium montmorillonites, montmorillonite clay, smectite clay, volcanic clay,
soap clay, mineral soap. Other terms for sodium montmorillonites are sodium bentonite,
swelling bentonite, Wyoming or Western bentonite, while calcium montmorillonites are
referred to as calcium bentonites, non-swelling bentonite, Southern bentonite or fuller's earth,
sub-bentonite.

Commodity: Bentonite (many different grades for a variety of applications and end uses).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #)- Canada/International): Hat Creek (092INW084), Princeton
(092HSE151), Quilchena (092ISE138), French Bar (092O 099); Rosalind (Alberta, Canada), Truax
(Saskatchewan, Canada) Morden (Manitoba, Canada), Black Hills District, Big Horn Basin
(Wyoming, USA), Gonzales and Lafayette Counties (Texas, USA), Itawambaand and Monroe
Counties (Mississippi, USA), Milos (Greece), Landshut (Germany), Sardinia (Italy), Annaka
(Japan), Campina Grande (Brazil).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Montmorillonite-rich clay beds intercalated with shales, sandstones and marls
which are part of shallow marine or lacustrine environment deposits.

Tectonic setting: Virtually all continental or continental platform settings; also common in island arcs.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Bentonite deposits form when volcanic ash is deposited in
a variety of freshwater (sometimes alkaline lakes) and marine basins characterized by low
energy depositional environments and temperate climatic conditions.

Age of mineralization: Mostly Cretaceous to Miocene age, but are known to be as old as Jurassic and as
recent as Pleistocene.

Host/Associated rock types: Bentonites are hosted by and associated with argillite, mudstone, siltstone,
sandstone, tuff, agglomerate, ignimbrites, marl, shale, zeolite beds and coal.

Deposit form: Beds range in thickness from several centimeters to tens of meters and can extend
hundreds of kilometres. In island arc environment, bentonite can also occur as lens-shaped
bodies with a limited lateral extent.
Texture/Structure: Bentonite is bedded, with a soapy texture and waxy appearance. It ranges in colour
from white to yellow to olive green to brown to blue. In outcrop, bentonite has a distinctive
"popcorn" texture.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Montmorillonite, beidellite, illite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Mica, feldspar, quartz, calcite, zeolites, gypsum, opaline
silica, cristobalite, unaltered volcanic glass. These minerals rarely constitute more than 10% of a
commercially viable deposit.

Alteration mineralogy: Alteration consists of devitrification of the volcanic ash with hydration and
crystallization of the smectite mineral. In some instances there is evidence of a loss of alkalies
during the alteration. Also, silicification of beds underlying some bentonites indicates downward
migration of silica. There is also sometimes an increase in magnesium content compared to
parent material. Besides smectite minerals, other alteration products in the volcanic ash include
cristobalite, opaline silica, zeolites, calcite, selenite and various iron sulphate minerals.

Weathering: Yellow colouration (the result of oxidized iron ions) may improve the colloidal properties of
bentonite. Also, weathering may decrease exchangeable calcium and increase exchangeable
sodium. Some soluble impurities like calcite, iron sulphates or selenite may be removed by
weathering process.

Ore controls: The regional extent of bentonite deposits is controlled by the limit of the regional
deposition environment, paleogeography and distribution of the volcanic pyroclastic unit.
Porosity of the host rocks may be important for the alteration process. Deposits in the
continental and continental platform settings are the largest.

Genetic models: Volcanic pyroclastic material is ejected and deposited in shallow marine or lacustrine
setting.

Bentonite is a product of alteration of the glass component of ashes and agglomerates. Alteration of the
glassy pyroclastic material possibly starts when the ash contacts the water or may occur soon
after the ash reaches the seafloor or lake bottom. Wyoming bentonites, however, were altered
after burial by reaction with diagenetic seawater pore fluids.

Associated deposit types: Other clays, zeolite (D01, D02), lignite coal (A02), sepiolite, palygorskite (F05).

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Nil

Geophysical signature: Apparent resistivity and refraction seismic survey may help to interpret the
lithology.

Other exploration guides: Sedimentary basins with volcanic ash layers. In some locations bentonite
layers can form a plane of weakness that results in landslides. Montmorillonite displays popcorn
texture on the dry surface.
 4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Montmorillonite content is usually more than 80%. Other properties depend
on specifications for particular applications. Published data on individual deposits are very
scarce. Typically, commercial beds in Wyoming are 0.9 to 1.5 metres thick. Individual bentonite
beds are continuous for several kilometres. The Wilcox mine in Saskatchewan has three
bentonite seams - 61, 46 and 30 centimetres thick within a 6 metre thick sequence of shale. In
Manitoba, another mine has 6 beds which have a cumulative thickness of about 76 centimetres
within a 1 meter sequence.

Economic limitations: Value of the product depends on the type of impurities, colour, size of clay
particles, cation exchange capability, rheological properties and structures of the clay. Sodium
bentonites are of more interest because of swelling properties and in general higher cation
exchange capacity. Calcium bentonites are frequently activated by acids or soda ash to provide
better performing product. Economic viability is often determined by the thickness of the
overlying strata and overburden. The Wyoming deposits are mined with up to 12 metres of
overburden. The 1997 quoted price for Wyoming bentonite is from US$25 to 40 a short ton.

End uses: Main uses for bentonite are in foundry sands, drilling muds, iron ore pelletizing and
absorbents. Important applications are also in civil engineering for a variety of composite liners
and as a food additive for poultry and domestic animals. (Special uses include filtration in food
processing, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.)

Importance: Bentonite is an important industrial mineral; about 6 million tonnes are produced annually
in North America. Declining markets in drilling mud and pelletizing will likely be easily offset by
increasing use in environmental applications like liners and sealers.

5. Selected bibliography

Elzea, J. and Murray, H.H. (1994): Bentonite; in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, D.D. Carr, Editor, Society
for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., Littleton, Colorado, pages 233-246.
Grim, R.E. and Güven, N. (1978): Bentonites: Geology, Mineralogy, Properties and Uses; Developments
in Sedimentology 24, Elsevier Publishing Company, New York, 256 pages.
Guillet, G.R. and Martin, W. Editors (1984): The Geology of Industrial Minerals in Canada; Special Volume
29, The Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 350 pages.
Güven, N. (1989): Smectites; in Hydrous Phyllosilicates, Bailey, S.W., Editor, Reviews in Mineralogy,
Volume 19, Mineralogical Society of America, pages 497-560.
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals and World Deposits; Metal Bulletin, London, 312
pages.
Robertson, R.H.S. (1986): Fuller's Earth - a History of Calcium Montmorillonite; Mineralogical Society,
Occasional Publication, Volturna Press, 412 pages.
E07 – Sedimentary kaolin

Z.D. Hora
British Columbia Geological Survey

Hora, Z.D. (1999): Sedimentary Kaolin; in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3,
Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry
of Energy and Mines, pages 31-33.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Secondary kaolin deposits, fireclay, underclays, high-alumina clay, china clay.

Commodities (by-products): Kaolin (many different grades for specific applications), ceramic clay, ball
clay, refractory clay (cement rock, bauxite, silica sand).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Sumas Mountain (092GSE004,

092GSE024), Blue Mountain (092GSE028), Lang Bay (092F 137), Quinsam (092F 319), Giscome
Rapids (093J 020); Cypress Hills (Alberta, Canada), Eastend, Wood Mountain, Ravenscrag
(Saskatchewan, Canada), Moose River Basin (Ontario, Canada), Shubenacadie Valley (Nova
Scotia, Canada), Aiken (South Carolina, USA), Wrens, Sandersville, Macon-Gordon, Andersonville
(Georgia, USA), Eufaula (Alabama, USA), Weipa (Queensland, Australia), Jari, Capim (Brazil).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Beds, lenses and saucer-shaped bodies of kaolinitic claystones hosted by clastic
sedimentary rocks, with or without coaly layers or coal seams. They usually occur in freshwater
basins filled with sediments derived from deeply weathered, crystalline feldspathic rocks.

Tectonic setting: Low-lying coastal plains at continental edge; extension basins in orogenic belts; stable
continental basins; back arc basins.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Clay beds are generally deposited in low energy
environments within freshwater basins. Temperate to tropical climatic conditions can produce
intensive kaolinitic weathering of feldspathic rocks of granitic composition. The kaolin is then
eroded and transported to estuaries, lagoons, oxbow lakes and ponds.

Age of mineralization: Most of the world class deposits are Upper Cretaceous to Eocene age. Some
"fireclay" and "underclay" deposits are Late Carboniferous.

Host/Associated rock types: Kaolin beds are associated with variably kaolinitic, micaceous sandstones
within mudstone, siltstone, sandstone and conglomerate sequences which often are cross-
bedded. Coal (sub-bituminous and liqnite) may be associated with kaolin beds. Diatomite may
also be present.

Deposit form: Beds exhibit variable thickness, usually a few metres; sometimes multiple beds have an
aggregate thickness of approximately 20 metres. Deposits commonly extend over areas of at
least several square kilometers.
Texture/Structure: Kaolin is soft and exhibits conchoidal or semiconchoidal fracture; it can be bedded or
massive. Most kaolins will slake in water, but some "flint" varieties break into smaller angular
fragments only. Depending on kaolin particle size and presence of organic matter, some clays
may be very plastic when moist and are usually called "ball clays".

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Kaolinite, halloysite, quartz, dickite, nacrite, diaspor,
boehmite, gibbsite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, limonite, goethite, feldspar, mica, siderite,
pyrite, illmenite, leucoxene, anatas.

Weathering: The kaolin forms by weathering which results in decomposition of feldspars and other
aluminosilicates and removal of fluxing components like alkalies or iron. Post depositional
weathering and leaching can produce gibbsitic bauxite. In some deposits, post depositional
weathering may improve crystallinity of kaolin particles and increase the size of crystal
aggregates.

Ore controls: The formation and localization of clay is controlled by the location of the sedimentary
basin and the presence of weathered, granitic rocks adjacent to the basin, particularly rapidly
eroding paleotopographic highs.

Genetic models: Ideal conditions to produce kaolinitic chemical weathering are high rainfall, warm
temperatures, lush vegetation, low relief and high groundwater table. The kaolin is eroded and
transported by streams to a quiet, fresh or brackish, water environment. Post-depositional
leaching, oxidation, and diagenesis can significantly modify the original clay mineralogy with
improvement of kaolin quality.

Associated deposit types: Peat (A01), coal seams (A02, A03, A04), paleoplacers (C04), some bentonites
(E06), lacustrine diatomite (F06).

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: None. Enrichment in Al does not provide sufficient contrast with host
sediments.

Geophysical signature: Apparent resistivity and refraction seismic surveys can be used in exploration for
fireclay beds.

Other exploration guides: Most readily ascertainable regional attribute is sedimentary basins with Upper
Cretaceous and Eocene unconformities. Within these basins kaolin occurs with sediments,
including coal seams, deposited in low energy environments.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Published data on individual deposits are very scarce. Deposits in Georgia,
USA contain 90 to 95% kaolinite. Individual Cretaceous beds are reported to be up to 12 m thick
and extend more than 2 km while those in the Tertiary sequence are 10 to 25 m thick and up to
 18 km along strike. The Weipa deposit in Australia is 8 to 12 m thick and contains 40 to 70%
kaolinite. The Jari deposit in Brazil is reported to contain more than 250 Mt of "good,
commercial grade kaolin". Over 200 Mt of reserves "have been proven" at Capim deposit in
Brazil. Ball clay deposits in Tennessee and Kentucky consist of kaolin with from 5 to 30% silica;
individual deposits may be more than 9 m thick and extend over areas from 100 to 800 m long
and up to 300 m wide.

Economic limitations: Physical and chemical properties affect end use. Physical properties include
brightness, particle size distribution, particle shape and rheology. Limonite staining is a negative
feature. The high level of processing required to meet industry specifications and minimize
transportation cost to the end user are the main limiting factors for kaolin use. While local
sources compete for low value markets, high quality products may be shipped to users several
thousand km from the plant. Most production is from open pits; good quality fireclay seams
more than 2 meters thick are sometimes mined underground. Typically, paper coating grade
sells for up to US$120, filler grade for up to US$92 and sanitary ceramics grade for $US55 to $65
per short ton (Industrial Minerals, 1997). Refractory and ball clay prices are within the same
range.

End uses: The most important use for kaolin is in the paper industry, both as a filler and coating
pigment. A variety of industrial filler applications (rubber, paints, plastics, etc.) are another
major end use. Kaolin's traditional use in ceramic products is holding steady, but the refractory
use has declined substantially in the last two decades because of replacement by other high
performance products.

Importance: One of the most important industrial minerals in North America. Over 11 Mt is produced
annually and production is on a steady increase.

5. Selected bibliography

Bristow, C.M. (1987): World Kaolins - Genesis, Exploitation and Application, Industrial Minerals, No. 238,
pages 45-59.
Guillet, G.R. and Martin, W., Editors (1984): The Geology of Industrial Minerals in Canada, Special
Volume 29, The Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 350 pages.
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals and World Deposits, Metal Bulletin, London, 312
pages.
Malkovsky, M. and Vachtl, J., Editors (1969): Kaolin Deposits of the World, A-Europe, B-Overseas
Countries; Proceedings of Symposium 1, 23rd International Geological Congress, Prague, 1968,
460 pages.
Malkovsky, M. and Vachtl, J., Editors (1969): Genesis of the Kaolin Deposits; Proceedings of the
Symposium 1, 23rd International Geological Congress, Prague, 1988, 135 pages.
Murray, H.H. (1989): Kaolin Minerals: Their Genesis and Occurrences, Hydrous Phyllosilicates, in Reviews
in Mineralogy, Bailey, S.W., Editor, Mineralogical Society of America, Volume 19, pages 67-89.
Murray, H.H., Bundy, W.M. and Harvey, C.C., Editors (1993): Kaolin Genesis and Utilization, The Clay
Minerals Society, Boulder, Colorado, 341 pages.
Patterson, S.H. and Murray, H.H. (1984): Kaolin, Refractory Clay, Ball Clay and Halloysite in North
America, Hawaii, and the Caribbean Region; U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper 1306, 56
pages.
E08 – Carbonate hosted talc

G.J. Simandl1 and S. Paradis2

1
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
Geological Survey of Canada, Pacific Geoscience Centre, Sidney, B.C., Canada

Simandl, G.J. and Paradis, S. (1999): Carbonate-hosted talc; in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit
Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British
Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines.

1. Identification

Synonyms: "Dolomite-hosted" talc deposits.

Commodities: Talc and/or tremolite. Some of the commercial products derived from carbonate-hosted
deposits and marketed as talc, contain over 50% tremolite.

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Gold Dollar (082O 001), Red Mountain (082O 002),
Saddle Occurrences (082O 003); Henderson Talc Deposit (Ontario, Canada), Treasure mine
(Montana, USA), Gouverneur Talc (New York State, USA) and Trimouns deposit (France).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Most of the economic carbonate-hosted deposits are lenticular or sheet-like bodies
and are concordant with surrounding dolomitic marbles, siliceous dolomitic marbles, dolomites,
schists and phyllites. The massive or schistose ore consists mainly of talc ± dolomite, ± tremolite,
± calcite, ± magnesite, ± chlorite, ± serpentine, ± phlogopite.

Tectonic setting: Protolith deposited mainly in pericratonic environments; in most cases the talc formed
later within metamorphic, fold or thrust belts.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Dolostones, dolomitic marbles or magnesite beds

metamorphosed to greenschist facies or lower amphibolite facies represent a typical host
environment. Upper amphibolite-grade marbles, where talc would not normally be stable, may
contain retrograde talc zones.

Age of mineralization: Mainly Precambrian to Early Paleozoic but may be younger. In most cases syn- or
post-metamorphic.

Host/Associated rock types: Dolomitic marbles and dolomites are the typical host, however some of the
deposits are hosted by magnesite or mica schists. Phyllites, chlorite or mica schists, paragneiss
and intrusive and metavolcanic rocks may be present adjacent to, or in the proximity of the talc
deposits. Deposits may be crosscut by minor intrusions, such as diabase dikes.

Deposit form: In most cases, podiform or deformed, sheet-like bodies oriented subparallel to the
compositional layering within marbles and to geologic contacts. They commonly pinch and
swell. Typical dimensions would be 2 to 20 m thick and tens to hundreds of m along strike and
 dip. Where fluids were the principal source of heat and/or silica, breccia zones and irregular
deposits may occur near fault intersections.

Texture/Structure: Ore varies from fine-grained, massive or layered talc to coarse talc schists.
Pseudomorphs of talc after tremolite are common in deposits that formed after the peak of
metamorphism.

Ore (Principal and subordinate): Talc and tremolite (in some ores and commercial products tremolite is a
principal constituent).

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Dolomite, ± tremolite, ± calcite, ± magnesite, ± chlorite,
± serpentine, and ± phlogopite may be principal gangue minerals. Pyrite, ± graphite, ± mica, ±
dravite, and ± anorthite are common accessory impurities.

Alteration mineralogy: In some deposits at least a portion of talc is believed to have formed by
retrograde reactions from tremolite. In some cases, there is a replacement of biotite by chlorite
and feldspar by sericite or chlorite in the host rock.

Weathering: Talc-bearing zones may form ridges where chemical processes dominate and topographic
lows where physical weathering and/or glaciation are most important.

Ore controls: The main controls are the presence of dolomite or magnesite protolith, availability of silica
and favourable metamorphic/metasomatic conditions. Talc deposits hosted by carbonate rocks
may be divided into several subtypes according to the source of silica and geological setting:
a) contacts between carbonates, usually dolomitic marbles, and silica-bearing rocks, such as
biotite-quartz-feldspar gneisses, schists, cherts and quartzites;
b) horizons or lenses of siliceous dolomite or magnesite protolith;
c) crests of folds, breccia zones, faults, and intersections of fault systems that permit circulation of
metasomatic fluids carrying silica within dolomite or magnesite host; and
d) carbonates within the contact metamorphic aureole of intrusions, where silica has been derived
from adjacent host rock.

Genetic model: Most carbonate-hosted talc deposits are believed to be formed by the reaction:
3 dolomite + 4 SiO2 + H2O = 1 talc + 3 calcite + 3 CO2

Silica may be provided either from adjacent quartz-bearing rocks, from silica layers within the
carbonates, or by hydrothermal fluids. Absence of calcite in ores from several deposits indicates
that talc may have formed in an open system environment and calcium was allowed to escape.
The source of heat may be provided by regional metamorphism, contact metamorphism or by
heat exchange from hydrothermal fluid. In environments where sedimentary-hosted magnesite
deposits are known to occur, talc could have been produced by the reaction:
3 magnesite + 4 SiO2 + H2O = 1 talc + 3 CO2

In this second reaction calcite precipitation is not expected. This reaction takes place at lower
temperature (given identical pressure and XCO2 conditions) than the dolomite reaction,
therefore, magnesite may be almost completely converted to talc before dolomite starts to
react.
 Pseudomorphs of talc after tremolite and the presence of upper amphibolite grade,
metamorphic assemblages in host rocks of some of the deposits indicate that talc post-dates the
metamorphic peak and is probably of retrograde origin. Depending on the individual deposits,
metamorphic or metasomatic (hydrothermal) characteristics may be predominant.

Associated deposit types: Chlorite deposits, marble (R04), high-calcium carbonate (filler-grade) and
limestone (R09), dolostone (R10), sedimentary-hosted magnesite deposits (E09) and deposits
such as Balmat, which is probably a metamorphosed sedex deposit (E14).

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Systematic study of soils to identify anomalous concentrations of talc using the
X-ray diffraction method has proven successful.

Geophysical signature: Electromagnetic methods can be used to identify carbonate contacts with other
lithologies or talc-related fault zones impregnated with water.

Other exploration guides: Talc in residual soils. Talc occurs within belts of dolomitic rocks in
metamorphosed terranes or adjacent to intrusive rocks. Contacts with silica-bearing
metasediments or intrusions are favourable loci for deposits.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Grade is highly variable. For example, New York state talc ores commonly
contain over 50% tremolite.

Economic limitations: Major talc producing countries are China, USA, Finland, France, Brazil and
Australia. Underground mining is economically feasible in case of high quality ores, but most
mining is by open pit. Actinolite, tremolite and anthophyllite impurities are undesirable because
of environmental restrictions on these minerals. The most common properties measured to
determine possible applications for talc concentrates are: mineral composition, dry brightness
(green filter), whiteness, specific gravity, oil absorption, pH, particle size distribution, tapped
density, loose density, Hegman fineness and chemical composition including L.O.I.

End uses: In 1996, almost 1 million tonnes of talc valued at $US 100 million was sold or used in the USA.
Talc is used in ceramics (28%), paint (18%), paper (17%), plastics (6%), roofing (11%) and
cosmetics (4%). Insecticides, rubber refractories and other applications account for 16% (in
USA). Cut or sawed blocks of fine-grained talc (steatite which is also used for carving) may sell
for up to $US 2000.00 tonne. Paint and ceramic-grade talc is sold for $US 110.00 to
200.00/tonne, depending on the degree and method of processing. Some filler grades are sold
at $US 600.00/tonne and cosmetic-grade talc and surface treated materials may sell for more
than $US 2000.00/tonne.

Importance: Talc may be substituted by clay or pyrophyllite in ceramics; by high calcium carbonate and
kaolin in some paper applications and by other fillers and reinforcing agents in plastics. Talc
from carbonate-hosted deposits also has to compete with products derived from ultramafic-
hosted talc deposits (M07) in a number of applications. In North America carbonate-hosted
deposits supply mainly the ceramic, paint and, to some extent the plastic markets.
 5. References

Andrews, P.R.A. (1994): The Beneficiation of Canadian Talc and Pyrophyllite Ores: a Review of Processing
Studies at CANMET; Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Bulletin, Volume 87, No.984,
pages 64-68.
Anonymous (1993): The Economics of Talc and Pyrophyllite; 7th Edition; Roskill Information Services Ltd.,
London, England, 266 pages.
Bates, R.I. (1969): Geology of Industrial Rocks and Minerals; Dover Publications Inc, New York, 459
pages.
Benvenuto, G. (1993): Geology of Several Talc Occurrences in Middle Cambrian Dolomites, Southern
Rocky Mountains, British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources,
Geological Survey Branch, Geological Fieldwork, Paper 1993-1, pages 361-379.
Berg, R.B. (1991): Geology of Talc and Chlorite Deposits in Montana. Proceedings of the 27th Forum on
Geology of Industrial Minerals, Banff, Alberta; B.C. Ministry of Energy Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Open File 1991-23, pages 81-92.
Blount, A.M. and Vassiliou, A.H. (1980): The Mineralogy and Origin of the Talc Deposits near Winterboro,
Alabama. Economic Geology, Volume 75, pages 107-116.
Brown, C.E. (1982): New York Talc; in Characteristics of Mineral Deposit Occurrences, R.L. Erickson,
Compiler, U.S. Geological Survey, Open File 1982-795, pages 239-240.
Harris, M. and Ionides, G.N. (1994): Update of a Market Study for Talc; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines
and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1994-24, 44 pages.
MacLean, M. (1988): Talc and Pyrophyllite in British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Open File 1988-19, 108 pages.
Piniazkiewicz, J., McCarthy, E.F. and Genco, N.A. (1994): Talc; in Carr, D.D. Editor, Industrial Minerals and
Rocks, 6thEdition, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., Littleton, Colorado, pages
1049-1069.
Sims, C. (1997): Talc Markets - A World of Regional Diversity; Industrial Minerals, May 1997, pages 39-
51.
Simandl, G.J. (1985): Geology and Geochemistry of Talc Deposits in Madoc Area, Ontario; Carleton
University, Ottawa, unpublished M. Sc. Thesis, 154 pages.
Spence, H.S. (1940): Talc, Steatite and Soapstone; Pyrophyllite; Canada Department of Mines and
Resources, Number 803, 146 pages.
Virta, R.L., Roberts, L. and Hatch, R. (1997): Talc and Pyrophylite, Annual Review; U.S. Geological Survey,
8 pages.
Wright, L.A. (1968): Talc Deposits of the Southern Death Valley-Kingston Range Region, California;
California Division of Mines and Geology; Special Report 38, 79 pages.
E09 – Sparry magensite

G.J. Simandl and K. Hancock

British Columbia Geological Survey

Hora, Z.D. (1999): Sparry Magnesite; in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3,
Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry
of Energy and Mines, pages 39-41

1. Identification

Synonyms: Veitsch-type, carbonate-hosted magnesite, crystalline magnesite.

Commodity: Magnesite.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE) - Canada/International): Mount Brussilof (082JNW001), Marysville

(082GNW005), Brisco area and Driftwood Creek (082KNE068); Veitsch, Entachen Alm,
Hochfilzen, Radenthein and Breitenau (Austria), Eugui (Navarra Province, Spain), deposits of
Ashan area, Liaoning Province (China), Satka deposit (Russia).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Stratabound and typically stratiform, lens-shaped zones of coarse-grained

magnesite mainly occurring in carbonates but also observed in sandstones or other clastic
sediments. Magnesite exhibits characteristic sparry texture.

Tectonic setting: Typically continental margin or marine platform, possibly continental settings, occur in
belts.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: The host sediments are deposited in a shallow marine
environment adjacent to paleobathymetric highs or a lacustrine evaporitic environment.

Age of mineralization: Proterozoic or Paleozoic.

Host/Associated rock types: Magnesite rock, dolostone, limestones, shales, chert. Associated with
sandstone, conglomerate and volcanics and their metamorphic equivalents.

Deposit form: Commonly strata, lenses or rarely irregular masses, typically few hundred metres to
several kilometres in strike length. Shortest dimension of the orebody (metres to tens of metres)
is commonly normal to the bedding planes.

Texture/Structure: The magnesite-bearing rocks exhibit sparry, pinolitic, zebra-like, or xenotopic

(anhedral) textures on the fresh surface. Magnesite or dolomite pseudomorphs after sulphates.
"Box-textures", rosettes, monopolar and antipolar growths are locally present.

Ore Mineralogy: Magnesite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Dolomite ± quartz ± chert ± talc ± chlorite ± sulphides ±
sulphosalts, ± calcite, ± mica, ± palygorskite, ± aragonite, ± clay (as veinlets), organic material. In
highly metamorphosed terrains, metamorphic minerals derived from above precursors will be
present.

Alteration mineralogy: Talc may form on quartz-magnesite boundaries due to low temperature
metamorphism.

Weathering: Surface exposures are typically beige or pale brown and characterized by "granola-like"
appearance. Most sulphides are altered into oxides in near surface environment.

Ore controls: Deposits are stratabound, commonly associated with unconformities. They are typically
located in basins characterized by shallow marine depositional environments. Lenses may be
located at various stratigraphic levels within magnesite-hosting formation.

Genetic models: There are two preferred theories regarding the origin of sparry magnesite deposits:
1) Replacement of dolomitized, permeable carbonates by magnesite due to interaction
with a metasomatic fluid.
2) Diagenetic recrystallization of a magnesia-rich protolith deposited as chemical
sediments in marine or lacustrine settings. The sediments would have consisted of fine-
grained magnesite, hydromagnesite, huntite or other low temperature magnesia-
bearing minerals.

The main difference between these hypotheses is the source of magnesia; external for
metasomatic replacement and in situ in the case of diagenetic recrystalization. Temperatures of
homogenization of fluid inclusions constrain the temperature of magnesite formation or
recrystalization to 110 to 240 oC. In British Columbia the diagenetic recrystalization theory may
best explain the stratigraphic association with gypsum and halite casts, correlation with
paleotopographic highs and unconformities, and shallow marine depositional features of the
deposits.

A number of recent cryptocrystalline sedimentary magnesite deposits, such as Salda Lake in

Turkey and the Kunwarara deposit in Queensland, Australia, huntite-magnesite-hydromagnesite
deposits of Kozani Basin, Northern Greece, and the magnesite- or hydromagnesite- bearing
evaporitic occurrences from Sebkha el Melah in Tunesia may be recent analogs to the pre-
diagenetic protoliths for British Columbia sparry magnesite deposits.

Associated deposit types: Sediment-hosted talc deposits (E08) and Mississippi Valley-type deposits (E12)
are geographically, but not genetically, associated with sparry magnesite in British Columbia.
The magnesite appears older than cross-cutting sparry dolomite that is commonly associated
with MVT deposits.

Comments: Magnesite deposits can survive even in high grade metamorphic environments because of
their nearly monomineralic nature.

3. Exploration guides
Geochemical signature: Tracing of magnesite boulders and blocks with pinolitic texture. Magnesite
grains in stream sediments.

Geophysical signature: N/A.

Other exploration guides: Surface exposures are beige, pale brown or pale gray. White fine-grained
marker horizons are useful in southwest British Columbia. "Granola-like" weathering texture is a
useful prospecting indicator. Magnesite may be identified in the field using heavy-liquids. In
British Columbia the deposits are often associated with unconformities, paleotopographic highs
within particular stratigraphic horizons.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Grades range from 90 to 95% MgCO3 with the resources ranging from
several to hundreds of million tonnes. British Columbia deposits are characterized by lower iron
content than most of the European deposits.

Economic limitations: There is large but very competitive market for magnesia-based products. China is
the largest exporter of magnesite. Quality of primary raw materials, cost of energy, cost of
transportation to markets, availability of existing infrastructure, and the quality of finished
product are major factors achieving a successful operation.

End uses: Magnesite is used to produce magnesium metal and caustic, dead-burned and fused
magnesia. Caustic magnesia, and derived tertiary products are used in chemical and industrial
applications, construction, animal foodstuffs and environmental rehabilitation. Fused and dead-
burned magnesia are used in high-performance refractories. Magnesium metal has wide range
of end uses, mostly in the aerospace and automotive industries. The automotive market for
magnesium metal is expected to expand rapidly with current efforts to reduce the weight of
vehicles to improve fuel economy and reduce harmful emissions.

Importance: Sparry magnesite deposits account for 80% of the world production. Significant quantities
of magnesite are also produced from ultramafic-hosted deposits and fine grained or nodular
deposits.

5. Selected bibliography

Acknowledgements: The manuscript benefited from discussion with I. Knuckey and C. Pilarski of Baymag
Mines Co. Ltd. Review by D.V. Lefebure is appreciated.

Chevalier, P. (1995): Magnesium; in 1994 Canadian Mineral Yearbook, Natural Resources Canada, pages
29.1-29.13.
Grant, B. (1987): Magnesite, Brucite and Hydromagnesite Occurrences in British Columbia; B.C. Ministry
of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1987-13, 80 pages.
Hancock, K.D. and Simandl, G.J. (1992): Geology of the Marysville Magnesite Deposit, Southeastern
British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Exploration in British
Columbia, Part B, pages 71-80.
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals, Geology and World Deposits. Industrial
Minerals Division, Metal Bulletin PLC, London, 312 pages.
Kendall, T. (1996): Dead-burned Magnesite, Industrial Minerals, Number 341, pages 25-51.
Möller, P. (1989): Magnesite; Monograph Series on Mineral Deposits, Number 28, Gebrüder
Borntraeger, pages 105-113.
Morteani, G. (1989): Mg-metasomatic Type Sparry Magnesites of Entachen Alm, Hochfilzen/Bürglkopf
and Spiessnagel (Austria); in Magnesite; Monograph Series on Mineral Deposits, Number 28,
Gebrüder Borntraeger, 300 pages.
Niashihara, H. (1956): Origin of bedded Magnesite Deposits of Manchuria; Economic Geology, Volume
51, pages 25-53.
O'Driscoll, M. (1994): Caustic Magnesia Markets; Industrial Minerals, Volume 20, pages 23-45.
O'Driscoll, M. (1996): Fused Magnesia; Industrial Minerals, Number 340, pages 19-27.
Simandl, G.J. and Hancock, K.D. (1996): Magnesite in British Columbia, Canada: A Neglected Resource;
Mineral Industry International, Number 1030, pages 33-44.
Simandl, G.J., Simandl, J., Hancock, K.D. and Duncan, L. (1996): Magnesite deposits in B.C. - Economic
Potential; Industrial Minerals, Number 343, pages 125-132.
Simandl, G.J., Hancock, K.D., Paradis, S. and Simandl, J. (1993): Field identification of Magnesite- bearing
rocks Using Sodium Polytungstate; CIM Bulletin, Volume 966, pages 68-72.
Simandl, G.J. and Hancock, K.D. (1992): Geology of the Dolomite-hosted Magnesite Deposits of Brisco
and Driftwood Creek areas, British Columbia; in: Fieldwork 1991, B.C. Ministry of Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Paper 1992-1, pages 461-478.
E12 – Mississippi Valley-type Pb-Zn

D. Alldrick and D. Sangster

1. Identification

Synonyms: Alpine-type Pb-Zn, Appalachian Zn, Low-temperature epigenetic Pb-Zn.

Related deposit type: Irish-type Zn-Pb (E13) is classified with MVT deposits in some studies.

Commodities (by-products): Pb, Zn, ± Ag (Cd, Ge, barite, fluorite)

Examples: (Yukon): Goz (106C 020), Blende (106D 064), Craig (106C 073); (British Columbia - Canada/
International): Robb Lake (94B005), Monarch (82N020), Kicking Horse (82N282); Nanisivik, Pine
Point, Polaris (Northwest Territories), Gays River (Nova Scotia), Newfoundland Zinc
(Newfoundland) / Mascot-Jefferson City, Copper Ridge district (Tennessee, United States), Old
Lead Belt and Viburnum Trend (Missouri, United States), Tri-State (Oklahoma, Kansas and
Missouri, United States), Harberton Bridge (Ireland), Upper Silesia (Poland), Raibl, Bleiberg
(Austria)

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Epigenetic, low-temperature, stratabound deposits of galena, sphalerite, pyrite and
marcasite, with associated dolomite, calcite and quartz gangue in platformal carbonate
sequences having primary and secondary porosity.

Tectonic settings: Most commonly stable interior cratonic platform or continental shelf. Some deposits
are incorporated in foreland thrust belts.

Depositional environment/Geologic setting: Host rocks form in shallow water, particularly tidal and
subtidal marine environments. Reef complexes may be developed on or near paleotopographic
basement highs. The majority of deposits are found around the margins of deep-water shale
basins; some are located within or near rifts (Nanisivik, Alpine district).

Age of mineralization: Proterozoic to Tertiary, with two peaks in Devonian to Permian and Cretaceous to
Eocene time. Dating mineralization has confirmed the epigenetic character of these deposits;
the difference between host rock age and mineralization age varies from district to district.
Known Yukon deposits are hosted in Proterozoic strata, but true mineralization ages of these
epigenetic deposits are poorly constrained. 1 British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria,
British Columbia, Canada. 2 Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Host/Associated rock types: Host rocks are most commonly dolostone, limestone, or dolomitized
limestone. Locally hosted in sandstone, conglomerate or calcareous shale. In Yukon, MVT
deposits are hosted in Proterozoic to Paleozoic carbonate rocks of the North American margin:
Goz is hosted by dolomite of the Proterozoic Backbone Ranges Formation; the Val and Blende
deposits are hosted by Middle Proterozoic Gillespie Group dolomite; and Craig is hosted by
dolomite within a late Proterozoic shale unit.
Deposit form: Highly irregular. May be peneconcordant as planar, braided or linear replacement bodies.
May be discordant in roughly cylindrical collapse breccias. Individual ore bodies range from a
few tens to a few hundreds of metres in the two dimensions parallel with bedding.
Perpendicular to bedding, dimensions are usually a few tens of metres. Deposits tend to be
interconnected thereby blurring deposit boundaries.

Texture/Structure: Most commonly as sulphide cement to chaotic collapse breccia. Sulphide minerals
may be disseminated between breccia fragments, deposited as layers atop fragments (“snow-
on-roof”), or completely filling the intra-fragment space. Sphalerite commonly displays banding,
either as colloform cement or as detrital layers (“internal sediments”) between host-rock
fragments. Sulphide stalactites are abundant in some deposits. Both extremely fine-grained and
extremely coarse-grained textured sulphides minerals may be found in the same deposit.
Precipitation is usually in the order pyrite (marcasite) → sphalerite → galena.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Galena, sphalerite, barite, fluorite. Some ores contain up to
30ppm Ag. Although some MVT districts display metal zoning, this is not a common feature. The
Southeast Missouri district and small portions of the Upper Mississippi Valley district are
unusual in containing significant amounts of Ni-, Co-, and Cu-sulphides.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Dolomite (can be pinkish), pyrite, marcasite, quartz,
calcite, gypsum.

Alteration mineralogy: Extensive finely crystalline dolostone may occur regionally, whereas coarse
crystalline dolomite is more common close to ore bodies. Extensive carbonate dissolution
results in deposition of insoluble residual components as internal sediments. Silicification
(jasperoid) is closely associated with ore bodies in the Tri-State and northern Arkansas districts.
Authigenic clays composed of illite, chlorite, muscovite, dickite and/or kaolinite accumulate in
vugs; minor authigenic feldspar (adularia).

Weathering: Extensive development of smithsonite, hydrozincite, willemite, and hemimorphite,

especially in non-glaciated regions (including upstanding hills or monadnocks). Large
accumulations of secondary zinc minerals can be mined. Galena is usually much more resistant
to weathering than sphalerite. Iron-rich gossans are not normally well-developed, even over
pyrite-rich deposits.

Ore controls: Any porous unit may host ore; porosity may be primary (rare) or secondary. Dissolution
collapse breccias are the most common host although fault breccias, permeable reefs, and
slump breccias may also be mineralized. Dissolution collapse breccias may form through action
of meteoric waters or hydrothermal fluids. Underlying aquifers may be porous sandstone or
limestone aquifers; the limestones may show thinning due to solution by ore-bearing fluids.

Genetic models: Deposits are obviously epigenetic, having been emplaced after host rock lithification.
Orehosting breccias are considered to have resulted from dissolution of more soluble
sedimentary units, followed by collapse of overlying beds. The major mineralizing processes
appear to have been open-space filling between breccia fragments, and replacement of
fragments or wall rock. The relative importance of these two processes varies widely among,
and within, deposits. Fluid inclusion data show that these deposits formed from warm (75°-
200°C), saline, aqueous solutions similar in composition to oil-field brines. Brine movement out
 of sedimentary basins, through aquifers or faults, to the hosting structures is the most widely
accepted mode of formation. Two main p A. Compaction-driven fluid flow is generated by over-
pressuring of subsurface aquifers by rapid sedimentation, followed by rapid release of basinal
fluids. B. Gravity-driven fluid flow flushes subsurface brines by artesian groundwater flow from
recharge areas in elevated regions of a foreland basin, to discharge areas in regions of lower
elevation. In addition to fluid transport, three geochemical mechanisms have been proposed to
account for chemical transport and deposition of ore constituents: 1. Mixing - Base metals are
transported by fluids of low sulphur content. Precipitation is effected by mixing with fluids
containing hydrogen sulphide; replacement of diagenetic iron sulphides; and/or reaction with
sulphur released by thermal degradation of organic compounds. 2. Sulphate reduction - Base
metals are transported together with sulphate in the same solution. Precipitation is the result of
reduction of sulphate by reaction with organic matter or methane. 3. Reduced sulphur - Base
metals are transported together with reduced sulphur. Precipitation is brought about by change
in pH, dilution, and/or cooling.

Associated deposit types: Fracture-controlled, fluorine-dominant deposits (with subordinate Ba, Pb, and
Zn) such as those of Illinois-Kentucky, the English Pennines and the Tennessee Sweetwater F-Ba-
Pb-Zn district (E10, E11). “Irish-type carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb” (E13) is described as a separate
deposit type in the BC Mineral Deposit Profiles, others regard these deposits as a variant of MVT
deposits. In the latter case, they are viewed as a sub-group of MVT deposits which are
associated with tensional regimes and rifts. Oxide zinc deposits have evolved from weathering
and alteration of MVT deposits (Skorpion, Berg Aukas, Namibia: B09).

Comments: British Columbia has prospective strata for MVT deposits in the miogeoclinal carbonate
platform rocks along its eastern border. MVT deposits are distinct from syngenetic carbonate-
hosted Pb-Zn deposits (Mt. Isa, Australia; E14) and high-temperature epigenetic deposits or
mantos (Midway, British Columbia; Santa Eulalia, Mexico; J01).

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Readily detectable positive anomalies of Zn in residual soils and stream
sediments. Regionally anomalous amounts of Pb, Zn, Cu, Mo, Ag, Co, Ni, Cd, Mg, F in insoluble
residues of carbonate rocks. Background lithogeochemical concentrations for unmineralized
carbonates: Pb = 9 ppm; Zn = 20; Cu = 4; Ag = 0.01.

Geophysical signature: Deposits may be detected by IP, resistivity, gravity and EM (CS-AMT/AFMAG)
systems. Test seismic lines have yielded ambiguous results. In southeast Missouri magnetic and
gravimetric surveys have been used to outline basement topographic highs (knobs) which
control the distribution of favourable sites of deposition.

Other Exploration Guides: Reef complexes in platformal carbonate successions. Proximal to, or updip
from, petroleum fields in large (continental-scale) sedimentary basins. Peripheral to basement
highs. Aligned along basement lineaments.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Data for individual deposits are difficult to obtain because deposits tend to
be interconnected. Most deposits are small and fall in the range 1 to 10 Mt. Grades generally
 range between 5% to 10% combined lead-zinc, with a majority being decidedly zinc rich
(Zn/Zn+Pb = 0.8). Silver content is not commonly reported since it typically occurs only in solid
solution in base metal sulphides. MVT deposits tend to occur in clusters, usually referred to as
districts. The Pine Point district, for example, contains more than 80 deposits, the Upper
Mississippi Valley district more than 400. Deposits in such districts, therefore, can collectively
contain extremely large tonnages. Of more than 80 deposits in the Pine Point district, 40 were
mined for a total production of 80 Mt grading 6.5% Zn and 3% Pb. The largest deposit (X15) was
17.4 Mt and the richest deposit (N81) produced 2.7 Mt of ore grading 12% Zn and 7% Pb. The
Robb Lake deposit in British Columbia contains 5.3 Mt grading 5.0% Zn and 2.3% Pb. The Craig
deposit of Yukon has a geological resource of 964 500 tonnes averaging 13.5% Pb, 8.5% Zn and
123.4 g/t Ag. The Blende deposit contains a geological resource of 19.4 million tonnes grading
55.9 g/t Ag and 5.85% Pb-Zn.

Economic limitations: Mining districts may extend over many hundreds of square kilometres, increasing
mining costs (stripping, haulage to mill, etc.). One of the more favourable attributes of MVT
deposits is the normally large grain size, resulting in good mineral separation and high metal
recoveries (typical zinc recovery exceeds 90%). Recovery is especially high in deposits with little
or no pyrite (Newfoundland Zinc, Gays River and the east and central Tennessee districts).

Importance: Metal production from MVT districts can be similar to production from giant stratiform,
sediment-hosted (SEDEX) deposits. The Tri-State district was one of the world’s major producers
of lead during the 20th century, yielding 500 Mt of ore. The Viburnum Trend produced over 123
Mt grading 5.8% Pb, 0.8% Zn, 0.14% Cu and 17 g/t Ag between 1960 and 1984.

5. Selected bibliography

Anderson, G.M. and MacQueen, R.W. (1982): Ore Deposit Models - 6. Mississippi Valley-type lead-zinc
deposits; Geoscience Canada, Volume 9, pages 108-117
Briskey, J.A. (1986): Carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn; in USGS Bulletin 1693, Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P.
and Singer, D.A. (editors), Models 32a and 32b, pages 220-226 Garven, G. (1985): The role of
regional fluid flow in the genesis of the Pine Point deposit, Western Canada Sedimentary Basin;
Economic Geology, Volume 80, pages 307-324
Heyl, A.V., Landis, G.P. and Zartman, R.E. (1974): Isotopic evidence for the origin of Mississippi Valley-
type mineral deposits: a review; Economic Geology, Volume 69, pages 992-1006
Hutchinson, R.L. (1996): Regional metallogeny of carbonate-hosted ores by comparison of field
relationships; in Carbonate-hosted lead-zinc deposits; Sangster, D.F. (editor), Society of
Economic Geologists, Special Paper 4, pages 8-17
Leach, D.L. and Rowan, E.L. (1986): Genetic link between Ouachita Foldbelt tectonism and the
Mississippi Valleytype lead-zinc deposits of the Ozarks; Geology, Volume 14, pages 931-935
Leach, D.L. and Sangster, D.F. (1993): Mississippi Valley-type lead-zinc deposits; in Kirkham, R.V., Sinclair,
W.D., Thorpe, R.I., and Duke, J.M., eds., Mineral Deposit Modeling: Geological Association of
Canada, Special Paper 40, pages 289-314
Leach, D.L., Bradley, D., Lewchuk, M.T., Symons, D.T.A., de Marsily, G. and Brannon, J. (2001): Mississippi
Valleytype lead-zinc deposits through geological time - implications from recent age-dating
research; Mineralium Deposita, Volume 36, pages 711-740
MacQueen, R.W. and Thompson, R.I. (1978): Carbonate-hosted lead-zinc occurrences in northeastern
British Columbia with emphasis on the Robb Lake deposit; Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences,
Volume 15, pages 1737-1762
Misra, K.C., editor (1995): Carbonate-hosted lead-zinc-fluorite-barite deposits of North America; Society
of Economic Geologists, International Field Conference Guidebook, 254 pages
Nelson, J.L., Paradis, S., Christensen, J. and Gabites, J. (2002): Canadian Cordilleran Mississippi Valley-
type deposits - a case for Devonian-Mississippian back-arc hydrothermal origin; Economic
Geology, Volume 97, pages 1013-1036
Rhodes, D., Lantos, E.A., Lantos, J.A., Webb, R.J. and Owens, D.C. (1984): Pine Point orebodies and their
relationship to the stratigraphy, structure, dolomitization and karstification of the Middle
Devonian barrier complex; Economic Geology, Volume 79, pages 991-1055
Sangster, D.F. (1995): Mississippi Valley-type lead-zinc; in Geology of Canadian Mineral Deposit Types,
O.R. Eckstrand, W.D. Sinclair, and R.I. Thorpe, Editors, Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of
Canada, Number 8, pages 253-261
Sangster, D.F., editor (1996): Carbonate-hosted lead-zinc deposits; Society of Economic Geologists,
Special Paper 4, 687 pages
Shelton, K.L and Hagni, R.D. (1993): Geology and geochemistry of Mississippi Valley-type ore deposits;
Proceedings Volume, University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla, Missouri, 195 pages
E13 – Irish-type Carbonate hosted Zn-Pb

T. Höy
B.C. Geological Survey

Höy, Trygve (1996): Irish-type Carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit
Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T, Editors, British Columbia
Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 21-24.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Kootenay Arc Pb-Zn, Remac type.

Commodities (by-products): Zn, Pb, Ag; (Cu, barite, Cd).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Reeves MacDonald (082FSW026), HB

(082FSW004), Aspen (082FSW001), Jack Pot West (082FSW255), Jersey (082FSW009), Duncan
(082KSE020), Wigwam (082KNW068); Navan, Lisheen, Tynagh, Silvermines, Galmoy, Ballinalack,
Allenwood West (Ireland); Troya (Spain).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Irish-type carbonate-hosted deposits are stratabound, massive sphalerite, galena,
iron sulphide and barite lenses with associated calcite, dolomite and quartz gangue in
dolomitized platformal limestones. Deposits are structurally controlled, commonly wedge
shaped adjacent to normal faults. Deformed deposits are irregular in outline and commonly
elongate parallel to the regional structural grain.

Tectonic setting: Platformal sequences on continental margins which commonly overlie deformed and
metamorphosed continental crustal rocks.

Depositional environmental/geological setting: Adjacent to normal growth faults in transgressive,

shallow marine platformal carbonates; also commonly localized near basin margins.

Age of mineralization: Known deposits are believed to be Paleozoic in age and younger than their host
rocks; Irish deposits are hosted by Lower Carboniferous rocks; Kootenay Arc deposits are in the
Lower Cambrian.

Host/Associated rock types: Hosted by thick, non-argillaceous carbonate rocks; these are commonly the
lowest pure carbonates in the stratigraphic succession. They comprise micritic and oolitic beds,
and fine-grained calcarenites in a calcareous shale, sandstone, calcarenite succession.
Underlying rocks include sandstones or argillaceous calcarenites and shales. Iron formations,
comprising interlayered hematite, chert and limestone, may occur as distal facies to some
deposits. Deformed Kootenay Arc deposits are enveloped by fine-grained grey, siliceous
dolomite that is generally massive or only poorly banded and locally brecciated.

Deposit form: Deposits are typically wedge shaped, ranging from over 30 m thick adjacent to, or along
growth faults, to 1-2 cm bands of massive sulphides at the periphery of lenses. Economic
 mineralization rarely extends more than 200 m from the faults. Large deposits comprise
individual or stacked sulphide lenses that are roughly concordant with bedding. In detail,
however, most lenses cut host stratigraphy at low angles. Contacts are sharp to gradational.
Deformed deposits are typically elongate within and parallel to the hinges of tight folds. The
Reeves MacDonald deposit forms a syncline with a plunge length of approximately 1500 m and
widths up to 25 m. Others (HB) are elongate parallel to a strong mineral lineation. Individual
sulphide lenses are irregular, but typically parallel to each other and host layering, and may
interfinger or merge along plunge.

Texture/Structure: Sulphide lenses are massive to occassionally well layered. Typically massive sulphides
adjacent to faults grade outward into veinlet- controlled or disseminated sulphides. Colloform
sphalerite and pyrite textures occur locally. Breccias are common with sulphides forming the
matrix to carbonate (or as clasts?). Sphalerite-galena veins, locally brecciated, commonly cut
massive sulphides. Rarely (Navan), thin laminated, graded and crossbedded sulphides, with
framboidal pyrite, occur above more massive sulphide lenses. Strongly deformed sulphide
lenses comprise interlaminated sulphides and carbonates which, in some cases (Fyles and
Hewlett, 1959), has been termed shear banding.

Ore Mineralogy (Prinicipal and subordinate): Sphalerite, galena; barite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite,
tennantite, sulfosalts, tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite.

Gangue mineralogy (Prinicipal and subordinate): Dolomite, calcite, quartz, pyrite, marcasite; siderite,
barite, hematite, magnetite; at higher metamorphic grades, olivine, diopside, tremolite,
wollastonite, garnet.

Alteration mineralogy: Extensive early dolomitization forms an envelope around most deposits which
extends tens of metres beyond the sulphides. Dolomitization associated with mineralization is
generally fine grained, commonly iron-rich, and locally brecciated and less well banded than
limestone. Mn halos occur around some deposits; silicification is local and uncommon. Fe in iron
formations is distal.

Weathering: Gossan minerals include limonite, cerussite, anglesite, smithsonite, hemimorphite,

pyromorphite.

Ore controls: Deposits are restricted to relatively pure, shallow-marine carbonates. Regional basement
structures and, locally, growth faults are important. Orebodies may be more common at fault
intersections. Proximity to carbonate bank margins may be a regional control in some districts.

Genetic model: Two models are commonly proposed:

1) syngenetic seafloor deposition: evidence inludes stratiform geometry of some deposits,
occurrence together of bedded and clastic sulphides, sedimentary textures in sulphides, and,
where determined, similar ages for mineralization and host rocks.
2) diagenetic to epigenetic replacement: replacement and open-space filling textures, lack of
laminated sulphides in most deposits, alteration and mineralization above sulphide lenses, and
lack of seafloor oxidation.

Associated deposit types: Mississippi Valley type Pb-Zn (E12), sediment-hosted barite (E17), sedimentary
exhalative Zn-Pb-Ag (E14), possibly carbonate-hosted disseminated Au-Ag (E03).
Comments: Although deposits such as Tynagh and Silvermines have structures and textures similar to
sedex deposits, and are associated with distal iron formations, they are included in the Irish-type
classification as recent work (e.g., Hizman, 1995) concludes they formed by replacement of
lithified rocks. Deposits that can be demonstrated to have formed on the seafloor are not
included in Irish-type deposits. It is possible that the same continental margin carbonates may
host sedex (E14), Irish-type (E13) and Mississippi Valley-type (E12) deposits.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Elevated base metal, Ag and Mn values in both silt and soil samples; however,
high carbonate content, and hence high Ph may reduce effectiveness of stream silts.

Geophysical signature: Induced polarization surveys are effective and ground electromagnetic methods
may work for deposits with iron sulphides. Deposits can show up as resistivity lows and gravity
highs.

Other exploration guides: The most important control is stratigraphic. All known deposits are in
carbonate rocks, commonly the lowest relatively pure carbonate in a succession. Other guides
are proximity to growth faults and intersection of faults, regional and local dolomitization and
possibly laterally equivalent iron formations.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Irish deposits are typically less than 10 Mt with 5-6% Zn, 1-2% Pb and 30g/t
Ag. Individual deposits can contain up to 90 g/t Ag. The largest, Navan, produced 36 Mt and has
remaining reserves of 41.8 Mt containing 8% Zn and 2% Pb. Mined deposits in the Kootenay Arc
averaged between 6 and 7 Mt and contained 3-4 % Zn, 1-2 % Pb, and 3-4 g/t Ag. Duncan has
reserves of 2.76 Mt with 3.3% Pb and 3.1% Zn; Wigwam contains 8.48 Mt with 2.14% Pb and
3.54% Zn.

Economic limitations: These deposits are attractive because of their simple mineralogy and polymetallic
nature, although significantly smaller than sedex deposits. In British Columbia the Kootenay Arc
deposits are generally lower grade with up to only 6 % Pb+Zn. These deposits are also
structurally complex making them more complicated to mine. Importance: Production from
these deposits makes Ireland a major world zinc producer. Recent discovery of concealed
deposits (Galmoy in 1986 and Lisheen in 1990) assures continued production. In British
Columbia, a number of these deposits were mined intermittently until 1979 when H.B. finally
closed. Some still have substantial lead and zinc reserves. However, their current potential for
development is based largely on the precious metal content. The high carbonate content of the
gangue minimizes acid-rock drainage problems.

5. References

Addie, G.G. (1970): The Reeves MacDonald Mine, Nelway, British Columbia; in Pb-Zn Deposits in the
Kootenay Arc, N.E. Washington and adjacent British Columbia; Department of Natural
Resources, State of Washington, Bulletin 61, pages 79-88.
Fyles, J.T. (1970): Geological Setting of Pb-Zn Deposits in the Kootenay Lake and Salmo Areas of B.C.; in
Pb-Zn Deposits in the Kootenay Arc, N.E. Washington and Adjacent British Columbia;
Department of Natural Resources, State of Washington, Bulletin 61, pages 41-53.
Fyles, J.T. and Hewlett, C.G. (1959): Stratigraphy and Structure of the Salmo Lead-Zinc Area; B. C.
Department of Mines, Bulletin 41, 162 pages.
Hitzman, M.W. (1995): Mineralization in the Irish Zn-Pb-(Ba-Ag) Orefield; in Irish Carbonate-hosted Zn-
Pb Deposits, Anderson K., Ashton J., Earls G., Hitzman M., and Sears S., Editors, Society of
Economic Geologists, Guidebook Series, Volume 21, pages 25-61.
Hitzman, M.W. (1995): Geological Setting of the Irish Zn-Pb-(Ba-Ag) Orefield; in Irish Carbonate-hosted
Zn-Pb Deposits, Anderson, K., Ashton, J., Earls, G., Hitzman, M., and Sears, S., Editors, Society of
Economic Geologists, Guidebook Series, Volume 21, pages 3-24.
Höy, T. (1982): Stratigraphic and Structural Setting of Stratabound Lead- Zinc Deposits in Southeastern
British Columbia; Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Bulletin, Volume 75, pages 114-
134.
Nelson, J.L. (1991): Carbonate-hosted Lead-Zinc Deposits of British Columbia; in Ore Deposits, Tectonics
and Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Paper 1991-4, pages 71-88.
Sangster, D.F. (1970): Metallogenesis for some Canadian Lead-zinc Deposits in Carbonate Rocks;
Geological Association of Canada, Proceedings, Volume 22, pages 27-36.
Sangster, D.F. (1990): Mississippi Valley-type and Sedex Lead-Zinc Deposits: a Comparative Examination;
Transactions of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, Section B, Volume 99, pages B21-B42.
T. Höy Draft 3: March 27, 1996
E14 – Sedimentary exhalative Zn-Pb-Ag

D. MacIntyre
British Columbia Geological Survey

MacIntyre, D. (1995): Sedimentary Exhalative Zn-Pb-Ag, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit
Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia
Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 37-39.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Shale-hosted Zn-Pb-Ag; sediment-hosted massive sulphide Zn-Pb-Ag; Sedex Zn- Pb.

Commodities (by-products): Zn, Pb, Ag, (minor Cu, barite).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Cirque, Sullivan, Driftpile; Faro, Grum, Dy,
Vangorda, Swim, Tom and Jason (Yukon, Canada), Red Dog (Alaska, USA), McArthur River and
Mt. Isa (Australia); Megen and Rammelsberg (Germany).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Beds and laminations of sphalerite, galena, pyrite, pyrrhotite and rare chalcopyrite,
with or without barite, in euxinic clastic marine sedimentary strata.. Deposits are typically
tabular to lensoidal in shape and range from centimetres to tens of metres thick. Multiple
horizons may occur over stratigraphic intervals of 1000 m or more.

Tectonic setting: Intracratonic or continental margin environments in fault-controlled basins and

troughs. Troughs are typically half grabens developed by extension along continental margins or
within back-arc basins.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Restricted second and third order basins within linear,
fault-controlled marine, epicratonic troughs and basins. There is often evidence of
penecontemporaneous movement on faults bounding sites of sulphide deposition. The
depositional environment varies from deep, starved marine to ? shallow water restricted shelf.

Age of mineralization: The major metallogenic events are Middle Proterozoic, Early Cambrian, Early
Silurian and Middle to Late Devonian to Mississippian. The Middle Proterozoic and Devonian-
Mississippian events are recognized worldwide. In the Canadian Cordillera, minor metallogenic
events occur in the Middle Ordovician and Early Devonian.

Host/Associated rock types: The most common hostrocks are those found in euxinic, starved basin
environments, namely, carbonaceous black shale, siltstone, cherty argillite and chert. Thin
interbeds of turbiditic sandstone, granule to pebble conglomerate, pelagic limestone and
dolostone, although volumetrically minor, are common. Evaporites, calcareous siltstone and
mudstone are common in shelf settings. Small volumes of volcanic rocks, typically tuff and
submarine mafic flows, may be present within the host succession. Slump breccia, fan
conglomerates and similar deposits occur near synsedimentary growth faults. Rapid facies and
 thickness changes are found near the margins of second and third order basins. In some basins
high-level mafic sills with minor dikes are important.

Deposit form: These deposits are stratabound, tabular to lens shaped and are typically comprised of
many beds of laminae of sulphide and/or barite. Frequently the lenses are stacked and more
than one horizon is economic. Ore lenses and mineralized beds often are part of a sedimentary
succession up to hundreds of metres thick. Horizontal extent is usually much greater than
vertical extent. Individual laminae or beds may persist over tens of kilometres within the
depositional basin.

Texture/Structure: Sulphide and barite laminae are usually very finely crystalline where deformation is
minor. In intensely folded deposits, coarser grained, recrystallized zones are common. Sulphide
laminae are typically monomineralic.

Ore mineralogy (principal and subordinate): The principal sulphide minerals are pyrite, pyrrhotite,
sphalerite and galena. Some deposits contain significant amounts of chalcopyrite, but most do
not. Barite may or may not be a major component of the ore zone. Trace amounts of marcasite,
arsenopyrite, bismuthinite, molybdenite, enargite, millerite, freibergite, cobaltite, cassiterite,
valleriite and melnikovite have been reported from these deposits. These minerals are usually
present in very minor amounts.

Alteration mineralogy: Alteration varies from well developed to nonexistent. In some deposits a
stockwork and disseminated feeder zone lies beneath, or adjacent to, the stratiform
mineralization. Alteration minerals, if present, include silica, tourmaline, carbonate, albite,
chlorite and dolomite. They formed in a relatively low temperature environment. Celsian, Ba-
muscovite and ammonium clay minerals have also been reported but are probably not common.

Ore controls: Favourable sedimentary sequences, major structural breaks, basins.

Genetic model: The deposits accumulate in restricted second and third order basins or half grabens
bounded by synsedimentary growth faults. Exhalative centres occur along these faults and the
exhaled brines accumulate in adjacent seafloor depressions. Biogenic reduction of seawater
sulphate within an anoxic brine pool is believed to control sulphide precipitation.

Associated deposit types: Associated deposit types include carbonate-hosted sedimentary exhalative,
such as the Kootenay Arc and Irish deposits (E13), bedded barite (E17) and iron formation (F10).

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: The deposits are typically zoned with Pb found closest to the vent grading
outward and upward into more Zn-rich facies. Cu is usually found either within the feeder zone
of close to the exhalative vent. Barite, exhalative chert and hematite-chert iron formation, if
present, are usually found as a distal facies. Sediments such as pelagic limestone interbedded
with the ore zone may be enriched in Mn. NH3 anomalies have been documented at some
deposits, as have Zn, Pb and Mn haloes. The host stratigraphic succession may also be enriched
in Ba on a basin-wide scale.
Geophysical signature: Airborne and ground geophysical surveys, such as electromagnetics or magnetics
should detect deposits that have massive sulphide zones, especially if these are steeply dipping.
However, the presence of graphite-rich zones in the host sediments can complicate the
interpretation of EM conductors. Also, if the deposits are flat lying and comprised of fine
laminae distributed over a significant stratigraphic interval, the geophysical response is usually
too weak to be definitive. Induced polarization can detect flat-lying deposits, especially if
disseminated feeder zones are present.

Other exploration guides: The principal exploration guidelines are appropriate sedimentary environment
and stratigraphic age. Restricted marine sedimentary sequences deposited in an epicratonic
extensional tectonic setting during the Middle Proterozoic, Early Cambrian, Early Silurian or
Devono-Mississippian ages are the most favourable.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: The median tonnage for this type of deposit worldwide is 15 Mt, with 10 % of
deposits in excess of 130 Mt (Briskey, 1986). The median grades worldwide are Zn - 5.6%, Pb -
2.8% and Ag - 30 g/t. The Sullivan deposit, one of the largest deposits of this type ever
discovered, has a total size of more than 155 Mt grading 5.7% Zn, 6.6% Pb and 7 g/t Ag.
Reserves at the Cirque are 32.2 Mt grading 7.9% Zn, 2.1% Pb and 48 g/t Ag.

Economic limitations: The large, near-surface deposits are amenable to high volume, open pit mining
operations. Underground mining is used for some deposits.

Importance: Sedimentary exhalative deposits currently produce a significant proportion of the world’s
Zn and Pb. Their large tonnage potential and associated Ag values make them an attractive
exploration target.

5. References

Briskey, J.A. (1986): Descriptive Model of Sedimentary Exhalative Zn-Pb; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox,
D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, 379 pages.
Carne, R.C. and Cathro, R.J. (1982): Sedimentary-exhalative (Sedex) Zn-Pb-Ag Deposits, Northern
Canadian Cordillera; Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Bulletin, Volume 75, pages 66-
78.
Gustafson, L.B. and Williams, N. (1981): Sediment-hosted Stratiform Deposits of Copper, Lead and Zinc;
in Economic Geology Seventy-fifth Anniversary Volume, 1905-1980, Skinner, B.J., Editor,
Economic Geology Publishing Co., pages 139-178.
Large, D.E. (1981): Sediment-hosted Submarine Exhalative Sulphide Deposits - a Review of their
Geological Characteristics and Genesis; in Handbook of Stratabound and Stratiform Ore
Deposits, Wolfe, K.E., Editor, Geological Association of Canada, Volume 9, pages 459-507.
Large, D.E. (1983): Sediment-hosted Massive Sulphide Lead-Zinc Deposits; in Short Course in
Sedimentary Stratiform Lead-Zinc Deposits, Sangster, D.F., Editor, Mineralogical Association of
Canada, pages 1-29.
MacIntyre, D.G. (1991): Sedex - Sedimentary-exhalative Deposits, in Ore Deposits, Tectonics and
Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera, McMillan, W.J., Coordinator, B. C. Ministry of Energy,
Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1991-4, pages 25- 69.
Sangster, D.F. (1986): Classifications, Distribution and Grade-Tonnage Summaries of Canadian Lead-Zinc
Deposits; Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report 37, 68 pages.
E15 – Blackbird sediment-hosted Cu-Co

T. Höy
British Columbia Geological Survey

Höy, T. (1995): Blackbird Sediment-hosted Cu-Co, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 1 - Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 41-44.

1. Identification

Synonym: Sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposit.

Commodities (by-products): Cu, Co, (Au, Bi, Ni, Ag; possibly Pb, Zn).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Canadian examples are not known; Blackbird,
Bonanza Copper and Tinker's Pride (Idaho, USA), possibly Sheep Creek deposits (Montana, USA).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Pyrite and minor pyrrhotite, cobaltite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite and magnetite
occur as disseminations, small veins and tabular to pod-like lenses in sedimentary rocks.
Chloritic alteration and tourmaline breccias are locally associated with mineralization.

Tectonic setting: Near continental margins or in intracratonic basins. Within the Belt-Purcell basin, which
may have formed in a large inland sea, extensional tectonics are suggested by possible turbidite
deposition, growth faulting, gabbroic sills and (?)tuff deposition. Alternative setting is marine, in
an incipient or failed rift along a continental margin.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: These deposits are not well understood. Possible turbidite
deposition in marine or inland sea, associated with basaltic pyroclastic volcanics or mafic
synsedimentary gabbroic sills; alternatively, tidal flat environment.

Age of mineralization: Can be of any age. The Blackbird deposits at the type locality are assumed to be
approximately 1460 Ma, the age of the hostrocks.

Host/Associated rock types: Fine-grained metasedimentary rocks; thin-bedded siltstone, fine-grained

quartzite, black argillite and calcareous siltstone; garnet schist, phyllite, quartz-mica schist. In
the Blackbird district synaeresis cracks (subaqueous shrinkage cracks) occur within immediate
hostrocks, sedimentary structures indicative of shallow water, and locally subaerial exposure in
overlying rocks, suggest shallow water environment. Numerous biotite-rich beds within the host
succession may be mafic tuff units (or diorite sills ?). Sheep Creek deposits are within correlative
Newland Formation dolomitized shales and conglomerates.

Deposit form: Irregular, tabular to pod-like deposits, from approximately 2 to 10 m thick.

Texture/Structure: Fine to fairly coarse grained, massive to disseminated sulphides; pyrite locally has
colloform textures. Locally sheared; vein sulphides in some deposits; quartz-tourmaline breccia
pipes (?).

Ore mineralogy (principal and subordinate) Cobaltite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, gold and silver in
breccia pipes; arsenopyrite, magnetite, cobaltian pyrite. Sheep Creek: pyrite, marcasite,
chalcopyrite, tennantite plus cobalt minerals; covellite, bornite in barite.

Gangue mineralogy: quartz, biotite, barite; tourmaline, hornblende, chlorite, muscovite, ankerite,
dolomite, siderite, calcite and apatite.

Alteration mineralogy: Silicification and intense chloritization; locally quartz- tourmaline breccias.

Weathering: Supergene enrichment with ludlamite and vivianite; erythrite (cobalt bloom); intense
gossans at surface.

Ore controls: Regional controls include synsedimentary extensional fault structures, basin margin and
growth faults. Local controls include association with mafic tuffs and stacked deposits at several
stratigraphic intervals separated by barren rock.

Genetic model: Based on stratabound nature of deposits and similarity with unmetamorphosed Sheep
Creek deposits, the Blackbird lenses are interpreted to be either syngenetic or diagenetic.

Associated deposit types: Possibly Besshi volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits (G04), Fe formations
(F10), base metal veins, tourmaline breccias.

Comments: Sheep Creek deposits are a relatively new exploration target in Belt rocks in Montana. They
are in equivalent, lower metamorphic grade hostrocks to those of the Blackbird deposits, and
have similar mineralogy and trace metal geochemistry. Lower Purcell Supergroup rocks and
other structurally controlled sedimentary basins associated with variable mafic magmatism are
prospective hosts in Canada.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Enriched in Fe, As, B, Co. Cu, Au, Ag and Mn; may be depleted in Ca and Na.
Sheep Creek also contains high Ba.

Geophysical signature: Sulphide lenses usually show either an electromagnetic or induced polarization
signature based on the style of mineralization and presence of conductive sulphides.

Other exploration guides: Proximity to mafic tuffs or possibly early gabbroic sills, rapid sedimentary
facies changes indicative of growth faults; regional pyrite development; may grade laterally to
pyritic zones with anomalous Pb-Zn.

4. Economic factors
Grade and tonnage: The Blackbird district deposits range from less than 100 000 t to 1.3 Mt containing
0.4 - 0.6 % Co and 1.3% Cu. Two zones of the Sheep Creek deposits contain respectively 4.5 Mt
of 2.5% Cu and 0.12% Co, and 1.8 Mt with 6% Cu. Variable gold, up to 20 g/t in Blackbird lenses.

Economic limitations: Generally lower copper grades favour open pit mining; Au and Ag are important
by-products.

Importance: Small past producers of copper, cobalt and gold in Idaho.

5. References

Acknowledgment: This deposit profile draws heavily from the USGS descriptive deposit model of
Blackbird Co-Cu by Robert Earhart.

Anderson, A.L. (1947): Cobalt Mineralization in the Blackbird District, Lemhi County, Idaho; Economic
Geology, Volume 42, pages 22-46.
Earhart, R.L. (1986): Descriptive Model of Blackbird Co-Cu; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P and
Singer, D.A., Editors, US Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, page 142.
Himes, M.D. and Petersen, E.U. (1990): Geological and Mineralogical Characteristics of the Sheep Creek
Copper-Cobalt Sediment-hosted Stratabound Sulfide Deposit, Meagher County, Montana; in
Gold '90 Symposium, Salt Lake City, Utah, Chapter 52, Society of Economic Geologists, pages
533-546.
Hughes, G.J. (1982): Basinal Setting of the Idaho Cobalt Belt, Blackbird Mining District, Lemhi County,
Idaho; in the Genesis of Rocky Mountain Ore Deposits; Changes with Time and Tectonics,
Denver Region Geologists Society, pages 21-27.
E16 – Shale-hosted Ni-Zn-Mo-PGE

D.V. Lefebure1 and R.M. Coveney Jr.2

1
British Columbia Geological Survey
2
University of Missouri - Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri

Lefebure, D.V. and Coveney, R.M. Jr. (1995): Shale-hosted Ni-Zn-Mo-PGE, in Selected British Columbia
Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors,
British Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 45-48.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Sediment-hosted Ni-Mo-PGE, Stratiform Ni-Zn-PGE.

Commodities (by-products): Ni, Mo, ( Zn, Pt, Pd, Au).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Nick (Yukon, Canada); mining camps of Tianeshan,
Xintuguo, Tuansabao and Jinzhuwoin and Zunyi Mo deposits, Dayong-Cili District (China).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Thin layers of pyrite, vaesite (NiS2), jordisite (amorphous MoS2) and sphalerite in
black shale sub-basins with associated phosphatic chert and carbonate rocks.

Tectonic setting(s): Continental platform sedimentary sequences and possibly successor basins. All
known deposits associated with orogenic belts, however, strongly anomalous shales overlying
the North American craton may point to as yet undiscovered deposits over the stable craton.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Anoxic basins within clastic sedimentary (flysch)

sequences containing black shales.

Age of mineralization: Post Archean. Known deposits are Early Cambrian and Devonian, however, there
is potential for deposits of other ages.

Host/Associated rock types: Black shale is the host; associated limestones, dolomitic limestones,
calcareous shale, cherts, siliceous shale, siliceous dolomite, muddy siltstone and tuffs.
Commonly associated with phosphate horizons. In the Yukon at base of a 10 to 20 m thick
phosphatic shale bed and in China the Ni-Mo beds are in black shales associated with
phosphorite.

Deposit form: Thin beds (0 to 15 cm thick, locally up to 30 cm) covering areas up to at least 100 ha and
found as clusters and zones extending for tens of kilometres.

Texture/Structure: Semimassive to massive sulphides as nodules, spheroids, framboids and streaks or

segregations in a fine-grained matrix of sulphides, organic matter and nodular phosphorite or
phosphatic carbonaceous chert. Mineralization can be rhythmically laminated; often has thin
discontinuous laminae. Brecciated clasts and spheroids of pyrite, organic matter and
phosphorite. In China nodular textures (~ 1 mm diameter) grade to coatings of sulphides on tiny
 1-10 mm spherules of organic matter. Fragments and local folding reflect soft sediment
deformation. Abundant plant fossils in Nick mineralization and abundant fossils of
microorganisms (cyanobacteria) in the Chinese ores.

Ore mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Pyrite, vaesite (NiS2), amorphous molybdenum minerals
(jordisite, MoS2), bravoite, sphalerite, wurtzite, polydimite, gersdorffite, violarite, millerite,
sulvanite, pentlandite, tennanite and as traces native gold, uranitite, tiemannite, arsenopyrite,
chalcopyrite and covellite. Discrete platinum group minerals may be unusual. Some ore samples
are surprisingly light because of abundant organic matter and large amount of pores.

Gangue mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Chert, amorphous silica, phosphatic sediments and
bitumen. Can be interbedded with pellets of solid organic matter (called stone coal in China).
Barite laths are reported in two of the China deposits.

Alteration mineralogy: Siliceous stockworks and bitumen veins with silicified wallrock occur in the
footwall units. Carbonate concretions up to 1.5 m in diameter occur immediately below the Nick
mineralized horizon in the Yukon.

Weathering: Mineralized horizons readily oxidize to a black colour and are recessive. Phosphatic
horizons can be resistant to weathering.

Ore controls: The deposits developed in restricted basins with anoxic conditions. Known deposits are
found near the basal contact of major formations. Underlying regional unconformities and
major basin faults are possible controls on mineralization. Chinese deposits occur
discontinuously in a 1600 km long arcuate belt, possibly controlled by basement fractures.

Genetic model: Several genetic models have been suggested reflecting the limited data available and the
unusual presence of PGEs without ultramafic rocks. Syngenetic deposition from seafloor springs
with deposition of metals on or just beneath the seafloor is the most favoured model. Siliceous
venting tubes and chert beds in the underlying beds in the Yukon suggest a hydrothermal source
for metals.

Associated deposit types: Phosphorite layers (F07?), stone coal, SEDEX Pb-Zn (E14), Sediment-hosted
barite (E17), vanadian shales, sediment-hosted Ag-V, uranium deposits.

Comments: Ag-V and V deposits hosted by black shales have been described from the same region in
China hosted by underlying late Precambrian rocks.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Elevated values of Ni, Mo, Au, PGE, C, P, Ba, Zn, Re, Se, As, U, V and S in rocks
throughout large parts of basin and derived stream sediments. In China average regional values
for host shales of 350 g/t Mo, 150 g/t Ni, several wt % P2O5 and 5 to 22% organic matter.
Organic content correlates with metal contents for Ni, Mo and Zn.

Geophysical signature: Electromagnetic surveys should detect pyrite horizons.

Other exploration guides: Anoxic black shales in sub-basins within marginal basins. Chert or phosphate-
rich sediments associated with a pyritiferous horizon. Barren, 5 mm to 1.5 cm thick, pyrite layers
(occasionally geochemically anomalous) up to tens of metres above mineralized horizon.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: The thin sedimentary horizons (not economic) represent hundreds of
thousands of tonnes grading in per cent values for at least two of Ni-Mo-Zn with significant
PGEs. In China, Zunyi Mo mines yield ~ 1000 t per year averaging ~4 % Mo and containing up to
4 % Ni, 2 % Zn, 0.7 g/t Au, 50 g/t Ag, 0.3 g/t Pt, 0.4 g/t Pd and 30 g/t Ir. The ore is recovered from
a number of small adits using labour-intensive mining methods.

Economic limitations: In China the Mo-bearing phase is recovered by roasting followed by caustic
leaching to produce ammonium molybdate. Molybedenum-bearing phases are fine grained and
dispersed, therefore all ore (cutoff grade 4.1% Mo) is direct shipped to the smelter after
crushing.

Importance: Current world production from shale-hosted Ni-Mo-PGE mines is approximately 1000 t of
ore with grades of approximately 4 % Mo. Known deposits of this type are too thin to be
economic at current metal prices, except in special conditions. However, these deposits contain
enormous tonnages of relatively high grade Ni, Mo, Zn and PGE which may be exploited if
thicker deposits can be found, or a relevant new technology is developed.

5. References

Acknowledgements: Larry Hulbert of the Geological Survey of Canada introduced the senior author to
this deposit type and provided many useful comments. Rob Carne of Archer, Cathro and
Associates Limited reviewed a draft manuscript.

Coveney, R.M., Jr. and Nansheng, C. (1991): Ni-Mo-PGE-Au-rich Ores in Chinese Black Shales and
Speculations on Possible Analogues in the United States; Mineralium Deposita, Volume 26,
pages 83-88.
Coveney, R.M. Jr., Murowchick, J.B., Grauch, R.I., Nansheng, C. and Glascock, M.D. (1992): Field
Relations, Origins and Resource Implications for Platiniferous Molybdenum-Nickel Ores in Black
Shales of South China; Canadiun Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, Exploration and
Mining Geology, Volume 1, No. 1, pages 21-28.
Coveney, R. M. Jr., Grauch, R. I. and Murowchick, J.B. (1993): Ore Mineralogy of Nickel-Molybdenum
Sulfide Beds Hosted by Black Shales of South China; in The Paul E. Queneau International
Symposium, Extractive Metallurgy of Copper, Nickel and Cobalt, Volume 1: Fundamental
Aspects, Reddy, R.G. and Weizenbach, R.N., Editors, The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society,
pages 369-375.
Fan Delian (1983): Poly Elements in the Lower Cambrian Black Shale Series in Southern China; in The
Significance of Trace Metals in Solving Petrogenetic Problems and Controversies, Augustithis,
S.S., Editor, Theophrastus Publications, Athens, Greece, pages 447-474.
Horan, M.F., Morgan, J.W., Grauch, R.I., Coveney, R.M. Jr, Murowchick, J.B. and Hulbert, L.J. (1994):
Rhenium and Osmium Isotopes in Black Shales and Ni-Mo-PGE-rich Sulphide Layers, Yukon
Territory, Canada, and Hunan and Guizhou Provinces, China; Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,
Volume 58, pages 257-265.
Hulbert, L.J., Gregoire, C.D., Paktunc, D. and Carne, R.C. (1992): Sedimentary Nickel, Zinc and Platinum-
group-element Mineralization in Devonian Black Shales at the Nick Property, Yukon, Canada: A
New Deposit Type; Canadiun Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, Exploration and
Mining Geology, Volume 1, No. 1, pages 39 - 62.
Murowchick, J.B., Coveney, R.M. Jr., Grauch, R.I., Eldridge, C.S. and Shelton, K.I. (1994): Cyclic Variations
of Sulfur Isotopes in Cambrian Stratabound Ni-Mo-(PGE-Au) Ores of Southern China; Geochimica
et Cosmochimica Acta, Volume 58, No. 7, pages 1813-1823.
Nansheng, C. and Coveney, R.M. Jr. (1989): Ores in Metal-rich Shale of Southern China; U.S. Geological
Survey, Circular 1037, pages 7-8.
E17 – Sedimentary-hosted, stratiform barite

S. Paradis1, G.J. Simandl, D. MacIntyre and G.J. Orris2

1
Geological Survey or Canada
2
British Columbia Geological Survey

Force, E.R., Paradis, S. and Simandl, G.J. (1999): Sedimentary Manganese; in Selected British Columbia
Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V.
Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, Open File 1999-10, pages 47-
50.

1. Identification

Synonym: Bedded barite.

Commodities (by-products): Barite (possibly Zn, Pb, Ag).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #)- Canada/International): Kwadacha (094F 020), Gin (094F 017),
Gnome (094F 016); Tea, Tyrala, Hess, Walt and Cathy (Yukon, Canada),Walton (Nova Scotia,
Canada), Fancy Hill (Arkansas, USA), Mountain Springs, Greystone (Nevada, USA), Jixi and Liulin
(China), Fig Tree and Mabiligwe (South Africa).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Sedimentary-hosted, stratiform or lens-shaped barite bodies, that may reach over
ten metres in thickness and several kilometres in strike length. Barite-rich rocks (baritites) are
commonly lateral distal equivalents of shale-hosted Pb-Zn (SEDEX) deposits. Some barite
deposits are not associated with shale-hosted Zn-Pb deposits.

Tectonic setting: Intracratonic or continental margin-type fault-controlled marine basins or half-grabens

of second or third order and peripheral foreland (distal to the continental margin) basins.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Deep, starved marine basins to shallow water shelves. The
barite-rich rocks (baritites) were deposited on the seafloor and commonly grade laterally into
either shale-hosted Pb-Zn (SEDEX) deposits which formed closer to the submarine hydrothermal
vents, or the more distal cherts, hematite-chert iron formations, silica and manganese-enriched
sediments.

Age of mineralization: Deposits are hosted by rocks of Archean to Mesozoic ages but are most common
in rocks of Phanerozoic, especially in the mid to late Paleozoic age.

Host/Associated rock types: Major rock types hosting barite are carbonaceous and siliceous shales,
siltstones, cherts, argillites, turbidites, sandstones, dolomites and limestones.

Deposit form: Stratiform or lens-shaped deposits are commonly metres thick, but their thickness may
exceed 50 metres. Their lateral extent may be over several square kilometres.
Texture/Structure: The barite ore is commonly laminated, layered or massive. Barite may form rosettes,
randomly oriented laths or nodules. Some of the barite deposits display breccias and slump
structures. In metamorphosed areas, barite may be remobilized (forming veinlets) and/or
recrystallized.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Barite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, clay, organic material, celsian, hyalophane,
cymrite, barytocalcite, calcite, dolomite, pyrite, marcasite, sphalerite, galena, and in some cases
witherite.

Alteration mineralogy: None in most cases. Secondary barite veining. Weak to moderate sericitization
reported in, or near, some deposits in Nevada.

Weathering: Barite-rich exposures sometimes create vegetation "kill zones".

Ore controls: Sedimentary depositional environment is mainly half-grabens and basins of second or third
order. While Zn-Pb-barite (SEDEX) deposits may require euxinic environment to stabilize
sulphides, more oxidized depositional environment may be the key for deposition of high-grade
(nearly sulphide-free) barite deposits. Syndepositional faults are extremely important for SEDEX
deposits that are commonly proximal to the vents, but may not be essential for all sediment-
hosted stratabound barite deposits.

Genetic model: Some stratiform barite deposits form from hydrothermal fluids that exhaled on the
seafloor and precipitated barite and other minerals (sulphides, chert, etc.) as chemical
sediments. The chemical sediments change composition with distance from the vent reflecting
changes in temperature and other parameters of the hydrothermal fluid as it mixed with
seawater. Barite-rich sediments can reflect hydrothermal fluids deficient in metals (lack of base
metals in the source rock or insufficient temperature or unfavorable physical-chemical fluid
conditions to carry base metals) or discharge of hydrothermal fluids in a shallow marine
environment that does not favor precipitation of sulphides. Some of the sedimentary-hosted
barite deposits are interpreted as chemical sediments related to inversion of stratified basin
resulting in oxygenation of reduced waters. Others formed by erosion and reworking of sub-
economic chemical sediments (Heinrichs and Reimer, 1977) or of semi-consolidated clays
containing barite concretions (Reimer, 1986), resulting in selective concentration of barite.

Associated deposit types: Shale-hosted Zn-Pb deposits (E14), Irish-type massive sulphide deposits (E13),
sedimentary manganese deposits (F01) and vein barite deposits (I10). In oxygen-starved basins,
barite deposits may be stratigraphically associated with black shales enriched in phosphates
(F08), vanadium, REE and uranium mineralization and possibly shale-hosted Ni-Mo-PGE (E16)
deposits.

Comments: There is a complete spectrum from sulphide-rich to barite-rich SEDEX deposits. The Cirque
deposit in British Columbia, represents the middle of this spectrum and consists of
interlaminated barite, sphalerite, galena and pyrite. Its reserves are in excess of 38.5 million
tonnes averaging 8% Zn, 2.2% Pb, 47.2 g/tonne of Ag and 45-50% barite. Witherite, a barium
carbonate, occurs as an accessory mineral in some barite deposits and rarely forms a deposit on
its own. There has been no commercial witherite production in the western world since the
 mines in Northumberland, England closed. Recently, the Chengkou and Ziyang witherite
deposits have been discovered in China (Wang and Chu, 1994Witherite deposits may form due
to severe depletion of seawater in SO-24 and enrichment in Ba (Maynard and Okita, 1991).
Alternatively, these deposits could have formed by high temperature replacement of barite by
witherite (Turner and Goodfellow,1990).

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Barium enrichment on the scale of the basin and other indicators of shale-
hosted Zn-Pb deposits, such as high values of Zn, Pb, Mn, Cu and Sr, in rock and stream
sediment samples. Strongly anomalous Ba values in stream sediments and heavy sediments are
only found in close proximity to barite mineralization because barite abrades rapidly during
stream sediment transportation. The difference between 87Sr/86Sr ratios of barite and coeval
seawater may be used to distinguish between cratonic rift (potentially SEDEX-related) barite
occurrences and those of peripheral foreland basins (Maynard et al.,1995).

Geophysical signature: Deposit may correspond to a gravity-high.

Other exploration guides: Appropriate tectonic and depositional setting. Proximity to known
occurrences of barite, shale-hosted SEDEX or Irish-type massive sulphide occurrences, exhalative
chert, hematite-chert iron formations and regional Mn marker beds. Vegetation "kill zones"
coincide with some barite occurrences.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Deposits range from less than 1 to more than 25 million tonnes grading 30%
to over 95% barite with a median size of 1.24 million tonnes containing 87.7 % BaSO4 (Orris,
1992). Portions of some deposits may be direct shipping ore. ). The Magcobar mine in the
Silvermines district of Ireland produced 4.6 Mt of 85% BaSO4 lump. Barite is produced at some
metal mines, including the Ramelsburg and Meggen (8.9 Mt) mines in Germany.

Economic limitations: Several modern applications require high brightness and whiteness values and
high-purity products. There are different requirements for specific applications. Abrasivity,
grade of concentrate, color, whiteness, density and type of impurities, oil index, water index,
refractive index and base metal content are commonly reported for commercially available
concentrates. Transportation cost, specific gravity and content of water-soluble alkaline earth
metals, iron oxides and sulphides are important factors for barite used in drilling applications.
Currently sulphide-free barite deposits are preferred by the barite producers. Some of the barite
on the market is sold without complex upgrading. Selective mining and/or hand sorting, jigging,
flotation and bleaching are commonly required. It is possible that in the future, due to
technological progress, a substantial portion of barite on the market will originate as by-product
of metal mining.

End uses: Barite is used mainly in drill muds, also as heavy aggregate, marine ballast, a source of
chemicals, a component in ceramics, steel hardening, glass, fluxes, papers, specialized plastics
and radiation shields, in sound proofing and in friction and pharmaceutical applications.
Witherite is a desirable source of barium chemicals because it is soluble in acid, but it is not
suitable for applications where inertness in acid environments is important.
Importance: Competes for market with vein-type barite deposits. Celestite, ilmenite, iron oxides can
replace barite in specific drilling applications. However the impact of these substitutes is
minimized by relatively low barite prices.

5. Selected bibliography

Acknowledgements: Reviews of the manuscript by Dr. John Lydon of the Geological Survey of Canada
and Dr. D.V. Lefebure of the B.C. Geological Survey are appreciated.

Brobst, D.A. (1994): Barium Minerals; in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 6th edition , D.D. Carr, Senior
Editor, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., Littleton, Colorado, pages 125-134.
Clark, S. and Orris, G.J. (1991): Sedimentary Exhalative Barite; in Some Industrial Mineral Deposit
Models: Descriptive Deposit Models, Orris, G.J. and Bliss, J.D., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey,
Open-File Report 91-11A, pages 21-22.
Heinrichs, T.K. and Reimer, T.O. (1977): A Sedimentary Barite Deposit from the Archean Fig Tree Group
of the Barberton Mountain Land (South Africa), Economic Geology, Volume 73, pages 1426-
1441.
Large, D.E. (1981): Sediment-hosted Submarine Exhalative Sulphide Deposits - a Review of their
Geological Characteristics and Genesis; in Handbook of Stratabound and Stratiform Ore
Deposits; Wolfe, K.E., Editor, Geological Association of Canada, Volume 9, pages 459-507.
Lydon, J.W. (1995): Sedimentary Exhalative Sulphides (SEDEX); in Geology of Canadian Mineral Deposit
Types, Eckstrand, O.R., Sinclair, W.D. and Thorpe, R.I., Editors, Geological Survey of Canada,
Geology of Canada, no. 8, pages 130-152.
Lydon, J.W., Lancaster, R.D. and Karkkainen, P. (1979): Genetic Controls of Selwyn Basin Stratiform
Barite/Sphalerite/Galena Deposits: An Investigation of the Dominant Barium Mineralogy of the
TEA Deposit, Yukon; in Current Research, Part B; Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 79-1B,
pages 223-229.
MacIntyre, D.E. (1991): Sedex-Sedimentary-exhalative Deposits; in Ore Deposits, Tectonics and
Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera, McMillan, W.J., Coordinator; B.C. Ministry of Energy
Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1991-4, pages 25-69.
Maynard, J.B. and Okita, P.M. (1991): Bedded Barite Deposits in the United States, Canada, Germany,
and China: Two Major Types Based on Tectonic Setting; Economic Geology, volume 86, pages
364-376.
Maynard, J.B. and Okita, P.M. (1992): Bedded Barite Deposits in the United States, Canada, Germany,
and China: Two Major Types Based on Tectonic Setting - A Reply; Economic Geology, volume 87,
pages 200-201.
Orris, G.J. (1992): Grade and Tonnage Model of Bedded Barite; in Industrial Minerals Deposit Models:
Grade and Tonnage Models; Orris, G.J. and Bliss J.D., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File
Report 92-437, pages 40-42.
Reimer, T.O. (1986): Phanerozoic Barite Deposits of South Africa and Zimbabwe; in Mineral Deposits of
South Africa, Volume; Enhauser, C.R. and Maske, S., Editors, The Geological Society of South
Africa, pages 2167-2172.
Turner, R.J.W. (1992): Bedded Barite Deposits in the United States, Canada, Germany, and China: Two
Major Types Based on Tectonic Setting- A Discussion; Economic Geology, Volume 87, pages 198-
199.
Turner, R.J.W. and Goodfellow, W.D. (1990): Barium Carbonate Bodies Associated with the Walt
Stratiform Barite Deposit, Selwyn Basin, Yukon: a Possible Vent Complex Associated with a
 Middle Devonian Sedimentary Exhalative Barite Deposit; in Current Research, Part E, Geological
Survey of Canada, Paper 90-1E, pages 309-319.
Wang, Z.-C. and Chu, X.-L. (1994): Strontium Isotopic Composition of the Early Cambrian Barite and
Witherite Deposits; Chinese Science Bulletin, Volume 39, pages 52-59.
Wang, Z. and Li, G. (1991): Barite and Witherite in Lower Cambrian Shales of South China: Stratigraphic
Distribution and Chemical Characterization; Economic Geology, Volume 86, pages 354-363.
E18 – Carbonate-hosted, nonsulphide Zn (Hypogene)

S. Paradis1 and G.J. Simandl2

1
Geological Survey or Canada
2
British Columbia Geological Survey

1. Identification

Synonyms: Zinc-oxides, willemite-dominant deposits

Commodities (by-products): Zn, Pb (Mn, Fe, Cu, V, Cd, Ag)

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #)- Canada/International): Structurally-controlled replacement

deposits: Abenab West (Namibia), Berg Aukas (Namibia), Kabwe (Zambia), Star Zinc (Zambia),
Vazante (Brazil), Ariense (Brazil), Beltana (Australia), Aroona (Australia), Reliance (Australia),
Stratiform deposits: Abu Samar (Sudan), Desert View (US), Franklin/Sterling Hill (US).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Zinc oxide minerals, such as willemite, franklinite or zincite, occur as massive to
disseminated zones hosted primarily by carbonate rocks. The two subtypes of hypogene
carbonate-hosted nonsulphide Zn-Pb deposits are:
1) structurally-controlled replacement deposits in the form of podiform bodies, veins, and
irregular pipes consisting mainly of willemite (+/- sphalerite, +/-hematite, +/-franklinite and
+/-zincite) and spatially associated with fractures and fault zones; and
2) stratiform deposits forming lenses of franklinite-willemite-zincite (+/-gahnite) located in
highly metamorphosed terrains.

Tectonic setting: The structurally-controlled replacement deposits are located in intracratonic or

continental margin environments in fault-controlled sedimentary basins within orogenic belts.

The stratiform deposits are located in sedimentary or volcano-sedimentary basins within

orogenic belts.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Hostrocks to the structurally-controlled hypogene

nonsulphide Zn-Pb deposits are carbonates deposited in platform successions. Shallowing-
upward basins or proximity to major unconformities separating a reduced, carbonate-rich
succession (below) from an oxidized sequence of terrestrial sedimentary rocks (above) are
frequent settings (e.g., Beltana and Vazante deposits; Groves et al., 2003; Monteiro et al., 2006).

Age of mineralization: Ages of hypogene nonsulphide Zn deposits are poorly constrained between the
Proterozoic to Paleozoic time.

Host/Associated rock types: Structurally-controlled deposits are commonly hosted by dolostone,

limestone, dolomitized limestone, argillaceous carbonate, marble and slate.
Stratiform deposits are typically hosted by metasedimentary rocks, such as calcitic and dolomitic
marble, interlayered with metavolcanic and igneous intrusive rocks (Hague et al., 1956; Hitzman
et al., 2003).

Deposit form: Structurally-controlled deposits are highly irregular, consisting of podiform bodies, veins
within fault and shear zones, joint and fissure-fills, and open-space fills in breccia pipe-like karst
structures. Individual podiform ore bodies range from a few tens to a few hundreds of metres in
the two dimensions parallel with bedding. Perpendicular to bedding, dimensions are usually a
few tens of metres.

Stratiform nonsulphide deposits consist of a series of stratabound discontinuous tabular lenses that
considerably vary in thickness and length from few tens of metres to few hundreds of metres.

Texture/Structure: Mineralization in the structurally-controlled deposits is heterogeneous, resulting

from various depositional mechanisms such as massive replacement of various hematitic and/or
zincian dolomite wallrock facies, dissemination, internal sedimentation, fracture and vein fill,
and brecciation. The massive ore is commonly granular and fine grained, and appears as finely
porous to compact cryptocrystalline masses. The internal sediments consist of fine laminations
of zinc oxide minerals in open cavities. Colloform or crustiform bands, rosettes and spherulites
of willemite are deposited as vein and vug fill and in the matrix of breccias.

Mineralization in the stratiform tabular lenses consists of massive to disseminated equigranular,

subrounded aggregates of Zn-rich minerals. The ores may have gneissic or disseminated
textures, and minerals are generally coarse grained (>2-3mm) and euhedral to subhedral
(Hitzman et al., 2003).

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Structurally-controlled replacement deposits: Willemite,

cerussite, coronadite, covellite, descloizite, franklinite, gahnite, galena, genthelvite, hedyphane,
hemimorphite, hetaerolite, hedrozincite, mimetite, native silver, sauconite, scholzite,
smithsonite, sphalerite, tarbuttite, vanadinite and zincite.

Stratiform deposits: Franklinite, willemite, zincite, adamite, anglesite, arsenopyrite, aurichalcite, azurite,
chalcophanite, chalcopyrite, cuprite, gahnite, galena, hemimorphite, hetaerolite, hydrozincite,
magnetite, malachite, melangerite, sauconite, smithsonite, sphalerite, tephroite and zincian
fayalite (roepperite).

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Structurally-controlled replacement deposits: Calcite,

manganoan calcite, dolomite, ferroan dolomite, apatite, barite, hematite, magnetite, quartz,
siderite, Zn-rich chlorite. Stratiform deposits: Calcite, manganoan calcite, dolomite, ferroan
dolomite, alleghanyite, apatite, aragonite, barite, fluorite, garnet, goethite, graphite, hematite,
leucophoenicite, jacobsite, lôllingite, phlogopite, quartz, siderite, sonolite and rhodonite.

Alteration mineralogy: The structurally-controlled replacement deposits display pre to syn-

mineralization alteration of the host carbonate rocks that is largely fracture-controlled and
extends for about 50 m to 20 km from the major structures. Alteration consists of silicification
and formation of a broad halo of net-veined breccia filled by dolomite, ankerite, siderite,
hematite, jasper, and chlorite. Post-mineralization alteration locally consists of hematite, Zn-
 chlorite, and dolomite assemblage, and/or calcite replacing earlier dolomite and zinc minerals.
No alteration mineralogy is reported for stratiform deposits.

In the case of stratiform deposits, any original pre-metamorphic alteration mineralogy was
probably destroyed by metamorphic overprint. The exception may be Desert View deposit
(United States), which could have a preserved manganese halo (Leavens and Patton, 2008).
Sphalerite present in some structurally-controlled replacement and stratiform deposits is
replaced by willemite under hydrothermal conditions (i.e., at temperatures higher than
100°C; Brugger et al., 2003).

Weathering: Nonsulphides in both deposit types can be altered by supergene processes to minerals
observed in supergene nonsulphide zinc deposits. Supergene mineral assemblages form a near-
surface direct-replacement cap above many structurally-controlled replacement deposits. For
example, an assemblage of hemimorphite, hydrozincite, and minrecordite form a cap above the
willemite bodies of the Vazante deposit (Brazil). On the periphery of the Beltana deposit
(Australia), hemimorphite and smithsonite formed by weathering of willemite. An assemblage of
hemimorphite, cerussite, smithsonite, quartz, descloizite, phromorphite, goethite, hematite,
and iron-aluminum-manganese oxides replaces sulphides and willemite-bearing assemblages
within the Kabwe (Zambia) and Berg Aukas (Namibia) deposits (Schneider et al., 2008).

In the case of stratiform deposits, at least some goethite and hematite form by surface
alteration of franklinite. Ferric oxide and hydroxide minerals are abundant within the Franklin
and Sterlin Hill deposits. Furthermore, under these conditions, hemimorphite, cerussite and
hydrozincite commonly replace zincite.

Ore controls: For structurally-controlled deposits, the main controls are favourable sedimentary
successions with proper redox states and potential structural zones for fluid ore mixing, i.e.,
regional basement structural features, such as growth faults, normal and reverse faults, and
shear zones.

Favourable sedimentary hosts are important for the localization of stratiform zinc oxide
deposits. Faults may also have played a role in the localization of stratiform deposits but
metamorphism and deformation have obliterated all evidences.

Genetic model: Structurally-controlled deposits formed where reduced, moderate to high temperature
(100-330°C), Zn-rich, sulphur-poor fluid encountered a cooler, less saline, oxidized, sulphur-poor
fluid of seawater, groundwater, or basinal origin (Hitzman et al., 2003). The fundamental
difference between the two deposit subtypes may be the site of fluid mixing (Hitzman et al.,
2003). The structurally-controlled deposits formed where fluids from a reduced sedimentary
succession moved upwards along structures and encountered fluids that originated in oxidizing
environment.

There is no consensus regarding the origin of the stratiform nonsulphide zinc deposits (e.g.,
Franklin and Sterling Hill metamorphosed orebodies) because the nature of the primary
mineralization is difficult to decipher. The stratiform deposits may have formed where Zn-rich
hydrothermal fluids discharged into an oxidized, sulphur-poor body of water (i.e., exhalative Zn
carbonate-silicate oxide accumulations). Such mixing and accumulations of manganiferous
sulphides and iron oxides may occur at the sediment/water interface or within sediments
 immediately beneath such body of water. There is also a possibility that the current ore
assemblages may be the post-metamorphic equivalent of hemimorphite and hydrous Mn and
Fe-oxides derived from the oxidation of pre-existing sulphides. In general high ƒO2/ƒS2, oxidizing
and alkaline conditions at neutral to basic pH, and elevated temperatures favour stability of
willemite relative to sphalerite (Brugger et al., 2003).

Associated deposit types: Carbonate-hosted, nonsulphide Zn-Pb (supergene, B09), Mississippi Valley-
type (MVT, E12), and Irish-type (E13) are the most commonly associated deposits. Other
potentially associated deposits are stratiform Zn sulphide and Fe (oxide or sulphide), Broken Hill-
type (S01), magnetite (i.e., iron oxide deposits), sedimentary manganese (F01), and carbonate-
hosted Cu+/-Pb+/-Zn (E02) deposits.

Comments: These deposits are unusual in that they produce zinc, occasionally lead, and little else. The
chemistry of the fluids responsible for the hypogene structurally-controlled nonsulphide
deposits is similar to solutions produced in many continental sedimentary basins. Therefore
these deposits could be found in the same districts as MVT, Irish-type and potentially
sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX) deposits. British Columbia has prospective strata for these
deposits in the miogeoclinal carbonate platform rocks of the Ancestral North America
continental margin and in the pericratonic rocks of the Kootenay terrane.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Colorimetric field test for secondary zinc minerals ("Zinc Zap) and hand-held x-
ray fluorescence spectrometry are useful in exploration for nonsulphide Pb-Zn deposits in
general (Paradis and Simandl, 2011; Simandl et al., 2011). Positive Zn anomalies in residual soils
and stream sediments and elevated concentrations of Pb, Mn, Fe, Cu, V, U, La, Cd and As are
also expected. Analysis of heavy mineral concentrates (identification of Zn-Pb nonsulphides) in
stream and overburden may be effective in areas lacking deep weathering. Short wave
ultraviolet light may help to detect an increase in the Mn content of calcite in proximity to
deposit with these manganoan calcite fluorescing orange-red to red; however, calcite may also
appear white, cream, yellow-orange, green or pink. If fluorescence of calcite is due to divalent
Mn the colour of fluorescence will be orange-red to red. The other colours mentioned are due
to different activators (quite diverse in calcite). Willemite may fluoresce green, yellow-orange or
yellow under short wave ultraviolet light. Under long wave ultraviolet radiation, zincite may
fluoresce yellow. Primary metamorphic zincite at Franklin and Sterling Hill does not fluoresce.
Secondary zincite in veins or disseminated hydrothermal grains fluoresces in some specimens,
but such zincite is uncommon and volumetrically insignificant. Willemite, ferroan dolomite, and
supergene minerals such as hydrozincite and smithsonite, give distinct spectral responses in the
short-wave near infrared portion of the spectrum (Hitzman et al., 2003; McConachy et al.,
2009). Hyperspectral imaging holds promise as a useful tool for accurate mapping of structures,
lithologies, and alteration.

Geophysical signature: Deposits may produce a gravity signature. Electrical methods will not be
successful due to the absence or small amounts of sulphides. Deposits that contain magnetite
and franklinite can produce a magnetic response; a larger response should be observed with
stratiform nonsulphide deposits.
Other exploration guides: Knowledge of the basin sedimentary succession with proper redox states and
identification of potential zones for fluid mixing within major structures permits to focus
exploration efforts. Discovery of outcropping hypogene Zn-Pb nonsulphide deposits depends on
recognition and knowledge of the physical properties of common nonsulphide zinc minerals.
The selection of grassroots exploration areas should target sedimentary rock sequences that
have known nonsulphide (supergene and hypogene) zinc prospects, stratiform manganese
deposits, Mississippi Valley-type deposits or Broken Hill-type deposits.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Most of the known deposits (except Vazante with 28.5 Mt at 18.3%Zn, and
Franklin with 21.8 Mt at 19.5% Zn) fall in the range of <1 to 10 Mt and grade 5 to 38% Zn and 0
to 11% Pb. They may contain low concentrations of Mn, Fe, Cu, V, Cd, Ag and Ba.

Economic limitations: Some deposits (e.g., Beltana and Aroona) are amenable to open pit mining
operations; however, most hypogene nonsulphide deposits are exploited by underground
mining.

Importance: Non-sulphide deposits were the main source of zinc prior to the 1930s. Following the
development of differential flotation and breakthroughs in smelting technology, the mining
industry turned its attention almost entirely to sulphide ores. Today, most zinc is derived from
sulphide ore. The nonsulphide deposits provided roughly 7% of the world's zinc production in
2009. Hypogene nonsulphide deposits are relatively rare compared to supergene nonsulphide
deposits, and they currently represent less than 2% of the zinc production.

5. Selected bibliography

Acknowledgements: This manuscript benefited from reviews by Maria Boni (Università di Napoli, Italy),
Donald Sangster (Geological Consultant, Ottawa) and David Lefebure (currently with Lefebure
GeoLogic Ltd., Salt Spring Island, B.C. Canada; former chief geologist of the British Columbia
Survey, Victoria, Canada). The project started under the umbrella of the Cordilleran Targeted
Geoscience Initiative-3 Program of the Geological Survey of Canada, and was done in
collaboration with the British Columbia Geological Survey.

Boni, M., Terracciano, R., Blassone, G., Gleeson, S. and Matthews, A. (2011): The carbonate-hosted
willemite prospects of the Zambezi metamorphic belt (Zambia); Mineralium Deposita, Volume
46, pages 707-729; http://www.springerlink.com/content/c1817113765j7365/fulltext.pdf.
Brugger, J., McPhail, D.C., Waters, J., Wallace, M. and Lees, T. (2003): Formation of willemite in
hydrothermal environments; Economic Geology, Volume 98, pages 819-835.
Groves, I., Carman, C.E. and Dunlap, W.J. (2003): Geology of the Beltana willemite deposit, Flinders
Ranges, South Australia; Economic Geology, Volume 98, pages 797-818.
Hague, J.M., Baum, J.L., Herrmann, L.A. and Pickering, R.J. (1956): Geology and structure of the
Franklin-Sterling area, New Jersey; Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Volume 67,
pages 436-474.
Heyl, A.V. and Bozion, C.N. (1962): Oxidized zinc deposits of the United States, Part 1, General geology;
United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 1135-A, 52 pages.
Hitzman, M.W., Reynolds, N.A., Sangster, D.F., Cameron, R.A. and Carman, C.E. (2003): Classification,
genesis, and exploration guides for nonsulphide zinc deposits; Economic Geology, Volume 98,
Number 4, pages 685-714.
Johnson, C.A. (2001): Geochemical constraints on the origin of the Sterling Hill and Franklin zinc
deposits, and the Furnace magnetite bed, northwestern New Jersey; Society of Economic
Geologists Guidebook Series, Volume 35, pages 89-97.
Johnson, C.A. and Skinner, B.J. (2003): Geochemistry of the Furnace magnetite bed, Franklin, New
Jersey, and the relationship between stratiform iron oxide ores and stratiform zinc oxide-silicate
ores in the New Jersey Highlands; Economic Geology, Volume 98, pages 837-854.
Leavens, P.B. and Patton, J.D. (2008): The Desert View Mine, San Bernardino Mountains, California: a
possible intermediate between Långban, Sweden and Franklin, New Jersey; Axis, Volume 4,
Number 1, pages 1-13.
McConachy, T.F., Yang, K., Boni, M. and Evans, N.J. (2009): Spectral reflectance: preliminary data on a
new technique with potential for non-sulphide base metal exploration; Geochemistry:
Exploration, Environment, Analysis, Volume 7, pages 139-151.
Monteiro, L.V.S., Bettencourt, J.S., Spiro, B., Graca, R. and Oliveira, T.F. (1999): The Vazante zinc mine,
MG, Brazil: constraints on fluid evolution and willemitic mineralization; Exploration and Mining
Geology, Volume 8, pages 21-42.
Monteiro, L.V.S., Bettencourt, J.S., Juliani, C. and Oliveira, T.F. (2006): Geology, petrography, and mineral
geochemistry of the Vazante non-sulphide and Ambrosia and Fagundes sulphide-rich carbonate-
hosted Zn-(Pb) deposits, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Ore Geology Reviews, Volume 28, pages 201-234.
Paradis, S. and Simandl, G.J. (2011): Carbonate-hosted, Nonsulphide Zn-Pb (supergene) Mineral Deposit
Profile B09; in Geological Fieldwork 2010, BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Paper 2011-1, pages 189-193.
Peck., W.H., Volkert, R.A., Mansur, A.T. and Doverspike, B.A. (2009): Stable isotope and petrologic
evidence for the origin of regional marble-hosted magnetite deposits and the zinc deposits at
Franklin and Sterling Hill, New Jersey Highlands, United States; Economic Geology, Volume 104,
pages 1037-1054.
Sangster, D.F. (2003): A special issue devoted to nonsulfide zinc deposits: a new look; Economic Geology,
Volume 98, Number 4, pages 683-684.
Schneider, J., Boni, M., Laukamp, C., Bechstädt, T. and Petzel, V. (2008): Willemite (Zn2SiO4) as a
possible Ribs geochronometer for dating nonsulfide Zn-Pb mineralization: Examples from the
Otavi Mountainland (Namibia); Ore Geology Reviews, Volume 33, pages 152-167.
Simandl, G.J., Paradis, S., Fajber, R., and Rogers, N. (2011): Hand-held, portable XRF in exploration for
carbonate-hosted sulphide and nonsulphide Pb-Zn deposits; Geofile 2011-6, BC Ministry of
Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources;
Paradis, S., and Simandl, G.J. (2012): Carbonate-hosted, Nonsulphide Zn (hypogene) Mineral Deposit
Profile E18; in Geological Fieldwork 2011, BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Paper 2012-1, pages 211-216.
Examples of Sediment-hosted Deposits

BC profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

E01* Almaden (Spain), Santa Barbara (Peru) --
E02 Grinnell and Kanuyak Island (Northwes Territories, Canada); Kennecott, Blue
Ruby Creek and Omar (Alaska, USA), Apex (Utah, USA);
Gortdrum (Ireland); Tsumeb and Kombat (Namibia); Kipushi
(Zaire); M'Passa (Congo); Timma (Israel); Nifty (Australia);
portions of Dongchuan deposits (China)
E03 Brewery Creek? (Alaska), Carlin, Getchell & Cortez (Nevada) Golden Bear ?
E04 Kupferschiefer (Germany & Poland), White Pine (Michigan) Roo, Commerce, Chal 4
E05 Laisvall (Sweden), George Lake (Saskatchewan)
E06 Rosalind (Alberta, Canada), Truax (Saskatchewan, Canada), Mordern Hat Creek , Princeton,
(Manitoba, Canada); Black Hills District, Big Horn Basin Quilchena,
(Wyoming, USA), Gonzales and Lafayette Counties (Texas, French Bar
USA), Iwambaand and Monroe Counties (Mississippi, USA);
Milos (Greece); Landshut (Germany); Sardinia (Italy); Annalka
(Japan); Campina Grande (Brazil)
E07 Cypress Hills (Alberta, Canada), Eastend, Wood Mountain, Ravenscrag Sumas Mountain, Blue
(Saskatchewan, Canada), Moose River Basin (Ontario, Canada), Mountain, Lang
Stubenacadie Valley (Nova Scotia, Canada); Aiken (South Bay, Quinsam,
Carolina, USA), Wrens, Sandersville, Macon-Gordon, Giscome Rapids
Andersonville (Georgia, USA), Eufaula (Alabama, USA); Weipa
(Queensland, Australia); Jari Capim (Brazil)
E08 Treasure Mtn (Montana), Trimouns ( France), Henderson (Ontario) Red Mountain, Silver
Dollar
E09 Veitsch, Entachen Alm, Hochfilzen, Radentheim and Breitenau Mount Brussilof,
(Austria); Eugui (Navarra Province, Spain); deposits of Ashan Marysville, Brisco
area, Liaoning Province (China); Satka deposit (Russia) area and
Driftwood Creek
E10 Illinois - Kentucky, Italian Alps Muncho Lake
E11 Illinois - Kentucky, Italian Alps Liard Fluorite
E12 Viburnum Trend (Missouri), Pine Point (Northwest Territories) Robb Lake, Monarch
E13 Navin, Lisheen & Tynagh (Ireland), Troya (Spain) Reeves MacDonald, HB,
Jersey, Duncan
E14 Mount Isa (Australia), Faro & Grum (Yukon) Sullivan, Cirque, Driftpile
E15 Blackbird & Sheep Creek (Montana), Boleo (Mexico) --
E16 Nick (Yukon), Tianeshan & Zunyi (China) --
E17 Tea, Tyrala, Hess, Walt and Cathy (Yukon, Canada), Walton (Nova Kwadacha, Gin, Gnome
Scotia, Canada); Fancy Hill (Alaska, USA), Mountain Springs,
Greystone (Nevada, USA); Jixi and Liulin (China); Fig Tree and
Mabiligwe (South Africa)
E18 Carbonate-hosted, Nonsulphide Zn (hypogene) --
* Note: All BC deposit profile(s) with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s.
F - Chemical Sediment

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

F01 Sedimentary Mn -- 34b
F02 Bedded gypsum Marine evaporite gypsum 35ae
F03 Gypsum-hosted sulphur Frasch sulphur --
F04* Bedded celestite -- 35aa*
F05* Palygorskite Attapulgite 34e*
F06 Lacustrine diatomite Diatomaceous earth, 31s
Kieselguhr
F07 Sedimentary phosphate deposits -- 34c
(Upwelling-type
phosphate)
F08 Warm current-type phosphate -- 34d
F09* Playa and Alkaline Lake Evaporites Hydromagnesite, Na 35ba,bm(T)
carbonate lake brines
F10* Lake Superior & Rapitan types -- 34a
iron-formation
F11* Ironstone Minette ores 34f
F01 – Sedimenatary manganese

E.R. Force1, S. Paradis2 and G.J. Simandl3

1
United States Geological Survey, Tucson, Arizona, US
2
Geological Survey of Canada, Sidney, B.C., Canada
3
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

Force, E.R., Paradis, S. and Simandl, G.J. (1999): Sedimentary Manganese; in Selected British Columbia
Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V.
Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines.

1. Identification

Synonyms: "Bathtub-ring manganese", "stratified basin margin manganese", shallow-marine manganese

deposits around black shale basins.

Commodity: Mn.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #): Canada/International): Molango (Mexico), Urcut (Hungary),
Nikopol (Ukraine), Groote Eylandt (Australia).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Laterally extensive beds of manganite, psilomelane, pyrolusite, rhodochrosite and
other manganese minerals that occur within marine sediments, such as dolomite, limestone,
chalk and black shale. The manganese sediments often display a variety of textures, including
oolites and sedimentary pisolites, rhythmic laminations, slumped bedding, hard-ground
fragments and abundant fossils. "Primary ore" is commonly further enriched by supergene
process. These deposits are the main source of manganese on the world scale.

Tectonic setting: Interior or marginal basin resting on stable craton.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: These deposits formed in shallow marine depositional

environments (15-300 m), commonly in sheltered sites around islands along some areas of
continental shelf and the interior basins. Most deposits overlie oxidized substrates, but
basinward, carbonate deposits may be in reducing environments. Many are in within
transgressive stratigraphic sequences near or at black shale pinchouts.

Age of mineralization: Most deposits formed during lower to middle Paleozoic, Jurassic, mid-Cretaceous
and Proterozoic.

Host/Associated rock types: Shallow marine sedimentary rocks, such as dolomites, limestone, chalk and
black shales, in starved-basins and lithologies, such as sponge-spicule clays, are favourable
hosts. Associated rock types are sandstones, quartzites, and a wide variety of fine-grained clastic
rocks.
Deposit form: Mn-enriched zones range from few to over 50 m in thickness and extend from few to over
50 km laterally. They commonly have a "bathtub-ring" or "donut" shape. Some deposits may
consist of a landward oxide facies and basinward reduced carbonate facies. Ore bodies
represent discrete portions of these zones.

Texture/Structure: Oolites and sedimentary pisolites, rhythmic laminations, slumped bedding, hard-
ground fragments, abundant fossils, fossil replacements, and siliceous microfossils are some of
commonly observed textures.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Manganese oxides: mainly manganite, psilomelane,
pyrolusite; carbonates: mainly rhodochrosite, kutnohorite, calcio-rhodochrosite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Kaolinite, goethite, smectite, glauconite, quartz,
biogenic silica; magnetite or other iron oxides, pyrite, marcasite, phosphate, ± barite,
carbonaceous material, ± chlorite, ± siderite, manganocalcite.

Alteration mineralogy: N/A.

Weathering: Grades of primary ore are relatively uniform; however, supergene enrichment may result in
a two or three-fold grade increase. The contacts between primary ore and supergene-enriched
zones are typically sharp. Mn carbonates may weather to brown, nondescript rock. Black
secondary oxides are common.

Ore controls: Sedimentary manganese deposits formed along the margins of stratified basins where the
shallow oxygenated water and deeper anoxic water interface impinged on shelf sediments. They
were deposited at the intersection of an oxidation-reduction interface with platformal
sediments. Sites protected from clastic sedimentation within transgressive sequences are most
favourable for accumulation of high grade primary deposits.

Genetic models: Traditionally these deposits are regarded as shallow, marine Mn sediments which form
rims around paleo-islands and anoxic basins. Manganese precipitation is believed to take place
in stratified water masses at the interface between anoxic seawater and near surface
oxygenated waters.. The Black Sea and stratified fjords, such as Saanich Inlet or Jervis inlet,
British Columbia (Emerson 1982; Grill, 1982) are believed to represent modern analogues.
Extreme Fe fractionation is caused by a low solubility of iron in low Eh environments where Fe
precipitates as iron sulfide. A subsequent increase in Eh and/or pH of Mn-rich water may
produce Mn-rich, Fe-depleted chemical sediments. The manganese oxide facies is preserved on
oxidized substrates. Carbonate facies may be preserved either in oxidized or reduced substrates
in slightly deeper waters.

Associated deposit types: Black shale hosted deposits, such as upwelling-type phosphates (F07),
sediment-hosted barite deposits (E17), shale-hosted silver-vanadium and similar deposits (E16)
and sedimentary-hosted Cu (E04), may be located basinward from the manganese deposits.
Bauxite and other laterite-type deposits (B04), may be located landward from these manganese
deposits. No direct genetic link is implied between sedimentary manganese deposits and any of
these associated deposits.
Comments: A slightly different model was proposed to explain the origin of Mn-bearing black shales
occurring in the deepest areas of anoxic basins by Huckriede and Meischner (1996).

Calvert and Pedersen (1996) suggest an alternative hypothesis, where high accumulation rate of organic
matter in sediments will promote the development of anoxic conditions below the sediment
surface causing surface sediments to be enriched in Mn oxyhydroxides. When buried they will
release diagenetic fluids, supersaturated with respect to Mn carbonates, that will precipitate Ca-
Mn carbonates.

Sedimentary manganese deposits may be transformed into Mn-silicates during metamorphism. The
metamorphic process could be schematically represented by the reaction:
Rhodochrosite + SiO2 = Rhodonite + CO2.

Mn-silicates may be valuable as ornamental stones, but they are not considered as manganese
metal ores under present market conditions.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Mn-enriched beds. Mn/Fe ratio is a local indicator of the basin morphology that
may be reflecting separation of Mn from Fe by precipitation of pyrite. Some of the large
manganese deposits, including Groote Eylandt, coincide with, or slightly postdate, d 13C positive
excursions. These d 13C anomalies may therefore indicate favorable stratigraphic horizons for
manganese exploration.

Geophysical signature: Geophysical exploration is generally not effective. Supergene cappings may be
suitable targets for the self potential method.

Other exploration guides: These deposits occur within shallow, marine stratigraphic sequences Black
shale pinchouts or sedimentary rocks deposited near onset of marine regression are particularly
favourable for exploration. High Mn concentrations are further enhanced in depositional
environments characterized by weak clastic sedimentation. Manganese carbonates occur
basinward from the manganese oxide ore. Many sedimentary manganese deposits formed
during periods of high sea levels that are contemporaneous with adjacent anoxic basin. If Mn
oxides are the main target, sequences containing shellbed-biogenic silica-glauconite are
favorable. Evidence of the severe weathering of the land mass adjacent to, and
contemporaneous with the favourable sedimentary setting, is also considered as a positive
factor. In Precambrian terrains sequences containing both black shales and oxide-facies iron
formations are the most favorable.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: The average deposit contains 6.3 Mt at 30% MnO, but many deposits exceed
100 million tonnes. There is a trend in recent years to mine high-grade ores (37 to 52% Mn) to
maximize the output of existing plants. The countries with large, high-grade ore reserves are
South Africa, Australia, Brazil and Gabon.

Economic limitations: On the global scale the demand for manganese ore, siliconmanganese, and
ferromanganese depends largely on the steel industry. The 1996 world supply of manganese
 alloys was estimated at 6.6 Mt. Partly in response to highly competitive markets, in the western
world much of the manganese ore mining is being integrated with alloy production. As a result,
the bulk of manganese units for the steel production is now being supplied in form of alloys.
There is also a new tendency to have the ore processed in China and CIS countries. The high cost
of constructing new, environment-friendly plants and lower costs of energy are some of the
reasons.

End uses: Used in pig iron-making, in upgrading of ferroalloys, in dry cell batteries, animal feed,
fertilizers, preparation of certain aluminum alloys, pigments and colorants. Steel and iron
making accounts for 85 to 90% of demand for manganese in the United States. Increasing use of
electric-arc furnaces in steel-making has resulted in gradual shift from high-carbon
ferromanganese to siliconmanganese. Natural manganese dioxide is gradually being displaced
by synthetic (mainly electrolitic variety). There is no satisfactory substitute for manganese in
major applications.

Importance: Sedimentary marine deposits are the main source of manganese on the world scale. Some
of these deposits were substantially upgraded by supergene enrichment (Dammer, Chivas and
McDougall, 1996). Volcanogenic manganese deposits (G02) are of lesser importance. Progress is
being made in the technology needed for mining of marine nodules and crusts (Chung, 1996);
however, this large seabed resource is subeconomic under present market conditions.

5. References

Calvert, S.E. and Pedersen, T.F. (1996): Sedimentary Geochemistry of Manganese - Implications for the
Environment of Formation of Manganiferous Black Shales: Economic Geology, Volume 91, pages
36-47.
Cannon, W.F. and Force, E.R. (1983): Potential for High-grade Shallow Marine Manganese Deposits in
North America, in Unconventional Mineral Deposits; W.C. Shanks, Editor, Society of Mining
Engineers, pages 175-189.
Chung, J.S. (1996): Deep-ocean Mining-Technologies for Manganese Nodules and Crusts, International
Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineering, Volume 6., pages 244-254.
Dammer, D., Chivas, A.R. and McDougall, I. (1996): Isotopic Dating of Supergene Manganese Oxides
from the Groote Eyland Deposit, Northern Teritory, Australia, Economic Geology, Vol.91, pages
386-401.
Emerson, S., Kalhorn, S., Jacobs, L., Tebo, B.M., Nelson, K.H. and Rosson, R.A. (1982): Environmental
Oxidation Rate of Manganese (II), Bacterial Catalysis; Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Volume
6, pages 1073-1079.
Frakes, L. and Bolton, B. (1992): Effects of Ocean Chemistry, Sea Level, and Climate on the Formation of
Primary Sedimentary Manganese Ore Deposits, Economic Geology, Volume 87, pages 1207-
1217.
Force, E.R. and Cannon W.R. (1988): Depositional Model for Shallow-marine Manganese Deposits
around Black-shale Basins, Economic Geology, Volume 83, pages 93-117.
Grill, E.V. (1982): The Effect of Sediment-water Exchange on Manganese Deposition and Nodule Growth
in Jervis Inlet, British Columbia, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Volume 42, pages 485-495.
Huckriede, H. and Meischner, D. (1996): Origin and Environment of Manganese-rich Sediments within
Black-shale Basins, Geochemica and Cosmochemica Acta, Volume 60, pages 1399-1413.
Jones, T.S., Inestroza, J. and Willis, H. (1997): Manganese, Annual Review-1996, U.S. Geological Survey,
19 pages.
Laznicka, P. (1992): Manganese Deposits in the Global Lithogenetic System: Quantitative Approach, Ore
Geology Reviews, Volume 7, pages 279-356.
Morvai, G. (1982): Hungary; in Mineral Deposits of Europe, Volume .2, Southeastern Europe, F.W.
Dunning, W. Mykura and D. Slater, Editors, Mineral Society, Institute of Mining & Metallurgy,
London, pages 13-53.
Okita, P.M. (1992): Stratiform Manganese Carbonate Mineralization in the Molango District, Mexico,
Economic Geology, Volume 87, pages 1345-1365.
Polgari, M., Okita, P.M. and Hein, J.M. (1991): Stable Isotope Evidence for the Origin of the Urcut
Manganese Ore Deposit, Hungary. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, Volume 61, Number 3,
pages 384-393.
Polgari, M., Molak, B. and Surova, E. (1992): An Organic Geochemical Study to Compare Jurassic Black
Shale-hosted Manganese Carbonate Deposits, Urkut, Hungary and Branisko Mountains, East
Slovakia; Exploration and Mining Geology, Volume 1, Number 1, pages 63-67.
Pracejus, B. and Bolton, B.R. (1992): Geochemistry of Supergene Manganese Oxide Deposits, Groote
Eylandt, Australia; Economic Geology, Volume 87, pages 1310-1335.
Pratt, L.M., Force, E.R. and Pomerol, B. (1991): Coupled Manganese and Carbon-isotopic Events in
Marine Carbonates at the Cenomanian-Turonian Boundary, Journal of Sedimentary Petrology,
Volume 61, Number 3, pages 370-383.
Robinson, I. (1997): Manganese; in: Metals and Minerals Annual Review, Mining Journal London, page
59.
F02 – Bedded gypsum

Z.D. Hora1
1
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonym(s): Evaporite gypsum

Commodities (by-products): Gypsum/anhydrite.

Examples (British Columbia – Canada/International): Windermere Creek (082JSW021, 028), Coyote

Creek (082JSW009, 017, 022) (082GNW071), Forget-Me-Not Creek (083E 001), Harcus
(Manitoba), Hagersville (Ontario), Hillsborough (New Brunswick), Little Narrows, Windsor (Nova
Scotia), Oakfield, New York (USA), Sandusky Bay, Ohio (USA), Shoals, Indiana (USA), Saltville,
Virginia (USA), Medicine Lodge, Kansas (USA), Clark County, Nevada (USA), Plaster City,
California (USA), Germany, France, Spain.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Massive beds of laminated gypsum in low-energy sedimentary sequences. Gypsum
may replace anhydrite, which forms the deeper parts of the deposits. Gypsum beds are typically
tabular to lensoidal in shape and range from a few metres to several hundreds of metres thick.
Gypsum is part of an evaporate sequence that may include thick beds of rock salt and potash.

Tectonic setting: Recent and Ancient continental shelf and slowly subsiding marginal marine basins.
Passive margin setting.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Coastal hypersaline basins, peritidal environment, shallow

inner shelf hypersaline lagoons in high evaporation/low precipitation climates. Coastal and
continental sabkha environment. Sedimentation often in repetitive cycles.

Age of mineralization: Paleozoic to Tertiary (in some tropical areas similar Recent accumulations are
known to exist).

Host/Associated rock types: Redbed sandstone, siltstone, claystone, dolomite. Sometimes sandstone
and fine-grained siliciclastics/carbonate reefs, platform carbonates, sometimes halite, celestite,
magnesium and potash chlorides and sulphates. In deeply buried deposits, original gypsum
becomes dehydrated into anhydrite, which when uplifted and exposed by erosion may
rehydrate back into gypsum.

Deposit form: Gypsum deposits are strata bound, tabular to lens shaped and are typically comprised of
many bands of highly deformed gypsum resulting from high plasticity of the calcium sulphate
under the pressure. Individual beds may persist over tens of kilometres in length within the
depositional basin. In a platform environment, gypsum forms flat or low-angle dipping massive
beds, in orogenic belts like Canadian Cordillera, for example, highly deformed, discontinuous,
 lenticular bodies. In BC’s Stanford Range, the stratigraphic thickness is from 100 metres at
Windermere to 50–60 metres further south at Coyote Creek.

Texture/Structure: Mostly granoblastic texture of anhedral to subhedral crystals, sometimes grading

into mosaics of ill-defined anhedral crystals. Thinly laminated, fine-grained masses, with local
veining and aggregates of secondary selenite crystals. In highly deformed deposits with plastic
flow features with intimate folding, original laminations can be stretched and pulled apart, with
secondary veining of fine-grained and crystalline gypsum. Laminations are generally from a
fraction of a millimeter to 4 millimetres thick, and are frequently crenulated. If interbedded with
more competent rocks, like dolomite in thin layers, they may exhibit boudinage features. Large
scale, concentric, open and chevron folds are common.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Gypsum is the principal mineral, in some deposits where
there is a demand, anhydrite may be a co-product.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Clay, shale, dolomite; anhydrite in some deposits,
soluble salts – chloride, carbonate and sulphate of sodium and potassium.

Alteration mineralogy: Secondary gypsum in veins and crystal aggregates, native sulphur.

Weathering: In many deposits, particularly in old orogenic belts, gypsum is the weathering product of
anhydrite beds exposed by erosion on the surface. Gypsum deposits may be subject to karst
type of weathering, including sinkholes and other types of underground cavities. The hydrated
zone for BC deposits near Invermere is 30 to 40 metres deep in the Windermere area and 20
and 25 metres in the Coyote Creek area.

Ore controls: Depth of weathering (rehydration) in anhydrite deposits. Facies change into clastic,
chloride or carbonate sedimentation in the original basin. Contamination by clay and carbonate
gangue, presence of soluble salts.

Genetic models: Chemical precipitation of calcium sulphate from saturated brines. Gypsum will begin to
precipitate when normal sea water salinity is concentrated to approximately 3.35 times the
original salinity. Such concentration will take place when the evaporation exceeds the influx of
normal seawater or fresh water into the basin. There are three depositional models currently
accepted for evaporite gypsum formation – deep water/deep basin, shallow water/deep basin,
and shallow water/shallow basin. Deep water evaporates are believed to result from crystals
generated at the air-water interface gradually settling to the bottom. The depth of water in
these deposits may be as much as 40 metres. Shallow water evaporates form in water about 5
metres in depth or less as coastal sabkha deposits. Deep basin/shallow water environment is
associated with deposits of halite and magnesium/potash salts. With burial diagenesis, gypsum
is converted into anhydrite. Later uplift, removal of covering rocks and presence of meteoric
waters reverses the reaction and anhydrite is converted back to gypsum.

Associated deposit types: Rock salt and potash deposits, celestite, frasch sulphur.

Comments: The classical deep basin/shallow water accumulations of anhydrite/gypsum with rock salt
with or without potash might be expected to have sabkha deposits along the margin of the
basin.
 3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Heavy concentrations of sulphate in groundwater.

Geophysical signature: In heavy overburden areas, karst features and outline of gypsum and shale host
rock may be identified with resistivity methods.

Other exploration guides: Karst features, such as sinkholes.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: The low price of gypsum generally does not permit any beneficiation. Mine
production ranges between 85 to 95% pure gypsum. Only traces of soluble salts and up to 2% of
hydrous clays may be tolerated. The median tonnage depends on the size of local markets and
abundance of other gypsum deposits in the region, but mostly is in the tens of millions of tonnes
range. In regions with limited surface resources, some deposits are mined underground.

Economic limitations: Transportation cost is the main limiting factor for many gypsum deposits.
Synthetic gypsum produced by desulphurization of flue gases in smelters, coal burning power
stations and similar operations is replacing natural gypsum in some industrial applications.

End uses: Cement retarder, wallboard, plaster; low-grade gypsum has been used as soil conditioner in
agriculture.

Importance: In the year 2000, Canada produced 8.5 million tonnes of gypsum and anhydrite, the USA
produced 19.5 million tonnes of gypsum. Canada had 11 production centres, and the USA has 56
active mines. Approximately 75 % of gypsum in the USA and Canada is used to manufacture
wallboard and related construction products, and the remaining 25 % is used in cement
industry.

5. References

Bannatyne, B. (1984): Gypsum in Manitoba; in Guillet, G.R. and Martin, W., Editors, The Geology of
Industrial Minerals in Canada, The Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume
29, pages 163–166.
Bates, R.L. (1969): Geology of Industrial Rocks and Minerals; Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 459
pages.
Butrenchuk, S.B. (1991): Gypsum in British Columbia, BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Open File 1991-15, 48 pages.
Cameron, J.R. (1984): Gypsum in Atlantic Canada; in Guillet, G.R. and Martin, W., Editors, The Geology of
Industrial Minerals in Canada, The Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume
29, pages 25–27.
Cole, L.H. (1913): Gypsum in Canada, Canada Department of Mines, No. 245, 255 pages.
Cole, L.H. (1930): The Gypsum Industry of Canada, Canada Department of Mines, 164 pages.
Cole, L.H. and Rogers, R.A. (1933): Anhydrite in Canada, Canada Department of Mines, No. 732, 89
pages.
Harben, P.W. and Kuzvart, M. (1996): Industrial Minerals. A Global Geology, Metal Bulletin PLC London,
UK, 462 pages.
Harris, P. (2001): Wallboard Wonderland – The North American Gypsum Market, Industrial Minerals, No.
400, January, pages 28–37.
Jorgensen, D.B. (1994): Gypsum and Anhydrite; in Carr, D.D., Senior Editor, Industrial Minerals and
Rocks, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado, pages 571–581.
Kebel, H.L. (1994): Gypsum Plasters and Wallboards; in Carr, D.D., Senior Editor, Industrial Minerals and
Rocks, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado, pages 325–336.
Kendal, A.C. (1984): Gypsum; in Walker, R.G., Editor, Evaporites, Geoscience Canada, Reprint Series 1,
pages 159–174.
Meijer Drees, N.O. (1986): Evaporitic Deposits of Western Canada. Geological Survey of Canada, Paper
85-20, 118 pages.
Mossop, G.D. and Shearman, D.J. (1973): Origins of Secondary Gypsum Rocks, Institution of Mining and
Metallurgy, Transactions, Volume B82, pages 147–154.
Mossop, G. and Shetsen, I. (1994): Geological Atlas of the Western Canada sedimentary Basin, Alberta
Research Council, 510 pages.
Murray, R.C. (1964): Origin and Diagenesis of Gypsum and Anhydrite, Journal of Sedimentary Petrology,
Volume 34, No. 3, pages 512–523.
Olson, D.W. (2001): Gypsum; in Mineral Industry Surveys, US Geological Survey, pages 35.1–35.7.
Vagt, O. (2002): Gypsum and Anhydrite; in Canadian Mineral Yearbook 2000, Minerals and Metals
Sector, Natural Resources Canada, pages 25.1-25.6.
F03 – Gypsum-hosted sulphur

Z.D. Hora1
1
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonym(s): Frasch sulphur (Frasch is process of pumping hot water underground to melt the sulphur
and pump it up to the surface for recovery).

Commodities (by-products): Sulphur.

Examples (British Columbia – Canada/International): Trutch (094G 023, 024), Prophet River (094I 002,
003), Windemere Creek (082JSW021, 028), Branch F (082GNW071); Coronation prospect
(Alberta); Kennetcook, Hilden, Pictou Harbor (Nova Scotia); Main Pass, Lake Washington,
Jefferson Island (Louisiana); Wharton Co., Culberson Co., Hoskins Mound, Boling, (Texas);
Texistepec, Jaltipan (Mexico); Tarnobrzeg (Poland).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Elemental sulphur occurring in economic quantities as replacements along beds, as
the matrix and clasts in breccias and disseminated through porous carbonate rocks or
sandstones. The sulphur is often associated with anhydrite or gypsum interbedded with
dolomites or limestones and below impermeable mudstones or shales. The elemental sulphur is
found in zones that are metres to tens of metres thick, often quite extensive laterally and
frequently occurs with hydrogene sulphide.

Tectonic setting: Ancient continental shelf and slowly subsiding marginal marine basins. Passive margin
setting.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: The host sedimentary rocks were deposited in a restricted
basin along with evaporitic beds of anhydrite, barite and sometimes celestite. In some cases the
evaporitic rocks formed diapiric salt domes. Presence of hydrocarbons in surrounding rocks,
together with sulphate reducing bacteria and migrating meteoric water.

Age of mineralization: Most deposits are considered to be Tertiary or younger, but they are hosted
mostly in Devonian, Mississippian, Triassic and Miocene rocks.

Host/Associated rock types: Anhydrite or gypsum with porous dolomite/limestone, sandstone and
siltstone beds / mudstones, siltstones, bioepigenetic calcite, locally barite and celestite.

Deposit form: Strata controlled replacement mineralized bodies, collapsed cave fill heterolithic breccias,
porous carbonate reef structures, replacement orebodies in roofs of diapiric salt domes.

Texture/Structure: In sedimentary deposits the ore textures frequently mimic sedimentary textures of
original gypsum or anhydrite. In collapsed cave fill deposits sulphur occurs as microcrystalline
 disseminations in biogenic calcite, crystals lining limestone cavities and crystalline masses, crusts
and clasts in collapse breccia. In diapiric structures, sulfur is usually massive in the lower part of
the so called “caprock”.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Elementary sulphur, secondary calcite, hydrocarbons and
hydrogene sulphide / barite, celestite, galena, sphalerite, marcasite, pyrite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Anhydrite, gypsum, limestone / siltstone, sandstone.

Alteration mineralogy: Secondary, white calcite. Celestite and barite are probably also products of the
calcium sulphate reduction process.

Weathering: While native sulphur is resistant to chemical weathering and can be found in outcrop, it is
brittle and easy to disintegrate mechanically.

Ore controls: Critical to the generation of a significant sulphur deposit is the confinement of the
hydrogene sulphide to a restricted area where elemental sulphur may be deposited and
preserved. Overlying impermeable strata of clays or shales may trap the hydrogene sulphide and
prevent subsequent oxidation. Structural controls are often important for the migration of
hydrocarbons and groundwater, for the development of collapse breccias, and as well for
development of diapiric salt domes.

Genetic models: The origin of sulphur deposits is widely accepted to be associated with the actions of
sulphate reducing bacteria in the presence of gypsum or anhydrite and hydrocarbons. At
relatively shallow depths (generally less than 750 metres, but locally deeper) and at
temperatures below about 60 degrees Celsius, the bacteria can thrive in the subsurface given an
adequate energy source. The host anhydrite must be exposed to migrating meteoric waters to
be hydrated to gypsum. Into this system, petroleum or natural gas is introduced from depth,
along faults, joints or permeable strata. Bacteria are introduced by meteoric water which oxidize
the hydrocarbons and reduce the sulphate to hydrogene sulphide. The latter is then oxidized by
molecular oxygen derived usually from meteoric water or ferric iron to produce elemental
sulphur and calcium carbonate. Under some circumstances, hydrogene sulphide may oxidize
into native sulphur without the presence of meteoric water. In high temperature/ high pressure
environments, hydrogene sulphide may also form as a product of thermal maturation of crude
oil and thermochemical sulphate reduction. A variety of sulphur forms are dissolved in the sour
gas phase and precipitate with lowering the pressure and/or temperature, which can happen by
natural processes during uplift and erosion, or during natural gas production. Some deposits
may be the result of combination of the two processes.

Associated deposit types: Gypsum (F02), halite, potash salts, oil and natural gas, hydrogene sulphide
pools, possibly celestite (F04).

Comments: At present, natural gas processing plants provide considerable amounts of North America’s
sulphur from sour gas.

3. Exploration guides
Geochemical signature: Presence of H2S in oil and natural gas. Light carbon isotope survey anomalies
may detect biogenic calcium carbonate. Detrital native sulphur in soil.

Geophysical signature: Gravity methods can outline diapiric structures, porous limestone host rocks and
collapse features.

Other exploration guides: For subsurface deposits favourable lithologies with evaporite sequence.
Biogenic calcite may form weathered out small buttes in otherwise flat topography.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Production of Frash sulphur from individual North American deposits has
varied from less than one hundred thousand to more than 80 million tonnes. Boiling Dome,
Texas produced over 90 million tonnes of sulphur between 1928-1994, Main Pass dome in
Louisiana was reported to have 67 million long tons reserves in 1989, the Culberson orebody in
Texas reported pre-production reserves of 81.5 long tons of sulphur. In Poland, sulphur-bearing
rocks are from few metres to over 40 metres thick, sulphur content is quite variable from few %
to over 50 %, the average varies from 22 to 33%. Rocks containing less than 5% of sulphur are
considered barren. Total measured reserves in 1992 in Poland were reported at about 600
million tonnes and another 500 million tonnes inferred, in two separate mining districts.

Economic limitations: For the Frasch method, the maximum depth of the orebody is up to approximately
1000 metres below surface. Since the year 2000, all sulphur in Canada and USA comes from
involuntary production to remove it from natural gas and other hydrocarbons, and a variety of
base metal smelting operations.

End uses: Sulphuric acid for industrial applications, one of the main uses is for production of phosphate
fertilizers.

Importance: Sulphur mining from outcrops of this deposit type is known to have taken place as early as
2000 BC in Egypt; archeological work indicates its use by man thousands of years earlier. A
major world source of sulphur from the discovery and development of Frasch mining in 1895
until the last U.S. operation was closed in August 2000.

5. References

Bates, R.L. (1969): Geology of Industrial Rocks and Minerals, Dover Publications Inc., New York, 459
pages.
Harben, P.W. and Kuzvart, M. (1996): Industrial Minerals. A Global Geology, Metal Bulletin PLC, London,
UK, 462 pages.
Holister, V.F. (1984): Sulphur Deposits of Nova Scotia, in Guillet, G.R. and Martin, W., Editors, The
Geology of Industrial Minerals in Canada, The Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
Special Volume 29, pages 31-34.
Holister, V.F. (1984): Sulphur potential of the Wabamun Group, Alberta, in Guillet, G.R. and Martin, W.,
Editors, The Geology of Industrial Minerals in Canada, The Canadian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, Special Volume 29, pages 238-243.
Kyle, J.R., Editor, (1990): Industrial Resources of the Delaware Basin, Texas and New Mexico, Guidebook
Series Volume 8, Society of Economic Geologists, 203 pages.
Lundy, W.T. (1949): Sulphur and Pyrites; in Dolbear, S.H., Senior Editor, Industrial Minerals and Rocks,
The American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, New York, pages 989-1017.
Machel, H.G. (2001): Bacterial and Thermochemical Sulfate Reduction in Diagenetic Setting – Old and
New Insights, Sedimentary Geology, Volume 140, pages 143-175.
Machel, H.G. (1987): Saddle Dolomite as a By-product of Chemical Compaction and Thermochemical
Sulfate Reduction, Geology, Volume 15, pages 936-940.
Meijer Drees, N.O. (1986): Evaporitic Deposits of Western Canada, Geological Survey of Canada, Paper
85-20, 118 pages.
Morel-a-l`-Huissier, P. (2002): Sulphur; in Canadian Minerals Yearbook 2000, Natural Resources Canada,
pages 53.1-53.7.
Ober, J.A. (2000): Gypsum, in Minerals Yearbook, U.S. Geological Survey, pages 76.1-76.27.
Orris, G.J. and Bliss, J.D. (1991): Some Industrial Mineral Deposit Models: Descriptive Deposit Models,
U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report 91-11A, 73 pages.
Rogers, M.C., Thurston, P.C., Fyon, J.A., Kelly, R.I., and Breaks, F.W. (1995): Descriptive Mineral Deposit
Models of Metallic and Industrial Deposits Types and Related Mineral Potential Assessment
Criteria; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5916, 241 pages.
Thompson, B.J. (1989): Native Sulphur Occurrences in Devonian Evaporites, Northeastern British
Columbia, in Geological Fieldwork 1988, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Paper 1989-1, pages 529-531.
Wenzel, W.J.M. (1986): Other Sources of Sulphur and Their Economics, in Proceedings, Symposium
Canadian Sulphur and the World Market, Calgary, Alberta, pages 5.01-5.21.
Wessel, G.R. (1994): Sulphur Resources; in Carr, D.D., Senior Editor, Industrial Minerals and Rocks,
Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration Inc., Littleton, Colorado, pages 1011-1048.
Wessel, G.R. and Wimberly, B.H., Editors (1992): Native Sulfur. Developments in Geology and
Exploration, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., Littleton, Colorado, 193 pages.
F07 – Sedimentary phosphate deposits

G.J. Simandl1,2, S. Paradis2,3 and R. Fajber 1

1
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, B.C., Canada
3
Geological Survey of Canada, Sidney, B.C., Canada

1. Introduction

Synonym(s): Upwelling phosphate deposits, phosphorite or stratiform phospate deposits.

Commodities (by-products): Phosphate +/- F, +/- rare earth elements (REE including Y) +/- V, +/-U, +/-
gypsum (phosphogypsum).

Examples (British Columbia – Canada/International): Crow (082GNE025), Cabin Creek (CS) (082GSE055),
Bighorn (082GSE060), Ram 1 (082GSE056); Wapiti (093I 008) and Wapiti East (093I 022);
Athabaska Basin (Saskatchewan, Canada), Bone Valley and Hawthorn Formations (Florida,
U.S.A.), Phosphoria Formation (Idaho, Montana and Wyoming, U.S.A.); Ganntour deposit
(Morocco).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Sedimentary phosphate deposits are stratiform or lens-shaped, measuring less than
1 metre to tens of metres in thickness. They extend for tens to hundreds of kilometres in their
longest dimension. Mineralized zones consist of phosphorites (≥18% P2O5) or phosphate rocks
(<18% P2O5). These rocks are bedded. They may be primary or reworked (secondary). The main
ore mineral is microcrystalline francolite, commonly in form of laminae, pellets, oolites, nodules
and fragments of bones or shells. This mineral may also be present within the rock matrix.

Tectonic setting: The most favourable tectonic settings for larger deposits are passive continental
shelves and adjacent sag basins; some sedimentary phosphate deposits formed at active
continental margins, intracontinental basins and even lacustrine environments.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Deposition usually occurred in areas of warm

paleoclimate, mostly between the 40th parallels. The most common depositional environment
for sedimentary phosphate deposits is a marine sedimentary basin with a good connection to
the open sea (commonly west-facing at the time of phosphate deposition), and upwelling areas
with high plankton productivity.

Age of mineralization: Deposits range in age from Proterozoic to Holocene. Phosphate deposits are
particularly abundant in Cambrian, Permian, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Eocene and Miocene times
(Cook and McElhinny, 1979). In terms of inferred resources (tonnage), the Eocene, Miocene and
Permian are the most important time intervals. In British Columbia, the majority of phosphate
occurrences are located in rocks of Jurassic and Triassic age.

Host/Associated rock types: Hostrocks are phosphorites (≥18% P2O5) and phosphate rocks (<18%
P2O5). Associated rock types are typically sedimentary rocks including marl, black shale, chert,
 limestone, dolostone, and in some cases lava flows, tuffs and diatomite-bearing rocks. Figure 2
shows conceptual vertical section of the platform perpendicular to the shoreline.

Deposit form: Phosphate-bearing rocks are generally stratiform; bed thicknesses range from less and 1
metre to tens of metres and may extend for distances up to several hundreds of kilometres in
their longest dimension. The thickest deposits are amalgamated/condensed beds (tabular units)
reflecting variations in upwelling intensity and storm frequency through time. Individual
phosphorite deposits delimited by drilling may measure from a few hundreds of metres to tens
of kilometres in their longest dimension. Phosphorite deposits commonly occur in belts.

Texture/Structure: Phosphorite deposits commonly contain phosphate pellets and nodules as well as
phosphatized shells and bones; ooids, intraformational rip-up breccias, clasts, concretions,
phosphatic stromatolite mounds (or their fragments), crossbeds, hardgrounds and burrows.
Phosphatic minerals may also form the matrix. Gangue mineralogy and textures in phosphorite
are determined partially by the depositional environment that prevailed during reworking and
winnowing (natural P2O5 upgrading) of the original phosphate rocks and during diagenesis) may
be paler buff, tan and/or macroscopically featureless.

"Pristine" phosphate accumulations (one cycle of phosphogenesis) are characterized by phosphatised

laminae and lenses, coated grains, coprolites, peloids and fossils. Allochthonous phosphate
accumulations show sharp and erosive lower boundary, assemblages of phosphatic and non-
phosphatic particles and internal grading, accreted grains, minor unconformities, scour marks
and bed truncations, and heterogeneous phosphate particles. Condensed phosphates represent
an intermediate stage between pristine and allochthonous phosphate deposits (Fõllmi, 1996).

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Francolite (carbonate-rich fluorapatite), secondary minerals
derived by the weathering of francolite: millisite, Fe-pallite, crandalite, wavellite and other Al-
phosphates. Secondary minerals are not desirable from the metallurgical point of view.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Dolomite, calcite, quartz, montmorillonite or illite +/-
chert, +/- halite, +/- gypsum, +/- iron oxides, +/- siderite, +/- pyrite, +/- crnotite*, +/- glauconite,
+/- sphalerite, +/- zeolites.

*Carnotite is a potassium uranium vanadate radioactive mineral with chemical formula:

K2(UO2)2(VO4)2•3H2O.

It is commonly considered as a gangue mineral; however, if present in high concentrations it

becomes an ore mineral.

Alteration mineralogy: Dahllite is believed to form during late diagenesis (Trappe, 1998).

Weathering: Lateritic alteration of francolite results in the formation of millisite, Fe-pallite, crandalite,
wavellite and other aluminum-phosphates. Turquoise may form if copper is present. Weathering
decreases concentrations of pyrite and sphalerite and may result in the release of selenium.

Ore controls: Phosphorites are stratigraphically and spatially linked to paleodepositional environments
favourable for phosphogenesis (high bio-productivity) and phosphorus flux, stratification within
water/unconsolidated sediment column, and a moderate to low supply of allogenic sediment.
 Phosphorite deposits are spatially related to multiple cycles of regression-transgression.
Phosphate facies commonly rest on, or are associated with, erosional surfaces (unconformities)
and/or start with phosphatic lag concentrates. Entrapment basins (zones) characterized by a low
influx of continent-derived sediments are required for the deposition of phosphorites.

Genetic model: Seawater averages 0.071 ppm phosphorous (Redfield, 1958) and may contain as much
as 0.372 ppm phosphorus (Gulbradsen and Robertson, 1973). Warm surface waters typically
contain less than 0.0033 ppm phosphorus (McKelvey, 1973). Phosphate rocks and primary
phosphorites form in or laterally adjacent to organic-rich sediments beneath regions where
upwelling, nutrient-rich, cold waters interact with a warm sunlit surface seawater layer, creating
favourable conditions for intense algal bloom. Algae die, or are eaten by other life forms, then
accumulate on the seafloor as fecal pellets and/or organic debris beneath sites of active coastal
upwelling. Decomposition of organic debris in an oxygen-deprived environment by bacteria and
dissolution of fish bones and scales are linked to precipitation of phosphate minerals
(phosphogenesis) near the sediment-water interface. Precipitation of apatite within
intergranular spaces during diagenesis and through non-biological chemical processes may also
contribute to formation of phosphate rocks.

Most phosphorites were enriched by the reworking, winnowing (concentration) and

accumulation of the above described phosphorus-bearing sediments.

Associated deposit types: Sedimentary manganese deposits (F01), evaporites (gypsum-anhydrite, F02),
SEDEX deposits (E14), coal deposits (A03 and A04), hydrocarbon reservoirs, Mississippi Valley-
type Pb-Zn deposits (E12), sparry magnesite deposits (E09) and red bed Cu deposits (E04) are
spatially associated with the phosphate deposits.

Comments: The high trace element content of some phosphorites may limit their suitability for
agricultural applications. Repetitive fertilizing of agricultural fields over several decades may
result in unacceptable concentrations of potentially harmful elements in soils. For example,
elevated concentrations of uranium, thorium, lead, cadmium, selenium and chromium in
fertilizer are not desirable.

Phosphorite deposits can supply several by-products, such as fluorine (Simandl, 2009). Uranium and
vanadium were extracted from phosphate deposits in United States. Phosphate deposits also
have the potential to produce yttrium (Pell, 1991) and other rare earth elements as by-products
(Simandl et al., 2011a, b). Synthetic gypsum (phosphogypsum) can also be a byproduct of
phosphoric acid production; however, its use is typically limited because it incorporates
unwanted trace elements.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Phosphorous and in some cases rare earth elements, fluorine, and uranium can
be used as pathfinders. Since phosphogenesis is commonly associated with organic-rich
sediments, nitrogen and carbon may be considered as part of the signature; however, in
practice these elements are not part of standard analytical packages used in exploration. Rapid
ammonium molybdate - nitric acid field method can be used for field identification of phosphate
(Swanson, 1981); however, this method is generally considered as over sensitive. A portable,
hand-held XRF is an effective tool in determining the concentrations of phosphorus, light rare
 earth elements, yttrium, and a number of other trace elements commonly contained in
phosphate rocks (Fajber and Simandl, 2012).

Geophysical signature: Radiometric surveys could be an effective exploration tool if the deposit contains
above background concentrations of radioactive elements.

Other exploration guides: Phosphate deposits are expected to occur mostly in favourable paleolatitudes
(between the 40th parallels). Remote sensing (spectral analysis) is also showing some promise.
Conceptual vertical section showing spatial distribution of the associated deposit types may be
used as a guide in early stages of exploration.

Phosphatic and glauconitic facies are commonly spatially related (Odin and Letolle, 1980). In
those settings, glauconite, characterized by its green colour (easily recognizable by prospector),
may be used as an indirect guide to mineralization.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: According to the United States Geological Survey grade and tonnage model,
90% of the sedimentary phosphate deposits contain more than 26 million tonnes, 50% of them
contain 330 million tonnes or more, and less than 10% of these deposits contain more than
4200 million tonnes (Mosier, 1992). According to the same model, 90% of these deposits grade
more than 15% P2O5, 50% of them grade more than 25% P2O5 and less than 10% grade more
than 32% P2O5 (Mosier, 1992).

Historically only deposits with grades exceeding 25% P2O5 were considered of economic
interest. As these deposits are being depleted, lower ore grades are becoming acceptable and
upgrading has become common practice. For example, in Idaho companies use high-grade ore
(or acid grade >31%P2O5) directly in fertilizer plants, while medium grade (or furnace grade)
rock (24 to 31% P2O5) can be used as feed for elemental phosphorus plants. Lower grade rocks
(15 to 24% P2O5) are also mined but they have to beneficiated to meet the above requirements.

Under favourable conditions (i.e. near existing flotation plants, as in Florida), even phosphate
rocks grading as low as 3% P2O5 may be of economic interest (Zhang et al., 2006). Furthermore,
a small portion of mined phosphate rock is simply ground and sold to growers of organic
products as "natural rock phosphate". Such products work reasonably well in acidic soils;
however, most of the phosphorus contained in these products is not readily available for plant
use in neutral or alkaline soils (pH>/-7).

Economic limitations: Most of the deposits are being mined using open-pit methods or drag lines;
however, under exceptional circumstances, high-grade deposits may be mined by underground
methods.

Phosphatic rocks may be enriched in REE, V, U, F, Ag, Cd, Cr, Mo, As, Se, Sr, Te, Zn and other
elements. Elements such as U, Th and their decay products, Cd, Tl, Se and Hg are closely
monitored. If found in excessive concentrations these elements are recovered to mitigate
environmental risks linked to fertilizer use or phosphate tailings disposal (Laznicka, 1985;
Northolt, 1994; Trappe, 1998).
 High concentrations of certain elements other than P can cause problems during processing.
High CaO/P2O5 ratios result in an increase in sulfuric acid consumption during phosphoric acid
production; high concentrations of Mg and SiO2 cause filtration problems; high concentrations
of Na and K results in scaling; organic matter causes foaming during production of phosphoric
acid; high Cl concentrations cause premature corrosion. High levels of relatively toxic elements
(e.g. Cd, Se and As) may make a phosphorite unsuitable for fertilizer production.

Importance: World phosphate production for 2011 is estimated at 176 million tonnes. Sedimentary
phosphate deposits account for 80% of the world phosphate production. Morocco and the
Western Sahara (administered by Morocco) accounted for 50 million tonnes. Other North
African countries, China, U.S.A. and Russia are also major producers (Jasinski, 2011). Other
sources of phosphorus include apatite concentrate produced from some carbonatite deposits
(N01) and peralkaline intrusions (Brazil, Canada, Russia and South Africa), guano deposits (small
and only of local importance) and also apatite produced as a by-product of iron extraction from
some of iron oxide copper gold (IOCG) deposits (D07).

Phosphorus is an essential element for plant and animal life. There are no substitutes for
phosphorus in agricultural applications. Elemental phosphorus is used in production of variety of
intermediate products that are consumed in the manufacturing of detergents, matches,
fireworks, pesticides, toothpastes and explosives. Phosphorus compounds may also be used as
gasoline additives, in some plastics, fire retardants, etc.

The recovery of phosphate from waste waters is technically possible; however, the economics of
the process remain challenging at current prices of phosphate fertilizers (Parson and Smith,
2008).

5. References

Butrenchuk, S. (1996): Phosphate deposits in British Columbia; BC Ministry of Employment and

Investment. British Columbia Geological Survey, Bulletin 98, 126 pages.
Cook, P.J. and McElhinny, M.W. (1979): A re-evaluation of the spatial and temporal distribution of
sedimentary phosphate deposits in the light of plate tectonics; Economic Geology, Volume 74,
pages 315-330.
Fajber, R. and Simandl, G.J. (2012): Portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) instrument use in evaluation of
rare earth element containing sedimentary phosphate deposits; BC Ministry of Energy and
Mines; Geological Fieldwork 2011.
Follmi, K.B. (1996): The Phosphorus cycle, phosphogenesis and marine phosphate-rich deposits; Earth
Sciences Reviews, Volume 40, pages 55-124.
Gulbrandsen, R.A. and Roberson, C.E. (1973): Inorganic phosphorus in seawater; in Griffith, E.J., Beeton,
A., Spencer, J.M. and Mitchell, D.T. (Eds.), Environmental Phosphorus Handbook; John Wiley &
Sons, New York, pages 117-140.
Hein, J.R., Perkins, R.B. and McIntyre, B.R. (2004): Evolution of thought concerning the origin of the
Phosphoria Formation, Western US phosphate field; in Life cycle of the Phosphoria Formation;
Hein, J.R., Editor, Elsevier, Amsterdam. Handbook of Exploration and Environmental
Geochemistry, pages 19-42.
Jasinski, S.M. (2004): Societal relevance, processing, and material flow of western phosphate -
refreshments, fertilizer, and weed killer; in Life cycle of the Phosphoria Formation; Hein, J.R.,
 Editor, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Handbook of Exploration and Environmental Geochemistry, Volume
8, pages 599-610.
Jasinski, S.M. (2011): Phosphate rock; Commodity summaries; US Geological Survey, pages 118-119.
Laznicka, P. (1985): Empirical metallogeny; depositional environments, Lithologic Associations and
Deposits; Volume 1, Phanerozoic Environments, Associations and Deposits; Elsevier, Amsterdam,
pages 482-488.
McKelvey, V.E. (1973): Abundance and distribution of phosphorus in the lithosphere; in Griffith, E.J.,
Beeton, A., Spencer, J.M. and Mitchell, D.T. (Eds.), Environmental Phosphorus Handbook; John
Wiley & Sons, New York, pages 13-31.
Mosier, D.L. (1992): Descriptive model of upwelling type phosphate deposits; Mineral Deposit Models;
in Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Mineral Deposit Models, US Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, pages
234-236.
Moyle, P.R. and Piper, D.Z. (2004): Western phosphate filed - depositional and economic deposit
models; in Life cycle of the Phosphoria Formation; Hein, J.R., Editor, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Handbook of Exploration and Environmental Geochemistry, Volume 8, pages 575-598.
Notholt, A.J.G. (1994): Phosphate rocks: factors in economic and technical evaluation; in Whately,
M.K.G. and Harvey, P.K., editors; Mineral Resource Evaluation II; Methods and Case Histories,
Geological Society Special Publication No. 79, pages 53-65.
Odin, G.S. and Letolle, R. (1980): Glauconitization and phosphatization environments; a tentative
comparison, SEPM Special Publication No. 29; The Society of Economic Paleontologists and
Mineralogists, pages 227-237.
Orris, G.J. and Chernoff, C.B. (2004): Review of world sedimentary phosphate deposits and occurrences;
in Life cycle of the Phosphoria Formation, Hein, J.R. Editor, Elsevier, Amsterdam; Handbook of
Exploration and Environmental Geochemistry, Volume 8, pages 550-573.
Paradis, S. and Simandl, G.J. (2012): Sedimentary phosphate deposits Mineral Deposit Profile F07; in
Geological Fieldwork 2011, BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 2012-
1, pages 217-222.
Parsons, S.A. and Smith, J.A. (2008): Phosphorus removal and recovery from municipal wastewaters;
Elements, Volume 4, pages 109-112.
Pell, J. (1991): Yttrium-enriched phosphorites in the Fernie Basin, Southeastern British Columbia; in
Hora, Z.D., Hamilton, W.N., Grant, K. and Kelly, P.D. eds., Industrial Minerals of Alberta and
British Columbia, Canada, Proceedings of the 27th Forum on the Geology of Industrial Minerals,
BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1991-23, pages 117-124.
Poulton, T.P. and Aitken, J.D. (1989): The Lower Jurassic phosphorites of southeastern British Columbia
and terrane accretion to western North America; Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Volume
26, issue 8, pages 1612-1616.
Prévôt, L. (1990): Geochemistry, Petrography, genesis of Cretaceous-Eocene phosphorites - The
Ganntour Deposit (Morocco); a type example; Mémoires de la Société Géologique de France,
Société Géologique de France, Paris, Mémoire 158, 232 pages.
Redfield, A.C. (1958): The biological control on the chemical factors in the environment; American
Journal of Science; Volume 46, pages 205-221.
Rogers, M.C. (1995): Phosphorite; in Rogers, M.C., Thurston, P.C., Fyon, J.A., Kelly, R.I. and Breaks, F.W.
(comps.), Descriptive Mineral Deposit Models of Metallic and Industrial Deposit Types and
Related Mineral Potential Assessment Criteria, Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report
5916, pages 155-158.
Simandl, G.J. (2009): World fluorspar resources, market and deposit examples from British Columbia,
Canada; BC Geological Survey, Information Circular 2009-4, 16 pages.
Simandl, G.J., Fajber, R. and Grieve, D. (2011): Rare Earth concentrations in phosphate deposits, Fernie
Formation, South-Eastern British Columbia, Canada; BC Ministry of Energy and Mines; Geofile
2011-08.
Simandl, G.J., Fajber, R. and Ferri, F. (2011): Rare earth concentrations in phosphate deposits, Sulphur
Mountain Formation, Northeastern British Columbia, Canada; BC Ministry of Energy and Mines;
Geofile 2011-09.
Sheldon, R.P. (1963): Physical stratigraphy and mineral resources of Permian rocks in western Wyoming;
US Geological Survey, Professional Paper, 313-B, 273 pages.
Slansky, M. (1980): Géologie des phosphates sedimentaires; Mémoire B.R.G.M. 114; 92 pages.
Swanson, R.G. (1981): Sample examination manual; American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
Methods in Exploration Series; No. 1, 117 pages.
Trappe, J. (1998): Phanerozoic phosphorite depositional systems–A Dynamic Model for a Sedimentary
Resource System; Spinger Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, Germany, 256 pages.
Zhang, P., Weigel, R. and El-Shall, H. (2006): Phosphate Rock; in Industrial Minerals & Rocks;
Commodities, Markets, and Uses, Kogel, J.E., Trivedi, N.C., Barker, J.M. and Krukowski, S.T., eds.,
Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. (SME), Littleton, Colorado, U.S.A.; pages
703-722.
Examples of Chemical Sediment Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

F01 Molongo (Mexico), Atasu (Kazakhstan), Kalahari (South --
Arica)
F02 Paris Basin (France), Appalachian Basins (New York, Lussier River, Windermere
Pennsylvania)
F03 Texas, Louisiana, Poland, Coronation (Alberta) Trutch area
F04* Lake Enon (Nova Scotia), Mexico, Germany Kitsault Lake
F05* Metalline Falls (Washington) --
F06 Juntura and Trout Ck Formations (Oregon), Lake Myvatn Crownite Formation
(Iceland) (Quesnel)
F07 Phosphoria Formation (Idaho), Meskala (Morocco) Fernie synclinorium
F08 Athabaska Basin (Saskatchewan), Florida --
F09 -- --
F10* Mesabi Ranges (Minnesota), Mackenzie Mountains --
(Yukon)
F11* Clinton Formation (Alabama), France, Germany Peace River region

* Note: All BC deposit profile(s) with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s.
G - Marine Volcanic Association

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

G01 Algoma-type iron-formation -- 28b
G02 Volcanogenic Mn -- 24c
G03* Volcanogenic anhydrite / gypsum -- --
G04 Besshi massive sulphide Cu-Zn Kieslager 24b
G05 Cyprus massive sulphide Cu (Zn) -- 24a
G06 Noranda / Kuroko massive sulphide Cu-Pb-Zn -- 28a
G07 Subaqueous hot spring Ag-Au -- --
G01 – Algoma-type iron formation

G.A. Gross
Geological Survey of Canda, Ottawa

Gross, G.A. (1996): Algoma-type Iron-fromation, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 25-28.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Taconite, itabirite, banded iron-formation.

Commodities (by-products): Fe (Mn).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Falcon (093O 016), Lady A (092B 029);
McLeod (Helen), Sherman, Adams, Griffith (Ontario, Canada), Woodstock, Austin Brook (New
Brunswick, Canada), Kudremuk (India), Cerro Bolivar (Venezuela), Carajas (Brazil), part of Krivoy
Rog (Russia).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Iron ore deposits in Algoma-type iron-formations consist mainly of oxide and
carbonate lithofacies that contain 20 to 40 % Fe as alternating layers and beds of micro- to
macro-banded chert or quartz, magnetite, hematite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, iron carbonates, iron
silicates and manganese oxide and carbonate minerals. The deposits are interbedded with
volcanic rocks, greywacke, turbidite and pelitic sediments; the sequences are commonly
metamorphosed.

Tectonic setting: Algoma-type iron-formations are deposited in volcanic arcs and at spreading ridges.

Age of mineralization: They range in age from 3.2 Ga to modern protolithic facies on the seafloor and
are most widely distributed and achieve the greatest thickness in Archean terranes (2.9 to 2.5
Ga).

Depositional environment/Geological setting: They formed both near and distal from extrusive centres
along volcanic belts, deep fault systems and rift zones and may be present at any stage in a
volcanic succession. The proportions of volcanic and clastic sedimentary rocks vary and are
rarely mutually exclusive.

Host/Associated rocks: Rocks associated with Algoma-type iron-formations vary greatly in composition,
even within local basins, and range from felsic to mafic and ultramafic volcanic rocks, and from
greywacke, black shale, argillite, and chert interlayered with pyroclastic and other volcaniclastic
beds or their metamorphic equivalents. Algoma-type iron-formations and associated stratafer
sediments commonly show a prolific development of different facies types within a single
stratigraphic sequence. Oxide lithofacies are usually the thickest and most widely distributed
units of iron-formation in a region and serve as excellent metallogenetic markers.
Deposit form: Iron ore deposits are sedimentary sequences commonly from 30 to 100 m thick, and
several kilometres in strike length. In most economic deposits, isoclinal folding or thrust faulting
have produced thickened sequences of iron-formation.

Structure/Texture: Micro-banding, bedding and penecontemporaneous deformation features of the

hydroplastic sediment, such as slump folds and faults, are common, and can be recognized in
many cases in strongly metamorphosed oxide lithofacies. Ore mineral distribution closely
reflects primary sedimentary facies. The quality of oxide facies crude ore is greatly enhanced by
metamorphism which leads to the development of coarse granular textures and discrete grain
enlargement.

Ore Mineralogy: Oxide lithofacies are composed of magnetite and hematite. Some deposits consist of
siderite interbedded with pyrite and pyrrhotite.

Gangue mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Quartz, siderite or ferruginous ankerite and dolomite,
manganoan siderite and silicate minerals. Silicate lithofacies are characterized by iron silicate
minerals including grunerite, minnesotaite, hypersthene, reibeckite and stilpnomelane,
associated with chlorite, sericite, amphibole, and garnet.

Weathering: Minor oxidation of metal oxide minerals and leaching of silica, silicate and carbonate
gangue. Algoma-type iron-formations are protore for high-grade, direct shipping types of
residual-enriched iron ore deposits.

Genetic model: Algoma-type iron deposits were formed by the deposition of iron and silica in colloidal
size particles by chemical and biogenic precipitation processes. Their main constituents
evidently came from hydrothermal-effusive sources and were deposited in euxinic to oxidizing
basin environments, in association with clastic and pelagic sediment, tuff, volcanic rocks and a
variety of clay minerals. The variety of metal constituents consistently present as minor or trace
elements evidently were derived from the hydrothermal plumes and basin water and adsorbed
by amorphous iron and manganese oxides and smectite clay components in the protolithic
sediment. Their development and distribution along volcanic belts and deep-seated faults and
rift systems was controlled mainly by tectonic rather than by biogenic or atmospheric factors.
Sulphide facies were deposited close to the higher temperature effusive centres; iron oxide and
silicate facies were intermediate, and manganese-iron facies were deposited from cooler
hydrothermal vents and in areas distal from active hydrothermal discharge. Overlapping and
lateral transitions of one kind of lithofacies to another appear to be common and are to be
expected.

Ore controls: The primary control is favourable iron-rich stratigraphic horizons with little clastic
sedimentation, often near volcanic centres. Some Algoma-type iron-formations contain ore
deposits due to metamorphic enhancement of grain size or structural thickening of the
mineralized horizon.

Associated deposits: Algoma-type iron-formations can be protore for residual-enriched iron ore deposits
(B01?). Transitions from Lake Superior to Algoma-type iron-formations occur in areas where
sediments extend from continental shelf to deep-water environments along craton margins as
reported in the Krivoy Rog iron ranges. Oxide lithofacies of iron- formation grade laterally and
 vertically into manganese-rich lithofacies (G02), and iron sulphide, polymetallic volcanic-hosted
and sedex massive sulphide (G04, G05, G06, E14).

Comments: Lithofacies selected for iron and manganese ore are part of the complex assemblage of
stratiform units formed by volcanogenic-sedimentary processes that are referred to collectively
as stratafer sedimentary deposits, and includes iron-formation (more than 15% Fe) and various
other metalliferous lithofacies.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Elevated values for Fe and Mn; at times elevated values for Ni, Au, Ag, Cu, Zn Pb,
Sn, W, REE and other minor elements.

Geophysical signature: Electromagnetic, magnetic, and electrical conductance and resistivity survey
methods are used effectively in tracing and defining the distribution of Algoma- type beds,
either in exploring for iron and manganese ore, or for using these beds as metallogenetic
markers.

Other exploration guides: Discrete, well defined magnetite and hematite lithofacies of iron- formation
are preferred with a minimum of other lithofacies and clastic sediment interbedded in the crude
ore. Iron- formations are usually large regional geological features that are relatively easy to
define. Detailed stratigraphic information is an essential part of the database required for
defining grade, physical and chemical quality, and beneficiation and concentration
characteristics of the ore. Basin analysis and sedimentation modeling enable definition of
factors that controlled the development, location and distribution of different iron-formation
lithofacies.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Orebodies range in size from about 1000 to less than 100 Mt with grades ganging
from 15 to 45% Fe, averaging 25% Fe. Precambrian deposits usually contain less than 2% Mn,
but many Paleozoic iron-formations, such as those near Woodstock, New Brunswick, contain 10
to 40 % Mn and have Fe/Mn ratios of 40:1 to 1:50. The largest B.C. deposit, the Falcon, contains
inferred reserves of 5.28 Mt grading 37.8% Fe.

Economic limitations: Usually large-tonnage open pit operations. Granular, medium to coarse- grained
textures with well defined, sharp grain boundaries are desirable for the concentration and
beneficiation of the crude ore. Strongly metamorphosed iron- formation and magnetite
lithofacies are usually preferred. Oxide facies iron-formation normally has a low content of
minor elements, especially Na, K, S and As, which have deleterious effects in the processing of
the ore and quality of steel produced from it.

Importance: In Canada, Algoma-type iron-formations are the second most important source of iron ore
after the taconite and enriched deposits in Lake Superior-type iron-formations. Algoma-type
iron-formations are widely distributed and may provide a convenient local source of iron ore.

5. References
El Shazly, E.M. (1990): Red Sea Deposits; in Ancient Banded Iron Formations (Regional Presentations);
Chauvel, J.J. et al., Editors, Theophrastus Publications S.A., Athens, Greece, pages 157-222.
Gole, M.J. and Klein, C. (1981): Banded Iron-formations Through Much of Precambrian Time; Journal of
Geology, Volume 89, pages 169-183.
Goodwin, A.M., Thode, H.G., Chou, C.-L. and Karkhansis, S.N. (1985): Chemostratigraphy and Origin of
the Late Archean Siderite-Pyrite-rich Helen Iron-formation, Michipicoten Belt, Canada; Canadian
Journal of Earth Sciences, Volume 22, pages 72-84.
Gross, G.A. (1980): A Classification of Iron-formation Based on Depositional Environments; Canadian
Mineralogist, Volume 18, pages 215-222.
Gross, G.A. (1983): Tectonic Systems and the Deposition of Iron-formation; Precambrian Research,
Volume 20, pages 171-187.
Gross, G.A. (1988): A Comparison of Metalliferous Sediments, Precambrian to Recent; Kristalinikum,
Volume 19, pages 59-74.
Gross, G.A. (1991): Genetic Concepts for Iron-formation and Associated Metalliferous Sediments: in
Historical Perspectives of Genetic Concepts and Case Histories of Famous Discoveries,
Hutchinson, R.W., and Grauch, R. I., Editors, Economic Geology Monograph 8, Economic
Geology, pages 51-81.
Gross, G.A. (1993): Iron-formation Metallogeny and Facies Relationships in Stratafer Sediments; in
Proceedings of the Eighth Quadrennial IAGOD Symposium, Maurice, Y.T., Editor, E.
Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nagele u. Obermiller), Stuttgart, pages 541-550.
Gross, G.A. (1993): Industrial and Genetic Models for Iron Ore in Iron-formation; in Mineral Deposit
Modeling, Kirkham, R.V., Sinclair, W.D., Thorpe, R.I. and Duke, J.M., Editors, Geological
Association of Canada, Special Paper 40, pages 151-170.
Gross, G.A. (in press): Sedimentary Iron Deposits; in Geology of Canadian Mineral Deposit Types,
Eckstrand, O.R., Sinclair, W.D. and Thorpe, R.I, (Editors), Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of
Canada, Number 8.
James, H.L. (1954): Sedimentary Facies in Iron-formation; Economic Geology, Volume 49, pages 235-293.
Puchelt, H. (1973): Recent Iron Sediment Formation at the Kameni Islands, Santorini (Greece); in Ores in
Sediments, Amstutz, G.C. and Bernard, A.J., Editors, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pages 227-246.
Shegelski, R.J. (1987): The Depositional Environment of Archean Iron Formations, Sturgeon-Savant
Greenstone Belt, Ontario, Canada, in Precambrian Iron-Formations, Appel, P.W.U. and LaBerge,
G.L., Theophrastus Publications S.A., Athens, Greece, pages 329-344.
G04 – Besshi massive sulphide Zn-Cu-Pb

T. Höy
British Columbia Geological Survey

Höy, Trygve (1995): Besshi Massive Sulphide, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 1 - Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 49-50.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Besshi type, Kieslager.

Commodities (by-products): Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag, (Au, Co, Sn, Mo, Cd).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Goldstream (082M 141), Standard (082M 090),
Montgomery (082M 085), True Blue (082FNE002), Granduc (104B 021), War Eagle (114P 020);
Greens Creek (Alaska, USA), Besshi (Japan).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Deposits typically comprise thin sheets of massive to well layered pyrrhotite,
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyrite and minor galena within interlayered, terrigenous clastic rocks
and calcalkaline basaltic to andesitic tuffs and flows.

Tectonic setting: Oceanic extensional environments, such as back-arc basins, oceanic ridges close to
continental margins, or rift basins in the early stages of continental separation.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Terrigenous clastic rocks associated with marine volcanic
rocks and sometimes carbonate rocks; these may overlie platformal carbonate or clastic rocks.

Age of mineralization: Any age. In British Columbia, most deposits are Cambrian, Late Triassic and less
commonly Mississippian-Permian in age.

Host/Associated rock types: Clastic sediments and marine volcanic rocks; basaltic tuffs and flows, shale
and siltstone, commonly calcareous; less commonly chert and Fe formations. Possibly
ultramafics and metagabbro in sequence.

Deposit form: Typically a concordant sheet of massive sulphides up to a few metres thick and up to
kilometres in strike length and down dip; can be stacked lenses.

Texture/Structure: Massive to well-layered, fine to medium-grained sulphides; gneissic sulphide textures

common in metamorphosed and deformed deposits; durchbewegung textures; associated
stringer ore is uncommon. Crosscutting pyrite, chalcopyrite and/or sphalerite veins with
chlorite, quartz and carbonate are common.
Ore mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, cobaltite,
magnetite, galena, bornite, tetrahedrite, cubanite, stannite, molybdenite, arsenopyrite,
marcasite.

Gangue mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Quartz, calcite, ankerite, siderite, albite, tourmaline,
graphite, biotite.

Alteration mineralogy: Similar to gangue mineralogy - quartz, chlorite, calcite, siderite, ankerite, pyrite,
sericite, graphite.

Ore controls: Difficult to recognize; early (syndepositional) faults and mafic volcanic centres.

Genetic model: Seafloor deposition of sulphide mounds in back-arc basins, or several other tectonic
settings, contemporaneous with volcanism.

Associated deposit types: Cu, Zn veins.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Cu, Zn, Ag, Co/Ni>1; Mn halos, Mg enrichment.

Geophysical signature: Sulphide lenses usually show either an electromagnetic or induced polarization
signature depending on the style of mineralization and presence of conductive sulphides.

Other exploration guides: Mafic volcanic rocks (tholeiitic, less commonly alkalic) associated with clastic
rocks; Mn-rich garnets in metamorphosed exhalative horizons, possible structures, such as
faults; possible association with ultramafic rocks.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Highly variable in size. B.C. deposits range in size from less than 1 Mt to more than
113 Mt. For example, Goldstream has a total resource (reserves and production) of 1.8 Mt
containing 4.81 % Cu, 3.08 % Zn and 20.6 g/t Ag and Windy Craggy has reserves in excess of
113.0 Mt containing 1.9 % Cu, 3.9 g/t Ag and 0.08% Co. The type-locality Besshi deposits average
0.22 Mt, containing 1.5% Cu, 2-9 g/t Ag, and 0.4-2% Zn (Cox and Singer, 1986).

Importance: Significant sources of Cu, Zn and Ag that can be found in sedimentary sequences that have
not been thoroughly explored for this type of target.

5. References

Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors (1986): Mineral Deposit Models; U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693,
379 pages. Höy, T. (1991): Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits in British Columbia; in Ore
Deposits, Tectonics and Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera, McMillan, W.J., Coordinator,
B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1991- 4, pages 89-123.
Franklin, J.M., Lydon, J.W. and Sangster, D.M. (1981): Volcanic-associated Massive Sulfide Deposits;
Economic Geology, 75th Anniversary Volume, pages 485-627.
Hutchinson, R.W. (1980): Massive Base Metal Sulphide Deposits as Guides to Tectonic Evolution; in The
Continental Crust and its Mineral Deposits, Strangway, D.W., Editor, Geological Association of
Canada, Special Paper 20, pages 659-684.
Fox, J.S. (1984): Besshi-type Volcanogenic Sulphide Deposits - a Review; Canadian Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy, Bulletin, Volume 77, pages 57-68.
Slack, J.F. (in press): Descriptive and Grade-Tonnage Models for Besshi-type Massive Sulphide Deposits;
Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper.
G05 – Cyprus massiv sulphide Cu (Zn)

T. Höy
British Columbia Geological Survey

Höy, Trygve (1995): Cyprus Massive Sulphide Cu (Zn), in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit
Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia
Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 51-52.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Cyprus massive sulphide, cuprous pyrite.

Commodity (BYPRODUCTS): Cu, (Au, Ag, Zn, Co, Cd).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Chu Chua (092F 140), Lang Creek (104P 008),
Hidden Creek (103P 021), Bonanza (103P 023), Double Ed (103P 025); Cyprus; York Harbour and
Betts Cove (Newfoundland, Canada); Turner-Albright (USA); Lokken (Norway).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Deposits typically comprise one or more lenses of massive pyrite and chalcopyrite
hosted by mafic volcanic rocks and underlain by a well developed pipe-shaped stockwork zone.

Tectonic setting: Within ophiolitic complexes formed at oceanic or back-arc spreading ridges; possibly
within marginal basins above subduction zones or near volcanic islands within an intraplate
environment.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Lenses commonly are in tholeiitic or calcalkaline marine

basalts, commonly pillowed, near a transition with overlying argillaceous sediments. Many
lenses appear to be structurally controlled, aligned near steep normal faults.

Age of mineralization: Any age. Deposits in British Columbia are primarily Mississippian-Permian or Late
Triassic.

Host/Associated rock types: Tholeiitic or calcalkaline pillow and flow basalts, basaltic tuff, chert, argillite.
Overlying “umbers” consist of ochre [Mn-poor, Fe-rich bedded mudstone containing goethite,
maghemite (Fe3O4-Fe2O3 mixture) and quartz] or chert.

Deposit form: Concordant massive sulphide lens overlying cross-cutting zone of intense alteration and
stockwork mineralization and hydrothermally altered wallrock, and overlain by chert.

Texture/Structure: Massive, fine-grained pyrite and chalcopyrite, sometimes brecciated or banded?;

massive magnetite, magnetite-talc and talc with variable sulphide content; associated chert
layers, locally brecciated, contain disseminated sulphides; disseminated, vein and stockwork
mineralization beneath lenses.
Ore mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Pyrite, chalcopyrite, magnetite, sphalerite, marcasite,
galena, pyrrhotite, cubanite, stannite-besterite, hematite. Sometimes goethite alteration of top
of sulphide layer.

Gangue mineralogy: Talc, chert, magnetite, chlorite.

Alteration mineralogy: Chlorite, talc, carbonate, sericite and quartz veins in the core of the stringer zone,
sometimes with an envelope of weak albite with illite alteration.

Ore controls: Prominent structural control with clustering or alignment of sulphide lenses along early
normal faults, near transition from mafic pillow basalts; less commonly mafic tuff; to overlying
fine pelagic material.

Genetic model: Seafloor deposition of sulphide mounds contemporaneous with mafic volcanism, such as
spreading ridges.

Associated deposit types: Vein and stockwork Cu (-Au) mineralization; Mn and Fe- rich cherts; massive
magnetite (-talc) deposits.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Cu, Zn; common depletion of Ca and Na; less common, local minor Na
enrichment; possible local K enrichment; prominent Fe and Mn enrichment in footwall stringer
zone.

Geophysical signature: Sulphide lenses usually show either an electromagnetic or induced polarization
signature depending on the style of mineralization and presence of conductive sulphides.

Other exploration guides: Mafic ophiolitic volcanic rocks; transition to argillite; clustering or alignment of
deposits indicative of fault control; ochre and exhalite (chert) horizons; regional pyritic horizons.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Published average is 1.6 Mt containing 1.7 % Cu, 0-33 g/t Ag; 0-1.9 g/t Au, 0-2.1 %
Zn (Cox and Singer, 1986). B.C. examples: Chu Chua reserves - 1.043 Mt, 2.97 % Cu, 0.4 % Zn, 8.0
g/t Ag, 1.0 g/t Au; Anyox deposits - 0.2 to 23.7 Mt, approx. 1.5% Cu, 9.9 g/t Ag and 0.17 g/t Au.

Importance: Deposits at Anyox produced 335,846 tonnes copper, 215,057 kg silver and 3,859 kg gold.
Worldwide these deposits are generally significant more for their higher grades and polymetallic
nature, than their size.

5. References

Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors (1986): Mineral Deposit Models; U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693,
379 pages.
Höy, T. (1991): Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits in British Columbia; in Ore Deposits, Tectonics
and Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera, McMillan, W.J., Coordinator, B.C. Ministry of
Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1991-4, pages 89-123.
Franklin, J.M., Lydon, J.W. and Sangster, D.M., (1981): Volcanic-associated Massive Sulfide Deposits;
Economic Geology, 75th Anniversary Volume, pages 485-627.
Lydon, J.W. (1988): Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits, Part 2: Genetic Models; Geoscience
Canada; Volume 15, pages 43-65.
Constantinou, G. and Govett, G.J.S. (1972): Genesis of Sulphide Deposits, Ochre and Umber of Cyprus;
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, Transactions, Volume 8, pages B36-B46.
Spooner, E.T.C. (1980): Cu-pyrite Mineralization and Seawater Convection in Oceanic Crust - The
Ophiolite Ore Deposits of Cyprus; in The Continental Crust and its Mineral Deposits, Strangway,
D.W., Editor, Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 20, pages 685-704.
G06 - NORANDA/KUROKO MASSIVE SULPHIDE Cu-Pb-Zn

by Trygve Höy
British Columbia Geological Survey

Höy, Trygve (1995): Noranda/Kuroko Massive Sulphide Cu-Pb-Zn, in Selected British Columbia Mineral
Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British
Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 53-54.

1. Identification

Synonym: Polymetallic volcanogenic massive sulphide.

Commodities (by-products): Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, Au (Cd, S, Se, Sn, barite, gypsum).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Homestake (082M 025), Lara (092B 001), Lynx
(092B 129), Myra (092F 072), Price (092F 073), H-W (092F 330), Ecstall (103H 011), Tulsequah
Chief (104K 011), Big Bull (104K 008), Kutcho Creek (104J 060), Britannia (092G 003); Kidd Creek
(Ontario, Canada), Buchans (Newfoundland, Canada), Bathurst-Newcastle district (New
Brunswick, Canada), Horne-Quemont (Québec, Canada), Kuroko district (Japan), Mount Lyell
(Australia), Rio Tinto (Spain), Shasta King (California, USA), Lockwood (Washington, USA).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: One or more lenses of massive pyrite, sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite
commonly within felsic volcanic rocks in a calcalkaline bimodal arc succession. The lenses may
be zoned, with a Cu-rich base and a Pb-Zn-rich top; low-grade stockwork zones commonly
underlie lenses and barite or chert layers may overlie them.

Tectonic setting: Island arc; typically in a local extensional setting or rift environment within, or perhaps
behind, an oceanic or continental margin arc.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Marine volcanism; commonly during a period of more

felsic volcanism in an andesite (or basalt) dominated succession; locally associated with fine-
grained marine sediments; also associated with faults or prominent fractures.

Age of mineralization: Any age. In British Columbia typically Devonian; less commonly Permian-
Mississippian, Late Triassic, Early (and Middle) Jurassic, and Cretaceous.

Host/Associated rock types: Submarine volcanic arc rocks: rhyolite, dacite associated with andesite or
basalt; less commonly, in mafic alkaline arc successions; associated epiclastic deposits and minor
shale or sandstone; commonly in close proximity to felsic intrusive rocks. Ore horizon grades
laterally and vertically into thin chert or sediment layers called informally “exhalites”.

Deposit form: Concordant massive to banded sulphide lens which is typically metres to tens of metres
thick and tens to hundreds of metres in horizontal dimension; sometimes there is a peripheral
apron of "clastic" massive sulphides; underlying crosscutting “stringer” zone of intense
alteration and stockwork veining.
Texture/Structure: Massive to well layered sulphides, typically zoned vertically and laterally; sulphides
with a quartz, chert or barite gangue (more common near top of deposit); disseminated,
stockwork and vein sulphides (footwall).

Ore mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Upper massive zone: pyrite, sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite,
pyrrhotite, tetrahedrite-tennantite, bornite, arsenopyrite. Lower massive zone: pyrite,
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, magnetite.

Gangue mineralogy: Barite, chert, gypsum, anhydrite and carbonate near top of lens, carbonate quartz,
chlorite and sericite near the base.

Alteration mineralogy: Footwall alteration pipes are commonly zoned from the core with quartz, sericite
or chlorite to an outer zone of clay minerals, albite and carbonate (siderite or ankerite).

Ore controls: More felsic component of mafic to intermediate volcanic arc succession; near centre of
felsic volcanism (marked by coarse pyroclastic breccias or felsic dome); extensional faults.

Associated deposit types: Stockwork Cu deposits; vein Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, Au.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Zn, Hg and Mg halos, K addition and Na and Ca depletion of footwall rocks;
closer proximity to deposit - Cu, Ag, As, Pb; within deposit - Cu, Zn, Pb, Ba, As, Ag, Au, Se, Sn, Bi,
As.

Geophysical signature: Sulphide lenses usually show either an electromagnetic or induced polarization
signature depending on the style of mineralization and presence of conductive sulphides. In
recent years borehole electromagnetic methods have proven successful.

Other exploration guides: Explosive felsic volcanics, volcanic centres, extensional faults, exhalite (chert)
horizons, pyritic horizons.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Average deposit size is 1.5 Mt containing 1.3% Cu, 1.9 % Pb, 2.0 % Zn, 0.16 g/t Au
and 13 g/T Ag (Cox and Singer, 1986). British Columbia deposits range from less than 1 to 2 Mt
to more than 10 Mt. The largest are the H-W (10.1 Mt with 2.0 % Cu, 3.5 % Zn, 0.3 % Pb, 30.4 g/t
Ag and 2.1 g/t Au) and Kutcho (combined tonnage of 17 Mt, 1.6 % Cu, 2.3 % Zn, 0.06 % Pb, 29
g/t Ag and 0.3 g/t Au).

Importance: Noranda/Kuroko massive sulphide deposits are major producers of Cu, Zn, Ag, Au and Pb in
Canada. Their high grade and commonly high precious metal content continue to make them
attractive exploration targets.

5. References
Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors (1986): Mineral Deposit Models; U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693,
379 pages.
Höy, T. (1991): Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits in British Columbia: in Ore Deposits, Tectonics
and Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera, W.J. McMillan, Coordinator, British Columbia
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1991-4, pages 89-123.
Franklin, J.M., Lydon, J.W. and Sangster, D.M. (1981): Volcanic-associated Massive Sulphide Deposits;
Economic Geology, 75th Anniversary Volume, pages 485-627.
Hutchinson, R.W. (1980): Massive Base Metal Sulphide Deposits as Guides to Tectonic Evolution; in The
Continental Crust and its Mineral Deposits, D.W. Strangway, Editor, Geological Association of
Canada, Special Paper 20, pages 659-684.
Lydon, J.W. (1984): Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits, Part 1: A Descriptive Model, Geoscience
Canada, Volume 11, No. 4, pages 195-202.
Ohmoto, H. and Skinner, B.J., Editors (1983): The Kuroko and Related Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide
Deposits; Economic Geology, Monograph 5, 604 pages.
Scott, S.D. (1985): Seafloor Polymetallic Sulfide Deposits: Modern and Ancient; Marine Geology, Volume
5, pages 191-212.
Sangster, D.F. (1972): Precambrian Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits in Canada: a Review;
Geological Survey of Canada; Paper 72-22, 44 pages.
G07 - SUBAQUEOUS HOT SPRING Au-Ag

by Dani J. Alldrick
British Columbia Geological Survey

Alldrick, D.J. (1995): Subaqueous Hot Spring Au-Ag, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 1 - Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 55-58.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Epithermal massive sulphide; subaqueous-hydrothermal deposits; Eskay- type deposit;

Osorezan-type deposit.

Commodities (by-products): Ag, Au (Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Sb, Hg).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Eskay Creek (104B 008), Lulu (104B 376); Osorezan,
Vulcano Islands and Jade hydrothermal field (Japan), Mendeleev Volcano (Kurile Islands, Russia),
Rabaul (Papua New Guinea), White Island (New Zealand), Bacon-Manito and Surigao del Norte
(Phillippines).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Vein, replacement and synsedimentary bedded sulphides are deposited in volcanic
rocks and associated sediments in areas of shallow lacustrine, fluvial or marine waters or in
glacial subfloors.

Tectonic setting: Active volcanic arcs (both oceanic island arcs and continental margin arcs) are likely
setting.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: 1) Water-filled reservoirs in active continental volcanic

areas (crater lakes, playa lakes, stream flood plains, glacier subfloors). 2) Sea-flooded, breached
calderas, or unconsolidated shallow marine sediments at the foot of a volcano.

Age of mineralization: Presumably any age, oldest known example is Jurassic.

Host/Associated rock types: Mineralization hosted by intermediate to felsic flows and tuffs and minor
intercalated sedimentary rocks. Pillow lavas, coarse epiclastic debris flows, and assorted
subvolcanic feeder dikes are all part of the local stratigraphic package.

Deposit form: Highly variable. Footwall stockwork or stringer-style vein networks. Large, textureless
massive sulphide pods, finely laminated stratiform sulphide layers and lenses, reworked clastic
sulphide sedimentary beds, and epithermal-style breccia veins with large vugs, coarse sulphides
and chalcedonic silica. All types may coexist in a single deposit.

Texture/Structure: Range from fine clastic sulphides and "framboid"-like chemical precipitates to very
coarse grained sulphide aggregates in breccia veins. Structural styles include: vein stockworks,
major breccia veins, stratabound and stratiform sulphide lenses and layers.
Ore mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Sphalerite, tetrahedrite, boulangerite, bournonite, native
gold, native silver, amalgam, galena, chalcopyrite, enargite, pyrite, stibnite, realgar, arsenopyrite
orpiment; metallic arsenic, Hg-wurtzite, cinnabar, aktashite, unnamed Ag-Pb-As-S minerals,
jordanite, wurtzite, krennerite, coloradoite, marcasite, magnetite, scorodite, jarosite, limonite,
anglesite, native sulphur.

Gangue mineralogy (principal and subordinate): Magnesian chlorite, muscovite (sericite), chalcedonic
silica, amorphous silica, calcite, dolomite, pyrobitumen, gypsum, barite, potassium feldspar,
alunite with minor carbon, graphite, halite and cristobalite.

Alteration mineralogy: Massive chlorite (clinochlore)-illite-quartz-gypsum-barite rock or quartz-

muscovite-pyrite rock are associated with the near-footwall stockwork zones. Chlorite and
pyrite alteration is associated with the deep-footwall stockwork zones where alteration minerals
are restricted to fractures. Stratabound mineralization is accompanied by magnesian chlorite,
muscovite, chalcedonic silica, calcite, dolomite and pyrobitumen. At the Osorezan hot spring
deposits, pervasive silica and alunite microveinlets are the dominant alteration phases.

Genetic model: Deposits are formed by "hot spring" (i.e.: epithermal) fluids vented into a shallow water
environment. Fluids are magmatic in character, rather than meteoric. This concept contrasts
with some characteristics of the process model for volcanogenic massive sulphides. Lateral and
vertical zoning has been recognized within a single lens. Lateral zoning shows changes from Sb,
As and Hg-rich mineral suites to Zn, Pb and Cu-rich assemblages. Vertical zoning is expressed as
a systematic increase in Au, Ag and base metal content up-section. Fluid conduits are fissures
generated by seismic shock, aggradation of the volcano over a later expanding magma chamber,
or fracturing in response to regional compressional tectonics. A near-surface subvolcanic
magma body is an essential source of metals, fluids and heat.

Associated deposit types: Hot spring Hg (H02), hot spring Au-Ag (H03), epithermal veins (H04, H05),
volcanogenic exhalative massive sulphides (G06).

Comments: This deposit type is the shallow subaqueous analogue of hot spring Au- Ag, and both of
these are subtypes of the "epithermal" class of mineral deposits. Considering the recent
discoveries at Osorezan (1987) and Eskay Creek (1988), the brief discussion by Laznicka (1985, p.
907) seems especially prophetic.

3. Exploration guides

Geochemical signature: Ag, Au, Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Sb, Hg.

Geophysical signature: The pyrite associated with stockwork mineralization and ubiquitous alteration
should produce a widespread induced polarization anomaly, but the best targets may be local
peaks within this broad anomalous 'plateau'. Airborne magnetometer surveys may help
delineate favourable strata and fault offsets.

Other exploration guides: The geological deposit model and its regional setting may be the best
exploration tools available. Broad hydrothermal systems marked by widespread sericite-pyrite
alteration; evidence of a volcanic crater or caldera setting; accumulations of felsic volcanic
 strata: 1) in a local subaqueous setting in a regionally subaerial environment, 2) along the near
shore zone of a regional subaerial/subaqueous volcanic facies transition (e.g.: the western
margin of the Hazelton trough). Focus on the sedimentary intervals within the volcanic pile.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: These deposits are not well known. The Eskay Creek deposit is attractive because of
the polymetallic signature and high precious metal contents. It contains an estimated mining
reserve of 1.08 Mt grading 65.5 g/t Au, 2930 g/t Ag, 5.7 % Zn, 0.77 % Cu and 2.89% Pb with
geological reserves of 4.3 Mt grading 28.8 g/t Au and 1 027 g/t Ag.

Importance: These deposits are attractive because of their bonanza grades and polymetallic nature.

5. References

Aoki, M. (1991): Gold and Base Metal Mineralization in an Evolving Hydrothermal System at Osorezan,
Northern Honshu, Japan; Geological Survey of Japan, Report No. 277, pages 67-70.
Aoki, M. (1992a): Magmatic Fluid Discharging at the Surface from the Osorezan Geothermal System,
Northern Honshu, Japan; Geological Survey of Japan, Report No. 279, 1992, pages 16-21.
Aoki, M. (1992b): Active Gold Mineralization in the Osorezan Caldera; 29th International Geological
Congress Field Trip, Epithermal Gold and Kuroko Mineralizations, in Northeast Honshu,
Shikazono, N., Aoki, M., Yamada, R., Singer, D.A., Kouda, R. and Imai, A., Editors, pages 69-75.
Britton, J.M., Blackwell, J.D. and Schroeter, T.G. (1990): 21 Zone Deposits, Eskay Creek, Northwestern
British Columbia; in Exploration in British Columbia 1989, B. C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and
Petroleum Resources, pages 197-223.
Izawa, E. and Aoki, M. (1991): Geothermal Activity and Epithermal Gold Mineralization in Japan;
Episodes, Volume 14, No. 3, pages 269-273.
Laznicka, P. (1985): Subaqueous-hydrothermal Deposits, in Empirical Metallogeny, Elsevier, Amsterdam,
1758 pages.
Macdonald, A.J. (1992): Osorezan, in Japan '92 - A Technical Report, Mineral Deposit Research Unit,
University of British Columbia, pages 29-67.
Mitchell, A.H.G. (1992): Andesitic Arcs, Epithermal Gold and Porphyry-type Mineralization in the
Western Pacific and Eastern Europe, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, Transactions, Volume
101, pages B125-B138.
Roth, T. (1982): Eskay Creek 21A Zone: An Update, in Iskut Project Annual Report, Year 2, Mineral
Deposit Research Unit, University of British Columbia May 1992.
Examples of Marine Volcanic Association Deposits

BC Profile Global Examples B.C. Examples

#
G01 Vermillion iron formation (Minnesota), Helen mine Falcon, Lady A
(Ontario)
G02 Olympic Mountains (Washington), Nicoya (Costa --
Rica)
G03* -- Britannia, Falkland
G04 Besshi (Japan), Greens Creek (Alaska) Goldstream, Windy Craggy,
Standard, True Blue
G05 Mavrovouni (Cyprus), Lasail (Oman), York Harbour Anyox camp, Chu Chua, Lang Creek?
(Newfoundland)
G06 Horne & Millenbach (Québec), Kuroko District Britannia, Kutcho Creek, Myra Falls
(Japan)
G07 Osorezan (Japan) Eskay Creek
* Note: All BC deposit profile(s) with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s.
H - Epithermal

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

H01 Travertine Tufa 35d*
H02 Hot spring Hg -- 27a
H03 Hot spring Au-Ag -- 25a
H04 Epithermal Au-Ag-Cu; high Acid-sulphate, qtz-alunite Au, Nansatsu- 25d
sulphidation type
H05 Epithermal Au-Ag; low sulphidation Adularia-sericite epithermal 25c
H06* Epithermal Mn -- 25g
H07 Sn-Ag veins Polymetallic Sn veins 25h, 20b
H08 Alkalic intrusion-associated Au Alkalic intrusion-related Au, Au-Ag-Te 22b
veins
H09 Hydrothermal alteration clays-Al-Si Kaolin, Alunite, Siliceous cap, Pyrophyllite 25lb*
H01 - TRAVERTINE

by Z.D. Hora
British Columbia Geological Survey

Hora, Z.D. (1996): Travertine, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic
Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment and
Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 29-30.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Tufa, calcareous sinter; certain varieties also referred to as onyx marble or Mexican onyx.

Commodities (byproducts): Decorative stone, building stone products, soil conditioner, agriculture lime;
onyx marble.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Clinton (092P 079), Slocan

(082KSW074, 075), Wishing Well (Deep River, 094N 001); Gardiner (Montana, USA), Salida
(Colorado, USA), Bridgeport (California, USA); Lazio, Tuscany (Italy); Pamukkale (Turkey); Mexico,
Spain, Iran.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Mounds, sheets, sometimes terraced, shallow lake in-fills, valley in-fill.

Tectonic setting: Young orogenic belts with carbonate sediments in the subsurface; thrusts and faults
with deep water circulation. Also intercontinental rift zones with strike-slip faulting, with or
without associated volcanic activity.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Subaerial precipitation of calcium carbonate from mineral

springs; also in shallow lacustrine basins with influx of mineralized CO2-rich water. Hotspring
waters which give rise to travertine deposits usually do not originate at temperatures in excess
of 100oC. Circulating ground waters are channeled by thrusts, faults and fractured rocks and
mineralized by dissolution of subsurface carbonate rocks.

Age of mineralization: Tertiary to recent.

Host/Associated rock types: Carbonate rocks in the subsurface; hydrothermal breccia and siliceous
sinters, lacustrine sediments, carbonate veins (usually aragonite) in form of “Mexican onyx”.

Deposit form: Conical mounds, sheets, basin in-fills. As it is deposited by precipitation from warm spring
waters, it shows successive layers with sometimes different colours and textures. May be
elongated above underlying feeder zones following faults and breccia zones.

Texture: Banded, porous, brecciated; may be pisolitic. Generally fine-grained carbonate matrix with
numerous irregular cavities ranging in size from a pin head to 1 cm or more across. The cavities
are usually oriented in lines giving the rock parallel texture. Lacustrine varieties are more
 massive. The mounds may be criss-crossed by veins of “Mexican onyx”, a varicoloured banded
aragonite.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Calcite, aragonite, silica, fluorspar, barite, native sulphur.

Weathering: Clay/iron stains filling the voids, joints and bedding planes.

Ore controls: Commonly developed along high-angle faults and shear zones in young orogenic belts.

Genetic model: Travertine forms as surface deposits from geothermal systems of generally less than
100oC in temperature. The carbonate deposition results from the loss of some of the carbon
dioxide by cooling, evaporation or presence of algae.

Associated deposit types: Hotsprings Au-Ag (H03), Hotspring Hg (H02), marl, solfatara sulphur, geyserite
silica.

Comments: To be economically of interest, the size must be suitable to open a quarry face, the
carbonate must be recrystallized and cemented to be strong and hard for ornamental stone
applications. Sediments of similar texture and composition may occur in karst regions, where
the carbonate precipitated from cold water.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Mineral springs with carbon dioxide.

Other Exploration Guides: Precipitation of tufa from small streams on moss and other organic matter,
presence of thermal spring and solfatara exhalations.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Large deposits may reach 1-2 Mt, but even the small deposits of several tens
to a hundred thousand tonnes may be of importance for local and custom type work. The
travertine has to meet the minimum physical test requirements for intended use.

Uses: Interior and exterior facing, tile, ashlar, custom-made shapes as steps and sills, lapidary work and
precious stone applications.

Economic limitations: Even small occurrences can be exploited for local and custom markets.

Importance: Locally important facing stone, however the usage does not match marble or granite.
Mexican onyx is an important decorative stone.

5. References

Carr, D.D. (1994): Industrial Minerals and Rocks; Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration,
Littleton, Colorado, 1196 pages.
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals Geology and World Deposits; Metal Bulletin,
London, 135 pages.
Kuzvart, M. (1984): Deposits of Industrial Minerals; Academia, Prague, 440 pages.
Robbins, J. (198 ): Italy’s Industrial Minerals; Industrial Minerals, No. 255, pages 19- 45.
H02 - HOT SPRING Hg

by A. Panteleyev
British Columbia Geological Survey

Panteleyev, A. (1996): Hot-spring Hg, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 -
Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment
and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 31-32.

1. Identification

Synonyms: (Epithermal) hotspring, subaerial siliceous sinter.

Commodities (byproducts): Hg, (Au).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Ucluelet; Knoxville district, Sulphur Bank (California,
USA), McDermitt and Steamboat Springs (Nevada, USA), Abuta mine(Japan).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Uppermost portions of epithermal systems develop clay altered zones and siliceous
caps a few metres to hundreds of metres below surface and silica sinter deposits above the
groundwater table as hotspring deposits. Travertine ledges and other silica-carbonate
accumulations may be present nearby as peripheral or deeper deposits.

Tectonic setting: Continental margin rifting and strike-slip faulting associated with small volume mafic to
intermediate volcanism.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Modern and fossil hotspring settings with silica and silica-
carbonate deposition near the paleo groundwater table and as subaerial silica sinter
precipitates.

Age of mineralization: Tertiary and younger; some currently active hotsprings.

Host/Associated rock types: Intermediate to basic volcanic flows, tuffs and breccias, minor diabasic
dykes; hydrothermal breccias, travertine and siliceous sinters, lacustrine sediments. Country
rocks commonly include greywacke, shale and fault-related serpentinized ultramafic bodies.

Deposit form: Lensoid hotspring deposits and tabular lithologic replacement zones; commonly with
cone- or wedge-like underlying feeder zones centered on regional- scale fault and fracture
zones. Commonly less than 300 metres in vertical extent from paleosurface. Locally phreatic
explosion pits.

Texture: Disseminated sulphides in country rocks and hydrothermal breccias, quartz stockworks of
banded to vuggy, multiple-generation quartz-chalcedony veins. Hydrofracturing textures are
common. Less frequently cinnabar occurs as grains, lenses and fracture coatings in opaline silica
sinter deposits. In some deposits cinnabar is concentrated on surfaces of wood and other
organic matter.
Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Cinnabar, pyrite, native sulphur and mercury, stibnite, gold,
marcasite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, chalcedony; opal, carbonate, iron oxides,
manganese oxides.

Alteration mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Kaolinite, alunite, Fe-Mn oxides and sulphur above
water table (minor amounts of cinnabar). Opaline quartz deposited at the water table, with
cinnabar. Quartz, pyrite, zeolites, chlorite and minor adularia below the water table; silica-
carbonate ñ magnesite assemblages in mafic, commonly serpentinized, rocks.

Genetic model: Deposits form in geothermal systems from near surface hot waters at less than 150§C,
and generally cooler. Organic materials in solution and high CO2 vapour concentration may be
important in the transporting of elevated amounts of Hg.

Ore controls: Located just below the paleo groundwater table within hotspring systems. Commonly
developed along high-angle faults and generally in young volcanic terranes.

Associated deposit types: Hotspring Au-Ag (H03), epithermal Au-Ag (H04, H05), placer Au (C01, C02).

Comments: There has been little work in recent years on this deposit type other than to examine their
potential for related gold deposits, for example, McLaughlin mine in California (Gustafson,
1991). The significant Hg deposits typically contain no other recoverable constituents.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Hg, Sb, As. Generally <5 ppb Au but rare deposits with elevated gold are known.

Geophysical signature: VLF to identify favourable structures; magnetic lows in mafic volcanic hosts due
to alteration envelope.

Other Exploration Guides: Can be overlain by native sulphur occurrences or hot spring deposits with
siliceous sinters and clay-altered rocks. Recent deposits are commonly associated with modern
hot springs or geothermal fields. Silica- carbonate alteration with distinctive orange-coloured,
amorphous limonite in weathered zones, typically in mafic and serpentizized hostrocks.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Commercially exploited deposits tend to be very small; the largest deposits
rarely exceed 1 mt in size. The median production from 20 Cordilleran USA mines is <1000
tonnes with 0.35% Hg. Typical mineable reserves contain ores ranging from 0.2 to 0.6% Hg.
Productive deposits are Sulphur Bank and 5 small mines in the Knoxville District in California
which produced 4, 700 tonnes of Hg and ~5,520 tonnes Hg respectively.

Economic limitations: There probably is no operating mine of this type in the world today.
Importance: These are relatively small deposits from near surface geological environments that are
easily eroded and therefore rarely preserved. They currently are not important sources of
mercury but can be associated with auriferous epithermal deposits.

5. References

Berger, B. (1985): Geologic-Geochemical features of hot-spring precious metal deposits: U.S. Geological
Survey, Bulletin 1646, pages 47-53.
Gustafson, D.L. (1991): Anatomy of a Discovery: The McLaughlin Gold Mine, Napa, Yolo, and Lake
Counties, California: Economic Geology, Monograph 8, pages 350-359.
Rytuba, J.J. (1986): Descriptive Model of Hot-spring Hg; in Mineral Deposit Models, U.S. Geological
Survey, Bulletin 1693, pages 178, 179.
Sherlock, R.L. and Logan, M.A.V. (in press): Silica-Carbonate Alteration of Serpentinite: Implications for
the Association of Mercury and Gold Mineralization in Northern California; Exploration and
Minining Geology, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, in press.
White, D. (1981): Active Geothermal Systems and Hydrothermal Ore Deposits; Economic Geology, 75th
Anniversary Volume, pages 392-423.
H03 - HOT-SPRING Au-Ag

by A. Panteleyev
British Columbia Geological Survey

Panteleyev, A.(1996): Hot-spring Au-Ag, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 2
- Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy,T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment
and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 33-36.

1. Identification

Synonyms: (Epithermal) hotspring, subaerial siliceous sinter.

Commodities (byproducts): Au, (Ag, Hg).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Cinola (uppermost part, 103F 034),
Clisbako (093C 016), Wolf? (093F 045), Trout? (093F 044); McLaughlin (California, USA), Round
Mountain (Nevada, USA).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Auriferous chalcedonic or opaline silica and fine-grained quartz form veins,
stockworks and matrix filling in breccias hosted by volcanic and, less commonly, sedimentary
rocks. These are the uppermost parts of epithermal systems which develop mineralized siliceous
caps a few metres to hundreds of metres below surface with subaerial siliceous sinter deposits
at the water table and explosion breccias above.

Tectonic settings: Continental margin rifting and district-scale fracture systems with associated bimodal
or low volume mafic to intermediate volcanism. Commonly in regions of strike-slip faulting with
transform faults and transtensional basin margins. Also extensional tectonism with related
caldera development and resurgence, flow-dome complexes and high-level subvolcanic intrusive
activity.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Shallow parts of fossil geothermal systems. Hotsprings

deposit silica near the paleo groundwater table and as subaerial, ponded precipitates. Deeper
fluids are channeled by permeable stratigraphic units, hydrothermal breccia bodies and
faulted/fractured rocks. Subaerial volcanic centres including flow-dome or caldera complexes
and related radial and ring fracture systems.

Age of mineralization: Tertiary and Quaternary are most common; some currently active hotsprings.
Hotspring sinters as old as Late Devonian have been described (Cunneen and Sillitoe, 1989).

Host/Associated rock types: Intermediate or bimodal basaltic-rhyolitic volcanics including volcanic flows,
flow domes, tuffs and breccias; hydrothermal breccias and siliceous sinters. Any type of
permeable or structurally prepared country rock can be mineralized, most commonly ash flow
units and caldera-fill sediments. In some cases, serpentinized ultramafic and mafic rocks in
major fault zones in areas of post-faulting volcanic activity are mineralized. Sedimentary rocks
occur at Cinola and many other deposits.
Deposit form: Near-surface, lensoid hotspring deposits and planar lithologic replacement zones.
Individual zones are up to hundreds of metres in two dimensions and tens of metres in the third.
Underlying these are cone or wedge-like hydrothermal feeder systems with quartz stockworks
and veins centred on regional-scale fault and fracture zones, or their splays. Locally phreatic and
phreatomagmatic explosion pits formed at the paleosurface.

Texture/Structure: Generally very fine grained disseminated sulphides in silicified (opalized and
chalcedonic) country rocks and silica sinter; hydrothermal breccias, quartz stockworks and
banded to vuggy, sheeted, multiple-generation quartz- chalcedony veins. Hydrofracturing
textures are common.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Pyrite, marcasite, gold, electrum; stibnite, sulphosalt
minerals, realgar, cinnabar (cinnibar only near tops of deposits).

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, chalcedony; opal, calcite, dolomite, barite.
Strong silicification with quartz, chalcedony and opal in crustified, banded veins, sheeted veins
and stockworks is characteristic in ores. Silica in some deposits contains abundant hydrocarbons
that impart a characteristic brownish colour to the quartz.

Alteration mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Multiple episodes of silicification to form veins and
stockworks, and pervasive silicified hostrocks adjacent to them, is typical. Country rocks
containing the silicified zones have argillic and, less commonly, advanced argillic assemblages
with quartz-kaolinite and rarely alunite. They are flanked, or underlain, by propylitic rocks with
chlorite, Fe oxides, zeolites and minor adularia. Selenite, alunite and other sulphate minerals
and native sulphur can be abundant locally near surface.

Weathering: Limonite (jarosite, hematite, goethite) is locally prominent near surface in strongly oxidized
deposits.

Ore controls: A key element at the McLaughlin deposit was the superposition of multiple generations of
auriferous veinlets each carrying a small amount of gold (Lehrman, 1986).

Genetic model: Hydrothermal breccias and multiple generations of veins with calcite replacement by
silica attest to boiling of hydrothermal fluids as an important ore-depositing mechanism. The
boiling levels are related to the paleosurface and commonly have a surficial expression as active
or paleo-hotsprings. The deeper hydrothermal fluid systems, generaly within 500 m of surface
(paleosurface for older deposits), can be developed along active, regional high-angle faults and
other volcanic and subvolcanic intrusion-related structures. The structures commonly cut or
flank domes in flow-dome complexes.

Associated deposit types: Hotspring Hg (H02), solfatara sulphur; epithermal Au-Ag (H04, H05), placer Au
(C01, C02).

Comments: Many deposits currently being exploited throughout the world have grades between 1 and 2
g/t Au and range from a few to tens of millions of tonnes in size. They are viable generally
because the rocks are commonly strongly oxidized and the gold can be recovered by heap
leaching methods. The siliceous sinters formed at or very near to the surface rarely contain
economic mineralization These deposits have a greater depth extent then hotspring mercury
 deposits. In their deeper parts they may grade into precious metal bearing and base metal
epithermal veins.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Au, Sb, As, Hg, Tl near surface, increasing Ag, Ba at depth; locally Ni, B, Li and W.
The Ag/Au ratio varies from 1:1 at surface to 30:1 at a depth of a few hundred metres.
Mineralized rocks can be strongly leached at surface. Notably absent are: Se, Te, F, Mo, Sn and
Mn. Base metal content is relatively low, for example, common amounts are Cu <60 ppm, Pb <5
ppm and Zn <450 ppm.

Geophysical signature: Resistivity, VLF to identify faults.

Other Exploration Guides: Siliceous sinter can be used to identify the paleosurface; Hg mineralization
may overlie deeper gold ores.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Mineralization tends to be low grade. Economically attractive bulk-mineable
deposits contain >10 Mt of 1 to 2 g/t Au, or greater. High-grade veins and stockworks within the
larger mineralized zones can be exploited by underground methods. The McLaughlin deposit, a
superior discovery, contained initial reserves of 17.5 Mt with 5.2 g/t Au and about 16 g/t Ag,
including a sheeted vein zone with 2.45 Mt with 9.15 g/t Au. Reserves for Cinola are about 31
Mt with 2.19 g/t Au; the deposit has a feeder zone at depth that contains material containing in
excess of 100 g/t Au.

Economic limitations: Refractory primary ore in deposits that lack significant oxidation renders many of
the lower grade deposits uneconomic.

Importance: Individual deposits are attractive economically, for example, the McLaughlin mine in
California.

5. References

Berger, B.R. (1985): Geologic-Geochemical Features of Hot-spring Precious Metal Deposits: U.S.
Geological Survey, Bulletin 1646, pages 47-53.
Berger, B.R. (1986): Descriptive Model of Hot-spring Au-Ag; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and
Singer, D.A., Editors,U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, page 143.
Cunneen, R. and Sillitoe, R.H. (1989): Paleozoic Hot Spring Sinter in the Drummond Basin, Queensland,
Australia; Economic Geology, Volume 84, pages 135-142.
Lehrman, N.J. (1986): The McLaughlin Mine, Napa and Yolo Counties, California; Nevada Bureau of
Mines and Geology, Report 41, pages 85-89.
Peters, E.K. (1991): Gold-bearing Hot Spring Systems of the Northern Coast Ranges, California; Economic
Geology, Volume 86, pages 1519-1528.
Sillitoe, R.H. (1993): Epithermal Models: Genetic Types, Geometric Controls and Shallow Features; in Ore
Deposits Modeling, Geological Association of Canada, Special Volume 40, pages 403-417.
Tosdal, R.M., Enderlin, D.A., Nelson, G.C. and Lehrman, N.J. (1993): Overview of the McLaughlin Precious
Metal Deposit, Napa and Yolo Counties, Northern California; in Active and Geothermal Systems
 and Gold/Mercury Deposits in the Sonoma/Clear Lake Volcanic Fields, California, J.J. Rytuba,
Editor, Society of Economic Geologists, Guidebook Series, Volume 16, pages 312-329.
White, D. (1981): Active Geothermal Systems and Hydrothermal Ore Deposits; Economic Geology, 75th
Anniversary Volume, pages 392-423.
H04 - EPITHERMAL Au-Ag-Cu: HIGH SULPHIDATION

by A. Panteleyev
British Columbia Geological Survey

Panteleyev, A. (1996): Epithermal Au-Ag-Cu: High Sulphidation, in Selected British Columbia Mineral
Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British
Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 37-39.

1. Identification

Synonyms: (Epithermal) acid-sulphate, quartz-alunite Au, alunite-kaolinite ± pyrophyllite, advanced

argillic, Nansatsu-type, enargite gold. The deposits are commonly referred to as acid-sulphate
type after the chemistry of the hydrothermal fluids, quartz-alunite or kaolinite-alunite type after
their alteration mineralogy, or high-sulphidation type in reference to the oxidation state of the
acid fluids responsible for alteration and mineralization.

Commodities (byproducts): Au, Ag, Cu (As, Sb).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - International): Mt. McIntosh/Hushamu (EXPO, 092L 240),
Taseko River deposits - Westpine (Empress) (092O 033), Taylor-Windfall (092O 028) and
Battlement Creek (092O 005); Goldfield and Paradise Peak (Nevada, USA), Summitville
(Colorado, USA); Nansatsu (Japan), El Indio (Chile); Temora (New South Wales, Australia), Pueblo
Viejo (Dominica), Chinkuashih (Taiwan), Rodalquilar (Spain), Lepanto and Nalesbitan
(Philippines).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Veins, vuggy breccias and sulphide replacements ranging from pods to massive
lenses occur in volcanic sequences associated with high level hydrothermal systems marked by
acid-leached, advanced argillic, siliceous alteration.

Tectonic setting: Extensional and transtensional settings, commonly in volcano-plutonic continent-

margin and oceanic arcs and back-arcs. In zones with high-level magmatic emplacements where
stratovolcanoes and other volcanic edifices are constructed above plutons.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Subvolcanic to volcanic in calderas, flow-dome complexes,

rarely maars and other volcanic structures; often associated with subvolcanic stocks and dikes,
breccias. Postulated to overlie, and be genetically related to, porphyry copper systems in deeper
mineralized intrusions that undelie the stratovolcanoes.

Age of mineralization: Tertiary to Quaternary; less commonly Mesozoic and rarely Paleozoic volcanic
belts. The rare preservation of older deposits reflects rapid rates of erosion before burial of
subaerial volcanoes in tectonically active arcs.

Host/Associated rock types: Volcanic pyroclastic and flow rocks, commonly subaerial andesite to dacite
and rhyodacite, and their subvolcanic intrusive equivalents. Permeable sedimentary
intervolcanic units can be sites of mineralization.
Deposit form: Veins and massive sulphide replacement pods and lenses, stockworks and breccias.
Commonly irregular deposit shapes are determined by hostrock permeability and the geometry
of ore-controlling structures. Multiple, crosscutting composite veins are common.

Texture/Structure: Vuggy 'slaggy' silica derived as a residual product of acid leaching is characteristic.
Drusy cavities, banded veins, hydrothermal breccias, massive wallrock replacements with fine-
grained quartz.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): pyrite, enargite/luzonite, chalcocite, covellite, bornite, gold,
electrum; chalcopyrite, sphalerite, tetrahedrite/tennantite, galena, marcasite, arsenopyrite,
silver sulphosalts, tellurides including goldfieldite. Two types of ore are commonly present:
massive enargite-pyrite and/or quartz-alunite-gold.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Pyrite and quartz predominate. Barite may also occur;
carbonate minerals are absent.

Alteration mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, kaolinite/dickite, alunite, barite, hematite;
sericite/illite, amorphous clays and silica, pyrophyllite, andalusite, diaspore, corundum,
tourmaline, dumortierite, topaz, zunyite, jarosite, Al-P sulphates (hinsdalite, woodhouseite,
crandalite, etc.) and native sulphur. Advanced argillic alteration is characteristic and can be
areally extensive and visually prominent. Quartz occurs as fine-grained replacements and,
characteristically, as vuggy, residual silica in acid-leached rocks.

Weathering: Weathered rocks may contain abundant limonite (jarosite-goethite-hematite), generally in

a groundmass of kaolinite and quartz. Fine-grained supergene alunite veins and nodules are
common.

Ore controls: In volcanic edifices - caldera ring and radial fractures; fracture sets in resurgent domes and
flow-dome complexes, hydrothermal breccia pipes and diatremes. Faults and breccias in and
around intrusive centres. Permeable lithologies, in some cases with less permeable cappings of
hydrothermally altered or other cap rocks. The deposits occur over considerable depths, ranging
from high-temperature solfataras at paleosurface down into cupolas of intrusive bodies at
depth.

Genetic model: Recent research, mainly in the southwest Pacific and Andes, has shown that these
deposits form in subaerial volcanic complexes or composite island arc volcanoes above
degassing magma chambers. The deposits can commonly be genetically related to high-level
intrusions. Multiple stages of mineralization are common, presumably related to periodic
tectonism with associated intrusive activity and magmatic hydrothermal fluid generation.

Associated deposit types: Porphyry Cu±Mo±Au deposits (L04), subvolcanic Cu-Ag-Au (As- Sb) (L01),
epithermal Au-Ag deposits: low sulphidation type (H05), silica-clay-pyrophyllite deposits (Roseki
deposits) (H09), hotspring Au-Ag (H03), placer Au deposits (C01, C02).

Comments: High-sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits are much less common in the Canadian
Cordillera than low-sulphidation epithermal veins. However, they are the dominant type of
epithermal deposit in the Andes.
 3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Au, Cu, As dominate; also Ag, Zn, Pb, Sb, Mo, Bi, Sn, Te, W, B and Hg.

Geophysical signature: Magnetic lows in hydrothermally altered (acid-leached) rocks; gravity contrasts
may mark boundaries of structural blocks.

Other Exploration Guides: These deposits are found in second order structures adjacent to crustal-scale
fault zones, both normal and strike-slip, as well as local structures associated with subvolcanic
intrusions. The deposits tend to overlie and flank porphyry copper-gold deposits and underlie
acid-leached siliceous, clay and alunite-bearing ‘lithocaps’.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: There is wide variation in deposit types ranging from bulk- mineable, low-
grade to selectively mined, high-grade deposits. Underground mines range in size from 2 to 25
Mt with grades from 178 g/t Au, 109 g/t Ag and 3.87% Cu in direct smelting ores (El Indio) to 2.8
g/t Au and 11.3 g/t Ag and 1.8% Cu (Lepanto). Open pit mines with reserves of <100 Mt to >200
Mt range from Au-Ag mines with 3.8 g/t Au and 20 g/t Ag (Pueblo Viejo, Dominica) to orebodies
such as the Nansatsu deposits, Japan that contain a few million tonnes ore grading between 3
and 6 g/t Au. Porphyry Au (Cu) deposits can be overprinted with late-stage acid sulphate
alteration zones which can contain in the order of ~1.5 g/t Au with 0.05 to 0.1% Cu in
stockworks (Marte and Lobo) or high-grade Cu-Ag-Au veins (La Grande veins, Collahausi). More
typically these late stage alteration zones carry <0.4 to 0.9 g/t Au and >0.4 to 2% Cu (Butte,
Montana; Dizon, Philippines).

Economic limitations: Oxidation of primary ores is commonly neccessary for desireable metallurgy;
primary ores may be refractory and can render low-grade mineralization noneconomic.

Importance: This class of deposits has recently become a focus for exploration throughout the circum-
Pacific region because of the very attractive Au and Cu grades in some deposits. Silica-rich gold
ores (3-4 g/t Au) from the Nansatsu deposits in Japan are used as flux in copper smelters.

5. References

Albino, G.V. (1994): Time-pH-fO2 Paths of Hydrothermal Fluids and the Origin of Quartz- Alunite-Gold
Deposits; United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 2081, pages 33- 42.
Berger, B.R. (1986): Descriptive Model of Epithermal Quartz-Alunite Au; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox,
D.P. and Singer, D.A, Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, page 158.
Henley, R.W. (1991): Epithermal Gold Deposits in Volcanic Terranes; in Gold Metallogeny and
Exporation, R.P. Foster, Editor, Blackie and Sons Ltd, Glasgow, pages 133-164.
Mosier, D.L. and Menzie, W.D. (1986): Grade and Tonnage Model of Epithermal Quartz- Alunite Au, in
Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin
1693, page 158.
Panteleyev, A. (1991): Gold in the Canadian Cordillera - A Focus on Epithermal and Deeper
Environments, in Ore Deposits, Tectonics and Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera, B. C.
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1991-4, pages 163-212.
Sillitoe, R.H. (1993): Epithermal Models: Genetic Types, Geometric Controls and Shallow Features;
Geological Association of Canada, Special Volume 40, pages 403-417.
White, N.C. (1991): High Sulfidation Epithermal Gold Deposits: Characteristics and a Model for their
Origin; in High-temperature Acid Fluids and Associated Alteration and Mineralization, Geological
Survey of Japan, Report No. 277, pages 9-20.
White, N.C. and Hedenquist, J.W. (1990): Epithermal Environments and Styles of Mineralization:
Variations and their Causes, and Guidelines for Exploration; in Epithermal Gold Mineralization of
the Circum-Pacific: Geology, Geochemistry, Origin and Exploration, II, Hedenquist, J.W. , White,
N.C. and Siddeley, G., Editors, Journal of Exploration Geochemistry, Volume 36, pages 445-474.
H05 - EPITHERMAL Au-Ag: LOW SULPHIDATION

by A. Panteleyev
British Columbia Geological Survey

Panteleyev, A. (1996): Epithermal Au-Ag: Low Sulphidation, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit
Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia
Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 41-44.

1. Identification

Synonyms: (Epithermal) adularia-sericite; quartz-adularia, Comstock, Sado-type; bonanza Au-Ag; alkali

chloride (hydrothermal).

Commodities (byproducts): Au, Ag (Pb, Zn, Cu).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - International): Toodoggone district deposits - Lawyers

(094E 066), Baker (094E 026), Shas (094E 050); Blackdome (092O 050, 092O 051, 092O
052, 092O 053); Premier Gold (Silbak Premier), (104B 054); Cinola (103F 034); Comstock, Aurora
(Nevada, USA), Bodie (California, USA), Creede (Colorado, USA), Republic (Washington, USA), El
Bronce (Chile), Guanajuato (Mexico), Sado, Hishikari (Japan), Colqui (Peru), Baguio (Philippines)
Ladolam (Lihir, Papua- New Guinea).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Quartz veins, stockworks and breccias carrying gold, silver, electrum, argentite and
pyrite with lesser and variable amounts of sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena, rare tetrahedrite and
sulphosalt minerals form in high- level (epizonal) to near-surface environments. The ore
commonly exhibits open- space filling textures and is associated with volcanic-related
hydrothermal to geothermal systems.

Tectonic setting: Volcanic island and continent-margin magmatic arcs and continental volcanic fields
with extensional structures.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: High-level hydrothermal systems from depths of ~1 km to

surficial hotspring settings. Regional-scale fracture systems related to grabens, (resurgent)
calderas, flow-dome complexes and rarely, maar diatremes. Extensional structures in volcanic
fields (normal faults, fault splays, ladder veins and cymoid loops, etc.) are common; locally
graben or caldera-fill clastic rocks are present. High-level (subvolcanic) stocks and/or dikes and
pebble breccia diatremes occur in some areas. Locally resurgent or domal structures are related
to underlying intrusive bodies.

Age of mineralization: Any age. Tertiary deposits are most abundant; in B.C. Jurassic deposits are
important. Deposits of Paleozoic age are described in Australia. Closely related to the host
volcanic rocks but invariably slightly younger in age (0.5 to 1 Ma, more or less).

Host/Associated rock types: Most types of volcanic rocks; calcalkaline andesitic compositions
predominate. Some deposits occur in areas with bimodal volcanism and extensive subaerial
 ashflow deposits. A less common association is with alkalic intrusive rocks and shoshonitic
volcanics. Clastic and epiclastic sediments in intra-volcanic basins and structural depressions.

Deposit form: Ore zones are typically localized in structures, but may occur in permeable lithologies.
Upward-flaring ore zones centred on structurally controlled hydrothermal conduits are typical.
Large (> 1 m wide and hundreds of metres in strike length) to small veins and stockworks are
common with lesser disseminations and replacements. Vein systems can be laterally extensive
but ore shoots have relatively restricted vertical extent. High-grade ores are commonly found in
dilational zones in faults at flexures, splays and in cymoid loops.

Texture/Structure: Open-space filling, symmetrical and other layering, crustification, comb structure,
colloform banding and multiple brecciation.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Pyrite, electrum, gold, silver, argentite; chalcopyrite,
sphalerite, galena, tetrahedrite, silver sulphosalt and/or selenide minerals. Deposits can be
strongly zoned along strike and vertically. Deposits are commonly zoned vertically over 250 to
350 m from a base metal poor, Au-Ag-rich top to a relatively Ag-rich base metal zone and an
underlying base metal rich zone grading at depth into a sparse base metal, pyritic zone. From
surface to depth, metal zones contain: Au-Ag-As-Sb-Hg, Au-Ag-Pb-Zn-Cu, Ag- Pb-Zn. In alkalic
hostrocks tellurides, V mica (roscoelite) and fluorite may be abundant, with lesser molybdenite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, amethyst, chalcedony, quartz pseudomorphs
after calcite, calcite; adularia, sericite, barite, fluorite, Ca- Mg-Mn-Fe carbonate minerals such as
rhodochrosite, hematite and chlorite.

Alteration mineralogy: Silicification is extensive in ores as multiple generations of quartz and chalcedony
are commonly accompanied by adularia and calcite. Pervasive silicification in vein envelopes is
flanked by sericite-illite- kaolinite assemblages. Intermediate argillic alteration [kaolinite-illite-
montmorillonite (smectite)] formed adjacent to some veins; advanced argillic alteration
(kaolinite-alunite) may form along the tops of mineralized zones. Propylitic alteration dominates
at depth and peripherally.

Weathering: Weathered outcrops are often characterized by resistant quartz ± alunite 'ledges' and
extensive flanking bleached, clay-altered zones with supergene alunite, jarosite and other
limonite minerals.

Ore controls: In some districts the epithermal mineralization is tied to a specific metallogenetic event,
either structural, magmatic, or both. The veins are emplaced within a restricted stratigraphic
interval generally within 1 km of the paleosurface. Mineralization near surface takes place in
hotspring systems, or the deeper underlying hydrothermal conduits. At greater depth it can be
postulated to occur above, or peripheral to, porphyry and possibly skarn mineralization. Normal
faults, margins of grabens, coarse clastic caldera moat-fill units, radial and ring dike fracture sets
and both hydrothermal and tectonic breccias are all ore fluid channeling structures. Through-
going, branching, bifurcating, anastamosing and intersecting fracture systems are commonly
mineralized. Ore shoots form where dilational openings and cymoid loops develop, typically
where the strike or dip of veins change. Hangingwall fractures in mineralized structures are
particularly favourable for high-grade ore.
Genetic model: These deposits form in both subaerial, predominantly felsic, volcanic fields in
extensional and strike-slip structural regimes and island arc or continental andesitic
stratovolcanoes above active subduction zones. Near- surface hydrothermal systems, ranging
from hotspring at surface to deeper, structurally and permeability focused fluid flow zones are
the sites of mineralization. The ore fluids are relatively dilute and cool solutions that are
mixtures of magmatic and meteoric fluids. Mineral deposition takes place as the solutions
undergo cooling and degassing by fluid mixing, boiling and decompression.

Associated deposit types: Epithermal Au-Ag: high sulphidation (H04); hotspring Au-Ag (H03); porphyry
Cu±Mo±Au (L04) and related polymetallic veins (I05); placer gold (C01, C02).

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Elevated values in rocks of Au, Ag, Zn, Pb, Cu and As, Sb, Ba, F, Mn; locally Te, Se
and Hg.

Geophysical signature: VLF has been used to trace structures; radiometric surveys may outline strong
potassic alteration of wallrocks. Detailed gravity surveys may delineate boundaries of structural
blocks with large density contrasts.

Other Exploration Guides: Silver deposits generally have higher base metal contents than Au and Au-Ag
deposits. Drilling feeder zones to hotsprings and siliceous sinters may lead to identification of
buried deposits. Prospecting for mineralized siliceous and silica-carbonate float or vein material
with diagnostic open-space textures is effective.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: The following data describe the median deposits based on worldwide mines
and U.S.A. models:
• Au-Ag deposits (41 Comstock-type 'bonanza' deposits) - 0.77 Mt with 7.5 g/t Au, 110 g/t Ag and
minor Cu, Zn and Pb. The highest base metal contents in the top decile of deposits all contain
<0.1% Cu, Zn and 0.1% Pb
• Au-Cu deposits (20 Sado-type deposits) - 0.3 Mt with 1.3% g/t Au, 38 g/t Ag and >0.3% Cu; 10 %
of the deposits contain, on average, about 0.75% Cu with one having >3.2% Cu.

5. References

Buchanan, L.J. (1981): Precious Metal Deposits associated with Volcanic Environments in the Southwest;
in Relations of Tectonics to Ore Deposits in the Southern Cordillera; Arizona Geological Society
Digest, Volume 14, pages 237-262.
Mosier, D.L., Berger, B.R and Singer, D.A. (1986): Descriptive Model of Sado Epithermal Veins; in Mineral
Deposits Models, Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors, U. S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, page
154.
Mosier, D.L. and Sato, T. (1986): Grade and Tonnage Model of Sado Epithermal Veins; in Mineral
Deposits Models, Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors, U. S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693,
pages 155-157.
Mosier, D.L., Singer, D.A. and Berger, B.R (1986): Descriptive Model of Comstock Epithermal Veins; in
Mineral Deposits Models, Cox, D.P. and D.A. Singer, D.A., Editors, U. S. Geological Survey,
Bulletin 1693, pages 150-153.
Heald, P., Foley, N.K. and Hayba, D.O. (1987): Comparative Anatomy of Volcanic-Hosted Epithermal
Deposits: Acid-Sulfate and Adularia Sericite Types; Economic Geology, Volume 82, pages 1-26.
Mosier, D.L., Sato, T., Page, N.J., Singer, D.A. and Berger, B.R. (1986): Descriptive Model of Creede; in
Mineral Deposits Models, Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin
1693, pages 145-149.
Panteleyev, A. (1991): Gold in the Canadian Cordillera - A Focus on Epithermal and Deeper Deposits; in
Ore Deposits, Tectonic and Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera, B.C. Ministry of Energy,
Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1991-4, pages 163-212.
Sillitoe, R.H. (1993): Epithermal Models: Genetic Types, Geometrical Controls and Shallow Features; in
Mineral Deposit Modeling, Kirkham, R.V., Sinclair, W.D., Thorpe, R.I. and Duke, J.M., Editors,
Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 40, pages 403-417.
White, N.C. and Hedenquist, J.W. (1990): Epithermal Environments and Styles of Mineralization;
Variations and their Causes and Guidelines for Exploration; in Epithermal Gold Mineralization of
the Circum-Pacific; Geology, Geochemistry, Origin and Exploration, II; Hedenquist, J.W., White,
N.C. and Siddeley, G., Editors, Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Volume 36, pages 445-474.
H07 - Sn-Ag VEINS

by A. Panteleyev
British Columbia Geological Survey

Panteleyev, A. (1996): Epithermal Au-Ag: Low Sulphidation, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit
Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia
Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 45-48.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Polymetallic Sn veins, Bolivian polymetallic veins, polymetallic tin-silver deposits,

polymetallic xenothermal.

Commodities (byproducts): Ag, Sn (Zn, Cu, Au, Pb, Cd, In, Bi, W).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): D zone (104P 044, 080,081) and Lang
Creek veins (‘Pant’, 104P 082), Cassiar district; Cerro Rico de Potosi, Oruro, Chocaya, (Bolivia),
Pirquitas (Argentina), Ashio, Akenobe and Ikuno (Japan).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Sulphide and quartz-sulphide veins carrying cassiterite, a wide variety of other base
metals and zones with silver minerals. They are associated with epizonal (subvolcanic) quartz-
bearing intrusions, or their immediate hostrocks. In some places the ore is in volcanic rocks
within dacitic to quartz latitic flow-dome complexes.

Tectonic setting: Continental margin; synorogenic to late orogenic belts with high-level plutonism in
intermediate to felsic volcanoplutonic arcs. In British Columbia the only significant Sn-bearing
deposits occur with S or A-type granites in eastern tectonic assemblages underlain by
continental rocks of North American origin.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: In faults, shears and fractures that cut or are proximal to
high-level felsic intrusions and in flow-dome complexes, namely domes and their surrounding
tuff rings and explosive breccias.

Age of mineralization: Tertiary in the type area of Bolivia; Cretaceous and Tertiary in Japan; Tertiary and
older in British Columbia.

Host/Associated rock types: Hostrocks for veins can be of any type and do not appear to be an
important control on the occurrence of the deposits; they include sedimentary, volcanic and
intrusive rocks and sometimes, metasedimentary rocks at depth. Intrusive rocks with which the
mineralization is associated are quartz bearing and peraluminous, but seem to be restricted to
intermediate compositions between 60 and 70% SiO2 (dacite to rhyodacite); more felsic rocks
are present, but are less common.

Deposit form: Veins, commonly with swarms of closely spaced, splaying smaller veins in sheeted zones.
Veins vary in width from microveinlets to a few metres, and commonly are less than a metre
 wide. The ore shoots in veins are commonly 200-300 m along strike and dip but the veins may
extend to more than 1000 m in depth and strike length. Vein systems and related stockworks
cover areas up to a square kilometre along the tops of conical domes or intrusions 1-2 km wide.

Texture/Structure: Multistage composite banded veins with abundant ore minerals pass at depth into
crystalline quartz veins and upwards into vuggy quartz-bearing veins and stockworks.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Pyrite, cassiterite; pyrrhotite, marcasite; sphalerite, galena,
chalcopyrite, stannite, arsenopyrite, tetrahedrite, scheelite, wolframite, andorite, jamesonite,
boulangerite, ruby silver (pyrargyrite), stibnite, bismuthinite, native bismuth, molybdenite,
argentite, gold and complex sulphosalt minerals. These deposits are characterized by their
mineralogical complexity. There is no consistency between deposits in vertical or lateral zoning,
but individual deposits are markedly spatially and temporally zoned. In some deposits, notably
intrusion or dome-hosted examples, core zones are denoted by the high-temperature minerals
cassiterite, wolframite, bismuthinite and arsenopyrite. Surrounding ores have varying amounts
of stannite and chalcopyrite with, most significantly, sphalerite, galena and various Pb sulphosalt
and Ag minerals. Silver in the upper parts of the vein systems occurs in argentite, ruby silver and
native silver and at depth is mainly present in tetrahedrite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, sericite, pyrite; tourmaline at depth, kaolinite
and chalcedony near surface; rare barite, siderite, calcite, Mn carbonate and fluorite.

Alteration mineralogy: Quartz-sericite-pyrite is characteristic; elsewhere quartz-sericite- chlorite occurs

in envelopes on veins. Near-surface argillic and advanced argillic alteration overprinting is
present in some deposits.

Weathering: Prominent limonite cappings are derived from the oxidation of pyrite.

Ore controls: Sets of closely spaced veins, commonly in sheeted zones, fractures and joints within and
surrounding plutons are related to the emplacement and cooling of the host intrusions. The
open space filling and shear-replacement veins are associated with stockworks, breccia veins
and breccia pipes. A few deposits occur in faults, shears, fold axes and cleavage or fracture
zones related to regional tectonism. Some early wallrock replacement along narrow fissures is
generally followed and dominated by open- space filling in many deposits.

Genetic model: Dacitic magma and the metal-bearing hydrothermal solutions represent the uppermost
products of large magmatic/hydrothermal systems. The Sn is probably a remobilized component
of sialic rocks derived from recycled continental crust.

Associated deposit types: Polymetallic veins Ag-Pb-Zn (I05); epithermal Au-Ag: low sulphidation (H05),
mantos (J01, J02), porphyry Sn (L06), placers (C01, C02). This deposit type grades with depth
into Sn veins and greissens (I13) associated with mesozonal granitic intrusions into sediments.
Cassiterite in colluvium can be recovered by placer mining. Mexican-type rhyolite Sn or “wood
tin” deposits represent a separate class of deposit (Reed et al., 1986).

Comments: Many Sn-bearing base metal vein systems are known to occur in eastern British Columbia,
but there is poor documentation of whether the Sn is present as cassiterite or stannite. The
former can be efficiently recovered by simple metallurgy, the latter cannot.
 3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Ag, Cu, Zn, Pb, Sn, W, As, Bi.

Other Exploration Guides: The vein systems may display impressive vertical and horizontal continuity
with marked metal zoning. Bolivian polymetallic vein deposits have formed at depths of 0.5 to 2
km below the paleosurface. Deeper veins of mainly massive sulphide minerals contain Sn, W and
Bi; the shallower veins with quartz-barite and chalcedony-barite carry Ag and rarely Au. Metal
zoning from depth to surface and from centres outward shows: Sn + W, Cu + Zn, Pb + Zn, Pb + Ag
and Ag ± Au; commonly there is considerable ‘telescoping’ of zones. Oxidized zones may have
secondary Ag minerals, such as Ag chlorides.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Considerable variation in metal contents of ores is evident between
deposits. Potentially bulk-mineable bedrock deposits contain in the order of 0.2% Sn with 70-
179 g/t Ag (Cerro Rico, Potosi, Bolivia).

Economic limitations: These veins tend to be narrow.

Importance: These veins are an important source of cassiterite for economic placer deposits around the
world and the lodes have been mined in South America. They are currently attractive only when
they carry appreciable Ag. In some deposits Au content is economically significant and Au-rich
zones might have been overlooked during past work. Future Sn production from these veins will
probably be as a byproduct commodity, and only if cassiterite is the main Sn mineral.

5. References

Cunningham, C.G., McNee, J., Pinto Vasquez, J. and Ericksen, G.E. (1991): A Model of Volcanic Dome-
hosted Precious Metal Deposits in Bolivia; Economic Geology, Volume 86, pages 415-421.
Ericksen, G.E. and Cunningham, C.G. (1993): Epithermal Precious-metal Deposits Hosted by the Neogene
and Quaternary Volcanic Complex in the Central Andes; in Mineral Deposit Modeling, Kirkham,
R.V., Sinclair, W.D., Thorpe, R.I. and Duke, J.M., Editors, Geological Association of Canada,
Special Volume 40, pages 419-431.
Grant, J.N., Halls, C., Avila, W., and Avila, G. (1977): Igneous Systems and the Evolution of Hydrothermal
Systems in some Sub-volcanic Tin Deposits of Bolivia; in Volcanic Process in Orogenesis,
Geological Society of London, Special Paper Publication 7, Pages 117-126.
Ludington, S.D., Orris, G.J., Cox, D.P., Long, K.R. and Asher-Bolinder, S. (1992): Mineral Deposit Models;
in Geology and Mineral Resources of the Altiplano and Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia, U.S.
Geological Survey, Bulletin 1975, pages 63-89.
Nakamura, T. and Hunahashi, M. (1970): Ore Veins of Neogene Volcanic Affinity in Japan; in Volcanism
and Ore Genesis, Tatsumi, T., Editor, University of Tokyo Press, pages 215-230.
Reed, B.L., Duffield, W., Ludington, S.D., Maxwell, C.H. and Richter, D.H. (1986): Descriptive Model of
Rhyolite-hosted Sn; in Mineral Deposit Models, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, pages 168-
171.
Togashi, Y. (1986): Descriptive Model of Sn-Polymetallic Veins; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and
Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, page 109.
H08 - ALKALIC INTRUSION-ASSOCIATED Au-Ag

by Tom G. Schroeter and Robert Cameron

British Columbia Geological Survey

Schroeter, T.G. and Cameron, R. (1996): Alkalic Intrusion-associated Au-Ag, in Selected British Columbia
Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors,
British Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 49-51.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Alkalic epithermal, Au-Ag-Te veins.

Commodities (byproducts): Au, Ag (Zn, Pb).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Flathead (082GSE070), Howell (082GSE037), Howe

(082GSE048); Cripple Creek (Colorado, USA), Zartman, Landusky, Golden Sunlight (Montana,
USA), Golden Reward (South Dakota, USA).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: These deposits include quartz veins with pyrite, sphalerite and galena in structural
zones and stockworks within alkalic intrusions and/or disseminated pyritic zones in alkalic
intrusions, diatremes, coeval volcanics (Cripple Creek) and surrounding sediments. Argillic
alteration, +/- silicification, carbonatization, and barite and fluorite veins are common.

Tectonic settings: Associated with alkalic intrusive rocks in sedimentary cover rocks above continental
crust, generally associated with extensional faulting. Tertiary examples in the USA are related to
continental rifting; Rio Grande rift for Cripple Creek, Great Falls tectonic zone for the Montana
deposits. Flathead area of British Columbia is in a continental setting but the extensional
component is not as apparent.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Diatreme-intrusive complexes, high-level alkalic plugs, and

dikes that intrude Proterozoic to Mesozoic continental clastic and carbonate rocks. Cripple
Creek is within a large maar diatreme complex. Flathead intrusions are coeval with chemically
similar volcanic rocks, the Crowsnest volcanics, in southern Alberta.

Age of mineralization: Any age; Flathead intrusions are early Cretaceous (98.5 Ma)

Host/Associated rock types: (Flathead area): Intrusions include alkali feldspar syenite, foid-bearing
syenite (nepheline, leucite, nosean, analcite), mela- syenite and related diatreme breccias with
10 % to 100 % intrusive component. Textures include coarse porphyritic sanidine, micro-syenite,
tinguaite. Host sedimentary rocks include clastic rocks, shales and argillites to sandstones, and
impure fine-grained carbonaceoous limestone and massive calcarenitic limestone. Gold may be
present in all rock types.

Deposit form: Deposits may be in the form of sheeted veins in structural zones within intrusions (e.g,
Zortman, Cripple Creek) with dimensions of 50 m to 100 m in width and hundreds of metres in
 length to, less commonly, large disseminated, diffuse zones within diatremes (e.g., Montana
Tunnels, Cripple Creek), volcanic rocks (e.g., Cripple Creek) or stratabound within favourable
sedimentary lithologies.

Texture/Structure: Ore minerals in quartz and quartz-adularia veins, vein stockworks, disseminated
zones and minor breccias.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Fine-grained (auriferous, arsenical?) pyrite, galena,
sphalerite, gold tellurides; chalcopyrite, magnetite, gold, bismuth and tellurium minerals are
suspected at Flathead from elevated geochemical values in samples (to 31 ppm Te, 356 ppm Bi).

Gaunge Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, calcite; adularia, barite, fluorite.

Alteration mineralogy: Widespread pyrite and carbonate (calcite) alteration of intrusive rocks, silicic and
argillic (illite, sericite, jarosite, roscoelite) alteration of wallrocks; also albite and adularia.

Weathering: Oxidation with limonite, jarosite, hydrozincite.

Ore controls: Mineralization is controlled by structural zones within or proximal to alkalic intrusions; also
in permeable (e.g., sandstone) or chemically favourable units (impure carbonates or bedding
contacts) in country rocks. Diatreme breccias are favourable permeable hosts for focused flow
of volatiles.

Associated deposit types: Distal base metal mantos are indicated in the Flathead and South Dakota
deposit areas. Possible link with porphyry Mo deposits; polymetallic (I05) veins.

Comments: Some authors consider this deposit type to be a subset of the low- sulphidation epithermal
suite of precious metal deposits. This deposit model relates to continental rift settings, but
related deposit types are present in oceanic arc settings and include Emperor (Fiji), Porgera and
Ladolam (Papua New Guinea) deposits. Similar British Columbia settings may include the
Quesnel and Stikine Terrane alkalic volcanic belts which host the alkalic porphyry copper-gold
deposits (LO3).

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Au, Ag, As, Sb, Pb, Zn, F, Ba, V, Te, Bi

Geophysical signature: High chargeability (I.P.) will outline pyritic zones; magnetic surveys will outline
magnetite-bearing zones.

4. Economic factors:

Typical grade and tonnage: Highly variable, from very low mineable grades (e.g., 0.53 g/t Au at Zortman)
to very high bonanza grades (e.g., 126 g/t Au at the Cresson vug, Cripple Creek). Recovered gold
from the Cripple Creek district totals in excess of 600 tonnes. Grades at Howell Creek include 58
m of 1.3 g/t Au in silicified limestone, with grab samples containing up to 184 g/t at Flathead.
Tonnages and grades from a number of deposits include: Cresson deposit, Cripple Creek 70 mt
0.99 g/t Au Cripple Creek, historical prod’n (1891-1989) 41 mt 17.14 g/t Au Golden Sunlight
 (Dec., 1994) 42.8 mt 1.9 g/t Zortman (Dec., 1994) 55.7 mt 0.68 g/t Au Montana Tunnels (Dec.,
1994) 26.6 mt 0.61 g/T Au.

Importance: Although these deposits have not been mined in British Columbia, they remain a viable
exploration target.

5. References

Bonham, H.F. (1988): Models for Volcanic Hosted Epithermal Precious Metal Deposits; in Bulk Mineable
Precious Metal Deposits of the Western United States, Schafer, R.W., Cooper, J.J., and Wikre,
P.G., Editors, Geological Society of Nevada, Symposium Proceedings, pages 259-271.
Cameron, R.S. (1989): Reverse Circulation Drilling Report for the Howe Claims, Fort Steele Mining
Division, British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Assessment
Report 18629. Mutschler, G.E. and
Mooney, T.C. (1993): Precious-metal Deposits Related to Alkalic Igneous Rocks: Provisional
Classification, Grade-Tonnage Data and Exploration Frontiers; in Mineral Deposit Modelling, R.V.
Kirkham, W.D. Sinlcair, R.I. Thorpe and J.M. Duke, Editors, Geological Survey of Canada, Special
Paper 40, pages 479- 520.
Richards, J.P. and Kerrick, R. (1993): The Porgera Gold Mine, Papua New Guinea: Magmatic
Hydrothermal to Epithermal Evolution of an Alkalic-type Precious Metal Deposit; Economic
Geology, Violume 88, pages 1017-1052.
Sillitoe, R.H. (1983): Epithermal Models: Genetic Types, Geometrical Controls and Shallow Features; in
Mineral Deposit Modelling, R.V. Kirkham, W.D. Sinlcair, R.I. Thorpe and J.M. Duke, Editors,
Geological Survey of Canada, Special Paper 40, pages 403-417.
Skupinski. A. and Legun, A. (1989): Geology of Alkalic Rocks at Twentynine Mile Creek, Flathead River
Area, Southeastern British Columbia; in Exploration in British Columbia 1988, B.C. Ministry of
Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, pages B29- B34.
H09 - HYDROTHERMAL CLAYS

by Z.D. Hora

1. Identification

Synonyms: Primary kaolin deposits, hypogene kaolin, hydrothermal kaolin, quartz-kaolinite-alunite

deposits, Island Arc kaolin model, argillic alteration deposits, epithermal kaolin, hydrothermal
alunite.

Commodities (byproducts): Kaolin, halloysite, pyrophyllite.

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International):

Monteith Bay (092L 072, 117, 246, 343), Pemberton Hills (092L 308); Tintic (Utah, USA), Terraced Hills,
(Nevada, USA), Matauri Bay, Mahimahi and Maungaparerua (New Zealand),Chugoku, Itaya and
Taishu (Japan), Suzhou (China).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Kaolin and halloysite, with or without alunite and pyrophyllite, occurs as veins and
massive alteration masses in volcanic and granitic rocks. They formed in geothermal fields and
hot springs areas associated with volcanic activity nearby.

Tectonic settings: Active volcanic arcs (oceanic island arcs, continental margin arcs), extensional and
transtensional settings, continental margin rifting. Typically the biggest deposits occur in
volcanic island arcs, but may develop also in volcanic centres near continental margins.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Near surface hydrothermal alteration zones associated

with subaerial volcanic centres and geothermal areas. The volcanic centres can be
stratovolcanoes and calderas. Alteration zones typically occur in rocks of higher permeability
and to depths of up to 100 metres from the paleosurface.

Age of mineralization: Mostly Tertiary to Quaternary; due to erosion and metamorphism the older
deposits generally have not been preserved. The Suzhou deposit is reported to be related to
Jurassic volcanic activity.

Host/Associated rock types: Rhyolite, trachyte, andesite flows, sometimes glassy, and volcaniclastic
rocks and their hypabyssal equivalents. Also, any older basement with feldspathic or sericitic
rocks. Associated rocks are hydrothermal breccias and travertine and siliceous sinters.

Deposit form: Structurally controlled, cone or wedge-shaped bodies are common; sometimes irregular
shapes result from variable host rock permeability controlled by fracture density and porosity.
Many alteration zones spread out as they approach the surface or form large near-surface zones
on the flanks of volcanoes. Many of described ore bodies are less than 100 by 200 metres in
size. The largest known deposit, Maungaparerua, covers 350 acres and has been explored to 50
m depth. The Itaya deposit has three zones; the largest one was 300 by 350 metres in plan and
100 metres deep. The Taishu has many orebodies, the largest one being 100 by 200 metres in
size.
Texture/Structure: Relic textures of the original host rock; sometimes aphanitic mixture of clay
component with fine-grained silica; stockwork and breccia.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Halloysite, kaolin, pyrophyllite; dickite, nacrite.

Gaunge Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, calcite; adularia, barite, fluorite.

Alteration mineralogy: Clay minerals and pyrophyllite are hydrothermal alteration products of host
rocks. This process, which starts with alteration of feldspars and other aluminosilicates, can be
pervasive or marginal to fractures. In the latter case, some of the rock will be partially altered
with hydrous phyllosilicates surrounding relic feldspar, quartz and mica. The alteration minerals
can be zoned outward from core zones of silica through alunite to flanking zones of pyrophyllite-
kaolinite-halloysite-smectite-illite Byproduct silica is mobilized and can be precipitated as a silica
cap, veins and/or a siliceous matrix to the clay minerals.

Weathering: Circulating groundwater may further remove leachable elements (K, Na, Ca, Mg, etc.) and
improve the quality of clay for a number of end uses. Residual weathering may overprint
primary kaolin deposits resulting in superior quality ceramic clay (Maungaparerua, New
Zealand). Silica caps on top of the deposit can form topographic heights.

Ore controls: Volcanic centres are a key control. Diatreme breccias, normal faults, margins of grabens
and collapsed calderas can also be loci for some hypogene clay deposits. Alteration zones are
often more extensive near the paleosurface. Hydrothermal clays are often hosted by rocks that
are feldspathic, contain felsic glass and/or are permeable.

Genetic models: Clay deposits develop in feldspathic rocks, with or without volcanic glass, due to the
circulation of hydrothermal fluids with low pH values (approximately 3.5 to 5) and
temperatures from below 100 to 400°C. Halloysite forms at temperatures under ~100°C,
kaolinite and alunite between ~100°C and ~350°C and pyrophyllite between ~300°C and ~400°C.
Silica compounds and alunite may precipitate in separate zones, but also as a cementing matrix
for kaolinite and pyrophyllite. The deposits occur over a considerable depth, ranging from high
temperature geothermal fields at the paleosurface down into cupolas of intrusive bodies at
depth.

Associated deposit types: Epithermal Au-Ag - low sulphidation (H05), epithermal Au-Ag-Cu: high
sulphidation (H04), hot spring Au-Ag (H03), hot spring Hg (H02), solfatara alteration in vents in
modern deposits.

Comments: In some cases, near-surface leaching of these alteration zones can produce altered zones
containing more than 95% silica. Alunite deposits can be extensive with potential as an
aluminum resource, but they are not presently considered to be economic.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: High aluminum contents and reduced alkali contents, increased silica locally.
Presence of aluminum sulphate and/or native sulphur.
Geophysical signature: Seismic techniques can distinguish dense unaltered rock from less dense clay
altered zones. Resistivity methods can identify conductive clay zones from resistive unaltered
rocks.

Other Exploration Guides: Presence of siliceous sinters and association with geothermal fields. Search
for alteration zones near volcanic centres and associated fault systems.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Published data on individual deposits are very incomplete. Depending on the
original quartz content in the host rock, the clay content may vary from approximately 50 to
80%. Original silica content may be increased by precipitation of mobilized silica released by
alteration of feldspars. Only a few hydrothermal deposits are large.

Economic limitations: Production from this deposit type is from open pits. Physical properties and
chemical composition of clay affect end use. While some deposits in New Zealand produce high-
quality ceramic material, others can be used for white cement only. The high level of processing
required to meet industry specifications and transportation cost to the end user are the main
limiting factors for kaolin use. While local sources compete for low-value markets, high-quality
products may be shipped to users overseas.

Uses: Hydrothermal kaolins are used in ceramics, for a variety of filler applications (paper, rubber,
paints), refractory use and white cement manufacturing. A high content of fine silica makes
hydrothermal kaolin hard and unusable for some applications; their main use is in ceramic
applications. Deposits with a residual weathering overprint may have kaolin suitable for higher
end uses, like industrial fillers and paper coating.

Importance: Globally the least important of the three kaolin deposit types, but regionally may be very
important (Japan, New Zealand).

5. Selected bibliography

Bristow, C.M. (1987): World Kaolins - Genesis, Exploitation and Application; Industrial Minerals, Number
238, pages 45–59.
Clapp, C.H. (1914): The Geology of the Alunite and Pyrophyllite Rocks of Kyuquot Sound, Vancouver
Island; Summary Report of the Geological Survey for the calendar year 1913, Ottawa, pages
109–126.
Dill, H.G., Bosse, H.R., Henning, K.H., Fricke, A. and Ahrend, H. (1997): Mineralogical and Chemical
Variations in Hypogene and Supergene Kaolin Deposits in a Mobile Fold Belt the Central Andes
of Northwestern Peru; Mineralium Deposita, Volume 32, pages 149–163.
Hall, R.B. (1982): Model for Hydrothermal Alunite Deposits; in Characteristics of Mineral Deposit
Occurrences, Erickson, R.L., Editor, United States Geological Survey, Open File Report 82-795,
pages 148–154.
Harben, P.W. and Kuzwart, M. (1996): Industrial Minerals - A Global Geology; Metal Bulletin, London,
462 pages.
Harvey, C.C. and Murray, H.H. (1997): Industrial Clays in the 21st Century: a Perspective of Exploration,
Technology and Utilization; Applied Clay Science, Volume 11, pages 285–310.
Malkovsky, M. and Vachtl, J., Editors (1969): Kaolin Deposits of the World, A-Europe, B-Overseas
Countries; Proceedings of the Symposium 1, 23rd International Geological Congress, Prague,
1968, 460 pages.
Malkovsky, M. and Vachtl, J., Editors (1969): Genesis of the Kaolin Deposits; Proceedings of the
Symposium 1, 23rdInternational Geological Congress, Prague, 1988, 135 pages.
Murray, H.H. (1989): Kaolin Minerals: Their Genesis and Occurrences, Hydrous Phyllosilicates, in Reviews
in Mineralogy, Bailey, S.W., Editor, Mineralogical Society of America, Volume 19, pages 67–89.
Murray, H.H., Bundy, W.M. and Harvey, C.C., Editors (1993): Kaolin Genesis and Utilization; The Clay
Minerals Society, Boulder, Colorado, 341 pages.
Panteleyev, A. and Koyanagi, V.M. (1994): Advanced Argillic Alteration in Bonanza Volcanic Rocks,
Northern Vancouver Island - Lithologic and Permeability Controls; British Columbia Ministry of
Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1994-1, pages 101-110.
Examples of Epithermal Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

H01 Gardiner (Montana), Salida (Colorado), Lazio Clinton, Slocan, Deep River
(Italy)
H02 Sulphur Bank (California), Steamboat Springs Ucluelet
(Nevada)
H03 McLaughlin (California), Round Mountain Cinola, Clisbako, Wolf?, Trout?
(Nevada)
H04 El Indio (Chile), Nansatsu (Japan) Westpine, Taylor-Windfall, Mt.
McIntosh
H05 Comstock (Nevada), Sado (Japan) Lawyers, Blackdome, Silbak Premier
H06* Talamantes (Mexico), Gloryana (New Mexico) --
H07 Black Range (New Mexico), Potosi (Bolivia), Ashio D Zone and Lang Creek (Cassiar)
(Japan)
H08 Emperor (Fiji), Cripple Creek (Colorado), Zortman Flathead, Howell, Howe
(Montana)
H09 Cornwall (England) Monteith Bay, Pemberton Hills

* Note: All BC deposit profile(s) with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s.
I - Vein, Breccia, and Stockwork

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

I01 Au-quartz veins Mesothermal, Motherlode, saddle 36a
reefs
I02 Intrusion-related Au pyrrhotite Subvolcanic shear-hosted gold --
veins
I03 Turbidite-hosted Au veins Meguma type 36a
I04 Iron formation-hosted Au Iron formation-hosted gold 36b
I05 Polymetallic veins Ag-Pb-Zn±Au Felsic intrusionassociated Ag-Pb-Zb 22c, 25b
veins
I06 Cu±Ag quartz veins Churchill-type vein Cu ?
I07* Silica veins -- --
I08 Silica-Hg carbonate -- 27c
I09 Stibnite veins and Simple and disseminated Sb deposits 27d,27e
disseminations
I10 Vein barite -- IM27e
I11 Barite-fluorite veins -- 26c*
I12* W veins Quartz-wolframite veins 15a
I13* Sn veins and greisens -- 15b, 15c
I14 Five-element veins Ni-Co-As- Ni-Co-native Ag veins, cobalt-type --
Ag±(Bi, U) veins
I15 Classical U veins Pitchblende veins, vein uranium --
I16 Unconformity-associated U Unconformity-veins, Unconformity U 37a
I17 Cryptocrystalline magnesite Bone magnesite, Kraubath-type --
veins magnesite
I01 - Au-QUARTZ VEINS

by Chris Ash and Dani Alldrick

British Columbia Geological Survey

Ash, Chris and Alldrick, Dani (1996): Au-quartz Veins, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit
Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia
Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 53-56.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Mother Lode veins, greenstone gold, Archean lode gold, mesothermal gold-quartz veins,
shear-hosted lode gold, low-sulphide gold-quartz veins, lode gold.

Commodities (byproducts): Au (Ag, Cu, Sb).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/ International):

• Phanerozoic: Bralorne-Pioneer (092JNE001), Erickson (104P 029), Taurus (104P 012), Polaris-
Taku (104K 003), Mosquito Creek (093H 010), Cariboo Gold Quartz (093H 019), Midnight
(082FSW119); Carson Hill, Jackson-Plymouth, Mother Lode district; Empire Star and Idaho-
Maryland, Grass Valley district (California, USA); Alaska-Juneau, Jualin, Kensington (Alaska,
USA), Ural Mountains (Russia).
• Archean: Hollinger, Dome, McIntyre and Pamour, Timmins camp; Lake Shore, Kirkland Lake
camp; Campbell, Madsen, Red Lake camp; Kerr-Addison, Larder Lake camp (Ontario, Canada),
Lamaque and Sigma, Val d’Or camp (Quebec, Canada); Granny Smith, Kalgoorlie and Golden
Mile ( Western Australia); Kolar (Karnataka, India), Blanket-Vubachikwe (Zimbabwe, Africa).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Gold-bearing quartz veins and veinlets with minor sulphides crosscut a wide variety
of hostrocks and are localized along major regional faults and related splays. The wallrock is
typically altered to silica, pyrite and muscovite within a broader carbonate alteration halo.

Tectonic settings:

Phanerozoic: Contained in moderate to gently dipping fault/suture zones related to continental

margin collisional tectonism. Suture zones are major crustal breaks which are characterized by
dismembered ophiolitic remnants between diverse assemblages of island arcs, subduction
complexes and continental-margin clastic wedges.

Archean: Major transcrustal structural breaks within stable cratonic terranes. May represent
remnant terrane collisional boundaries.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Veins form within fault and joint systems produced by
regional compression or transpression (terrane collision), including major listric reverse faults,
second and third-order splays. Gold is deposited at crustal levels within and near the brittle-
ductile transition zone at depths of 6-12 km, pressures between 1 to 3 kilobars and
 temperatures from 200o to 400 oC. Deposits may have a vertical extent of up to 2 km, and lack
pronounced zoning.

Age of mineralization: Mineralization is post-peak metamorphism (i.e. late syncollisional) with gold-
quartz veins particularly abundant in the Late Archean and Mesozoic.

Phanerozoic: In the North America Cordillera gold veins are post-Middle Jurassic and appear to
form immediately after accretion of oceanic terranes to the continental margin. In British
Columbia deposits are mainly Middle Jurassic (~ 165-170 Ma) and Late Cretaceous (~ 95 Ma). In
the Mother Lode belt they are Middle Jurassic (~ 150 Ma) and those along the Juneau belt in
Alaska are of Early Tertiary (~56-55 Ma).

Archean: Ages of mineralization for Archean deposits are well constrained for both the Superior
Province, Canadian Shield (~ 2.68 to 2.67 Ga) and the Yilgarn Province, Western Australia (~ 2.64
to 2.63 Ga).

Host/Associated rock types: Lithologically highly varied, usually of greenschist metamorphic grade,
ranging from virtually undeformed to totally schistose.

Phanerozoic: Mafic volcanics, serpentinite, peridotite, dunite, gabbro, diorite,

trondhjemite/plagiogranites, graywacke, argillite, chert, shale, limestone and quartzite, felsic
and intermediate intrusions.

Archean: Granite-greenstone belts - mafic, ultramafic (komaitiitic) and felsic volcanics,

intermediate and felsic intrusive rocks, graywacke and shale.

Deposit form: Tabular fissure veins in more competent host lithologies, veinlets and stringers forming
stockworks in less competent lithologies. Typically occur as a system of en echelon veins on all
scales. Lower grade bulk-tonnage styles of mineralization may develop in areas marginal to veins
with gold associated with disseminated sulphides. May also be related to broad areas of
fracturing with gold and sulphides associated with quartz veinlet networks.

Texture/Structure: Veins usually have sharp contacts with wallrocks and exhibit a variety of textures,
including massive, ribboned or banded and stockworks with anastamosing gashes and dilations.
Textures may be modified or destroyed by subsequent deformation.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Native gold, pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, tellurides, scheelite, bismuth, cosalite, tetrahedrite, stibnite,
molybdenite, gersdorffite (NiAsS), bismuthimite (Bi2S2), tetradymite (Bi2Te2S).

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, carbonates (ferroan-dolomite, ankerite ferroan-
magnesite, calcite, siderite), albite, mariposite (fuchsite), sericite, muscovite, chlorite,
tourmaline, graphite.

Alteration mineralogy: Silicification, pyritization and potassium metasomatism generally occur adjacent
to veins (usually within a metre) within broader zones of carbonate alteration, with or without
ferroan dolomite veinlets, extending up to tens of metres from the veins. Type of carbonate
alteration reflects the ferromagnesian content of the primary host lithology; ultramafics rocks -
 talc, Fe-magnesite; mafic volcanic rocks - ankerite, chlorite; sediments - graphite and pyrite;
felsic to intermediate intrusions - sericite, albite, calcite, siderite, pyrite. Quartz-carbonate
altered rock (listwanite) and pyrite are often the most prominent alteration minerals in the
wallrock. Fuchsite, sericite, tourmaline and scheelite are common where veins are associated
with felsic to intermediate intrusions.

Weathering: Distinctive orange-brown limonite due to the oxidation of Fe-Mg carbonates cut by white
veins and veinlets of quartz and ferroan dolomite. Distinctive green Cr-mica may also be
present. Abundant quartz float in overburden.

Ore controls: Gold-quartz veins are found within zones of intense and pervasive carbonate alteration
along second order or later faults marginal to transcrustal breaks. They are commonly closely
associated with, late syncollisional, structurally controlled intermediate to felsic magmatism.
Gold veins are more commonly economic where hosted by relatively large, competent units,
such as intrusions or blocks of obducted oceanic crust. Veins are usually at a high angle to the
primary collisional fault zone.

Phanerozoic: Secondary structures at a high angle to relatively flat-lying to moderately dipping

collisional suture zones.

Archean: Steep, transcrustal breaks; best deposits overall are in areas of greenstone.

Associated deposit types: Gold placers (C01, C02), sulphide manto Au (J04), silica veins (I07); iron
formation Au (I04) in the Archean.

Genetic model: Gold quartz veins form in lithologically heterogeneous, deep transcrustal fault zones
that develop in response to terrane collision. These faults act as conduits for CO2-H2O-rich (5-30
mol% CO2 ), low salinity (<3 wt% NaCl) aqueous fluids, with high Au, Ag, As, (±Sb, Te, W, Mo)
and low Cu, Pb, Zn metal contents. These fluids are believed to be tectonically or seismically
driven by a cycle of pressure build-up that is released by failure and pressure reduction followed
by sealing and repetition of the process ( Sibson et al., 1988). Gold is deposited at crustal levels
within and near the brittle- ductile transition zone with deposition caused by sulphidation (the
loss of H2S due to pyrite deposition) primarily as a result of fluid-wallrock reactions, other
significant factors may involve phase separation and fluid pressure reduction. The origin of the
mineralizing fluids remains controversial, with metamorphic, magmatic and mantle sources
being suggested as possible candidates. Within an environment of tectonic crustal thickening in
response to terrane collision, metamorphic devolitization or partial melting (anatexis) of either
the lower crust or subducted slab may generate such fluids.

Comments: These deposits may be a difficult deposit to evaluate due to "nugget effect", hence the
adage, “Drill for structure, drift for grade”. These veins have also been mined in British Columbia
as a source of silica for smelter flux.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Elevated values of Au, Ag, As, Sb, K, Li, Bi, W, Te and B ± (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn and Hg)
in rock and soil, Au in stream sediments.
Geophysical signature: Faults indicated by linear magnetic anomalies. Areas of alteration indicated by
negative magnetic anomalies due to destruction of magnetite as a result of carbonate
alteration.

Other Exploration Guides: Placer gold or elevated gold in stream sediment samples is an excellent
regional and property-scale guide to gold-quartz veins. Investigate broad 'deformation
envelopes' adjacent to regional listric faults where associated with carbonate alteration.
Alteration and structural analysis can be used to delineate prospective ground. Within
carbonate alteration zones, gold is typically only in areas containing quartz, with or without
sulphides. Serpentinite bodies, if present, can be used to delineate favourable regional
structures. Largest concentrations of free gold are commonly at, or near, the intersection of
quartz veins with serpentinized and carbonate-altered ultramafic rocks.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Individual deposits average 30 000 t with grades of 16 g/t Au and 2.5 g/t Ag
(Berger, 1986) and may be as large as 40 Mt. Many major producers in the Canadian Shield
range from 1 to 6 Mt at grades of 7 g/t Au (Thorpe and Franklin, 1984). The largest gold-quartz
vein deposit in British Columbia is the Bralorne-Pioneer which produced in excess of 117 800
kilograms of Au from ore with an average grade of 9.3 g/t.

Economic limitations: These veins are usually less than 2m wide and therefore, only amenable to
underground mining.

Importance: These deposits are a major source of the world’s gold production and account for
approximately a quarter of Canada’s output. They are the most prolific gold source after the
ores of the Witwatersrand basin.

5. References

Ash, C.H., Macdonald, R.W.J. and Reynolds, P.H. (in preparation): Ophiolite-related Mesothermal Lode
Gold in British Columbia: A Deposit Model; B.C. Ministry Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Bulletin.
Berger, B.R. (1986): Descriptive Model of Low-sulphide Au-Quartz Veins; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox,
D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, pages 239-243.
Bohlke, J.K. and Kistler, R.W. (1986): Rb-Sr, K-Ar and Stable Isotope Evidence for the Ages and Sources of
Fluid Components of Gold-bearing Quartz Veins in the Northern Sierra Nevada Foothills
Metamorphic Belt; Economic Geology, Volume 81, pages 296- 422.
Gebre-Mariam, M., Hagemann, S.G. and Groves, D.G. (1995): A Classification Scheme for Epigenetic
Archean Lode-gold Deposits; Mineralium Deposita, Volume 30, pages 408- 410.
Groves, D.I. (1993): The Crustal Continuum Model for Late Archean Lode-gold Deposits of the Yilgarn
Block, Western Australia; Mineralium Deposita, Volume 28, pages 366- 374.
Hodgson, C.J. (1993): Mesothermal Lode-gold Deposits; in Mineral Deposit Modeling, Kirkham, R.V.,
Sinclair, W.D., Thorpe, R.I. and Duke, J.M., Editors, Geological Association of Canada, Special
Paper 40, pages 635-678.
Hodgson, C.J. and Hamilton, J.V. (1989): Gold Mineralization in the Abitibi Greenstone Belt: End Stage of
Archean Collisional Tectonics; in The Geology of Gold Deposits: The Perspective in 1988,
Economic Geology, Monograph, pages 86-100.
Kerrich, R.W. (1990): Mesothermal Gold Deposits: A Critique of Genetic Hypotheses; in Greenstone Gold
and Crustal Evolution, Rober, F., Sheahan, P.A. and Green, S.B., Editors, Geological Association of
Canada, NUNA Conference Volume, pages 13-31.
Kerrich, R. and Wyman, D. (1990): Geodynamic Setting of Mesothermal Gold Deposits: An Association
with Accretionary Tectonic Regimes; Geology, Volume 18, pages 882-885.
Landefeld, L.A. (1988): The Geology of the Mother Lode Gold Belt, Sierra Nevada Foothills Metamorphic
Belt, California; in Proceedings Volume, North American Conference on Tectonic Control of Ore
Deposits and the Vertical and Horizontal Extent of Ore Systems, University of Missouri - Rolla,
pages 47-56.
Leitch, C.H.B. (1990): Bralorne; a Mesothermal, Shield-type Vein Gold Deposit of Cretaceous Age in
Southwestern British Columbia; Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Bulletin, Volume
83, Number 941, pages 53-80.
Panteleyev, A. (1991): Gold in the Canadian Cordillera - a Focus on Epithermal and Deeper
Environments, in Ore Deposits, Tectonics and Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera, B.C.
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources; Paper 1991-4, pages 163-212.
Roberts, R.G. (1987): Ore Deposit Models #11. Archean Lode Gold Deposits; Geoscience Canada, Volume
14, Number 1, pages 37-52.
Schroeter, T.G., Lund, C. and Carter, G. (1989): Gold Production and Reserves in British Columbia; B.C.
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1989- 22, 86 pages.
Sibson, R.H., Robert, F. and Poulsen, H. (1988): High Angle Faults, Fluid Pressure Cycling and
Mesothermal Gold-Quartz Deposits; Geology, Volume 16, pages 551-555.
Thorpe, R.I. and Franklin, J.M. (1984): Volcanic-associated Vein and Shear Zone Gold; in Canadian
Mineral Deposit Types, A Geological Synopsis, Eckstrand, O.R., Editor, Geological Survey of
Canada, Economic Geology Report 36, page 38.
I02 - INTRUSION-RELATED Au PYRRHOTITE VEINS

by Dani J. Alldrick
British Columbia Geological Survey

Alldrick, D.J. (1996): Intrusion-related Au Pyrrhotite Veins, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit
Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia
Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 57-58.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Mesothermal veins, extension veins, transitional veins, contact aureole veins.

Commodities (byproducts): Au, Ag (Cu).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Scottie Gold (104B 034), Snip (104B
250), Johnny Mountain (104B 107), War Eagle (082FSW097), Le Roi (082FSW093), Centre Star
(082FSW094); no international examples known.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Parallel tabular to cymoid veins of massive sulphide and/or bull- quartz-carbonate
with native gold, electrum and chalcopyrite are emplaced in a set of en echelon fractures
around the periphery of a subvolcanic pluton. Many previous workers have included these veins
as mesothermal veins.

Tectonic settings: Volcanic arcs in oceanic and continental margin settings. Older deposits are preserved
in accreted arc terranes.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: The subvolcanic setting for these deposits is transitional
between the setting for subvolcanic porphyry copper systems and for subvolcanic epithermal
systems.

Age of mineralization: Recognized examples of this ’new’ deposit type are all Early Jurassic.

Host/Associated rock types: Hostrocks are andesitic tuffs, turbidites or early intrusive phases around the
periphery of phaneritic, locally porphyritic, granodiorite stocks and batholiths.

Deposit form: At various deposits the form has been described as: planar, en echelon vein sets, shear
veins, cymoid veins, cymoid loops, sigmoidal veins, extension veins, tension gashes, ladder
veins, and synthetic Reidel shear veins. Veins vary in width from centimetres to several metres
and can be traced up to hundreds of metres.

Texture/Structure: Two vein types may occur independently or together. Veins may be composed of (i)
massive fine-grained pyrrhotite and/or pyrite, or (ii) massive bull quartz with minor calcite and
minor to accessory disseminations, knots and crystal aggregates of sulphides. These two types
of mineralization may grade into each other along a single vein or may occur in adjacent, but
 separate veins. Some veins have undergone post-ore ductile and brittle shearing that
complicates textural and structural interpretations.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Native gold, electrum, pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, galena,
chalcopyrite, bornite, argentite, arsenopyrite, magnetite, ilmenite, tetrahedrite, tennantite,
molybdenite, cosalite, chalcocite, tellurobismuthite, hessite, volynskite, altaite, native bismuth.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, calcite, ankerite, chlorite, sericite,
rhodochrosite, k-feldspar, biotite.

Alteration mineralogy: Chlorite, sericite, pyrite, silica, carbonate, rhodochrosite, biotite, epidote, K-
feldspar, ankerite. Alteration occurs as narrow (4 cm) vein selvages and as moderate alteration
haloes extending up to several metres into the country rock.

Ore controls: Well defined faults and shears control the mineralization. Veins are peripheral to and
spatially associated with porphyritic intrusive rocks which may host porphyry copper
mineralization.

Genetic model: Mineralization is syn-intrusive and synvolcanic and formed along the thermally
controlled 'brittle-ductile transition envelope' that surrounds subvolcanic intrusions. Late
magma movement caused local shear stress, and resultant en echelon vein sets opened and
were filled by sulphides and gangue minerals precipitating from circulating hydrothermal fluids.
Subsequent shearing may have superimposed foliation or brecciation onto these early-formed
veins.

Associated deposit types: Typical deposits of a volcanic arc, especially those in the subvolcanic setting:
porphyry Cu+/-Mo+/-Au (L04), skarns, epithermal veins and breccias (H04, H05), 'transitional'
deposits (volcanogenic Cu-As-Sb-Au-Ag, L01) and surficial fumarolic hotspring (H03) and
exhalative deposits.

Comments: At least one of these deposits was initially interpreted as a volcanogenic exhalative sulphide
lens because a massive sulphide vein was discovered in volcanic rocks with no obvious bedding.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Elevated values of Au, Ag, Cu. (As, Zn).

Geophysical signature: Electromagnetic (ABEM and VLF-EM) and magnetometer (negative anomalies or
'magnetic troughs').

Other Exploration Guides: Intense prospecting swath extending from 100 metres inside the intrusive
contact to 1000 metres outside the intrusive contact of a prospective (sub-volcanic; Early
Jurassic) pluton. Detailed soil geochemistry and detailed ground geophysics could be designed
to investigate this same area. Small, 'hairline' mineralized fractures are good proximal indicators
of a nearby major vein. Increased alteration intensity could also be a good proximal indicator,
but this is a more subtle feature. Once the vein orientation on an initial discovery is determined,
additional parallel veins should be anticipated and investigated with fences of drill holes.
 4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Gold/silver ratios are close to 1:1. Copper may be a recoverable byproduct.
Typical grades are 10 to 20 g/t Au.

Importance: The Snip gold mine is currently British Columbia’s largest gold producer and the Rossland
veins are the province’s second largest gold camp.

5. References

Alldrick, D.J. (1993): Geology and Metallogeny of the Stewart Mining Camp, Northwestern, British
Columbia, B. C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Bulletin 85, 105 pages.
Alldrick, D.J., Drown, T.J., Grove, E.W., Kruchkowski, E.R. and Nichols, R.F. (1989): Iskut-Sulphurets Gold,
Northern Miner Magazine, January, 1989, Pages 46-49.
Rhys, D. A. (1993): Geology of the Snip Mine, and its Relationship to the Magmatic and Deformational
History of the Johnny Mountain Area, Northwestern British Columbia; unpublished M.Sc. thesis,
The University of British Columbia, 278 pages.
Rhys, D. A. (1995): The Red Bluff Gold-copper Porphyry and Associated Precious and Base Metal Veins,
Northwestern British Columbia; in Schroeter, T.G., Editor, Porphyry Deposits of the
northwestern Cordillera of North America, Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and
Petroleum, Special Volume 46, pages 838-850.
I03 - TURBIDITE-HOSTED Au VEINS

by R.H. McMillan
Consulting Geologist, Victoria, British Columbia

McMillan, R.H. (1996): Turbidite-hosted Au Veins, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 59-62.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Saddle reefs, Bendigo-type.

Commodities (byproducts): Au (Ag, W, Sb).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Frasergold (093A 150), Valentine

Mountain (092B 108), Island Mountain (093H 019), Mosquito Creek (093H 025), Sheep Creek
Deposits - Reno (082FSW036), Queen (082FSW048), Kootenay Belle (082FSW044) and Gold Belt
(082FSW040); Ptarmigan, Burwash, Thompson-Ludmar and other Yellowknife district deposits
(Northwest Territories, Canada), Meguma district (Nova Scotia, Canada), Bendigo and Ballarat
(Victoria, Australia).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Gold-quartz veins, segregations, lodes and sheeted zones hosted by fractures,
faults, folds and openings in anticlines, synclines and along bedding planes in turbidites and
associated poorly sorted clastic sedimentary rocks.

Tectonic setting: Hostrocks were deposited in submarine troughs, periarc basins, foreland basins and
remnant ocean basins. The sediments were typically formed on continental margins or back-arc
basins. Typically these sequences experienced one or two deformational phases with associated
metamorphism.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Thick sediment sequences that have been deformed and
metamorphosed; relatively few igneous rocks.

Age of mineralization: Archean to Tertiary; the Bendigo and Meguma districts are underlain by Early
Paleozoic strata. The veins are generally considered to be related to later deformational event.

Host/ Associated rock types: The predominant rock types are greywackes, siliceous wackes, shales and
carbonaceous shales. Bedded cherts, iron formations, fine- grained impure carbonate rocks;
minor polymictic conglomerate, tuffaceous members and minor marine volcanic flows may also
be part of the stratigraphic sequence. There are younger granitic intrusions in many belts.
Metamorphic grade is generally greenschist, but may reach amphibolite rank.

Deposit form: Typically deposits are composed of multiple quartz veins up to a few metres in width that
are commonly stratabound (either concordant or discordant), bedding-parallel, or discordant,
and parallel to fold axial planes. Veins are variably deformed and occur as single strands, as
 sheeted arrays or as stockworks. Bedding-parallel veins within anticlines and synclines in the
Bendigo-Ballarat and Meguma districts are commonly called saddle reefs or saddle troughs.

Texture/Structure: Veins are well defined with sharp contacts. Bedding veins can be massive or
laminated (ribbon texture) with columnar structures or stylolites, while discordant veins are
generally massive. Veins can be associated with a variety of structures. Most common are folded
veins and saddle reefs related to anticlinal folds. Sheeted, en echelon sigmoidal veins, ladder
veins, tension gashes or stockworks may be related to zones of extension or to Reidel shear
structures.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Native gold, pyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite,
sphalerite, galena, molybdenite, bismuth, stibnite, bournonite and other sulphosalt minerals.
Low sulphide content (<2.5%).

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, carbonates (calcite, dolomite or ankerite),
feldspar (albite) and chlorite.

Alteration: Generally not prominent, however, disseminated arsenopyrite, pyrite and tourmaline, and
more pervasive silica, sericite and carbonate, may develop in wallrocks adjacent to veins.

Weathering: In unglaciated terrains deep weathering and alluvial recycling may produce related rich
placer deposits, such as the Bendigo region.

Ore controls: A strong structural control within dilatent areas in fold crests (saddle and trough reefs),
discordant veins and tension gashes. This structural control may extend to district scale
alignment of deposits. In some districts the veins appear confined to a specific stratigraphic
interval, often near a change in lithologies. In the Meguma district, a more subtle stratigraphic
control related to the upper (pelitic) portions of individual bouma cycles as well as regionally to
the upper portion of the turbidite section. In the Bendigo district there is a relationship between
ore and an abundance of graphite in the adjacent wallrocks.

Genetic model: Genetic theories range from veins formed by magmatic hydrothermal fluids or
metamorphogenic fluids to deformed syngenetic mineralization. Most current workers prefer
the metamorphogenic-deformational or lateral secretion theories and interpret the laminations
as “crack-seal” phenomena formed during episodic re-opening of the veins during their
formation. Workers favoring a syngenetic origin interpret the laminations as primary layering.
Structural relationships in the Meguma and Bendigo districts indicate that the veins formed
contemporaneously with, or prior to the major deformational event and were metamorphically
overprinted during the intrusion of Devonian batholithic granitic rocks. Late post-deformational
tension veinlets are generally non- auriferous.

Associated deposit types: Placers (C01), iron formation hosted gold deposits (I04) are also mainly hosted
in turbidites - some of the Northwest Territories turbidite- hosted deposits are associated with
chemical sediments. In several camps, slate horizons carrying finely disseminated, very low
grade gold have been reported.

Comments: Although past classification schemes have not recognized this type of deposit in British
Columbia, the Valentine Mountain deposit hosted in Leech River schists and Frasergold hosted
 in Late Triassic clastic Quesnel River Group can be included. Elsewhere, several important vein
gold districts in clastic sedimentary (possibly turbiditic) rocks might also be included. For
example, the Sheep Creek camp and some of the Barkerville deposits are hosted in siliceous
wackes and phyllites.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Si, Fe, S, As, B, Au and Ag generally show strong enrichment in the deposits,
while Cu, Mg, Ca, Zn, Cd, Pb, Sb, W and Mn generally show moderate enrichment, and Hg, In, Li,
Bi, Se, Te, Mo, F, Co and Ni may show low levels of enrichment.

Geophysical signature: The low sulphide content of the majority of quartz veins renders most
geophysical techniques ineffective as direct exploration tools. However, airborne and ground
electromagnetic and magnetic surveys and induced polarization surveys can be useful where
deposits show an association with iron formation, massive sulphides or graphite.

Other Exploration Guides: Standard prospecting techniques to trace mineralization directly or in float
trains in glacial till, talus or other debris derived from the gold mineralization remains the most
effective prospecting tool. Areas where there has been past gold production from placers are
good candidates for prospecting.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Gold production from the Meguma region has come from 60 deposits at
grades ranging from 8 to 50 g/t - a total of 35.13 tonnes has been produced from the district.
The Bendigo field is much more significant, having produced a minimum of more than 373.3 t
(12 M.oz.) of non-alluvial gold from more than 40 Mt of ore since 1851 - grades ranged from a
minimum of approximately 5 g/t to more than 30 g/t. The three Barkerville mines produced an
aggregate of 2.75 Mt to yield 38.29 t of gold between 1933 and 1987.

Economic limitations: Deposits such as those in the Bendigo and Barkerville districts constitute attractive
exploration targets. Although the hand sorting required to recover gold from the Nova Scotia
deposits would probably render them uneconomic today, new techniques such as photometric
sorting might improve the economics.

Importance: Some districts/deposits, such as Bendigo, rank as world class and remain attractive
exploration targets. The limited information available about the immense Muruntau deposit
suggest that it may be similar to this type.

5. References

Acknowledgments: Howard Poulsen, Chris Ash, Dani Alldrick and Andre Panteleyev reviewed the profile
and provided constructive comments.

Boyle, R.W. (1979): The Geochemistry of Gold and its Deposits, Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin
280, 584 pages.
Boyle, R.W. (1986): Gold Deposits in Turbidite Sequences: Their Geology, Geochemistry and History of
the Theories of their Origin, in Keppie, J. Duncan, Boyle, R.W. and Haynes, S.J., Editors,
Turbidite-hosted Gold Deposits, Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 32, pages 1-14.
Graves, M.C. and Zentilli, M. (1982): A Review of the Geology of Gold in Nova Scotia; in Geology of
Canadian Gold Deposits, Hodder, R.W. and Petruk W., Editors, Canadian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, Special Volume 24, pages 233-242.
Haynes, S.J. (1986): Geology and Chemistry of Turbidite-hosted Gold Deposits, Greenschist Facies,
Eastern Nova Scotia, in Turbidite-hosted Gold Deposits, Keppie, J. D., Boyle, R.W. and Haynes,
S.J., Editors, Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 32, pages 161-178.
Mathews, W.H. (1953): Geology of the Sheep Creek Camp, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Bulletin 31, -- pages.
Padgham, W.A. (1986): Turbidite-hosted Gold-quartz Veins in the Slave Structural Province, N.W.T, in
Turbidite-hosted Gold Deposits, Keppie, J. D., Boyle, R.W. and Haynes, S.J., Editors, Geological
Association of Canada, Special Paper 32, pages 119-134.
Panteleyev, A.P. (1991): Gold in the Canadian Cordillera - a Focus on Epithermal and Deeper
Environments, in Ore Deposits, Tectonics and Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera, B.C.
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1991-4, pages 163-212.
Schroeter, T.G. and Lane, R.A. (1991): A Century of Gold Production and Reserves in British Columbia
(1890 to 1990). B.C. Ministry of Energy Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1991-19, 42
pages.
Sharpe, E.N. and MacGeehan, P.J. (1990): Bendigo Goldfield; in Geology of the Mineral Deposits of
Australia and Papua New Guinea, Hughes, F.E., Editor, The Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, Monograph No. 14, Volume 2, pages 1287-1296.
I04 - IRON FORMATION-HOSTED Au

by R.H. McMillan
Consulting Geologist, Victoria, British Columbia

McMillan, R.H. (1996): Iron formation-hosted Au, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 63-66.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Mesothermal veins.

Commodities (byproducts): Au (Ag, Cu).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): No B.C. examples; Lupin and Cullaton Lake B-Zone
(Northwest Territories, Canada), Detour Lake, Madsen Red Lake, Pickle Crow, Musselwhite, Dona
Lake, (Ontario, Canada), Homestake (South Dakota, USA), Mt. Morgans (Western Australia);
Morro Vehlo and Raposos, Mineas Gerais (Brazil); Vubachikwe and Bar 20 (Zimbabwe);
Mallappakoda, Kolar District (India).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Gold in crosscutting quartz veins and veinlets or as fine disseminations associated
with pyrite, pyrrhotite and arsenopyrite hosted in iron-formations and adjacent rocks within
volcanic or sedimentary sequences. The iron-formations may vary between carbonate-oxide
iron-formation and arsenical sulphide-silicate iron-formation.

Tectonic setting: In “greenstone belts” believed to be ancient volcanic arcs; and in adjacent submarine
troughs.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Sedimentary and submarine volcanic sequences in a range

of mutually overlapping settings ranging from turbiditic clastic sedimentary environments to
distal mafic (and komatiitic) environments with associated felsic tuffaceous and intrusive
porphyries.

Age of mineralization: Archean to Proterozoic.

Host/ Associated rock types: Contained mainly within various facies of Algoma-type iron-formation and
cherts, although veins may extend into other units. Associated with variolitic, tholeiitic and
komatiitic volcanic and clastic (commonly turbiditic) rocks, rarely felsic volcanic and intrusive
rocks. Metamorphic rank ranges from lowest greenschist to upper amphibolite facies. Silicate-
facies iron-formations are associated in some cases but are generally not gold-bearing.

Deposit form: In and near crosscutting structures, such as quartz veins, or stratiform zones within
chemical sedimentary rocks. Host strata have generally been folded and deformed to varying
degree, consequently the deposits may have developed in axial plane cleavage area or be
thickened and remobilized in fold hinges.
Texture/Structure: Highly variable: gold mineralization may be finely disseminated in sulphide minerals
in the stratiform examples or occur as the native mineral or in sulphides in crosscutting quartz
veins. Sulphidization features such as pyrite overgrowths on magnetite are present in some
deposits.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Native Au, pyrite, arsenopyrite, magnetite, pyrrhotite,
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, stibnite, rarely gold tellurides.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Vein quartz, chert, carbonates (calcite, dolomite or
ankerite), graphite, grunerite, stilpnomelane, tourmaline, feldspar (albite).

Alteration: In deposits at low metamorphic rank, carbonatization (generally ankeritic or ferroan

dolomite) is generally prominent. Sulphidization (pyritization, arsenopyritization and
pyrrhotitization) is common in wallrocks adjacent to crosscutting quartz veins.

Weathering: Highly variable: sulphide-rich, carbonate-poor deposits will produce significant gossans.

Ore controls: Mineralization is within, or near, favourable iron-formations. Most deposits occur adjacent
to prominent regional structural and stratigraphic “breaks” and mineralization is often related to
local structures. Contacts between ultramafic (commonly komatiitic) rocks and tholeiitic basalts
or sedimentary rocks are important. All known deposits occur in Precambrian sequences,
however, there are some potentially favourable chemical sediment horizons in Paleozoic rocks.
Pinch outs and facies changes within geologically favourable units are important loci for ore
deposition.

Genetic models: One model proposed for iron formation-hosted Au is that the mineralization may form
due to deformation focusing metamorphogenic or magmatic hydrothermal fluids, from depth,
into a chemically and structurally (brittle- ductile transition zone) favourable depositional
environment, late in the orogenic cycle. This theory is consistent with both the crosscutting
relationships and radiometric dates for the gold mineralization. Another model emphasizes a
syngenetic origin for the widespread anomalous gold values, similarity of the geological
environments to currently active submarine exhalative systems, and the association with
chemical sedimentary strata. Replacement features could be explained as normal diagenetic
features and contact areas between sulphide-rich ore and carbonate wallrock as facies
boundaries.

Associated deposit types: Au-quartz veins (I01), turbidite-hosted Au-quartz veins (I03), Algoma-type
iron-formations (G01).

Comments: This type of deposit has not been documented in British Columbia. The closest analogy is the
900 zone on the Debbie property (092F 331) which contains gold in magnetite-jasper-sulphide-
bearing bedded chert, in quartz veins and in stockworks cutting ankeritic aphyric pillow basalt.
Some workers consider auriferous stratiform pyrite bodies, such as Bousquet, Doyon, and
Agnico Eagle in the Canadian Shield, to be closely related to iron formation-hosted Au.

3. Exploration Guides
Geochemical signature: Si, Fe, S, As, B, Mg, Ca, Au and Ag generally show strong enrichment in the
deposits, while Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb and Mn generally show moderate enrichment.

Geophysical signature: Airborne and ground electromagnetic and magnetic surveys and induced
polarization surveys can be very useful to detect and map the high sulphide and magnetite
content of many of the deposits.

Other Exploration Guides: Standard prospecting techniques to trace mineralization directly or in float
trains in glacial till, talus or other debris derived from the gold mineralization remains the most
effective prospecting tool. Areas with gold placers are potential targets. Exploration programs
should focus on the primary depositional environment for stratiform deposits.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: The more significant deposits fall in the ranges from 6 to 17 g/t Au and 1 to 5
Mt (Thorpe and Franklin, 1984). At the adjacent properties of Morro Velho and Raposos in
Brazil, approximately 10 million ounces of gold have been produced at a grade of between 15
and 16 g/t since 1834. In Ontario, the Detour Lake mine contains a resource of 48 t Au and the
Madsen Red Lake deposit produced 75 t, the Pickle Crow Deposits 45 tonnes and the Central
Patricia 19 tonnes. At the Lupin mine 6.66 Mt of ore grading 10.63 g/t Au were produced
between 1982 and the end of 1993 with remaining reserves of 5.1 Mt averaging 9.11 g/t.

Economic limitations: The narrow veins in some deposits require selective mining techniques which are
no longer highly profitable. On the other hand, deposits, such as Lupin, are sufficiently large to
be mined very profitably utilizing modern mechanized equipment.

Importance: Although attention in recent years has been focused on the large epithermal volcanic-
hosted gold deposits of the circum-Pacific Belt and on Carlin-type deposits, iron-formation
hosted gold deposits, such as Lupin, rank as world class and remain attractive exploration
targets. For example, the Homestake mine has produced approximately 300 t of gold since
starting production in 1876.

5. References

Acknowledgments: Chris Ash, Dani Alldrick, Andre Panteleyev and Howard Poulsen reviewed the profile
and provided constructive comments.

Berger, B.R. (1986): Descriptive Model of Homestake Au; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and
Singer, D.A., Editors,U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, pages 245- 247.
Boyle, R.W. (1979): The Geochemistry of Gold and its Deposits; Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin
280, 584 pages.
Fyon, J.A., Breaks, F.W., Heather, K.B., Jackson, S.L., Muir, T.L., Stott, G.M. and Thurston, P.C. (1992):
Metallogeny of Metallic Mineral Deposits in the Superior Province of Ontario; in Geology of
Ontario, Ontario Geological Survey, Special Volume 4, Part 2, pages 1091-1174.
Fripp, R.E.P. (1976): Stratabound Gold Deposits in Archean Banded Iron-Formation, Rhodesia; Economic
Geology, Volume 71, pages 58-75.
Kerswill, J.A. (1993): Models for Iron-formation-hosted Gold Deposits; in Mineral Deposit Modeling,
Kirkham, R.V., Sinclair, W.D., Thorpe, R.I. and Duke, J.M., Editors, Geological Association of
Canada, Special Paper 40, pages 171-200.
Padgham, W.A. and Brophy, J.A. (1986): Gold Deposits of the Northwest Territories; in Gold in the
Western Shield, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 38, pages 2-25.
Rye, D.M. and Rye, R.O. (1974): Homestake Gold Mine, South Dakota: I. Stable Isotope Studies;
Economic Geology, Volume 69, pages 293-317.
Siddaiah, N.S., Hanson, G.N. and Rajamani, V. (1994): Rare Earth Element Evidence for Syngenetic Origin
of an Archean Stratiform Gold Sulfide Deposit, Kolar Schist Belt, South India; Economic Geology,
Volume 89, pages 1552-1566.
Thorpe, R.I and Franklin, J.M. (1984): Chemical-sediment-hosted Gold; in Canadian Mineral Deposit
Types: A Geological Synopsis, Eckstrand, O.R., Editor, Economic Geology Report 36, Geological
Survey of Canada, page 29.
Vielreicher, R.M., Groves, D.I., Ridley, J.R. and McNaughton, N.J. (1994): A Replacement Origin for the
BIF-hosted Gold Deposit at Mt. Morgans, Yilgarn Block, W.A; Ore Geology Reviews, Volume 9,
pages 325-347.
I05 - POLYMETALLIC VEINS Ag-Pb-Zn+/-Au

by David V. Lefebure and B. Neil Church

British Columbia Geological Survey

Lefebure, D.V. and Church, B.N. (1996): Polymetallic Veins Ag-Pb-Zn+/-Au, in Selected British Columbia
Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors,
British Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 67-70.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Clastic metasediment-hosted silver-lead-zinc veins, silver/base metal epithermal deposits.

Commodities (byproducts): Ag, Pb, Zn (Cu, Au, Mn).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE # - Canada/International):

• Metasediment host: Silvana (082FNW050) and Lucky Jim (082KSW023), Slocan-New Denver-
Ainsworth district, St. Eugene (082GSW025), Silver Cup (082KNW027), Trout Lake camp; Hector-
Calumet and Elsa, Mayo district (Yukon, Canada), Coeur d’Alene district (Idaho, USA), Harz
Mountains and Freiberg district (Germany), Pr¡bram district (Czechoslavakia).
• Igneous host: Wellington (082ESE072) and Highland Lass - Bell (082ESW030, 133), Beaverdell
camp; Silver Queen (093L 002), Duthie (093L 088), Cronin (093L 127), Porter-Idaho (103P 089),
Indian (104B 031); Sunnyside and Idorado, Silverton district and Creede (Colorado, USA), Pachuca
(Mexico).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Sulphide-rich veins containing sphalerite, galena, silver and sulphosalt minerals in a
carbonate and quartz gangue. These veins can be subdivided into those hosted by
metasediments and another group hosted by volcanic or intrusive rocks. The latter type of
mineralization is typically contemporaneous with emplacement of a nearby intrusion.

Tectonic settings: These veins occur in virtually all tectonic settings except oceanic, including continental
margins, island arcs, continental volcanics and cratonic sequences.

Depositional environment/Geological setting:

• Metasediment host: Veins are emplaced along faults and fractures in sedimentary basins
dominated by clastic rocks that have been deformed, metamorphosed and intruded by igneous
rocks. Veins postdate deformation and metamorphism.
• Igneous host: Veins typically occur in country rock marginal to an intrusive stock. Typically veins
crosscut volcanic sequences and follow volcano- tectonic structures, such as caldera ring-faults
or radial faults. In some cases the veins cut older intrusions.

Age of mineralization: Proterozic or younger; mainly Cretaceous to Tertiary in British Columbia.

Host/Associated rock types: These veins can occur in virtually any host. Most commonly the veins are
hosted by thick sequences of clastic metasediments or by intermediate to felsic volcanic rocks.
In many districts there are felsic to intermediate intrusive bodies and mafic igneous rocks are
less common. Many veins are associated with dikes following the same structures.

Deposit form: Typically steeply dipping, narrow, tabular or splayed veins. Commonly occur as sets of
parallel and offset veins. Individual veins vary from centimetres up to more than 3 m wide and
can be followed from a few hundred to more than 1000 m in length and depth. Veins may widen
to tens of metres in stockwork zones.

Texture/Structure: Compound veins with a complex paragenetic sequence are common. A wide variety
of textures, including cockade texture, colloform banding and crustifications and locally druzy.
Veins may grade into broad zones of stockwork or breccia. Coarse-grained sulphides as patches
and pods, and fine- grained disseminations are confined to veins.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Galena, sphalerite, tetrahedrite- tennantite, other
sulphosalts including pyrargyrite, stephanite, bournonite and acanthite, native silver,
chalcopyrite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, stibnite. Silver minerals often occur as inclusions in galena.
Native gold and electrum in some deposits. Rhythmic compostional banding sometimes present
in sphalerite. Some veins contain more chalcopyrite and gold at depth and Au grades are
normally low for the amount of sulphides present.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate):

• Metasediment host: Carbonates (most commonly siderite with minor dolomite, ankerite and
calcite), quartz, barite, fluorite, magnetite, bitumen.
• Igneous host: Quartz, carbonate (rhodochrosite, siderite, calcite, dolomite), sometimes specular
hematite, hematite, barite, fluorite. Carbonate species may correlate with distance from source
of hydrothermal fluids with proximal calcium and magnesium-rich carbonates and distal iron
and manganese-rich species.

Alteration mineralogy: Macroscopic wall rock alteration is typically limited in extent (measured in
metres or less). The metasediments typically display sericitization, silicification and pyritization.
Thin veining of siderite or ankerite may be locally developed adjacent to veins. In the Coeur
d’Alene camp a broader zone of bleached sediments is common. In volcanic and intrusive
hostrocks the alteration is argillic, sericitic or chloritic and may be quite extensive.

Weathering: Black manganese oxide stains, sometimes with whitish melanterite, are common
weathering products of some veins. The supergene weathering zone associated with these veins
has produced major quantities of manganese. Galena and sphalerite weather to secondary Pb
and Zn carbonates and Pb sulphate. In some deposits supergene enrichment has produced
native and horn silver.

Ore controls: Regional faults, fault sets and fractures are an important ore control; however, veins are
typically associated with second order structures. In igneous rocks the faults may relate to
volcanic centers. Significant deposits restricted to competent lithologies. Dikes are often
emplaced along the same faults and in some camps are believed to be roughly
 contemporaneous with mineralization. Some polymetallic veins are found surrounding
intrusions with porphyry deposits or prospects.

Genetic models: Historically these veins have been considered to result from differentiation of magma
with the development of a volatile fluid phase that escaped along faults to form the veins. More
recently researchers have preferred to invoke mixing of cooler, upper crustal hydrothermal or
meteoric waters with rising fluids that could be metamorphic, groundwater heated by an
intrusion or expelled directly from a differentiating magma. Any development of genetic models
is complicated by the presence of other types of veins in many districts. For example, the
Freiberg district has veins carrying F-Ba, Ni-As- Co-Bi-Ag and U.

Comments: Ag-tetrahedrite veins, such as the Sunshine and Galena mines in Idaho, contain very little
sphalerite or galena. These may belong to this class of deposits or possibly the five-element
veins. The styles of alteration, mineralogy, grades and different geometries can usually be used
to distinguish the polymetallic veins from stringer zones found below syngenetic massive
sulphide deposits.

Associated deposit types:

• Metasediment host: Polymetallic mantos (M01).

• Igneous host: May occur peripheral to virtually all types of porphyry mineralization
(L01, L03, L04, L05, L06, L07, L08) and some skarns (K02, K03).

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Elevated values of Zn, Pb, Ag, Mn, Cu, Ba and As. Veins may be within arsenic,
copper, silver, mercury aureoles caused by the primary dispersion of elements into wallrocks or
broader alteration zones associated with porphyry deposit or prospects.

Geophysical signature: May have elongate zones of low magnetic response and/or electromagnetic, self
potential or induced polarization anomalies related to ore zones.

Other Exploration Guides: Strong structural control on veins and common occurrence of deposits in
clusters can be used to locate new veins.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage : Individual vein systems range from several hundred to several million
tonnes grading from 5 to 1500 g/t Ag, 0.5 to 20% Pb and 0.5 to 8% Zn. Average grades are
strongly influenced by the minimum size of deposit included in the population. For B.C. deposits
larger than 20 000 t the average size is 161 000 t with grades of 304 g/t Ag, 3.47 % Pb and 2.66
% Zn. Copper and gold are reported in less than half the occurrences, with average grades of
0.09 % Cu and 4 g/t Au.

Economic limitations: These veins usually support small to medium-size underground mines. The
mineralization may contain arsenic which typically reduces smelting credits.
Importance: The most common deposit type in British Columbia with over 2 000 occurrences; these
veins were a significant source of Ag, Pb and Zn until the 1960s. They have declined in
importance as industry focused more on syngenetic massive sulphide deposits. Larger
polymetallic vein deposits are still attractive because of their high grades and relatively easy
benefication. They are potential sources of cadmium and germanium.

5. References

Acknowledgements: Georges Beaudoin and Don Sangster are thanked for their suggestions to improve
the profile.

Barton, P., Bethke, P., Wetlaufer, P.H., Foley, N., Hayba, D. and Goss, J. (1982): Silver/Base Metal
Epithermal Deposits; in Characteristics of Mineral Deposit Occurrences, Erickson, R.L., Compiler,
U.S. Geological Survey, pages 127- 130.
Beaudoin, G. and Sangster, D.F. (1992): A Descriptive Model for Silver-Lead-Zinc Veins in Clastic
Metasedimentary Terranes; Economic Geology, Volume 87, pages 1005-1021.
Beaudoin, G. and Sangster, D.F. (in press): Clastic Metasediment-hosted Vein Silver- Lead-Zinc; in
Geology of Canadian Mineral Deposit Types, Eckstrand, O.R., Sinclair, W.D. and Thorpe, R.I.,
Editors, Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada, No. 8, pages 393-398.
Boyle, R.W. (1965): Geology, Geochemistry and Origin of the Lead-Zinc-Silver Deposits of the Keno Hill -
Galena Hill Area, Yukon Territory; Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin 111, 302 pages.
Boyle, R.W. (1968): The Geochemistry of Silver and its Deposits; Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin
160, 264 pages.
Corbett, G.J. and Leach, T.M. (1995): S.W. Pacific Rim Au/Cu Systems: Structure, Alteration and
Mineralization; Mineral Deposit Research Unit, The University of British Columbia, Short Course
No. 17 notes, 150 pages.
Cox, D.P. (1986): Descriptive Model of Polymetallic Veins; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and
Singer, D.A., Editors,U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, pages 125-129.
Godwin, C.I., Watson, P.H. and Shen, K. (1986): Genesis of the Lass Vein System, Beaverdell Silver Camp,
South-central British Columbia; Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Volume 23, pages 1615-
1626.
Fyles, J.T. (1967): Geology of the Ainsworth-Kaslo Area, British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines
and Petroleum Resources, Bulletin 53, 125 pages.
Little, H.W. (1960): Nelson Map Area, West Half, British Columbia; Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir
308, pages 305.
Steven, T.A. and Eaton, G.P. (1975): Environment of Ore Deposition in the Creede Mining District, San
Juan Mountains, Colorado: I. Geologic, Hydrologic, and Geophysical Setting; Economic Geology,
Volume 70, pages 1023-1037.
I06 - Cu+/-Ag QUARTZ VEINS

by David V. Lefebure
British Columbia Geological Survey

Lefebure, D.V. (1996): Cu+/- Ag Quartz Veins, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 71-74.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Churchill-type vein copper, vein copper

Commodity (byproducts): Cu (Ag, rarely Au).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Davis-Keays (094K 012, 050), Churchill
Copper (Magnum, 094K 003), Bull River (082GNW002), Copper Road (092K 060), Copper Star
(092HNE036), Copper Standard (092HNE079), Rainbow (093L 044); Bruce Mines and
Crownbridge (Ontario, Canada), Blue Wing and Seaboard (North Carolina, USA), Matahambre
(Cuba), Inyati (Zimbabwe), Copper Hills (Western Australia), Tocopilla area (Chile), Burgas district
(Bulgaria), Butte (Montana, USA), Rosario (Chile).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Quartz-carbonate veins containing patches and disseminations of chalcopyrite with
bornite, tetrahedrite, covellite and pyrite. These veins typically crosscut clastic sedimentary or
volcanic sequences, however, there are also Cu quartz veins related to porphyry Cu systems and
associated with felsic to intermediate intrusions.

Tectonic settings: A diversity of tectonic settings reflecting the wide variety of hostrocks including
extensional sedimentary basins (often Proterozoic) and volcanic sequences associated with
rifting or subduction-related continental and island arc settings.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Veins emplaced along faults; they commonly postdate
major deformation and metamorphism. The veins related to felsic intrusions form adjacent to,
and are contemporaneous with, mesozonal stocks.

Age of mineralization: Any age; can be much younger than hostrocks.

Host/Associated rock types: CuñAg quartz veins occur in virtually any rocks although the most common
hosts are clastic metasediments and mafic volcanic sequences. Mafic dikes and sills are often
spatially associated with metasediment-hosted veins. These veins are also found within and
adjacent to felsic to intermediate intrusions.

Deposit form: The deposits form simple to complicated veins and vein sets which typically follow high-
angle faults which may be associated with major fold sets. Single veins vary in thickness from
centimetres up to tens of metres. Major vein systems extend hundreds of metres along strike
 and down dip. In some exceptional cases the veins extend more than a kilometre along the
maximum dimension.

Texture/Structure: Sulphides are irregularly distributed as patches and disseminations. Vein breccias and
stockworks are associated with some deposits.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate):

• Metasediment and volcanic-hosted: Chalcopyrite, pyrite, chalcocite; bornite, tetrahedrite,

argentite, pyrrhotite, covellite, galena.
• Intrusion-related: Chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, pyrite, pyrrhotite; enargite, tetrahedrite-
tennantite, bismuthinite, molybdenite, sphalerite, native gold and electrum.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz and carbonate (calcite, dolomite, ankerite or
siderite); hematite, specularite, barite.

Alteration mineralogy: Wallrocks are typically altered for distances of centimetres to tens of metres
outwards from the veins.

• Metasediment and volcanic-hosted: The metasediments display carbonatization and

silicification. At the Churchill and Davis-Keays deposits, decalcification of limy rocks and zones of
disseminated pyrite in roughly stratabound zones are reported. The volcanic hostrocks exhibit
abundant epidote with associated calcite and chlorite.
• Intrusion-related: Sericitization, in places with clay alteration and chloritization.

Weathering: Malachite or azurite staining; silicified linear “ridges”.

Ore controls: Veins and associated dikes follow faults. Ore shoots commonly localized along dilational
bends within veins. Sulphides may occur preferentially in parts of veins which crosscut
carbonate or other favourable lithologies. Intersections of veins are an important locus for ore.

Genetic model: The metasediment and volcanic-hosted veins are associated with major faults related to
crustal extension which control the ascent of hydrothermal fluids to suitable sites for deposition
of metals. The fluids are believed to be derived from mafic intrusions which are also the source
for compositionally similar dikes and sills associated with the veins. Intrusion-related veins, like
Butte in Montana and Rosario in Chile, are clearly associated with high- level felsic to
intermediate intrusions hosting porphyry Cu deposits or prospects.

Associated deposit types:

• Metasediment and volcanic-hosted: Possibly related to sediment-hosted Cu (E04) and basaltic

Cu (D03).
• Intrusion-related: High sulphidation (H04), copper skarns (K01), porphyries (L01?, L03, L04) and
polymetallic veins (I05).

Comments: Cu±Ag quartz veins are common in copper metallogenetic provinces; they often are more
important as indicators of the presence of other types of copper deposits.
 3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: High Cu and Ag in regional silt samples. The Churchill-type deposits appear to
have very limited wallrock dispersion of pathfinder elements; however, alteration halos of silica
and carbonate addition or depletion might prove useful. Porpyhyry-related veins exhibit many
of the geochemical signatures of porphyry copper systems.

Geophysical signature: Large veins with conductive massive sulphides may show up as electromagnetic
conductors, particularly on ground surveys. Associated structures may be defined by ground
magnetic, very low frequency or electromagnetic surveys. Airborne surveys may identify
prospective major structures.

Other Exploration Guides: Commonly camp-scale or regional structural controls define a dominant
orientation for veins.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Typically range from 10 000 to 100 0000 t with grades of 1 to 4% Cu, nil to 300 g/t
Ag. The Churchill deposit has reserves of 90 000 t of 3 % Cu and produced 501 019 t grading 3%
Cu and the Davis-Keays deposit has reserves of 1 119 089 t grading 3.43 % Cu. The Big Bull
deposit has reserves of 732 000 t grading 1.94% Cu. The intrusion-related veins range up to
millions of tonnes with grades of up to 6% Cu. The Butte veins in Montana have produced
several hundred million tonnes of ore with much of this production from open-pit operations.

Economic limitations: Currently only the large and/or high-grade veins (usually associated with porphyry
deposits) are economically attractive.

Importance: From pre-historic times until the early 1900s, high-grade copper veins were an important
source of this metal. With hand sorting and labour-intensive mining they represented very
attractive deposits.

5. References

Acknowledgements: This deposit profile represents the results of a literature review. It benefited from
comments by David Sinclair and Vic Preto.

Benes, K. and Hanus, V. (1967): Structural Control and History of Origin of Hydrothermal Metallogeny in
Western Cuba; Mineralium Deposita, Volume 2, pages 318-333.
Carr, J.M. (1971): Geology of the Churchill Copper Deposit; The Canadian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, Bulletin, Volume 64, pages 50-54.
Hammer, D.F. and Peterson, D.W. (1968): Geology of the Magma Mine Arizona; in Ore Deposits of the
United States 1933-1967, Ridge, J.D., Editor, American Institute of Mining Engineers, New York,
pages 1282-1310.
Kirkham, R.D. (1984): Vein Copper; in Canadian Mineral Deposit Types: A Geological Synopsis, Eckstrand,
O.R., Editor, Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report 36, page 65.
Kirkham, R.D. and Sinclair, W.D. (in press): Vein Copper; in Geology of Canadian Mineral Deposit Types,
Eckstrand, O.R., Sinclair, W.D. and Thorpe, R.I., (Editors), Geological Survey of Canada, Geology
of Canada, No. 8, pages 383-392.
Kish, S.A. (1989): Post-Acadian Metasomatic Origin for Copper-bearing Vein Deposits of the Virgilina
District, North Carolina and Virginia; Economic Geology, Volume 84, pages 1903-1920.
Laznicka, P. (1986): Empirical Metallogeny, Depositional Environments, Lithologic Associations and
Metallic Ores, Volume 1, Phanerozoic Environments, Associations and Deposits; Elsevier, New
York, 1758 pages.
Nockleberg, W.J., Bundtzen, T.K., Berg, H.C., Brew, D.A., Grybeck, D., Robinson, M.S., Smith, T.E. and
Yeend, W. (1987): Significant Metalliferous Lode Deposits and Placer Districts of Alaska, U.S.
Geological Survey, Bulletin 1786, 104 pages.
Pearson, W.N. (1979): Copper Metallogeny, North Shore of Lake Huron, Ontario; in Current Research,
Part A, Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 79-1A, pages 289-304.
Pearson, W.N., Bretzlaff, R.E. and Carriere, J.J. (1985): Copper Deposits and Occurrences in the North
Shore Region of Lake Huron, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 83-28, 34 pages.
Preto, V.A. (1972): Lode Copper Deposits of the Racing River - Gataga River Area; in Geology, Exploration
and Mining in British Columbia 1971, B. C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources,
pages 75-107.
Roberts, A.E. (1973): The Geological Setting of Copper Orebodies at Inyati Mine, Headlans District,
Rhodesia; Geological Society of South Africa, Special Publication 3, , pages 189-196.
I08 - SILICA-CARBONATE Hg

by Chris Ash
British Columbia Geological Survey

Ash, Chris (1996): Silica-carbonate Hg, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 -
Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment
and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 75-76.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Serpentinite-type, listwanite-type.

Commodities (byproducts): Hg (Sb, Ag, Au).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Pinchi (093K 049), Bralorne Takla (093N
008), Eagle Mercury (092JNE062), Silverquick (092O 017), Manitou (092O 023); New Almaden,
New Idria (California, USA).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Cinnabar occurs associated with quartz and carbonate alteration in zones of intense
brittle fracturing at relatively shallow levels along major fault zones. Commonly occur in areas of
active geothermal systems.

Tectonic setting: Within orogenic belts.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: At shallow levels within high-angle, regional-scale, deep

crustal faults marked by the presence of ophiolitic ultramafic rocks. Typically at brittle faulted
contacts between competent lithologies, e.g. carbonate-altered ultramafics, limestone, etc.
Locally associated with recent volcanism and hotspring activity. Mercury deposits in B.C. are
concentrated along several north to northwest-trending, high-angle transcurrent fault zones
which border oceanic terranes. These include the Pinchi, Yalakom and Germansen faults.

Age of mineralization: Eocene to Recent?

Host/Associated rock types: Serpentinite, limestone, siltstone, graywacke, conglomerate, mafic volcanic
rocks.

Deposit form: Deposits are typically highly irregular within major fault zones.

Texture/Structure: Thin discontinuous stringers or fracture and cavity coatings in areas of shattering and
brecciation along major faults.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Cinnabar, native mercury (quicksilver), metacinnabar,
livingstonite (HgSb4S9).

Gangue mineralogy: Pyrite, marcasite, quartz, carbonate, limestone, serpentinite.

Alteration mineralogy: "Silica-carbonate rock" or "listwanite/listvenite", magnesite, ankerite, dolomite,
quartz, chalcedony, kaolinite, sericite (fuchsite/mariposite).

Weathering: Mineralized areas display distinctive limonite stain due to the presence of iron carbonates.

Ore controls: High-angle fault zones marginal to accreted oceanic terranes. In general, grade of ore
increases with fracture density in the hostrock.

Genetic models: Deposits form where relatively low temperature (between 100o and 200oC) CO2-H2O
aqueous fluids (< 2 wt. % chlorine), charged with Hg migrate upward along permeable fault
zones and precipitate cinnabar in fractured hostrocks at shallow levels due to cooling and mixing
with meteoric water. At this stage a vapour phase evolves which emanates from hotsprings at
surface.

Associated deposit types: Sb veins.

Comments: Due to the liquid state of this metal, mercury is generally measured in “flasks” and quoted in
dollar value per flask. Flasks are standard steel containers that hold 76 lb (about 2.5 L) of the
liquid metal.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Hg, Sb (Cu, Zn).

Geophysical signature: Not generally applicable.

Other Exploration Guides: Soil, stream sediment and geobotanical sampling for Hg has proven
successful. The spatial association of hotsprings with major fault zones associated with ophiolitic
ultramafic rocks.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Deposits of this type are typically less than 1 Mt, but may be up to several
million tonnes with mercury grades averaging 0.5% and ranging from 0.2 to 0.8%.

Economic limitations: The low grade of these deposits relative to other mercury deposit types, extreme
fluctuations in the price of the metal, and inherent pollution problems are all factors in the
economics of this deposit type.

Importance: Although historically significant as a source of mercury, these deposits are not currently
mined due to their low grades and small size relative to the much larger and richer Almaden-
type mercury deposits. The only significant past-producing mines in B.C. include the Pinchi and
Bralorne Takla. Both deposits are along the Pinchi fault.

5. References
Armstrong, J.E. (1966): Tectonics and Mercury Deposits in British Columbia; in Tectonic History and
Mineral Deposits of the Western Cordillera, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special
Volume No. 8, pages 341-348.
Bailey, E.H., Clark, A.L. and Smith, R.M. (1973): Mercury; in United States Mineral Resources, Brobst,
D.A. and Pratt, W.P., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper 820, pages 401-414.
Barnes, I., O’Neill, J.R., Rapp, J.B. and White, D.E. (1973): Silica-Carbonate Alteration of Serpentinite:
Wall Rock Alteration in Mercury Deposits of the California Coast Ranges; Economic Geology,
Volume 68, pages 388-398.
Henderson, F.B. (1969): Hydrothermal Alteration and Ore Deposition in Serpentinite-type Mercury
Deposits; Economic Geology, Volume 64, 489-499.
Rytuba, J.J. (1986): Descriptive Model of Silica-Carbonate Hg; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and
Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, page 181.
Rytuba, J.J. and Cargill, S.M. (1986): Grade and Tonnage Model of Silica-Carbonate Hg; in Mineral
Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, pages
181-182.
Stevenson, S.J. (1940): Mercury Deposits of British Columbia; B.C. Department of Mines, Bulletin
Number 5, 93 pages.
Studemeister P.A. (1984): Mercury Deposits of Western California: An Overview; Mineralium Deposita,
Volume 19, pages 202-207.
Varekamp J.C. and Buseck P.R. (1984): The Speciation of Mercury in Hydrothermal Systems, with
Applications to Ore Deposition; Geochimica and Cosmochimica Acta, Volume 48, pages 177-185.
I09 - STIBNITE VEINS and DISSEMINATIONS

by Andre Panteleyev
British Columbia Geological Survey

Panteleyev, Andre (1996): Stibnite Veins and Disseminations, in Selected British Columbia Mineral
Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British
Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 77-80.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Quartz-stibnite, simple antimony, syntectonic stibnite, mesothermal Sb-Au.

Commodities (byproducts): Sb (Au).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): a) Veins - Minto (092JNE075) and

Congress (092JNE029), Bridge River area; Snowbird (093K 036); Becker-Cochran (Yukon,
Canada), Lake George (New Brunswick, Canada), Beaver Brook (Newfoundland, Canada),
Murchison Range deposits (South Africa), Caracota and numerous other deposits in the
Cordillera Occidental (Bolivia). b) Disseminated - Caracota and Espiritu Santo (Bolivia), many
deposits (Turkey).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Stibnite veins, pods, disseminations and stibnite-bearing quartz and quartz-
carbonate veins occur in, or adjacent to, shears, fault zones and brecciated rocks in sedimentary
or metasedimentary sequences.

Tectonic setting: Any orogenic area, particularly where large-scale fault structures are present.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Fault and shear zones, notably in fault splays and fault-
related breccias in which shallow to intermediate-depth hydrothermal systems have been
operative.
Age of mineralization: Deposits range from Paleozoic to Tertiary age.

Host/Associated rock types: Any faulted lithologies with a wide variety of rock types; sedimentary and
metasedimentary rocks are commonly present. British Columbia deposits tend to be near major
fault zones with attendant serpentinized mafic and ultramafic rocks.

Deposit form: Stibnite occurs in veins; also as fine to coarse grains in sheared or brecciated rocks. Some
stibnite is disseminated in carbonate-altered wallrocks surrounding structures and may form
within pressure shadows at crests of folds. Massive stibnite-pyrite replacements which may
form pods or lenses up to tens of metres long, are relatively uncommon, but are sources of rich
ore.

Texture/Structure: Veins have fine to coarse-grained, commonly euhedral bladed crystals of stibnite,
quartz and carbonate in masses of stibnite. Quartz and quartz-carbonate gangue minerals range
from fine to coarse grained, commonly with white ‘bull quartz” present.
Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Stibnite, pyrite, arsenopyrite; sphalerite, galena,
tetrahedrite, marcasite, chalcopyrite, jamesonite, berthierite, gold, cinnabar, scheelite, argentite
and sulphosalt minerals. Other than stibnite, the overall sulphide content of the veins is low.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, calcite, dolomite; chalcedony, siderite, rare
barite and fluorite.

Alteration mineralogy: Quartz-carbonate envelopes on veins; some silicification, sericite, and

intermediate argillic alteration. Chlorite, serpentinization and ‘listwanite’ (quartz-carbonate-talc-
chromian mica-sulphide minerals) green- coloured alteration may be present when mafic and
untramafic rocks are involved.

Weathering: Stibnite weathers to various oxides of yellowish (kermsite) or whitish (cerrantite or

stibiconite) colour.

Ore controls: Fissure, shear zones and breccia associated with faults. Some open-space filling in porous
rocks and structurally induced openings (joints, saddle reefs, ladder veins). Minor replacement
in limestones.

Genetic model: The origin is not well documented. Deposits are spatially closely associated with, and in
many ways resemble, low-sulphide gold-quartz (mesothermal) veins. Their (mutual) origin is
thought to be from dilute, CO2 rich fluids generated by metamorphic dehydration. Structural
channelways focus the hydrothermal fluids during regional deformation. Some deposits are
associated with felsic intrusive bodies, for example a Tertiary rhyolite plug at Becker-Cochran
deposit, Yukon, and with porphyry W-Mo mineralization in granitic rocks at the Lake George Sb
deposit, New Brunswick.

Associated deposit types: Quartz-carbonate gold (low-sulphide gold-quartz vein or I01), polymetallic
vein Ag-Pb-Zn (I05), epithermal Au-Ag: low sulphidation (H05), hotspring Au-Ag (H03), Sn-W vein
(??), W-Mo porphyry (L07); silica-carbonate Hg (I08), placer gold (C01, C02); possibly Carlin-type
sediment-hosted Ag-Ag (E03).

Comments: Occurrences of typical stibnite veins in the Bridge River gold camp in British Columbia were
thought to be part of a regional deposit zoning pattern. The deposits are now known to be
younger than the gold deposits by about 15-20 Ma. Farther north, the Snowbird deposit near
Stuart Lake, has been shown to be Middle Jurassic in age by radiometric dating and is
interpreted to be related to large-scale crustal structures. This deformation possibly involves the
Pinchi fault system in which the largest known mercury deposits in the province are found.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Sb, As, Au, Ag, Pb, Zn; locally W or Hg.

Geophysical signature: VLF surveys may detect faults.

4. Economic factors
Typical grade and tonnage: Veins typically have high grade but small ore shoots; the disseminated
deposits are also relatively small. Grade-tonnage data from 81 “typical” vein deposits
(predominately, hand-sorted ore from USA mines) is 180 t with 35 % Sb; 10 % of the deposits
contained > 1 g/t Au and > 16 g/t Ag. The disseminated deposits average 88 000 t with an
average grade of 3.6 % Sb.

Economic limitations: Antimony is a low-priced metal so only high-grade deposits are mined. Deposits
(veins and disseminations) containing gold offer the best potential.

Importance: Bolivia, Turkey and China dominate the antimony market; Cordilleran production will likely
be only as a byproduct from precious metal bearing deposits.

5. References

Bliss, J.D. and Orris, J. (1986): Descriptive Model of Simple Sb Deposits (and Disseminated Sb Deposits);
in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin
1693, pages 183-188.
Lehrberger, G. (1988): Gold-Antimonite Deposits in Marine Sediments of the Eastern Cordillera of the
Bolivian Andes; in Bicentennial Gold `88, Geological Society of Australia, Extended Abstracts:
Poster Session, Volume 23, pages 319-321.
Madu, B.E., Nesbitt, B.E. and Muehlenabachs, K. (1990): A Mesothermal Gold-Stibnite- Quartz Vein
Occurrence in the Canadian Cordillera; Economic Geology, Volume 85, pages 1260-1268.
Nesbitt, B.E., Muehlenbachs, K. and Murowchick, J.B. (1989): Genetic Implications of Stable Isotope
Characteristics of Mesothermal Au Deposits and Related Sb and Hg Deposits in the Canadian
Cordillera; Economic Geology, Volume 84, pages 1489-1506.
Seal, R.R.,II, Clark, A.H., and Morissy, C.J. (1988): Lake George, Southeastern New Brunswick; A Silurian,
Multi-stage, Polymetallic (Sb-W-Mo-Au-Base Metal) Hydrothermal Centre; in Recent Advances
in the Geology of Granite-Related Mineral Deposits; Taylor, R.P. and Strong, D.F., Editors,
Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, CIM Special Volime 39, pages 252-264.
Wu, J. (1993): Antimony Vein Deposits of China; in Vein-type Ore Deposits, Ore Geology Reviews,
Haynes, S.J., Editor, Volume 8, pages 213-232.
I10 - VEIN BARITE

by Z.D. Hora
British Columbia Geological Survey

Hora, Z.D. (1996): Vein Barite, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic
Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment and
Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 81-84.

1. Identification

Synonym: Epigenetic vein barite.

Commodities (byproducts): Barite ( Ag, Pb, Zn, Cu).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Parson (082N 002), Brisco

(082KNE013), Fireside (094M 003); Matchewan (Ontario, Canada), Lake Ainslie (Nova Scotia,
Canada), Collier Cove (Newfoundland, Canada), Nevada, Montana, Virginia, Pennsylvania,
Georgia in USA; Bonarta, Jbel Ighoud (Morocco); Wolfach, Bad Lauterberg (Germany); Roznava
(Slovakia), China.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Barite in fissure-filling voids resulting from mechanical deformation, including
dilatant zones along faults and folds, gash fractures, joints and bedding planes; also in shear and
breccia zones along faults.

Tectonic settings: Highly varied, frequently but not exclusively at or near the margins of basins with
sedex or Kuroko type deposits, or abrupt deep basin- platform sedimentation facies change.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Highly varied; almost any type of sedimentary,

metamorphic or intrusive rocks. Veins associated with regional faults and lineaments, also the
breccia zones along the margins of rift basins. In carbonate rocks, barite may fill karst cavities
and collapse structures and forms manto-like replacement orebodies.

Age of mineralization: Precambrian to Tertiary.

Host/Associated rock types: Any sedimentary, metamorphic or even igneous rocks.

Deposit form: Tabular/lenticular bodies and breccias, collapse breccias and related cavity fills, veins with
manto-type orebodies in carbonate hostrocks. The veins are several hundreds up to over 1000
m in length and sometimes up to 20 m thick. Some veins are mined to the depth of 500 m from
surface.

Texture/Structure: Massive, banded, brecciated. Texture typical of high-level veins, occasional druzy
textures.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Barite, fluorspar, siderite, Pb-Zn-Cu sulphides.
Gangue mineralogy: (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, calcite, siderite, witherite, barytocalcite,
cinnabar, pyrite.

Alteration mineralogy: Insignificant.

Weathering: Barite float and detrital fragments as a result of physical weathering.

Ore controls: Dominant structural control with veins along faults, fractures, and shear zones, sometimes
related to dilatant zones in major fault systems.

Genetic model: Epithermal barite veins, with or without sulphides, are common at and near the margins
of rift basins, both in continental and continental margin settings. The veins and orebodies occur
as open-space fillings in high-angle faults or fractures in sedimentary rocks or adjacent
crystalline rocks, sills, and irregular and stratabound collapse structures or mantos. The source
fluids are inferred to have been brines of moderate salinity (10 to 16 equivalent weight percent
NaCl) and temperatures of 100 degrees to 250 degrees C. Pre-existing fractures and faults are
apparently important in localizing the veins and orebodies. Multiple mineralizing episodes and
several pulses of fluid migration are evident in many of the vein systems.

Associated deposit types: Polymetallic veins (I05) and replacement deposits (J01, E10-E11, E12), sedex
(E14) and Kuroko massive sulphide (G06) deposits, carbonatites (N03).

Comments: This type of barite vein is distinct from barite associated with fluorspar veins. These
(fluorspar-barite) veins may have, at least in part, a different barium source and are closely
associated with Mississippi Valley type deposits.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Ba, Sr, sometimes Hg, Ag, Pb, Zn and Cu anomalies in soils and silts.

Geophysical signature: Linear gravity highs over large veins.

Other Exploration Guides: Clastic barite in stream sediments, both in sand and silt fractions.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Most deposits in production are selectively mining high- grade orebodies
with over 80% barite. The deposit size varies from a few thousand up to some 3 Mt. Brisco mine
produced approximately 250,000 tonnes during its life; Parson is expected to produce close to 1
Mt.

Economic limitations: Dependant on the end use. White, high-purity barite is suitable for filler and
chemical applications and can be mined from even very small deposits. Drilling mud is a lower
priced grade and, if processing is required to reach the required 4.2 specific gravity, only large
deposits can be operated successfully. Even a small amount of contamination by siderite or
witherite may make the barite unusable in drilling mud applications. Barite which is
 contaminated with small quantities (ppm) of heavy metals like Pb, Zn, Cu and Hg may result in
environmental problems with disposal of spent drilling mud.

Uses: Drilling muds, fillers, chemicals, radiation shields, speciality glass and ceramics.

Importance: Probably the main source of barite worldwide, but in North America very subordinate to
bedded barite deposits.

5. References

Brobst, D.A. (1984): The Geological Framework of Barite Resources; The Institution of Mining and
Metallurgy, Transactions Volume 93, pages A123-A130.
Dawson, K.R. (1985): Geology of Barium, Strontium, and Fluorine Deposits in Canada; Economic Geology
Report 34, Geological Survey of Canada, 135 pages.
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals Geology and World Deposits; Metal Bulletin,
London, 312 pages.
Hofmann, R. and Baumann A. (1984): Preliminary Report on the Sr Isotopic Composition of
Hydrothermal Vein Barites in the Federal Republic of Germany; Mineral Deposita, Volume 19,
pages 166-169.
Kuzvart, M. (1984): Deposits of Industrial Minerals; Academia, Prague, 440 pages. Leach, D.L. (1980):
Nature of Mineralizing Fluids in the Barite Deposits of Central and Southeast Missouri; Economic
Geology, Volume 75, pages 1168-1180.
Maynard, J.B. and Okita, P.M. (1991): Bedded Barite Deposits in the United States, Canada, Germany,
and China: Two Major Types Based on Tectonic Setting; Economic Geology, Volume 86, pp. 364-
376.
Morrow, D.W., Krouse, H.R., Ghent, E.D., Taylor, G.C. and Dawson, K.R. (1978): A Hypothesis Concerning
the Origin of Barite in Devonian Carbonate Rocks of North- eastern British Columbia; Canadian
Journal of Earth Sciences, Volume 15, pages 1391 - 1406.
Papke, K.G. (1984): Barite in Nevada; Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 98, 125 pages.
Robinson, G.R. Jr., and Woodruff, L.G. (1988): Characteristics of Base-metal and Barite Vein Deposits
associated with Rift Basins, with Examples from some Early Mesozoic Basins of Eastern North
America, in Studies of Early Mesozoic Basins of the Eastern US, Frolich, T.J. and Robinson, G.R.
Jr., Editors, US Geological Survey, Bulletin 1776, pages 377-390.
I11 - VEIN FLUORITE-BARITE

by Z.D. Hora
British Columbia Geological Survey

Hora, Z.D. (1996): Vein Fluorite-barite, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 -
Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment
and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 85-88.

1. Identification

Synonym: Epigenetic fluorite/barite vein.

Commodities (byproducts): Fluorite, sometimes barite (occasionally Pb, Zn, and Cu. Some fluorites
contain the recoverable Be minerals bertrandite and phenacite.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Rock Candy (082ESE070), Eaglet (093A
046), Rexspar (082M 007); Madoc (Ontario, Canada); St. Lawrence (Newfoundland, Canada);
Nevada, Utah, New Mexico (USA); Nabburg- Woelsendorf, Ilmenau, Schoenbrunn (Germany);
Torgola, Prestavel, Gerrai (Italy); Auvergne, Morvan (France); Mongolia, China.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Fluorite and barite fill dilatant shear and breccia zones along faults and folds, gash
fractures, joints and bedding planes as well as stockworks. In carbonate rocks, the fissure veins
are frequently associated with replacement bodies and mantos. Fluorite veins commonly show
affinities with barite veins and may grade into polymetallic veins with barite gangue.

Tectonic settings: Highly varied - but in terrains underlain by sialic crust. In young orogenic belts:
postorogenic and lateorogenic granite intrusions or rift-related alkaline rocks (from syenites to
nepheline syenites to carbonatites) may be associated with fluorite veins. In old orogenic belts:
proximity of major tectonic zones, grabens, tensional rifts and lineaments.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Highly varied, sometimes linked to volatile-rich intrusives

of alkaline to granite composition. In the Cordillera, topaz rhyolites, particularly, are associated
with many fluorite veins.

Age of mineralization: Precambrian to Tertiary; in B.C. Devono-Mississippian (Rexspar), Cretaceous

(Eaglet) and Tertiary (Rock Candy).

Host/Associated rock types: Any sedimentary, metamorphic or igneous rock; in volcanic environment
usually associated with topaz rhyolite.

Deposit form: Tabular or lenticular bodies and breccias or stockworks and breccia pipes. The veins are
usually 1-5 m thick and may be over a 1000 m long. Some particularly large veins in Sardinia are
3 km in length; the Torgola vein is reported to be 20 m thick. Some vein deposits were mined up
to 500 m below surface, however the usual mining depth is 200 to 300 m down the dip from the
outcrop.
Texture/Structure: Massive, banded, brecciated. Drusy textures are common, fluorspar may be coarse
grained or fine grained with radiating texture. Banding of different colour varieties of fluorspar
is very common (coontail type). Bands of barite in fluorite, or young silica replacement of
fluorspar along the cleavage and crystal borders are common features.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Fluorite, barite, celestite, barytocalcite, galena, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, pyrite, adularia or K-feldspar, red jasper. Dark purple fluorite may contain
uraninite. Bertrandite and other Be minerals are sometimes accessory components. Fluorite is
often the main or even only vein mineral.

Gangue mineralogy: (Principal and subordinate) Gangue may be a variety of minerals such as quartz,
chalcedony, jasper, barite and Ca-Fe-Mg carbonates. Barite commonly varies in colour from
yellow to pink or red; jasper may have a red colour due to finely dispersed haematite.

Alteration mineralogy: Kaolinization and/or silicification of wallrocks, sometimes pervasive potassic

alteration (Eaglet, Rexspar); occasionally montmorillonite in wallrocks.

Weathering: Physical weathering mostly; in high-sulphide environment fluorspar may be dissolved by

sulphuric acid. Floats of vein quartz with voids after weathered out fluorspar crystals are a
common feature.

Ore controls: Faults, fractures, shear zones. Vertical zoning of veins is a common feature, but not very
well understood.

Genetic model: Fluorite veins are generally found in the proximity of continental rifts and lineaments. In
young orogenic belts fluorite can be linked to late or postorogenic granitic intrusions,
particularly in areas of sialic crust. Rift- related alkaline intrusions are also linked to some
fluorite veins. In old orogenic belts, fluorite veins are also in fracture zones within major faults
and graben structures which facilitated circulation of mineralized fluids far from original fluorine
source. Fluorite is precipitated from fluids by cooling low-pH solutions or by an increase in the
pH of acid ore fluids. The fluids usually have a high Na/K ratio.

Associated deposit types: Pb-Zn veins (I05), carbonatite plugs, dikes and sills with Nb-REE (N02); Sn-W
greisen (I13), F/Be deposits (Spor Mountain), Pb-Zn mantos (J01) and Mississippi Valley type
deposits (E10, E11, E12).

Comments: End uses of fluorine chemicals in aluminium and chemical industries are very sensitive to P
and As contents of only a few ppm.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: F in stream waters.

Geophysical signature: Sometimes gamma radiometric anomalies as an expression of potassic alteration

or uranium content in certain types of fluorite.

Other Exploration Guides: Fault control in some districts; regional silicified zones and major quartz veins.
 4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Past producers reported grades in general between 30% and 60% fluorite,
with occasional higher grade orebodies. The deposit size varies; up to 6 Mt. In B.C., Eaglet
reported 1.8 million tonnes of 15% CaF2, Rexspar 1.4 million tonnes of 23% CaF2.

Economic limitations: In recent years, shipments of high quality fluorspar from China, at very low prices,
resulted in the collapse of most fluorspar production centres worldwide.

Uses: Metallurgy of aluminum and uranium, fluorine chemicals, flux in iron and steel metallurgy, glass
and ceramics.

Importance: Main source of fluorspar worldwide. In B.C., the Rock Candy mine produced 51,495 t of 68%
CaF2 between 1918 and 1929.

5. References

Brecke, E.A. (1979): A Hydrothermal System in the Midcontinent Region; Economic Geology, Volume 74,
pages 1327-1335
Burt, D.M., Sheridan, M.F., Bikun, J.V. and Christiansen, E.H. (1982): Topaz Rhyolites Distribution, Origin
and Significance for Exploration, Economic Geology, Volume 77, pages 1818-1836
Dawson, K.R. (1985): Geology of Barium Strontium and Fluorine Deposits in Canada; Economic Geology
Report 34; Geological Survey of Canada, 135 pages.
Deloule, E. (1982): The Genesis of Fluorspar Hydrothermal Deposits at Montroc and Le Burc, the Tarn, as
Deduced from Fluid Inclusion Analysis; Economic Geology, Volume 77, pages 1867-1874.
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals Geology and World Deposits; Metal Bulletin,
London, 135 pages.
Kesler, S.E., Gesing, J.A., and Haynes, F.M. (1989): Evolution of Minerallizing Brines in the East Tennessee
Mississipi Valley - type Ore Field; Geology, Volume 17, pages 466-469.
Kuzvart, M. (1984): Deposits of Industrial Minerals; Academia, Prague, 440 pages.
McAnulty, W.N. (1978): Fluorspar in New Mexico; New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources,
Memoir 34, 64 pages.
Orris, G.J. and Bliss, J.D. (1992): Industrial Minerals Deposit Models: Grades and Tonnage Models; U.S.
Geological Survey, Open File Report 92- 431, 84 pages.
Papke, K.G. (1979): Fluorspar in Nevada; Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 9377 pages. Pell,
J. (1992): Fluorspar and Fluorine in British Columbia, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Open File 1992-16, 82 pages.
VanAlstine, R.E. (1976): Continental Rifts and Lineaments Associated with Major Fluorspar Districts;
Economic Geology, Volume 71, pages 977-987.
I14 - FIVE-ELEMENT VEINS Ag-Ni-Co-As+/-(Bi, U)

by David V. Lefebure
British Columbia Geological Survey

Lefebure, D.V. (1996): Five-element Veins Ag-Ni-Co-As+/-(Bi,U), in Selected British Columbia Mineral
Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British
Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 89-92.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Five-element (Ni-Co-As-Ag-Bi) veins, nickel-cobalt-native silver veins, Cobalt-type silver-

sulpharsenide veins, Ni-Co-Bi-Ag-U (As) association, Ag- As (Ni,Co,Bi) veins, Schneeberg-
Joachimsthal-type.

Commodity (byproducts): Ag, U, Ni, Co, Bi (barite).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): No B.C. examples; Beaver and Timiskaming, Cobalt
camp, Silver Islet, Thunder Bay district (Ontario, Canada), Echo Bay and Eldorado (Port Radium,
Northwest Territories, Canada), Black Hawk district (New Mexico, USA), Batopilas district
(Mexico), Johanngeogenstadt, Freiberg and Jachymov, Erzgebirge district (Germany), Konsberg-
Modum (Norway).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Native silver occurs in carbonate veins associated with a variety of mineral
assemblages that are rare in other settings, such as Ni- Co-Fe arsenides, Ni-Co-Fe-Sb
sulpharsenides and bismuth minerals. In many cases only some of these minerals are present,
although the best examples of this deposit type typically contain significant Ag-Ni-Co. In some
deposits uraninite (pitchblende) is an important ore mineral.

Tectonic settings: Virtually all occur in areas underlain by continental crust and are generally believed to
have formed late or post-tectonically. In some cases the veins appear related to basinal
subsidence and continental rifting.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Veins are believed to be emplaced at shallow depths in a

continental setting along high-angle fault systems.

Age of mineralization: Proterozoic or younger, can be much younger than hostrocks.

Host/Associated rock types: Found in a wide variety of hostrocks, although metasediments,

metamorphosed intrusive rocks and granitic sequences are the most common. Diabase sills are
an important host in the Cobalt camp and a number of the deposits in the Thunder Bay region
are within a gabbro dike.

Deposit form: Simple veins and vein sets. Veins vary from centimetre to metre thicknesses, typically
changing over distances of less than tens of metres. Most vein systems appear to have limited
depth extent, although some extend more than 500 m.
Texture/Structure: Commonly open space filling with mineral assemblages and textures commonly due
to multiple episodes of deposition. Sulphides are irregularly distributed as massive pods, bands,
dendrites, plates and disseminations. The mineralization is more common near the
interesections of veins or veins with crosscutting faults. Fragments of wallrock are common in
some veins. Faults may be filled with graphite-rich gangue, mylonite or breccia.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Native silver associated with Ni-Co arsenide minerals
(rammelsbergite, safflorite, niccolite, cloanthite, maucherite), sulpharsenides of Co, Ni, Fe and
Sb, native bismuth, bismuthinite, argentite, ruby silver, pyrite and uraninite (pitchblende).
Chalcopyrite, bornite and chalcocite are common, but minor, constituents of ore. Minor to trace
galena, tetrahedrite, jamesonite, cosalite, sphalerite, arsenopyrite and rare pyrrhotite. In many
deposits only a partial mineral assemblage occurs containing a subset of the many elements
which may occur in these veins. These veins are characterized by the absence of gold.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Calcite and dolomite are usually associated directly with
native silver mineralization; quartz, jasper, barite and fluorite are less common. The carbonate
minerals are common in the cores of some veins.

Alteration mineralogy: Not conspicuous or well documented. In the Cobalt camp calcite and chlorite
alteration extends 2-5 cm from the vein, approximately equivalent in width to the vein.

Weathering: No obvious gossans because of the low sulphide content; locally “cobalt bloom”.

Ore controls: Veins occupy faults which often trend in only one or two directions in a particular district.
Ore shoots may be localized at dilational bends within veins. Intersections of veins are an
important locus for ore. Possibly five-element veins are more common in Proterozoic rocks.

Genetic model: In regions of crustal extension, faults controled the ascent of hydrothermal fluids to
suitable sites for deposition of metals at depths of approximately 1 to 4 km below surface. The
fluids were strongly saline brines at temperatures of 150ø to 250øC, which may have been
derived from late-stage differentiation of magmas, convective circulation of water from the
country rocks driven by cooling intrusive phases or formation brines migrating upwards or
towards the edge of sedimentary basins. Sulphide-rich strata (including Fahlbands) and
carbonaceous shales in the stratigraphy are potential sources of the metals. Deposition occurs
where the fluid encounters a reductant or structural trap.

Associated deposit types: ‘Classical’ U veins (I15), polymetallic veins (I05). In the Great Bear Lake area
there are associated “giant” quartz veins with virtually no other minerals.

Comments: Several Co-AgñNiñBi veins are found in the Rossland Camp in British Columbia. These may
be five-element veins, however, they also contain the atypical elements Au and Mo.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: The rare association of anomalous values of Ag with Ni, Co, Bi, U and As in rock
samples is diagnostic.
Geophysical signature: Associated structures may be defined by ground magnetic or VLF-EM surveys.
Airborne surveys may identify prospective major structures. Gamma ray scintillometers and
spectrometers can be used to detect the uraninite-bearing veins in outcrop or in float trains in
glacial till, frost boils, talus or other debris.

Other Exploration Guides: Commonly camp or regional structural controls will define a dominant
orientation for veins.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Typically range from tens of thousands of tonnes to a few hundreds of thousands of
tonnes with very high grades of silver (more than 1000 g/t Ag for Canadian mines, with grades
up to 30 000 g/t Ag).

Importance: There has been no significant production from a native silver vein in British Columbia,
however, these veins have historically been an important Canadian and world source of Ag and
U with minor production of Co. More recently the narrow widths and discontinuous nature of
these veins has led to the closure of virtually all mines of this type.

5. References

Andrews, A.J. (1986): Silver Vein Deposits: Summary of Recent Research; Canadian Journal of Earth
Sciences, Volume 23, pages 1459-1462.
Andrews, A.J., Owsiacki, L., Kerrich, R. and Strong, D.F. (1986): The Silver Deposits at Cobalt and
Gowganda, Ontario. I: Geology, Petrography, and Whole-rock Geochemistry; Canadian Journal
of Earth Sciences, Volume 23, pages 1480-1506.
Bastin, E.S. (1939): The Nickel-Cobalt-Native Silver Ore-type; Economic Geology, Volume 34, pages 1-40.
Boyle, R.W. (1968): The Geochemistry of Silver and its Deposits; Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin
160, 264 pages.
Franklin, J.M., Kissin, S.A., Smyk, M.C. and Scott, S.D. (1986): Silver Deposits Associated with the
Proterozoic Rocks of the Thunder Bay District, Ontario; Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences,
Volume 23, pages 1576-1591.
Kissan, S.A. (1993): Five-element (Ni-Co-As-Ag-Bi) Veins, in Ore Deposit Models, Sheahan, P.A. and
Cherry, M.E., Editors, Geoscience Canada, Reprint Series 6, pages 87-99.
Laznicka, P. (1986): Empirical Metallogeny, Depositional Environments, Lithologic Associations and
Metallic Ores, Volume 1: Phanerozoic Environments, Associations and Deposits; Elsevier, New
York, pages 1268- 1272.
Rogers, M.C. (1995): Cobalt-type Silver-supharsenide Vein; in Descriptive Mineral Deposit Models of
Metallic and Industrial Deposit Types and Related Mineral Potential Assessment Criteria, Ontario
Geological Survey, Open File Report 5916, pages 133-136.
Thorpe, R.I. (1984): Arsenide Vein Silver, Uranium; in Canadian Mineral Deposit Types: A Geological
Synopsis, Eckstrand, O.R., Editor, Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report 36,
page 63.
Wilkerson, G., Deng, Q., llavon, R. and Goodell, P. (1988): Batopilas Mining District, Chihuahaua, Mexico;
Economic Geology, Volume 83, pages 1721- 1736.
I15 - "CLASSICAL" U VEINS

by R.H. McMillan
Consulting Geologist, Victoria, British Columbia

McMillian, R.H. (1996): "Classical" U Veins, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume
2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 93-96.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Pitchblende veins, vein uranium, intragranitic veins, perigranitic veins.

Commodities (byproducts): U (Bi, Co, Ni, As, Ag, Cu, Mo).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): In the Atlin area structurally controlled scheelite-
bearing veins host uranium at the Purple Rose, Fisher, Dixie, Cy 4, Mir 3 and IRA occurrences,
Ace Fay-Verna and Gunnar, Beaverlodge area (Saskatchewan, Canada), Christopher Island-
Kazan-Angikuni district, Baker Lake area (Northwest Territories, Canada), Millet Brook (Nova
Scotia, Canada), Schwartzwalder (Colorado, USA), Xiazhuang district (China), La Crouzille area,
Massif Central and Vendee district, Armorican Massif, (France), Jachymov and Pribram districts
(Czech Republic), Shinkolobwe (Shaba province, Zaire).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Pitchblende (Th-poor uraninite), coffinite or brannerite with only minor amounts of
associated metallic minerals in a carbonate and quartz gangue in veins. These deposits show
affinities with, and can grade into, five- element veins which have significant native silver, Co-Ni
arsenides, Bi or other metallic minerals.

Tectonic setting: Postorogenic continental environments, commonly associated with calcalkaline felsic
plutonic and volcanic rocks. “Red beds” and sediments of extensional successor basins are
common in the host sequence. The economic deposits appear confined to areas underlain by
Proterozoic basement rocks.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Ore is deposited in open spaces within fracture zones,
breccias and stockworks commonly associated with major or subsidiary, steeply dipping fault
systems.

Age of mineralization: Proterozoic to Tertiary. None are older than approximately 2.2 Ga, the time when
the atmosphere evolved to the current oxygen-rich condition.

Host/ Associated rock types: A wide variety of hostrocks, including granitic rocks, commonly
peraluminous two-mica granites and syenites, felsic volcanic rocks, and older sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks. The uranium-rich veins tend to have an affinity to felsic igneous rocks. Some
veins are closely associated with diabase and lamprophyre dikes and sills.
Deposit form: Orebodies may be tabular or prismatic in shape generally ranging from centimetres up to
a few metres thick and rarely up to about 15 m. Many deposits have a limited depth potential of
a few hundred metres, however, some deposits extend from 700 m up to 2 km down dip.
Disseminated mineralization is present within the alteration envelopes in some deposits.

Texture/Structure: Features such as drusy textures, crustification banding, colloform, botryoidal and
dendritic textures are common in deposits which have not undergone deformation and
shearing. The veins typically fill subsidiary dilatant zones associated with major faults and shear
zones. Mylonites are closely associated with the St. Louis fault zone at the Ace-Fay-Verna mines.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Pitchblende (Th-poor uraninite), coffinite, uranophane,
thucolite, brannerite, iron sulphides, native silver, Co-Ni arsenides and sulpharsenides,
selenides, tellurides, vanadinites, jordesite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, native gold and
platinum group elements. Some deposits have a “simple” mineralogy of with only pitchblende
and coffinite. Those veins with the more complex mineralogy are often interpreted to have had
the other minerals formed at an earlier or later stage.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Carbonates (calcite and dolomite), quartz (often
chalcedonic), hematite, K-feldspar, albite, muscovite, fluorite, barite.

Alteration: Chloritization, hematization, feldspathization. A few of the intrusive-hosted deposits are

surrounded by desilicated, porous feldspar-mica rock called “episyenite” in the La Crouzille area
of France and “sponge-rock” at the Gunnar mine in Saskatchewan. In most cases the
hematization is due to oxidation of ferrous iron bearing minerals in the wallrocks during
mineralization. The intense brick-red hematite adjacent to some high-grade uranium ores is
probably due to loss of electrons during radioactive disintegration of uranium and its daughter
products.

Weathering: Uranium is highly soluble in the +6 valence state above the water table. It will re-
precipitate as uraninite and coffinite below the water table in the +4 valence state in the
presence of reducing agents such as humic material or carbonaceous “trash”. Some uranium
phosphates, vanadinites, sulphates, silicates and arsenates are semi-stable under oxidizing
conditions, consequently autunite, torbernite, carnotite, zippeite, uranophane, uranospinite and
numerous other secondary minerals may be found in the zone of oxidation, particularly in arid
environments.

Ore controls: Pronounced structural control related to dilatant zones in major fault systems and shear
zones. A redox control related to the loss of electrons associated with hematitic alteration and
precipitation of uranium is evident but not completely understood. Many deposits are
associated with continental unconformities and have affinities with unconformity-associated U
deposits (I16).

Genetic model: Vein U deposits are generally found in areas of high uranium Clarke, and generally there
are other types of uranium deposits in the vicinity. The veins might be best considered
polygenetic. The U appears to be derived from late magmatic differentiates of granites and
alkaline rocks with high K or Na contents. Uranium is then separated from (or enriched within)
the parent rocks by aqueous solutions which may originate either as low-temperature
hydrothermal, connate or meteoric fluids. Current opinion is divided on the source of the fluids
 and some authors prefer models that incorporate mixing fluids. Studies of carbon and oxygen
isotopes indicate that the mineralizing solutions in many cases are hydrothermal fluids which
have mixed with meteoric water. In some cases temperatures exceeding 400 §C were attained
during mineralization. The uranium minerals are precipitated within faults at some distance
from the source of the fluids. Wallrocks containing carbonaceous material, sulphide and
ferromagnesian minerals are favourable loci for precipitation of ore. Radiometric age dating
indicates that mineralization is generally significantly younger than the associated felsic igneous
rocks, but commonly close to the age of associated diabase or lamprophyre dikes.

Associated deposit types: Stratabound, disseminated and pegmatitic occurrences of U are commonly
found in older metamorphic rocks. Sandstone-hosted U deposits (D05) are commonly found in
associated red-bed supracrustal strata, and surficial deposits (B08) in arid or semi-arid
environments.

Comments: The Cretaceous to Tertiary Surprise Lake batholith in the Atlin area hosts several fracture-
controlled veins with zeunerite, kasolite, autunite and Cu, Ag, W, Pb and Zn minerals. These
include the Purple Rose, Fisher, Dixie, Cy 4, Mir 3 and IRA. Southwest of Hazelton, Th-poor
uraninite associated with Au, Ag, Co-Ni sulpharsenides, Mo and W is found in high-temperature
quartz veins within the Cretaceous Rocher D‚boul‚ granodiorite stock at the Red Rose, Victoria
and Rocher Deboule properties. Although the veins are past producers of Au, Ag, Cu and W, no
U has been produced.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Uranium and sometimes any, or all, of Ni, Co, Cu, Mo, Bi, As and Ag are good
pathfinder elements which can be utilized in standard stream silt, lake bottom sediment and soil
surveys. Stream and lake bottom water samples can be analyzed for U and Ra. In addition, the
inert gases He and Ra can often be detected above a U-rich source in soil and soil gas surveys, as
well as in groundwater and springs.

Geophysical signature: Standard prospecting techniques using sensitive gamma ray scintillometers and
spectrometers to detect U mineralization in place or in float trains in glacial till, frost boils, talus
or other debris remains the most effective prospecting methods. Because most deposits do not
contain more than a few percent metallic minerals, electromagnetic and induced polarization
surveys are not likely to provide direct guides to ore. VLF-EM surveys are useful to map the fault
zones which are hosts to the veins. Magnetic surveys may be useful to detect areas of magnetite
destruction in hematite-altered wallrocks.

Other Exploration Guides: Secondary uranium minerals are typically yellow and are useful surface
indicators.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Individual deposits are generally small (< 100 000 t) with grades of 0.15% to
0.25% U, however districts containing several deposits can aggregate considerable tonnages.
The large Ace-Fay-Verna system produced 9 Mt of ore at an average grade of 0.21% U from
numerous orebodies over a length of 4.5 km. and a depth of 1500 m. Gunnar produced 5 Mt of
ore grading 0.15% U from a single orebody. The Schwartzwalder mine in Colorado was the
 largest “hardrock” uranium mine in the United States, producing approximately 4 300 tonnes U,
and contains unmined reserves of approximately the same amount.

Economic limitations: The generally narrow mining widths and grades of 0.15% to 0.25% U rendered
most vein deposits uneconomic after the late 1960s discovery of the high-grade unconformity-
type deposits.

Importance: This type of deposit was the source of most of the world’s uranium until the 1950s. By
1988, significant production from veins was restricted to France, with production of 3 372
tonnes U or 9.2% of the world production for that year.

5. References

Acknowledgments: Sunial Gandhi, Nirankar Prasad, Larry Jones and Neil Church reviewed the profile and
provided many constructive comments.

Chen, Z. and Fang, X. (1985): Main Characteristics and Genesis of Phanerozoic Vein-type Uranium
Deposits; in Uranium Deposits in Volcanic Rocks, International Atomic Energy Agency, IAEA-TC-
490/12, pages 69-82.
Evoy, E.F. (1986): The Gunnar Uranium Deposit; in Uranium Deposits of Canada, Evans, E.L., Editor,
Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 33, pages 250-260.
Jones, Larry D. (1990): Uranium and Thorium occurrences in British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy,
Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1990-32, 78 pages.
Lang, A.H., Griffith, J.W. and Steacy, H.R. (1962): Canadian Deposits of Uranium and Thorium; Geological
Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Series No. 16, 324 pages.
Leroy, J. (1978): The Magnac and Funay Uranium Deposits of the La Crouzille District (Western Massif
Central, France): Geologic and Fluid Inclusion Studies; Economic Geology, volume 73, pages
1611-1634.
Miller, A.R., Stanton, R.A., Cluff, G.R. and Male, M.J. (1986): Uranium Deposits and Prospects of the
Baker Lake Basin and Subbasins, Central District of Keewatin, Northwest Territories; in Uranium
Deposits of Canada, Evans, E.L., Editor, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special
Volume 33, pages 263-285.
Nash, J.T., Granger, H.C. and Adams, S.S. (1981): Geology and Concepts of Genesis of Important Types of
Uranium Deposits; in Economic Geology, 75th Anniversary Volume, pages 63-116.
Ruzicka, V. (1993): Vein Uranium Deposits; Ore Geology Reviews, Volume 8, pages 247-276. Smith, E.E.N
(1986): Geology of the Beaverlodge Operation, Eldorado Nuclear Limited. in Uranium Deposits
of Canada, Evans, E.L., Editor, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 33,
pages 95-109.
Stevenson, J.S. (1951): Uranium Mineralization in British Columbia; Economic Geology, Volume 46,
pages 353-366.
Tremblay, L.P. (1972): Geology of the Beaverlodge Mining Area, Saskatchewan; Geological Survey of
Canada, Memoir 367, 265 pages.
Tremblay, L.P. and Ruzicka, V. (1984): Vein Uranium; in Economic Geology Report 36, Geological Survey
of Canada, page 64.
Wallace, A.R. (1986): Geology and Origin of the Schwartzwalder Uranium Deposit, Front Range,
Colorado, U.S.A; in Vein Type Uranium Deposits, Fuchs, H., Editor, International Atomic Energy
Agency, Vienna, IAEA-TECDOC-361, pages 159 - 168.
I16 - UNCONFORMITY-ASSOCIATED U

by R.H. McMillan
Consulting Geologist

McMillan, R.H. (1998): Unconformity-associated U, in Geological Fieldwork 1997, British Columbia

Ministry of Employment and Investment, Paper 1998-1, pages 24G-1 to 24G-4.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Unconformity-veins, unconformity-type uranium, unconformity U.

Commodities (byproducts): U (Au, Ni).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): None in British Columbia; Rabbit Lake, Key Lake,
Cluff Lake, Midwest Lake, McClean Lake, McArthur River, Cigar Lake and Maurice Bay in the
Athabasca uranium district (Saskatchewan, Canada), Lone Gull (Kiggavik) and Boomerang Lake,
Thelon Basin district (Northwest Territories, Canada), Jabiluka, Ranger, Koongarra and Nabarlek,
Alligator River district (Northern Territory, Australia).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Uranium minerals, generally pitchblende and coffinite, occur as fracture and
breccia fillings and disseminations in elongate, prismatic-shaped or tabular zones hosted by
sedimentary/metasedimentary rocks located below, above or across a major continental
unconformity.

Tectonic setting: Intracratonic sedimentary basins.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Structurally-prepared and porous zones within chemically

favourable reduced or otherwise reactive strata.

Age of mineralization: Mid-Proterozoic, however, there is potential for younger deposits.

Host/Associated rock types: Shelf facies metasedimentary (amphibolite or granulite facies) rocks of Early
Proterozoic age (graphitic or sulphide-rich metapelites, calcsilicate rocks and metapsammites),
regolith and overlying continental sandstones of Middle Proterozoic age. The Early Proterozoic
hostrocks in many cases are retrograded amphibolite-facies metamorphic rocks on the flanks of
Archean gneiss domes. The overlying continental sandstones are well sorted fluviatile quartz-
rich psammites; generally with a clay or siliceous matrix and red or pale in colour. Dikes and sills,
commonly diabases and lamprophyres, occur in some districts.

Deposit form: Orebodies may be tabular, pencil shaped or irregular in shape extending up to few
kilometres in length. Most deposits have a limited depth potential below the unconformity of
less than a 100 m, however, the Jabiluka and Eagle Point deposits are concordant within the
Lower Proterozoic host rocks and extend for several hundred metres below the unconformity.
Texture/Structure: Most deposits fill pore space or voids in breccias and vein stockworks. Some
Saskatchewan deposits are exceptionally rich with areas of "massive" pitchblende/coffinite.
Features such as drusy textures, crustification banding, colloform, botryoidal and dendritic
textures are present in some deposits.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Pitchblende (Th-poor uraninite), coffinite, uranophane,
thucolite, brannerite, iron sulphides, native gold, Co-Ni arsenides and sulpharsenides, selenides,
tellurides, vanadinites, jordesite (amorphous molybedenite), vanadates, chalcopyrite, galena,
sphalerite, native Ag and PGE. Some deposits are "simple" with only pitchblende and coffinite,
while others are "complex" and contain Co-Ni arsenides and other metallic minerals.

Gangue mineralogy: Carbonates (calcite, dolomite, magnesite and siderite), chalcedonic quartz, sericite
(illite) chlorite and dravite (tourmaline).

Alteration: Chloritization, hematization, kaolinization, illitization and silicification. In most cases

hematization is due to oxidation of ferrous iron bearing minerals in the wallrocks caused by
oxidizing mineralizing fluids, however, the intense brick-red hematite adjacent to some high
grade uranium ores is probably due to loss of electrons during radioactive disintegration of U
and its daughter products. An interesting feature of the clay alteration zone is the presence of
pseudomorphs of high grade metamorphic minerals, such as cordierite and garnet, in the
retrograded basement wallrock.

Weathering: Uranium is highly soluble in the +6 valence state above the water table. It will re-
precipitate as uraninite and coffinite below the water table in the +4 valence state in the
presence of a reducing agents such as humic material or carbonaceous "trash". Some U
phosphates, vanadates, sulphates, silicates and arsenates are semi-stable under oxidizing
conditions, consequently autunite, torbernite, carnotite, zippeite, uranophane, uranospinite and
numerous other secondary minerals may be found in the near-surface zone of oxidation,
particularly in arid environments.

Ore controls: A pronounced control related to a mid-Proterozoic unconformity and to favourable

stratigraphic horizons within Lower Proterozoic hostrocks - these strata are commonly graphitic.
Local and regional fault zones that intersect the unconformity may be important features.
Generally found close to basement granitic rocks with a high U clarke.

Genetic model: The exceptionally rich ore grades which characterize this type of deposit point to a
complex and probably polygenetic origin.

• Some form of very early preconcentration of U in the Archean basement rocks seems to have
been important.
• The hostrocks are commonly Lower Proterozoic in age, and are comprised of metamorphosed
rocks derived from marginal marine and near-shore facies sedimentary rocks which may have
concentrated U by syngenetic and diagenetic processes.
• Although the behaviour of U under metamorphic and ultrametamorphic conditions is poorly
known, it is possible that U could have been mobilized in the vicinity of Archean gneiss domes
and anatectic granites and precipitated in pegmatites and stratabound deposits as non-
refractory, soluable uraninite.
• Supergene enrichment in paleo regoliths, that now underlie the unconformity, may have been
an important process in the additional concentration of U.
• Typically the overlying quartz-rich fluviatile sandstones have undergone little deformation, but
are affected by normal and reverse faults that are probably re-activated basement faults. In
Saskatchewan, these faults carry ore in several deposits and in others appear to have facilitated
the transport of U within the cover sandstones.
• Hydrothermal/diagenetic concentration of U through mixing of oxidized basinal and reduced
basement fluids appear to have resulted in exceptional concentrations of U and Ni. There is a
possibility that radiogenic heat developed in these extremely rich deposits may have been
instrumental in heating formational fluids and in remobilizing the metals upwards above the
deposit.
• Diabase dikes occur in faults near some deposits and some researchers have suggested that the
dikes might have provided the thermal energy that remobilized and further upgraded U
concentrations. Recent age dates of the Mackenzie dikes in the Athabaska district do not
support this interpretation.

Associated deposit types: Sandstone-hosted U deposits (D05) are found in associated supracrustal
quartz-rich arenites. Stratabound disseminated or skarn deposits, such as the Dudderidge Lake
and Burbidge Lake deposits (Saskatchewan) and pegmatitic occurrences are commonly present
in the metamorphosed basement rocks. In arid or semi-arid environments surficial deposits may
be present in the overburden. The deposits have affinities to "Classical" U veins (I15).

Comments: Virtually all the known unconformity-associated uranium deposits are found in the
Athabasca Basin, Alligator River district and Thelon Basin. In British Columbia favourable target
areas for this style of mineralization might be found within strongly metamorphosed shelf-facies
Proterozoic strata near gneiss domes, particularly in plateau areas near the Cretaceous-Tertiary
paleosurface. The Midnite mine, located 100 km south of Osoyoos, British Columbia, may be an
unconformity-associated U deposit. The ore comprises fracture-controlled and disseminated U
and alteration minerals (pitchblende, coffinite as well as autunite and other secondary minerals)
within metamorphosed shelf-facies pelitic and calcareous rocks of the Precambrian Togo
Formation. Production and reserves prior to closing at the Midnite mine are estimated at
approximately 3.9 Mt grading 0.12% U.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: U, Ni, Co, As, Pb and Cu are good pathfinder elements which can be utilized in
standard stream silt, lake bottom sediment and soil surveys. Stream and lake bottom water
samples can be analyzed for U and Ra. In addition, the inert gases He and Ra can often be
detected above a U-rich source in soil and soil gas surveys, as well as in groundwater and
springs. In Saskatchewan, lithogeochemical signatures have been documented in Athabasca
Group quartz arenites for several hundred metres directly above the deposits and in glacially
dispersed boulders located "down ice" - the signature includes boron (dravite) and low, but
anomalous U as well as K and/or Mg clay mineral alteration (illite and chlorite).

Geophysical signature: During early phases of exploration of the Athabasca Basin, airborne and ground
radiometric surveys detected near surface uranium deposits and their glacial dispersions.
Currently, deeply penetrating ground and airborne elecromagnetic surveys are used to map the
graphitic argillites associated with most deposits. The complete spectrum of modern techniques
 (gravity, magnetic, magneto-telluric, electromagnetic, VLF-EM, induced polarization, resistivity)
can be utilized to map various aspects of structure as well as hostrock and alteration mineral
assemblages in the search for deep targets.

Other Exploration Guides: Standard techniques using sensitive gamma ray scintillometers to detect
mineralization directly in bedrock or in float trains in glacial till, frost boils, talus or other debris
derived from U mineralization remain the most effective prospecting methods.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Individual deposits are generally small, but can be exceedingly high-grade,
up to several percent U. The median size for 36 Saskatchewan and Australian deposits is 260 000
t grading 0.42% U (Grauch and Mosier, 1986). Some deposits are exceptionally high grade such
as the Key Lake Gaertner-Deilmann deposits (2.5 Mt @ 2.3% U), Cigar Lake deposits (900 000 t
@ 12.2% U) and McArthur River (1.4 Mt @12.7% U).

Economic limitations: Since the early 1980s, average ore grades have generally risen to exceed 0.25% U.
Problems related to the pervasively clay-altered wallrocks and presence of radon gas and other
potentially dangerous elements associated with some high-grade uranium deposits in
Saskatchewan have resulted in exceptionally high mining costs in some cases.

Importance: The Rabbit Lake mine, opened in 1975, was the first major producer of unconformity-type
ore. Since then the proportion of the world's production to come from unconformity-type
deposits has increased to 33% and is expected to rise in the future.

5. Selected bibliography

Acknowledgments: Nirankar Prasad and Sunil Gandhi of the Geological Survey of Canada, Larry Jones of
the British Columbia Geological Survey and Jim Murphy of Uranerz Exploration reviewed the
profile and provided many constructive comments.

Cady, J.W. and Fox, K.F. Jr. (1984): Geophysical Interpretation of the Gneiss Terrane of Northern
Washington and Southern British Columbia, and its Implication for Uranium Exploration; U.S.
Geological Survey, Professional Paper 1260, 29 pages.
Farstad, J. and Ayers, D.E. (1986): Midwest Uranium Deposit, Northern Saskatchewan, in Uranium
Deposits of Canada, Evans, E.I., Editor, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special
Volume 33, pages 178-183.
Fogwill, W.D. (1985): Canadian and Saskatchewan Uranium Deposits: Compilation, Metallogeny, Models
Exploration; in Geology of Uranium Deposits, Sibbald T.I.I. and Petruk W. Editors, Canadian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 32, pages 3-19.
Jones, L.D. (1990): Uranium and Thorium Occurrences in British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines
and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1990-32, 78 pages.
Grauch, R.I. and Mosier, Dan L. (1986): Descriptive Model of Unconformity U-Au; in Mineral Deposit
Models, Cox, D. P. and Singer, D. A., Editors, United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693,
pages 248-250.
Milne, P.C. (1979): Uranium in Washington State: Proven Deposits and Exploration Targets; The
Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Bulletin, Volume 72, pages 95-101.
Nash, J.T., Granger, H.C. and Adams, S.S. (1981): Geology and Concepts of Genesis of Important Types of
Uranium Deposits; in Economic Geology, 75th Anniversary Volume, pages 63-116.
Ruzicka, Vlad (1986): Uranium deposits of the Rabbit Lake -Collins Bay area, Saskatchewan; in Uranium
Deposits of Canada, Evans, E.I., Editor, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special
Volume 33, pages 144-154.
Tremblay, L.P. and Ruzicka, V. (1984): Unconformity-associated Uranium; in Canadian Mineral Deposit
Types: A Geological Synopsis, Eckstrand, O.R., Editor, Geological Survey of Canada, Economic
Geology Report 36, page 61.
Wallis, R.H., Saracoglu, N., Brummer, J.J., and Golightly, J.P. (1986): The Geology of the McClean
Uranium Deposits, Northern Saskatchewan; in Uranium Deposits of Canada, Evans, E.I., Editor,
Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 33, pages 193-217.
I17 - CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE ULTRAMAFIC-HOSTED MAGNESITE VEINS

by S. Paradis and G.J. Simandl

Geological Survey of Canada and British Columbia Geological Survey

Paradis, S. and Simandl, G.J. (1996): Cryptocrystalline Ultramafic-hosted Magnesite Veins, in Selected
British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy,
T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages
97-100.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Cryptocrystalline or microcrystalline magnesite, "Kraubath-type" magnesite, "Bone

magnesite", "amorphous magnesite".

Commodity: Magnesite.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Sunny (092O 014), Pinchi Lake (093K
065); Chalkidiky area (Greece); Kraubath (Austria); Eskisehir and Kutaya (Turkey).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Cryptocrystalline magnesite deposits are related to faults cutting ultramafic rocks.
Individual deposits may consist of two styles of mineralization. Steeply dipping magnesite veins,
up to several metres thick, pass gradually upward into magnesite stockworks or breccias
cemented by magnesite.

Tectonic settings: Typically in allochthonous serpentinized ophiolitic sequences or along structural

breaks within ultramafic layered complexes; however, other settings containing ultramafic rocks
are also favourable.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: The veins are emplaced along steep faults in near surface
environments.

Age of mineralization: Post-date ultramafic hostrock that is Archean to Paleogene in age.

Host/Associated rock types: Serpentinite, peridotite; other olivine-rich rocks of the typical ophiolitic
sequence and layered ultramafic complexes.

Deposit form: Stockworks, branching veins, single veins up to several metres in thickness, and less
frequently, irregular masses. The maximum reported vertical extent is 200 m. The footwall of
the deposits is commonly sharp and slickensided and coincides with a fault zone. The
hangingwall of the fault contains magnesite veins and/or magnesite-cemented breccias.

Texture/Structure: Magnesite is commonly cryptocrystalline and massive with microscopic "pinolite"

texture; rarely granular, fibrous, or "cauliflower-like".

Ore Mineralogy: Magnesite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Serpentine, chlorite, talc, iron oxides, dolomite,
hydromagnesite, calcite, sepiolite, quartz, opal, chalcedony and quartz in vugs.

Alteration mineralogy: Ultramafic rocks hosting magnesite are typically, but not always, intensely
serpentinised. Alteration minerals are dolomite, quartz, montmorillonite, sepiolite, talc, goethite
and deweylite.

Weathering: Varies with climatic environment, gangue mineralogy and iron content in the crystal
structure of magnesite.

Ore controls: Tectonic boundaries or major fault breaks, secondary fault zones parallel to major breaks
cutting ultramafic rocks. The large magnesite- cemented breccias are commonly located below
paleoerosional or erosional surfaces. Most contacts between the magnesite and country rock
are sharp and irregular.

Genetic model: Two hypothesis competing to explain the origin of these deposits are:

1. hypogene low-temperature, CO2-metasomatism of ultramafic rocks (Pohl, 1991)

2. low-temperature descending, meteoric waters containing biogenic CO2 and enriched in Mg2+
(Zachmann and Johannes, 1989).

Associated deposit types: Lateritic deposits, chromite deposits and platinum deposits occur in the same
geological environment but are not genetically related. The ultramafic-hosted talc deposits
(M07) may be genetically related.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: May contain above average Hg.

Geophysical signature: N/A

Other Exploration Guides: Favourable lithologic and structural setting. Commonly underlying
unconformities. Near-surface (or paleosurface) magnesite deposits may be capped by stratiform
magnesite, dolomite-quartz (chalcedony) or chert zones. Some of these deposits are overlain by
laterites. Boulder tracing in glaciated areas.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: For stockwork (upper) portions of the deposits the grades vary from 20 to
40% magnesite and reserves ranging from hundreds of thousands to several millions tonnes are
typical. The deeper vein portions of these deposits have higher grades and may be almost
monomineralic. A representative specimen of Greek cryptocrystalline magnesite is reported to
contain 46.6 % MgO, 49.9 % CO2, 0.70 % SiO2, 1.35 % CaO, 0.85% Fe2O3 and Al2O3 combined
(Harben and Bates, 1990).

Economic limitations: These deposits compete for markets with sediment-hosted sparry magnesite
deposits and seawater or brine-derived magnesia compounds. In the past, European refractory
 producers preferred cryptocrystalline magnesite over sparry magnesite, because of its higher
density and lower iron, manganese and boron content. Recently this advantage was largely lost
by availability of excellent quality sparry magnesite exports and by new technical developments
in the refractory industry. Natural magnesite-derived compounds in general have to compete
with seawater and brine-derived magnesia compounds.

Uses: Source of wide variety of magnesia products used mainly in refractories, cements, insulation,
chemicals, fertilizers, fluxes and environmental applications.

Importance: These deposits are substantially smaller and, in the case of stockwork-type portions, lower
grade than sparry magnesite deposits.

Comments: Stockworks and adjacent ultramafic hostrock are capped in some cases by sediments that
may contain nodular magnesite concretions or magnesite/hydromagnesite layers and/or
dolomite, quartz or chert. It is not well established if sediments are of sabkha /playa affinity or
directly linked to fluids that formed stockworks and veins.

5. References

Grant, B. (1987): Magnesite, Brucite and Hydromagnesite Occurrences in British Columbia; B.C. Ministry
of Energy Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1987-13, 80 pages.
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals Geology and World Deposits; Industrial Minerals
Division, Metal Bulletin, London, 312 pages.
Pohl, W. (1991): Genesis of Magnesite Deposits - Models and Trends; Geologische Rundschau, Volume
79, pages 291-299.
Examples of Vein, Breccia, and Stockwork Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

I01 Alaska-Juneau (Alaska), Campbell, Bralorne, Erickson, Polaris-Taku
Dome(Ontario)
I02 -- Scottie, Snip, Johnny Mountain, Iron Colt
I03 Ballarat (Australia), Meguma (Nova Scotia) Frasergold, Reno, Queen, Island
Mountain
I04 Homestake (South Dakota) --
I05 Elsa (Yukon), Coeur d'Alene (Idaho), Creede Silver Queen, Beaverdell, Silvana, Lucky
(Colorado) Jim
I06 Nikolai (Alaska), Bruce Mines (Ontario), Butte Davis-Keays, Churchill Copper, Bull River
(Montana)
I07* Granby Point
I08 Red Devil? (Alaska), New Almaden, New Idria Pinchi, Bralorne Takla, Silverquick
(California)
I09 Becker-Cochran (Yukon), Lake George (New Minto, Congress, Snowbird
Brunswick), Bolivia
I10 Matchewan (Ontario), Jbel Ighoud (Morocco), Parson. Brisco, Fireside
Wolfach (Germany)
I11 St. Lawrence (Newfoundland), Mongolian Rock Candy, Eaglet
fluorite belt
I12* Pasto Bueno (Peru), Carrock Fell (England) --
I13* Cornwall (England), Lost River (Alaska) Duncan Lake
I14 Cobalt camp (Ontario), Erzgebirge district --
(Germany)
I15 Beaverlodge area (Saskatchewan), Purple Rose, Fisher, Dixie
Schwartzwalder (Colorado)
I16 Rabbit lake, Key Lake, Cluff Lake, Midwest Lake, - -
McClean Lake, McArthur River, Cigar
Lake and Maurice Bay in the Athabasca
uranium district (Saskatchewan,
Canada), Lone Gull (Kiggavik) and
Boomerang Lake, Thelon Basin district
(Northwest Territories, Canada);
Jabiluka, Ranger, Koongarra and
Nabarlek, Alligator River district
(Northern Territory, Australia)
I17 Chalkidiky area (Greece), Kraubath (Austria) Sunny, Pinchi Lake
* Note: All BC deposit profile(s) with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s.
J - Manto

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

J01 Polymetallic manto Ag- Polymetallic replacement 19a
Pb-Zn deposits
J02 Manto and stockwork Sn Replacement Sn, Renison-type 14c
J03* Mn veins and covered by I05 and J01 19b
replacements
J04 Sulphide manto Au Au-Ag sulphide mantos --
J01 - POLYMETALLIC MANTOS Ag-Pb-Zn

by J.L. Nelson
British Columbia Geological Survey

Nelson, J.L. (1996): Polymetallic Mantos Ag-Pb-Zn, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 101-104.

1. Identification

Synonym: Polymetallic replacement deposits.

Commodities (byproducts): Ag, Pb, Zn (Au, Cu, Sn, Bi).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Midway (104O 038) and Bluebell
(082ENW026); Sa Dena Hes (Yukon, Canada), Prairie Creek (Northwest Territories, Canada),
Leadville District (Colorado, USA), East Tintic District (Utah, USA), Eureka District (Nevada, USA),
Santa Eulalia, Naica, Fresnillo, Velardena, Providencia (Mexico).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Irregularly shaped, conformable to crosscutting bodies, such as massive lenses,
pipes and veins, of sphalerite, galena, pyrite and other sulphides and sulphosalts in carbonate
hosts; distal to skarns and to small, high-level felsic intrusions.

Tectonic setting: Intrusions emplaced into miogeoclinal to platformal, continental settings.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: In northern Mexico, most are hosted by Cretaceous

limestones. In Colorado, the principal host is the Devonian- Mississippian Leadville limestone; in
Utah, the Permian Torweap Formation hosts the Deer Trail deposit. The most favourable hosts
in the Canadian Cordillera are massive Lower Cambian and Middle Devonian limestones, rather
than impure carbonates and dolostone-quartzite units.

Age of mineralization: Canadian Cordilleran examples are Cretaceous to Eocene age; those in the
southern Cordillera are typically Tertiary.

Host/Associated rock types: Hosted by limestone and dolostone. The carbonates are typically within a
thick sediment package with siliciclastic rocks that is cut by granite, quartz monzonite and other
intermediate to felsic hypabyssal, porphyritic lithologies. There may be volcanic rocks in the
sequence, or more commonly above, which are related to the intrusive rocks.

Deposit form: Irregular: mantos (cloak shaped), lenses, pipes, chimneys, veins; in some deposits the
chimneys and/or mantos are stacked.

Texture/Structure: Massive to highly vuggy, porous ore. In some cases fragments of wallrock are
incorporated into the ore. Some deposits have breccias: fragments of wallrock and also of
sulphide ore within a sulphide matrix.
Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Sphalerite, galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite, marcasite;
arsenopyrite, pyrargyrite/proustite, enargite, tetrahedrite, geocronite, electrum, digenite,
jamesonite, jordanite, bournonite, stephanite, polybasite, rhodochrosite, sylvanite, calaverite.
Chimneys may be more Zn-rich, Pb-poor than mantos.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, barite, gypsum; minor calc- silicate minerals.

Alteration mineralogy: Limestone wallrocks are commonly dolomitized and/or silicified, whereas shale
and igneous rocks are argillized and chloritized. Jasperoid occurs in some U.S. examples.

Weathering: In some cases, a deep oxidation zone is developed. Mexican deposits have well developed
oxide zones with cassiterite, hematite, Cu and Fe carbonates, cerusite and smithsonite.

Ore controls: The irregular shapes of these deposits and their occurrence in carbonate hosts emphasize
the importance of ground preparation in controlling fluid channels and depositional sites.
Controlling factors include faults, fault intersections, fractures, anticlinal culminations, bedding
channelways (lithologic contrasts), karst features and pre-existing permeable zones. In several
districts karst development associated with unconformities is believed to have led to
development of open spaces subsequently filled by ore. Some deposits are spatially associated
with dikes.

Genetic model: Manto deposits are high-temperature replacements as shown by fluid inclusion
temperatures in excess of 300 C, high contents of Ag, presence of Sn, W and complex
sulphosalts, and association with skarns and small felsic intrusions. They are the product of
pluton-driven hydrothermal solutions that followed a variety of permeable pathways, such as
bedding, karst features and fracture zones.

Associated deposit types: There is probably an overall outward gradation from granite- hosted Mo-Cu
porphyries (L04), endoskarns (K) and possibly W- and Sn mineralization (L06?), through
exoskarns (K01, K02) and into Ag-Pb-Zn veins (I05), mantos (J01) and possibly Carlin-type
sediment-hosted Au-Ag deposits (E03). Only some, or possibly one, of these types may be
manifest in a given district. Ag-Pb-Zn vein, manto and skarn deposits belong to a continuum
which includes many individual occurrences with mixed characteristics.

Comments: In the Canadian Cordillera, most mantos are located in the miogeocline (western Ancestral
North America, Cassiar and Kootenay terranes) because of the essential coincidence of
abundant carbonate and presence of felsic intrusions. There is one known example in Upper
Triassic limestone on Vancouver Island, which probably formed distal to skarn mineralization
related to a mid- Jurassic intrusion. Most mantos in the Canadian Cordillera are Late Cretaceous
to Eocene, coinciding with the age of youngest, F-rich intrusions of the A-type (anorogenic)
granite suite. In Mexico, mantos are associated with Early to mid-Tertiary volcanic rocks and
cogenetic intrusions. The Colorado deposits may be associated with Tertiary sills, and the Deer
Trail deposit in Utah has given a 12 Ma sericite age.

3. Exploration Guides
Geochemical signature: B.C.: Ag, Pb, Zn, Sn in stream silts, F in waters. U.S.: Districts show outward
zoning from Cu-rich core through broad Ag-Pb zone to Zn- Mn fringe. Locally Au, As, Sb, Bi.
Jasperoid contains elevated Ba + Ag.

Geophysical signature: Subsurface granite associated with Midway deposit has negative magnetic
signature.

Other Exploration Guides: Concentration of Ag-Pb-Zn vein deposits in or near carbonates.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Individual deposits average about a million tonnes grading tens to hundreds
of grams/tonne Ag and approximately 5 to 20% combined Pb-Zn. Mexico: Santa Eulalia district
produced about 24 Mt in this century, grading about 300 g/t Ag, 8% Pb, 9% Zn. U.S.: Leadville
deposit mined 30 Mt 70-130 g/t Ag, 12-15% Pb-Zn. B.C.: Midway geological resource is 1 Mt
grading 400 g/t Ag 7% Pb, 9.6% Zn. In many mining districts the early production came from
oxidized ore zones that can have higher grades and be easier to mine.

Economic limitations: Generally, although not always, these deposits tend to be small, highly irregular
and discontinuous. The Mexican deposits have yielded large quantities of ore because, due to
low labour costs, mining provided an effective and low-cost exploration tool.

Importance: As sources of base metals, manto deposits are overshadowed on a world scale by the giant
syngenetic classes such as sedimentary exhalitive and volcanogenic massive sulphides. However,
because of their high precious metal contents, they provide exciting targets for small producers.

5. References

Hewitt, W.P. (1968): Geology and Mineralization of the Main Mineral Zone of the Santa Eulalia district,
Chihuahua, Mexico; Society of Mining Engineers, Transactions, Volume 241, pages 228-260.
Jensen, M.L. and Bateman, A.M. (1981), Economic Mineral Deposits, 3rd edition, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 593 pages.
Maldonado, E.D. (1991): Economic Geology of the Santa Eulalia Mining District, Chihuahua; in Economic
Geology, Mexico, Salas, G.P., Editor, Geological Society of America, The Geology of North
America, Volume P-3, pages 241-257.
Morris, H.T. (1986): Descriptive Model of Polymetallic Replacement Deposits; in Mineral Deposit
Models, Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, pages 90-91.
Nelson, J.A. (1991): Carbonate-hosted Lead-Zinc (ñ Silver, Gold) Deposits of British Columbia; in Ore
Deposits, Tectonics and Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines
and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1991-4, pages 71-88.
Ohle, E.L. (1991): Lead and Zinc Deposits; in Economic Geology, U.S., Gluskoter, H.J., Rice, D.D. and
Taylor, R.B., Editors, Geological Society of America, The Geology of North America, Volume P-2,
pages 43-62.
Prescott, B. (1926): The Underlying Principles of the Limestone Replacement Deposits of the Mexican
Province - I; Engineering and Mining Journal, Volume 122, pages 246-296.
J02 - MANTO AND STOCKWORK Sn

by David Sinclair
Geological Survey of Canda, Ottawa

Sinclair, W.D. (1996): Manto and Stockwork Sn, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 105-109.

1. Manto is a Spanish mining term denoting a blanket-shaped orebody which is widely used for
replacement deposits of Mexico. It has been used to describe the orientation of individual
lenses and also to describe a class of orebodies.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Replacement Sn, distal Sn skarn, Renison-type.

Commodities (byproducts): Sn (Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag, Sb, Cd, Bi, In).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Renison Bell, Cleveland and Mt. Bischoff (Tasmania,
Australia), Dachang and Gejiu districts (China).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Disseminated cassiterite occurs in massive sulphide replacement bodies in

carbonate rocks and in associated veins, stockworks and breccias. Felsic intrusions are nearby,
or adjacent to the deposits and may also be mineralized.

Tectonic setting: Postorogenic underlain by cratonic crust containing carbonate rocks.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Carbonate rocks intruded by epizonal felsic intrusive

rocks.

Age of mineralization: Mainly Paleozoic to Mesozoic, but other ages possible.

Host/Associated rock types: Mainly limestone or dolomite; chert, pelitic and Fe-rich sediments, and
volcanic rocks may also be present. Genetically-related granitic plutons and associated felsic
dikes are typically F and/or B rich. They are commonly porphyritic.

Deposit form: Variable: massive, lensoid to tabular, concordant sulphide-rich bodies in carbonate rocks;
veins and irregular stockwork zones in associated rocks.

Texture/Structure: Massive sulphide-rich bodies tend to follow bedding in host carbonate rocks;
associated veins and stockworks include mineralized fractures, veinlets, quartz veins and
breccias.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Cassiterite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena; stannite,
stibnite, bismuth, bismuthinite and a wide variety of sulphosalt minerals including jamesonite,
 bournonite, franckeite, boulangerite, geocronite, matildite and galenobismutite may also be
present.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Pyrrhotite (often predominant sulphide) and/or pyrite,
arsenopyrite, quartz, calcite, siderite, rhodochrosite, flourite and tourmaline.

Alteration mineralogy: Dolomite near massive sulphide bodies is typically altered to siderite, and, to a
lesser extent, talc, phlogopite and quartz. Rocks hosting vein or stockwork zones may be
tourmalinized. Greisen-type alteration, characterized by flourite and/or topaz, F-bearing micas
and tourmaline, is best developed in and around genetically related felsic intrusive rocks.

Weathering: Oxidation of pyrite and pyrrhotite produces limonitic gossans. Deep weathering and
erosion may result in residual concentrations of cassiterite in situ or in placer deposits
downslope or downstream.

Ore controls: Carbonate rocks in the vicinity of F and B rich felsic intrusive rocks; faults and fracture
zones in the carbonates and associated rocks provide channelways and also alternate sites of
deposition for ore-forming fluids.

Genetic model: Magmatic-hydrothermal. Magmatic, highly saline aqueous fluids strip Sn and other ore
metals from temporally- and genetically related magma. Early Sn deposition is dominantly from
these magmatic fluids, mainly in response to increase in pH due to carbonate replacement.
Mixing of magmatic with meteoric water during waning stages of the magmatic-hydrothermal
system may result in deposition of Sn and other metals in late-stage veins and stockworks.

Associated deposit types: Sn-W skarn deposits (K06, K05), Sn-W vein deposits, Sb-Hg veins, placer
deposits (C01, C02).

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Sn, Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ag, Sb, Hg, F, W, Bi and In may be anomalously high in
hostrocks adjacent to and overlying mineralized zones; Sb and Hg anomalies may extend as
much as several hundred metres. Sn, W, F, Cu, Pb and Zn may be anomalously high in stream
sediments and Sn, W, and B (tourmaline) may be present in heavy mineral concentrates.

Geophysical signature: Massive pyrrhotite may be detected by magnetic surveys; massive sulphide
zones may also be detected by electromagnetic and resistivity surveys.

Other Exploration Guides: Deposits commonly occur in zoned, polymetallic districts; Sn and base metal
bearing skarns and veins occur close to related intrusive rocks, carbonate- hosted Sn mantos
and stockworks are at intermediate distances from the intrusive rocks, and Sb and Hg veins are
the outermost deposits. Genetically related felsic intrusive rocks typically have high contents of
silica (>74% SiO2) and F (>0.1% F); tourmaline may also be present.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Deposits are large and high grade, containing millions to tens of millions of
tonnes averaging about 1% Sn. The following figures are for production plus reserves: Renison
 Bell (Australia): 27 Mt at 1.1% Sn (Newnham, 1988) Cleveland (Australia): 5.3 Mt at 0.5% Sn,
0.2% Cu (Cox and Dronseika, 1988) Mt. Bischoff (Australia): 6.1 Mt at 0.49% Sn (Newnham,
1988) Dachang (China): 100 Mt at 1% Sn, 3-5% combined Cu, Pb, Zn and Sb (Fu et al., 1993) Gejiu
(China): 100 Mt at 1% Sn, 2-5% Cu, 0.5% Pb (Sutphin et al., 1990).

Importance: The large tonnage and relatively high grade of these deposits makes them attractive for
exploration and development.The Renison Bell deposit in Australia and the Dachang and Gejiu
deposits in China are currently major producers of tin on a world scale.

5. References

Acknowledgement: Rod Kirkham kindly reviewed this profile.

Cao, X. (1988): Integrated Geophysical and Geochemical Indicators of the Gejiu Tin Mine and its
Neighbouring Areas; in Geology of Tin Deposits in Asia and the Pacific, Hutchison, C.S., Editor,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pages 443-455.
Chen, Y., Huang, M., Xu, Y., Ai, Y., Li, X., Tang, S. and Meng, L. (1988): Geological and Metallogenic
Features and Model of the Dachang Cassiterite-Sulphide Polymetallic Ore Belt, Guangxi, China;
in Geology of Tin Deposits in Asia and the Pacific, Hutchison, C.S., Editor, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
pages 358-372.
Cox, R. and Dronseika, E.V. (1988): The Cleveland Stratabound Tin Deposits, Tasmania: A Review of their
Economic Geology, Exploration, Evaluation and Production; in Geology of Tin Deposits in Asia
and the Pacific, Hutchison, C.S., Editor, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pages 112-123.
Fu, M., Changkakoti, A., Krouse, H.R., Gray, J. and Kwak, T.A.P. (1991): An Oxygen Hydrogen, Sulfur, and
Carbon Isotope Study of Carbonate-replacement (Skarn) Tin Deposits of the Dachang Tin Field,
China; Economic Geology, Volume 86, pages 1683-1703.
Fu, M., Kwak, T.A.P. and Mernagh, T.P. (1993): Fluid Inclusion Studies of Zoning in the Dachang Tin-
Polymetallic Ore Field, People’s Republic of China; Economic Geology, Volume 88, pages 283-
300.
Newnham, L. (1988): The Western Tasmanian Tin Province with special reference to the Renison Mine;
in Geology of Tin Deposits in Asia and the Pacific, Hutchison, C.S., Editor, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
pages 101-111.
Patterson, D.J., Ohmoto, H. and Solomon, M. (1981): Geologic Setting and Genesis of Cassiterite-Sulfide
Mineralization at Renison Bell, Western Tasmania; Economic Geology, Volume 76, pages 393-
438.
Reed, B.L. (1986): Descriptive Model of Replacement Sn; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and
Singer, D.A., Editors, U. S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, pages 61-63.
Sutphin, D.M., Sabin, A.E. and Reed, B.L. (1990): International Strategic Minerals Inventory - Tin; U.S.
Geological Survey, Circular 930-J, page 52.
Yang, J., Li, D., Zhang, D., Li, S., Li, X. and Lu, X. (1988): Geochemical Characteristics of Indicator Elements
and Prospecting Criteria for the Danchi Polymetallic Mineralized Belt of the Dachang Tin Field; in
Geology of Tin Deposits in Asia and the Pacific, Hutchison, C.S., Editor, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
pages 339-350.
J03 - MN VEINS AND REPLACEMENTS

covered by I05 and J01

Examples of Manto Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

J01 East Tintic district (Utah), Naica (Mexico), Sa Dena Hess Bluebell, Midway
(Yukon)
J02 Renison Bell & Cleveland (Australia), Dachang district --
(China)
J03* Lake Valley (New Mexico), Phillipsburg (Montana) --
J04 Ketza River (Yukon) Mosquito Creek , Island
Mountain

* Note: All BC deposit profile(s) with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s.
K - Skarn

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

K01 Cu skarns -- 18a,b
K02 Pb-Zn skarns -- 18c
K03 Fe skarns -- 18d
K04 Au skarns -- 18f*
K05 W skarns -- 14a
K06 Sn skarns -- 14b
K07 Mo skarns -- --
K08 Garnet skarns -- --
K09 Wollastonite skarns -- 18g
K01 - Cu SKARNS

by Gerald E. Ray
British Columbia Geological Survey

Ray, G.E. (1995): Cu Skarns, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallics
and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment and
Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 59-60.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Pyrometasomatic and contact metasomatic copper deposits.

Commodities (byproducts): Cu (Au, Ag, Mo, W, magnetite).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Craigmont (092ISE035), Phoenix (082ESE020), Old

Sport (092L 035), Queen Victoria (082FSW082); Mines Gaspé deposits (Québec, Canada), Ruth,
Mason Valley and Copper Canyon (Nevada, USA), Carr Fork (Utah, USA), Ok Tedi (Papua New
Guinea), Rosita (Nicaragua).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Cu-dominant mineralization (generally chalcopyrite) genetically associated with a

skarn gangue (includes calcic and magnesian Cu skarns).

Tectonic setting: They are most common where Andean-type plutons intrude older continental-margin
carbonate sequences. To a lesser extent (but important in British Columbia), they are associated
with oceanic island arc plutonism.

Age of mineralization: Mainly Mesozoic, but may be any age. In British Columbia they are mostly Early to
mid-Jurassic.

Host/Associated rock types: Porphyritic stocks, dikes and breccia pipes of quartz diorite, granodiorite,
monzogranite and tonalite composition, intruding carbonate rocks, calcareous volcanics or tuffs.
Cu skarns in oceanic island arcs tend to be associated with more mafic intrusions (quartz diorite
to granodiorite), while those formed in continental margin environments are associated with
more felsic material.

Deposit form: Highly varied; includes stratiform and tabular orebodies, vertical pipes, narrow lenses, and
irregular ore zones that are controlled by intrusive contacts.

Textures: Igneous textures in endoskarn. Coarse to fine-grained, massive granoblastic to mineralogically

layered textures in exoskarn. Some hornfelsic textures.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Moderate to high sulphide content. Chalcopyrite ± pyrite ±
magnetite in inner garnet-pyroxene zone. Bornite ± chalcopyrite ± sphalerite ± tennantite in
outer wollastonite zone. Either hematite, pyrrhotite or magnetite may predominate (depending
 on oxidation state). Scheelite and traces of molybdenite, bismuthinite, galena, cosalite,
arsenopyrite, enargite, tennantite, loellingite, cobaltite and tetrahedrite may be present.

Alteration mineralogy: Exoskarn alteration: high garnet:pyroxene ratios. High Fe, low Al, Mn andradite
garnet (Ad35-100), and diopsidic clinopyroxene (Hd2-50). The mineral zoning from stock out to
marble is commonly: diopside + andradite (proximal); wollastonite ± tremolite ± garnet ±
diopside ± vesuvianite (distal). Retrograde alteration to actinolite, chlorite and montmorillonite
is common. In British Columbia, skarn alteration associated with some of the alkalic porphyry
Cu-Au deposits contains late scapolite veining. Magnesian Cu skarns also contain olivine,
serpentine, monticellite and brucite. Endoskarn alteration: Potassic alteration with K-feldspar,
epidote, sericite ± pyroxene ± garnet. Retrograde phyllic alteration generates actinolite, chlorite
and clay minerals.

Ore controls: Irregular or tabular orebodies tend to form in carbonate rocks and/or calcareous volcanics
or tuffs near igneous contacts. Pendants within igneous stocks can be important. Cu
mineralization is present as stockwork veining and disseminations in both endo and exoskarn; it
commonly accompanies retrograde alteration.

Comments: Calcic Cu skarns are more economically important than magnesian Cu skarns. Cu skarns are
broadly separable into those associated with strongly altered Cu- porphyry systems, and those
associated with barren, generally unaltered stocks; a continuum probably exists between these
two types (Einaudi et al., 1981). Copper skarn deposits related to mineralized Cu porphyry
intrusions tend to be larger, lower grade, and emplaced at higher structural levels than those
associated with barren stocks. Most Cu skarns contain oxidized mineral assemblages, and
mineral zoning is common in the skarn envelope. Those with reduced assemblages can be
enriched in W, Mo, Bi, Zn, As and Au. Over half of the 340 Cu skarn occurrences in British
Columbia lie in the Wrangellia Terrane of the Insular Belt, while another third are associated
with intraoceanic island arc plutonism in the Quesnellia and Stikinia terranes. Some alkalic and
calcalkalic Cu and Cu-Mo porphyry systems in the province (e.g. Copper Mountain, Mount
Polley) are associated with variable amounts of Cu-bearing skarn alteration.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Rock analyses may show Cu-Au-Ag-rich inner zones grading outward through
Au-Ag zones with high Au:Ag ratios to an outer Pb-Zn-Ag zone. Co-As-Sb-Bi-Mo-W geochemical
anomalies are present in the more reduced Cu skarn deposits.

Geophysical signature: Magnetic, electromagnetic and induced polarization anomalies.

Associated deposit types: Porphyry Cu deposits (L04), Au (K04), Fe (K03) and Pb-Zn (K02) skarns, and
replacement Pb-Zn-Ag deposits (M01).

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Average 1 to 2 % copper. Worldwide, they generally range from 1 to 100 Mt,
although some exceptional deposits exceed 300 Mt. Craigmont, British Columbia's largest Cu
skarn, contained approximately 34 Mt grading 1.3 % Cu.
Importance: Historically, these deposits were a major source of copper, although porphyry deposits
have become much more important during the last 30 years . However, major Cu skarns are still
worked throughout the world, including in China and the U.S.

5. References

Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A. (1986): Mineral Deposit Models; U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, 379
pages.
Dawson, K.M., Panteleyev, A. and Sutherland-Brown, A. (1991): Regional Metallogeny, Chapter 19, in
Geology of the Cordilleran Orogen in Canada, Editors, Gabrielse, H. and Yorath, C.J., Geological
Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada, Number 4, page 707-768 (also, Geological Society of
America, The Geology of North America, Volume G-2).
Eckstrand, O.R. (1984): Canadian Mineral Deposit Types: A Geological Synopsis; Geological Survey of
Canada, Economic Geology Report 36, 86 pages.
Einaudi, M.T. (1982): General Features and Origin of Skarns Associated with Porphyry Copper Plutons,
Southwestern North America; in Advances in Geology of the Porphyry Copper Deposits,
Southwestern U.S., Titley, S.R., Editor, Univ. Arizona Press, pages 185-209.
Einaudi, M.T. and Burt, D.M. (1982): Introduction - Terminology, Classification and Composition of Skarn
Deposits; Economic Geology; Volume 77, pages 745-754.
Einaudi, M.T., Meinert, L.D. and Newberry, R.J. (1981): Skarn Deposits; in Seventy-fifth Anniversary
Volume, 1906-1980, Economic Geology, Skinner, B.J., Editor, Economic Geology Publishing Co.,
pages 317-391.
Meinert, L.D. (1983): Variability of Skarn-deposits: Guides to Exploration; in Revolution in the Earth
Sciences - Advances in the Past Half-century, Boardman, S.J., Editor; Kendall/Hunt Publishing
Company, pages 301-316.
K02 - Pb-Zn SKARNS

by Gerald E. Ray
British Columbia Geological Survey

Ray, G.E. (1995): Pb-Zn Skarns, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 -
Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 61-62.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Pyrometasomatic or contact metasomatic Pb-Zn deposits.

Commodities (byproducts): Pb, Zn, Ag, (Cu, Cd, W, Au).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Piedmont (082FNW129), Contact (104P

004); Quartz Lake (Yukon, Canada), Groundhog (New Mexico, USA), Darwin (California, USA) San
Antonio, Santa Eulalia and Naica (Mexico), Yeonhwa-Ulchin deposits (South Korea), Nakatatsu
deposits (Japan), Shuikoushan and Tienpaoshan (China).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Galena and/or sphalerite-dominant mineralization genetically associated with a

skarn gangue.

Tectonic setting: Along continental margins where they are associated with late orogenic plutonism. Pb-
Zn skarns occur at a wide range of depths, being associated with subvolcanic aphanitic dikes and
high-level breccia pipes, as well as deep-level batholiths. In British Columbia, some Pb-Zn skarns
are found in oceanic island arcs where they form distally to larger calcic Fe or Cu skarn systems.

Age of mineralization: Mainly Mesozoic, but may be any age. In British Columbia, the 80 Pb-Zn skarn
occurrences identified have a wide age range; over 40 % are Early to mid-Jurassic, 22% are
Cretaceous, and a further 17% are Eocene-Oligocene in age.

Host/Associated rock types: Variable; from high-level skarns in thick limestones, calcareous tuffs and
sediment to deeper level skarns in marbles and calcsilicate-bearing migmatites. Associated
intrusive rocks are granodiorite to leucogranite, diorite to syenite (mostly quartz monzonite).
Pb-Zn skarns tend to be associated with small stocks, sills and dikes and less commonly with
larger plutons. The composition of the intrusions responsible for many distal Pb-Zn skarns is
uncertain.

Deposit form: Variable; commonly occurs along igneous or stratigraphic contacts. Can develop as
subvertical chimneys or veins along faults and fissures and as subhorizontal blankets. Pb-Zn
skarn deposits formed either at higher structural levels or distal to the intrusions tend to be
larger and more Mn- rich compared to those formed at greater depths or more proximal.

Textures: Igneous textures in endoskarn. Coarse to fine-grained, massive granoblastic to mineralogically

layered textures in exoskarn.
Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Sphalerite ± galena ± pyrrhotite ± pyrite ± magnetite ±
arsenopyrite ± chalcopyrite ± bornite. Other trace minerals reported include scheelite,
bismuthinite, stannite, cassiterite, tetrahedrite, molybdenite, fluorite, and native gold. Proximal
skarns tend to be richer in Cu and W, whereas distal skarns contain higher amounts of Pb, Ag
and Mn.

Alteration mineralogy: Exoskarn alteration: Mn-rich hedenbergite (Hd30-90, Jo10-50), andraditic garnet
(Ad20-100, Spess2-10) ± wollastonite ± bustamite ± rhodonite. Late-stage Mn-rich actinolite ±
epidote ± ilvaite ± chlorite ± dannermorite ± rhodochrosite ± axinite. Endoskarn alteration:
Highly variable in development, and in many of the distal Pb-Zn skarns the nature of the
endoskarn is unknown. However, Zn-rich skarns formed near stocks are often associated with
abundant endoskarn that may equal or exceed the exoskarn (Einaudi et al., 1981). Endoskarn
mineralogy is dominated by epidote ± amphibole ± chlorite ± sericite with lesser rhodonite ±
garnet ± vesuvianite ± pyroxene ± K-feldspar ± biotite and rare topaz. Marginal phases may
contain greisen and/or tourmaline.

Ore controls: Carbonate rocks, particularly along structural and/or lithogical contacts (e.g. shale-
limestone contacts or pre-ore dikes). Deposits may occur considerable distances (100-1000 m)
from the source intrusions.

Associated deposit types: Pb-Zn-Ag veins (I05), Cu skarns (K01) and Cu porphyries (L03, L04). In B.C.,
small Pb-Zn skarns occur distally to some Fe (K03) and W (K04) skarns.

Comments: Pb-Zn skarn occurrences are preferentially developed in: (1) continental margin sedimentary
rocks of the Cassiar and Ancestral North America terranes, (2) oceanic island arc rocks of the
Quesnellia and Stikinia terranes, and (3) arc rocks of the Wrangellia Terrane. Their widespread
terrane distribution partly reflects their formation as small distal mineralized occurrences
related to other skarns (notably Cu, Fe and W skarns), as well as some porphyry systems. British
Columbia is endowed with some large and significant Pb-Zn reserves classified as manto
deposits (Nelson, 1991; Dawson et al., 1991). These deposits lack skarn gangue, but are
sometimes grouped with the Pb-Zn skarns.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Pb, Zn, Ag, Cu, Mn, As, Bi, W, F, Sn, Mo, Co, Sb, Cd and Au geochemical
anomalies.

Geophysical signature: Generally good induced polarization response. Galena-rich orebodies may be
marked by gravity anomalies whereas pyrrhotite-rich mineralization may be detected by
magnetic surveys. CS-AMT may also be a useful exploration system.

Other Exploration Guides: Thick limestones distal to small granitoid stocks; structural traps and
lithological contacts; exoskarns with low garnet/pyroxene ratios.

4. Economic factors
Grade and tonnage: Pb-Zn skarns tend to be small (<3 Mt) but can reach 45 Mt, grading up to 15 % Zn,
10 % Pb and > 150 g/t Ag with substantial Cd. Cu grades are generally < 0.2 %. Some deposits
(e.g. Naica (Mexico) and Falun (Sweden)) contain Au. The 80 British Columbia Pb-Zn skarn
occurrences are generally small and have had no major metal production.

Importance: Important past and current producers exist in Mexico, China, U.S.A (New Mexico and
California), and Argentina. No large productive Pb-Zn skarns have been discovered in B.C.

5. References

Dawson, K.M. and Dick, L.A. (1978): Regional Metallogeny in the Northern Cordillera: Tungsten and Base
Metal-bearing Skarns in Southeastern Yukon and Southwestern Mackenzie; in Current Research,
Part A, Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 1978- 1A, pages 287-292.
Dawson, K.M., Panteleyev, A. and Sutherland Brown, A. (1991): Regional Metallogeny, Chapter 19, in
Geology of the Cordilleran Orogen in Canada, Gabrielse, H. and Yorath, C.J., Editors, Geological
Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada, Number 4, page 707-768 (also, Geological Society of
America, The Geology of North America, Volume G-2).
Eckstrand, O.R. (1984): Canadian Mineral Deposit Types: A Geological Synopsis; Geological Survey of
Canada, Economic Geology Report 36, 86 pages.
Einaudi, M.T. and Burt, D.M. (1982): Introduction - Terminology, Classification and Composition of Skarn
Deposits; Economic Geology; Volume 77, pages 745-754.
Einaudi, M.T., Meinert, L.D. and Newberry, R.J. (1981): Skarn Deposits; in Seventy-fifth Anniversary
Volume, 1906-1980, Skinner, B.J., Editor, Economic Geology Publishing Co., pages 317-391.
K03 - Fe SKARNS

by Gerald E. Ray
British Columbia Geological Survey

Ray, G.E. (1995): Fe Skarns, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallics
and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment and
Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 63-65.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Pyrometasomatic or contact metasomatic iron deposits.

Commodities (byproducts): Magnetite (Cu, Ag, Au, Co, phlogopite, borate minerals).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Tasu (103C 003), Jessie (103B 026), Merry Widow
(092L 044), Iron Crown (092L 034), Iron Hill (092F 075), Yellow Kid (092F 258), Prescott (092F
106), Paxton (092F 107), Lake (092F 259); Shinyama (Japan), Cornwall Iron Springs (Utah, USA)
Eagle Mountain (California, USA), Perschansk, Dashkesan, Sheregesh and Teya (Russia), Daiquiri
(Cuba), San Leone (Italy).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Magnetite-dominant mineralization genetically associated with a skarn gangue

(includes calcic and magnesian Fe skarns).

Tectonic setting: Calcic Fe skarns: Intra and non-intraoceanic island arcs; rifted continental
margins. Magnesian Fe skarns: Cordilleran-type, synorogenic continental margins.

Age of mineralization: Can be of any age, mainly Mesozoic to Cenozoic. Typically Early to mid-Jurassic in
British Columbia.

Host/Associated rock types: Calcic Fe skarns: Fe-rich, Si-poor intrusions derived from primitive oceanic
crust. Large to small stocks and dikes of gabbro to syenite (mostly gabbro-diorite) intruding
limestone, calcareous clastic sedimentary rocks, tuffs or mafic volcanics at a high to
intermediate structural level. Magnesian Fe skarns: Small stocks, dikes and sills of granodiorite
to granite intruding dolomite and dolomitic sedimentary rocks.

Deposit form: Variable and includes stratiform orebodies, vertical pipes, fault- controlled sheets,
massive lenses or veins, and irregular ore zones along intrusive margins.

Textures: Igneous textures in endoskarn. Coarse to fine-grained, massive granoblastic to mineralogically

layered textures in exoskarn. Some hornfelsic textures. Magnetite varies from massive to
disseminated to veins.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and Subordinate): Calcic Fe skarns: Magnetite ± chalcopyrite ± pyrite ±
cobaltite ± pyrrhotite ± arsenopyrite ± sphalerite ± galena ± molybdenite ± bornite ± hematite ±
 martite ± gold. Rarely, can contain tellurobismuthite ± fluorite ± scheelite. Magnesian Fe skarns:
Magnetite ± chalcopyrite ± bornite ± pyrite ± pyrhhotite ± sphalerite ± molybdenite.

Exoskarn alteration (both calcic and magnesian): High Fe, low Mn, diopside- hedenbergite clinopyroxene
(Hd20-80) and grossular-andradite garnet (Ad20-95), ± epidote ± apatite. Late stage amphibole ±
chlorite ± ilvaite ± epidote ± scapolite ± albite ± K-feldspar. Magnesian Fe skarns can contain
olivine, spinel, phlogopite, xanthophyllite, brucite, serpentine, and rare borate minerals such as
ludwigite, szaibelyite, fluorborite and kotoite.

Endoskarn alteration: Calcic Fe skarns: Extensive endoskarn with Na-silicates ± garnet ± pyroxene ±
epidote ± scapolite. Magnesian skarns: Minor pyroxene ± garnet endoskarn, and propyllitic
alteration.

Ore controls: Stratigraphic and structural controls. Close proximity to contacts between intrusions and
carbonate sequences, volcanics or calcareous tuffs and sediments. Fracture zones near igneous
contacts can also be important.

Associated deposit types: Cu porphyries (L03, L04); Cu (K01) and Pb-Zn (K02) skarns; small Pb-Zn veins
(I05).

Comments: In both calcic and magnesian Fe skarns, early magnetite is locally intergrown with, or cut by,
garnet and magnesian silicates (Korzhinski, 1964, 1965;. Sangster, 1969; Burt, 1977). Some calcic
Fe skarns contain relatively small pockets of pyrrhotite-pyrite mineralization that postdate the
magnetite; this mineralization can be Au-rich. Byproduct magnetite is also derived from some
Sn, Cu and calcic Pb-Zn skarns. Over 90% of the 146 Fe skarn occurrences in British Columbia lie
within the Wrangellia Terrane of the Insular Belt. The majority of these form where Early to mid-
Jurassic dioritic plutons intrude Late Triassic limestones.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Calcic Fe skarn: enriched in Fe, Cu, Co, Au, Ni, As, Cr. Overall Cu and Au grades
are low (<0.2% Cu and 0.5 g/t Au). Magnesian Fe skarn: enriched in Fe, Cu, Zn, Bo.

Geophysical signature: Strong positive magnetic, electromagnetic and induced polarization anomalies.
Possible gravity anomalies.

Other Exploration Guides: Magnetite-rich float. In the Wrangellia Terrane of British Columbia, the upper
and lower contacts of the Late Triassic Quatsino limestone (or equivalent units) are favorable
horizons for Fe skarn development.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Grades are typically 40 to 50% Fe. Worldwide, calcic Fe skarns range from 3 to 150
Mt whereas magnesian Fe skarns can be larger (exceeding 250 Mt). In British Columbia, they
reach 20 Mt and average approximately 4 Mt mined ore.
Importance: Worldwide, these deposits were once an important source of iron, but in the last 40 years
the market has been increasingly dominated by iron formation deposits. Nearly 90 % of British
Columbia's historic iron production was from skarns.

5. References

Burt, D.M. (1977): Mineralogy and Petrology of Skarn Deposits; Rendiconti, Societa Italiana di
Mineralogia e Petrologia, Volume 33 (2), pages 859-873.
Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A. (1986): Mineral Deposit Models; U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, 379
pages.
Eckstrand, O.R. (1984): Canadian Mineral Deposit Types: A Geological Synopsis; Geological Survey of
Canada, Economic Geology Report 36, 86 pages.
Einaudi, M.T. (1982): General Features and Origin of Skarns Associated with Porphyry Copper Plutons,
Southwestern North America; in Advances in Geology of the Porphyry Copper Deposits,
Southwestern U.S., Titley, S.R., Editor, Univ. Arizona Press, pages 185-209.
Einaudi, M.T., Meinert, L.D. and Newberry, R.J. (1981): Skarn Deposits; in Seventy-fifth Anniversary
Volume, 1906-1980, Economic Geology, Skinner, B.J., Editor, Economic Geology Publishing Co.,
pages 317-391.
Korzhinski, D.S. (1964): An Outline of Metasomatic Processes (trans. M.E. Bergunker); International
Geol. Review, Volume 6, pages 1713-1734.
Korzhinski, D.S. (1965): The Theory of Systems with Perfectly Mobile Components and Processes of
Mineral Formation; American Journal of Science, Volume 263, pages 193-205.
Meinert, L.D. (1984): Mineralogy and Petrology of Iron Skarns in Western British Columbia, Canada;
Economic Geology, Volume 79, Number 5, pages 869-882.
Meinert, L.D. (1992): Skarns and Skarn Deposits; Geoscience Canada, Volume 19, No. 4, pages 145-162.
Podlessky, K.V., Vlasova, D.K. and Kudrja, P.F. (1991): Magnetite-bearing Skarns of Mongolia; in Skarns -
Their Genesis and Metallogeny, Theophrastus Publications, Athens, Greece, pages 265-298.
Ray, G.E. and Webster, I.C.L. (1991a): Geology and Mineral Occurrences of the Merry Widow Skarn
Camp, Northern Vancouver Island, 92L/6; B. C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Open File Map 1991-8.
Ray, G.E., and Webster, I.C.L. (1991b): An Overview of Skarn Deposits; in Ore Deposits, Tectonics and
Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera; McMillan, W.J., compiler, B. C. Ministry of Energy,
Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1991-4, pages 213-252.
Sangster, D.F. (1969): The Contact Metasomatic Magnetite Deposits of British Columbia; Geological
Survey of Canada, Bulletin 172, 85 pages.
K04 - Au SKARNS

by Gerald E. Ray
British Columbia Geological Survey

Ray, G.E. (1998): Au Skarns, in Geological Fieldwork 1997, British Columbia Ministry of Employment and
Investment, Paper 1998-1, pages 24H-1 to 24H-4.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Pyrometasomatic, tactite, or contact metasomatic Au deposits.

Commodities (byproducts): Au (Cu, Ag).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Nickel Plate (092HSE038), French (092HSE059),

Canty (092HSE064), Good Hope (092HSE060), QR - Quesnel River (093A 121); Fortitude, McCoy
and Tomboy-Minnie (Nevada,USA), Buckhorn Mountain (Washington,USA), Diamond Hill, New
World district and Butte Highlands (Montana,USA), Nixon Fork (Alaska, USA), Thanksgiving
(Philippines), Browns Creek and Junction Reefs-Sheahan-Grants (New South Wales, Australia),
Mount Biggenden (Queensland, Australia), Savage Lode, Coogee (Western Australia, Australia),
Nambija (Ecuador), Wabu (Irian Jaya, Indonesia).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Gold-dominant mineralization genetically associated with a skarn gangue consisting
of Ca - Fe - Mg silicates, such as clinopyroxene, garnet and epidote. Gold is often intimately
associated with Bi or Au-tellurides, and commonly occurs as minute blebs (<40 microns) that lie
within or on sulphide grains. The vast majority of Au skarns are hosted by calcareous rocks
(calcic subtype). The much rarer magnesian subtype is hosted by dolomites or Mg-rich volcanics.
On the basis of gangue mineralogy, the calcic Au skarns can be separated into either pyroxene-
rich, garnet-rich or epidote-rich types; these contrasting mineral assemblages reflect differences
in the hostrock lithologies as well as the oxidation and sulphidation conditions in which the
skarns developed.

Tectonic settings: Most Au skarns form in orogenic belts at convergent plate margins. They tend to be
associated with syn to late island arc intrusions emplaced into calcareous sequences in arc or
back-arc environments.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Most deposits are related to plutonism associated with
the development of oceanic island arcs or back arcs, such as the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic
Nicola Group in British Columbia.

Age of mineralization: Phanerozoic (mostly Cenozoic and Mesozoic); in British Columbia Au skarns are
mainly of Early to Middle-Jurassic age. The unusual magnesian Au skarns of Western Australia
are Archean.

Host/Associated rock types: Gold skarns are hosted by sedimentary carbonates, calcareous clastics,
volcaniclastics or (rarely) volcanic flows. They are commonly related to high to intermediate
 level stocks, sills and dikes of gabbro, diorite, quartz diorite or granodiorite composition.
Economic mineralization is rarely developed in the endoskarn. The I-type intrusions are
commonly porphyritic, undifferentiated, Fe-rich and calc-alkaline. However, the Nambija, Wabu
and QR Au skarns are associated with alkalic intrusions.

Deposit form: Variable from irregular lenses and veins to tabular or stratiform orebodies with lengths
ranging up to many hundreds of metres. Rarely, can occur as vertical pipe-like bodies along
permeable structures.

Texture/Structure: Igneous textures in endoskarn. Coarse to fine-grained, massive granoblastic to

layered textures in exoskarn. Some hornfelsic textures. Fractures, sill-dike margins and fold
hinges can be an important loci for mineralization.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): The gold is commonly present as micron-sized inclusions in
sulphides, or at sulphide grain boundaries. To the naked eye, ore is generally indistinguishable
from waste rock. Due to the poor correlation between Au and Cu in some Au skarns, the
economic potential of a prospect can be overlooked if Cu-sulphide-rich outcrops are
preferentially sampled and other sulphide-bearing or sulphide-lean assemblages are ignored.
The ore in pyroxene-rich and garnet-rich skarns tends to have low Cu:Au (<2000:1), Zn:Au
(<100:1) and Ag/Au (<1:1) ratios, and the gold is commonly associated with Bi minerals
(particularly Bi tellurides).

Magnesian subtype: Native gold ± pyrrhotite ± chalcopyrite ± pyrite ± magnetite ± galena ± tetrahedrite.

Calcic subtype:

• Pyroxene-rich Au skarns: Native gold ± pyrrhotite ± arsenopyrite ± chalcopyrite ± tellurides (e.g.

hedleyite, tetradymite, altaite and hessite) ± bismuthinite ± cobaltite ± native bismuth ± pyrite ±
sphalerite ± maldonite. They generally have a high sulphide content and high pyrrhotite:pyrite
ratios. Mineral and metal zoning is common in the skarn envelope. At Nickel Plate for example,
this comprises a narrow proximal zone of coarse-grained, garnet skarn containing high Cu:Au
ratios, and a wider, distal zone of finer grained pyroxene skarn containing low Cu:Au ratios and
the Au-sulphide orebodies.

• Garnet-rich Au skarns: Native gold ± chalcopyrite ± pyrite ± arsenopyrite ± sphalerite ±

magnetite ± hematite ± pyrrhotite ± galena ± tellurides ± bismuthinite. They generally have a
low to moderate sulphide content and low pyrrhotite:pyrite ratios.

• Epidote-rich Au skarn: Native gold ± chalcopyrite ± pyrite ± arsenopyrite ± hematite ± magnetite

± pyrrhotite ± galena ± sphalerite ± tellurides. They generally have a moderate to high sulphide
content with low pyrrhotite:pyrite ratios.

Exoskarn mineraology (Gangue):

• Magnesian subtype: Olivine, clinopyroxene (Hd2-50), garnet (Ad7-30), chondrodite and

monticellite. Retrograde minerals include serpentine, epidote, vesuvianite, tremolite-actinolite,
phlogopite, talc, K-feldspar and chlorite.
Calcic subtype:

• Pyroxene-rich Au skarns: Extensive exoskarn, generally with high pyroxene:garnet ratios.

Prograde minerals include diopsidic to hedenbergitic clinopyroxene (Hd 20-100), K-feldspar, Fe-
rich biotite, low Mn grandite garnet (Ad 10-100), wollastonite and vesuvianite. Other less
common minerals include rutile, axinite and sphene. Late or retrograde minerals include
epidote, chlorite, clinozoisite, vesuvianite, scapolite, tremolite-actinolite, sericite and prehnite.

• Garnet-rich Au skarns: Extensive exoskarn, generally with low pyroxene:garnet ratios. Prograde
minerals include low Mn grandite garnet (Ad 10-100), K-feldspar, wollastonite, diopsidic
clinopyroxene (Hd 0-60), epidote, vesuvianite, sphene and apatite. Late or retrograde minerals
include epidote, chlorite, clinozoisite, vesuvianite, tremolite-actinolite, sericite, dolomite,
siderite and prehnite.

• Epidote-rich Au skarns: Abundant epidote and lesser chlorite, tremolite-actinolite, quartz, K-

feldspar, garnet, vesuvianite, biotite, clinopyroxene and late carbonate. At the QR deposit,
epidote-pyrite and carbonate-pyrite veinlets and coarse aggregates are common, and the best
ore occurs in the outer part of the alteration envelope, within 50 m of the epidote skarn front.

Endoskarn mineralogy (Gangue): Moderate endoskarn development with K-feldspar, biotite, Mg-
pyroxene (Hd 5-30) and garnet. Endoskarn at the epidote-rich QR deposit is characterized by
calcite, epidote, clinozoisite and tremolite whereas at the Butte Highlands Mg skarn it contains
argillic and propyllitic alteration with garnet, clinopyroxene and epidote.

Weathering: In temperate and wet tropical climates, skarns often form topographic features with
positive relief.

Ore controls: The ore exhibits strong stratigraphic and structural controls. Orebodies form along sill-dike
intersections, sill-fault contacts, bedding-fault intersections, fold axes and permeable faults or
tension zones. In the pyroxene-rich and epidote-rich types, ore commonly develops in the more
distal portions of the alteration envelopes. In some districts, specific suites of reduced, Fe-rich
intrusions are spatially related to Au skarn mineralization. Ore bodies in the garnet-rich Au
skarns tend to lie more proximal to the intrusions.

Genetic model: Many Au skarns are related to plutons formed during oceanic plate subduction. There is
a worldwide spatial, temporal and genetic association between porphyry Cu provinces and calcic
Au skarns. Pyroxene-rich Au skarns tend to be hosted by siltstone-dominant packages and form
in hydrothermal systems that are sulphur-rich and relatively reduced. Garnet-rich Au skarns
tend to be hosted by carbonate-dominant packages and develop in more oxidising and/or more
sulphur-poor hydrothermal systems.

Associated deposit types: Au placers (C01, C02), calcic Cu skarns (K01), porphyry Cu deposits (L04) and
Au-bearing quartz and/or sulphide veins (I01, I02). Magnesian subtype can be associated with
porphyry Mo deposits (L05) and possibly W skarns (K05). In British Columbia there is a negative
spatial association between Au and Fe skarns at regional scales, even though both classes are
related to arc plutonism. Fe skarns are concentrated in the Wrangellia Terrane whereas most Au
skarn occurrences and all the economic deposits lie in Quesnellia.
Comments: Most Au skarns throughout the world are calcic and are associated with island arc
plutonism. However, the Savage Lode magnesian Au skarn occurs in the Archean greenstones of
Western Australia and the Butte Highlands magnesian Au skarn in Montana is hosted by
Cambrian platformal dolomites. Note: although the Nickel Plate deposit lies distal to the
Toronto stock in the pyroxene-dominant part of the skarn envelope, the higher grade ore zones
commonly lie adjacent to sills and dikes where the exoskarn contains appreciable amounts of
garnet with the clinopyroxene.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Au, As, Bi, Te, Co, Cu, Zn or Ni soil, stream sediment and rock anomalies, as well
as some geochemical zoning patterns throughout the skarn envelope (notably in Cu/Au, Ag/Au
and Zn/Au ratios). Calcic Au skarns (whether garnet-rich or pyroxene-rich) tend to have lower
Zn/Au, Cu/Au and Ag/Au ratios than any other skarn class. The intrusions related to Au skarns
may be relatively enriched in the compatible elements Cr, Sc and V, and depleted in lithophile
incompatible elements (Rb, Zr, Ce, Nb and La), compared to intrusions associated with most
other skarn types.

Geophysical signature: Airborne magnetic or gravity surveys to locate plutons. Induced polarization and
ground magnetic follow-up surveys can outline some deposits.

Other Exploration Guides: Placer Au. Any carbonates, calcareous tuffs or calcareous volcanic flows
intruded by arc-related plutons have a potential for hosting Au skarns. Favorable features in a
skarn envelope include the presence of: (a) proximal Cu-bearing garnet skarn and extensive
zones of distal pyroxene skarn which may carry micron Au, (b) hedenbergitic pyroxene (although
diopsidic pyroxene may predominate overall), (c) sporadic As-Bi-Te geochemical anomalies, and,
(d) undifferentiated, Fe-rich intrusions with low Fe2O3/FeO ratios. Any permeable calcareous
volcanics intruded by high-level porphyry systems (particularly alkalic plutons) have a potential
for hosting epidote-rich skarns with micron Au. During exploration, skarns of all types should be
routinely sampled and assayed for Au, even if they are lean in sulphides.

4. Economic Importance

Typical grade and tonnage: These deposits range from 0.4 to 13 Mt and from 2 to 15 g/t Au. Theodore et
al. (1991) report median grades and tonnage of 8.6 g/t Au, 5.0 g/t Ag and 213 000 t. Nickel Plate
produced over 71 tonnes of Au from 13.4 Mt of ore (grading 5.3 g/t Au). The 10.3 Mt Fortitude
(Nevada) deposit graded 6.9 g/t Au whereas the 13.2 Mt McCoy skarn (Nevada) graded 1.5 g/t
Au. The QR epidote-rich Au skarn has reserves exceeding 1.3 Mt grading 4.7 g/t Au.

Importance: Recently, there have been some significant Au skarn deposits discovered around the world
(e.g. Buckhorn Mountain, Wabu, Fortitude). Nevertheless, total historic production of Au from
skarn (more than 1 000 t of metal) is minute compared to production from other deposit types.
The Nickel Plate deposit (Hedley, British Columbia) was probably one of the earliest major Au
skarns in the world to be mined. Skarns have accounted for about 16 % of British Columbia's Au
production, although nearly half of this was derived as a byproduct from Cu and Fe skarns.

5. References
Billingsley, P. and Hume, C.B. (1941): The Ore Deposits of Nickel Plate Mountain, Hedley, British
Columbia; Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Bulletin, Volume 44, pages 524-590.
Brookes, J.W., Meinert, L.D., Kuyper, B.A. and Lane, M.L. (1990): Petrology and Geochemistry of the
McCoy Gold Skarn, Lander County, Nevada; in Geology and Ore Deposits of the Great Basin,
Symposium Proceedings, Geological Society of Nevada, April 1990.
Ettlinger, A.D. and Ray, G.E. (1989a): Precious Metal Enriched Skarns in British Columbia: An Overview
and Geological Study; B. C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1989-3,
128 pages.
Ettlinger, A.D., Albers, D., Fredericks, R. and Urbisinov, S. (1995): The Butte Highlands Project, Silver Bow
County, Montana; An Olivine-rich Magnesian Gold Skarn; in Symposium Proceedings of Geology
and Ore Deposits of American Cordilleran, Geological Society of Nevada, U.S. Geological Survey
and Geological Society of Chile, April 10-13, 1995, Reno, Nevada.
Fox, P.E., and Cameron, R.S. (1995): Geology of the QR Gold Deposit, Quesnel River Area, British
Columbia; in Porphyry Deposits of the Northwest Cordillera of North America, (editor) T.G.
Schroeter, Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, Special Volume 46, Paper
66, pages 829-837.
Hammarstrom, J.M., Orris, G.J., Bliss, J.D., and Theodore, T.G. (1989): A Deposit Model for Gold-Bearing
Skarns; Fifth Annual V.E. McKelvey Forum on Mineral and Energy Resources, U.S. Geological
Survey , Circular 1035, pages 27-28.
McKelvey, G.E., and Hammarstrom, J.M. (1991): A Reconnaissance Study of Gold Mineralization
Associated with Garnet Skarn at Nambija, Zamora Province, Ecuador, in USGS Research on
Mineral Resources - 1991, Program and Abstracts. Editors E.J. Good, J.F. Slack and R.K. Kotra,
U.S. Geological Survey, Circular 1062, page 55.
Meinert, L.D. (1989): Gold Skarn Deposits - Geology and Exploration Criteria; in The Geology of Gold
Deposits; The Perspective in 1988; Economic Geology; Monograph 6, pages 537-552.
Mueller, A.G. (1991): The Savage Lode Magnesian Skarn in the Marvel Loch Gold-Silver Mine, Southern
Cross Greenstone Belt, Western Australia; Part I. Structural Setting, Petrography and
Geochemistry; Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Volume 28, Number 5, pages 659-685.
Orris, G.J., Bliss, J.D., Hammarstrom, J.M. and Theodore, T.G. (1987): Description and Grades and
Tonnages of Gold-bearing Skarns; U. S. Geological Survey, Open File Report 87-273, 50 pages.
Ray, G.E. and Dawson, G.L. (1994): The Geology and Mineral Deposits of the Hedley Gold Skarn District,
Southern British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Bulletin 87,
156 pages.
Ray, G.E. and Webster, I.C.L. (1997): Skarns in British Columbia;, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Bulletin 101, 260 pages.
Ray, G.E., Ettlinger, A.D. and Meinert, L.D. (1990): Gold Skarns: Their Distribution, Characteristics and
Problems in Classification; in Geological Fieldwork 1989, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Paper 1990-1, pages 237-246.
Theodore, T.G., Orris, G.J., Hammarstrom, J.M. and Bliss, J.D. (1991): Gold Bearing Skarns; U. S.
Geological Survey; Bulletin 1930, 61 pages.
K05 - W SKARNS

by Gerald E. Ray
British Columbia Geological Survey

Ray, G.E. (1995): W Skarns, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallics
and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment and
Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 71-74.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Pyrometasomatic or contact metasomatic tungsten deposits.

Commodities (byproducts): W (Mo, Cu, Sn, Zn).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Emerald Tungsten (082FSW010), Dodger

(082FSW011), Feeney (082FSW247), Invincible (082FSW218), Dimac (082M 123); Fostung
(Ontario, Canada), MacTung (Yukon, Canada), Cantung (Northwest Territories, Canada), Pine
Creek and Strawberry(California, USA), Osgood Range (Nevada, USA), King Island (Tasmania,
Australia), Sang Dong (South Korea).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Scheelite-dominant mineralization genetically associated with a skarn gangue.

Tectonic setting: Continental margin, synorogenic plutonism intruding deeply buried sequences of
eugeoclinal carbonate-shale sedimentary rocks. Can develop in tectonically thickened packages
in back-arc thrust settings.

Age of mineralization: Mainly Mesozoic, but may be any age. Over 70% of the W skarns in British
Columbia are related to Cretaceous intrusions.

Host/Associated rock types: Pure and impure limestones, calcareous to carbonaceous pelites.
Associated with tonalite, granodiorite, quartz monzonite and granite of both I and S-types. W
skarn-related granitoids, compared to Cu skarn- related plutonic rocks, tend to be more
differentiated, more contaminated with sedimentary material, and have crystallized at a deeper
structural level.

Deposit form: Stratiform, tabular and lens-like orebodies. Deposits can be continous for hundreds of
metres and follow intrusive contacts.

Textures: Igneous textures in endoskarn. Coarse to fine-grained, massive granoblastic to mineralogically

layered textures in exoskarn. Biotite hornfelsic textures common.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Scheelite ± molybdenite ± chalcopyrite ± pyrrhotite ±

sphalerite ± arsenopyrite ± pyrite ± powellite. May contain trace wolframite, fluorite, cassiterite,
galena, marcasite and bornite. Reduced types are characterized by pyrrhotite, magnetite,
bismuthinite, native bismuth and high pyrrhotite:pyrite ratios. Variable amounts of quartz-vein
 stockwork (with local molybdenite) can cut both the exo and endoskarn. The Emerald Tungsten
skarns in British Columbia include pyrrhotite-arsenopyrite veins and pods that carry up to 4 g/t
Au.

Alteration mineralogy: Exoskarn alteration: Inner zone of diopside-hedenbergite (Hd60- 90, Jo5-20) ±
grossular-andradite (Ad 10-50, Spess5-50) ± biotite ± vesuvianite, with outer barren
wollastonite-bearing zone. An innermost zone of massive quartz may be present. Late-stage
spessartine ± almandine ± biotite ± amphibole ± plagioclase ± phlogopite ± epidote ± fluorite ±
sphene. Reduced types are characterized by hedenbergitic pyroxene, Fe-rich biotite, fluorite,
vesuvianite, scapolite and low garnet:pyroxene ratios, whereas oxidized types are characterized
by salitic pyroxene, epidote and andraditic garnet and high garnet:pyroxene ratios. Exoskarn
envelope can be associated with extensive areas of biotite hornfels. Endoskarn alteration:
Pyroxene ± garnet ± biotite ± epidote ± amphibole ± muscovite ± plagioclase ± pyrite ±
pyrrhotite ± trace tourmaline and scapolite; local greisen developed.

Ore controls: Carbonate rocks in extensive thermal aureoles of intrusions; gently inclined bedding and
intrusive contacts; structural and/or stratigraphic traps in sedimentary rocks, and irregular parts
of the pluton/country rock contacts.

Associated deposit types: Sn (K06), Mo (K07) and Pb-Zn (K02) skarns. Wollastonite-rich industrial mineral
skarns (K09).

Comments: W skarns are separable into two types (Newberry, 1982): reduced skarns (e.g. Cantung,
Mactung), formed in carbonaceous rocks and/or at greater depths, and oxidized skarns (e.g.
King Island ), formed in hematitic or non-carbonaceous rocks, and/or at shallower depths. Late
retrograde alteration is an important factor in many W skarns because, during retrogression, the
early low-grade mineralization is often scavenged and redeposited into economic high-grade ore
zones (e.g. Bateman, 1945; Dick, 1976, 1980). Dolomitic rocks tend to inhibit the development
of W skarns; consequently magnesian W skarns are uncommon. In British Columbia they are
preferentially associated with Cretaceous intrusions and hosted by calcareous, Cambrian age
cratonic, pericratonic and displaced continental margin rocks in the Cassiar, Kootenay-
Barkerville, Dorsay and Ancestral North American terranes.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: W, Cu, Mo, As, Bi and B. Less commonly Zn, Pb, Sn, Be and F geochemical
anomalies.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Grades range between 0.4 and 2% WO3 (typically 0.7%). Deposits vary from 0.1 to
>30 Mt.

Importance: Skarn deposits have accounted for nearly 60 % of the western world's production, and over
80 % of British Columbia's production.

5. References
Bateman, P.C. (1945): Pine Creek and Adamson Tungsten Mines, Inyo County, California; California
Journal Mines Geology, Volume 41, pages 231-249.
Dawson, K.M., Panteleyev, A. and Sutherland Brown, A. (1991): Regional Metallogeny, Chapter 19, in
Geology of the Cordilleran Orogen in Canada, Gabrielse, H. and Yorath, C.J., Editors, Geological
Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada, Number 4, pages 707-768 (also, Geological Society of
America, The Geology of North America, volume G-2).
Dick, L.A. (1976): Metamorphism and Metasomatism at the MacMillan Pass Tungsten Deposit, Yukon
and District of MacKenzie, Canada; unpublished M.Sc. thesis, Queens University, 226 pages.
Dick, L.A. (1980): A Comparative Study of the Geology, Mineralogy and Conditions of Formation of
Contact Metasomatic Mineral Deposits in the Northeastern Canadian Cordillera; Unpublished
Ph.D. Thesis, Queen's University, 471 pages.
Eckstrand, O.R. (1984): Canadian Mineral Deposit Types: A Geological Synopsis; Geological Survey of
Canada, Economic Geology Report 36, 86 pages.
Einaudi, M.T. and Burt, D.M. (1982): Introduction - Terminology, Classification and Composition of Skarn
Deposits; Economic Geology; Volume 77, pages 745-754.
Einaudi, M.T., Meinert, L.D. and Newberry, R.J. (1981): Skarn Deposits; in Seventy-fifth Anniversary
Volume, 1906-1980, Economic Geology, Skinner, B.J., Editor, Economic Geology Publishing Co.,
pages 317-391.
Kwak, T.A.P. (1987): W-Sn Skarn Deposits and Related Metamorphic Skarns and Granitoids; in
Developments in Economic Geology, Volume 24, Elsevier Publishing Co., 445 pages.
Kwak, T.A.P. and White, A.J.R. (1982): Contrasting W-Mo-Cu and W-Sn-F Skarn Types and Related
Granitoids. Mining Geology. Volume 32(4), pages 339-351.
Lowell, G.R. (1991): Tungsten-bearing Scapolite-Vesuvianite Skarns from the Upper Salcha River Area,
East-central Alaska; in Skarns - Their Genesis and Metallogeny, Theophrastus Publications,
Athens, Greece, pages 385-418.
Newberry, R.J. (1979): Systematics in the W-Mo-Cu Skarn Formation in the Sierra Nevada: An Overview;
Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs; Volume 11, page 486.
Newberry, R.J. (1982): Tungsten-bearing Skarns of the Sierra Nevada. I. The Pine Creek Mine, California;
Economic Geology, Volume 77, pages 823-844.
Newberry, R.J., and Swanson, S.E. (1986): Scheelite Skarn Granitoids: An Evaluation of the Roles of
Magmatic Source and Process; Ore Geology Review, Number 1, pages 57- 81.
K06 - Sn SKARNS

by Gerald E. Ray
British Columbia Geological Survey

Ray, G.E. (1995): Sn Skarns, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallics
and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment and
Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 75-76.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Pyrometasomatic or contact metasomatic tin deposits.

Commodities (byproducts): Sn (W, Zn, magnetite).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Only three in British Columbia - Silver Diamond,
Atlin Magnetite, and Daybreak (104N069, 126 and 134 respectively); JC (Yukon, Canada), Moina,
Mount Lindsay, Hole 16 and Mt. Garnet (Tasmania, Australia), Lost River (Alaska, USA).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Cassiterite-dominant mineralization genetically associated with a skarn gangue

(includes calcic and magnesian Sn skarns).

Tectonic settings: Late to post orogenic granites emplaced into thick and deeply buried continental
margin sedimentary sequences, or sequences in rifted or stable cratonic environments.

Age of mineralization: Most economic deposits are Mesozoic or Paleozoic, but occurrences may be any
age (the occurrences in British Columbia are Late Cretaceous).

Host/Associated rock types: Carbonates and calcareous sedimentary sequences. Associated with
differentiated (low Ca, high Si and K) ilmenite-series granite, adamellite and quartz monzonitic
stocks and batholiths (of both I and S-type) intruding carbonate and calcareous clastic rocks. Sn
skarns tend to develop in reduced and deep-level environments and may be associated with
greisen alteration.

Deposit form: Variable; can occur as either stratiform, stockwork, pipe-like or irregular vein-like
orebodies.

Textures: Igneous textures in endoskarn. Coarse to fine-grained, massive granoblastic to mineralogically

layered textures in exoskarn; wrigglite skarns contain thin rhythmic and alternating layers rich in
either magnetite, fluorite, vesuvianite or tourmaline. Some hornfelsic textures.

Ore Mineralogy: Cassiterite ± scheelite ± arsenopyrite ± pyrrhotite ± chalcopyrite ± stannite ± magnetite

± bismuthinite ± sphalerite ± pyrite ± ilmenite.

Alteration mineralogy: Exoskarn alteration: Grandite garnet (Ad15-75, Pyralsp 5-30) (sometimes Sn, F,
and Be enriched), hedenbergitic pyroxene (Hd40-95) ± vesuvianite (sometimes Sn and F-
 enriched) ± malayaite ± Fe and/or F-rich biotite ± stanniferous sphene ± gahnite ± rutile ± Sn-rich
ilvaite ± wollastonite ± adularia. Late minerals include muscovite, Fe-rich biotite, chlorite,
tourmaline, fluorite, sellaite, stilpnomelane, epidote and amphibole (latter two minerals can be
Sn rich). Associated greisens include quartz and muscovite ± tourmaline ± topaz ± fluorite ±
cassiterite ± sulphides. Magnesian Sn skarns can also contain olivine, serpentine, spinel,
ludwigite, talc and brucite.

Ore controls: Differentiated plutons intruding carbonate rocks; fractures, lithological or structural
contacts. Deposits may develop some distance (up to 500 m) from the source intrusions.

Associated deposit types: W skarns (K05), Sn ± Be greisens (I13), Sn-bearing quartz-sulphide veins and
mantos (J02). In British Columbia, some of the Sn and W skarn-related intrusions (e.g. Cassiar
batholith, Mount Haskin stock) are associated with small Pb-Zn skarn occurrences (K02).

Comments: Sn skarns generally form at deep structural levels and in reduced oxidation states. However,
wrigglite Sn skarns tend to develop in relatively near- surface conditions, such as over the
cupolas of high-level granites. The three Sn skarn occurrences in British Columbia are all
associated with an S-type, fluorine-rich accretionary granite, the Surprise Lake batholith.
However, they are unusual in being hosted in allochthonous oceanic rocks of the Cache Creek
Terrane.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Sn, W, F, Be, Bi, Mo, As, Zn, Cu, Rb, Li, Cs and Re geochemical anomalies. Borate-
bearing magnesian Sn skarns may exhibit B enrichment.

Geophysical signature: Magnetic, induced polarization and possible radiometric anomalies.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Deposits can grade up to 1 % Sn, but much of the metal occurring in malayaite,
garnet, amphibole and epidote is not economically recoverable. Worldwide, deposits reach 30
Mt, but most range between 0.1 and 3 Mt.

Importance: Worldwide, Sn skarns represent a major reserve of tin. However, current production from
skarn is relatively minor compared to that from placer Sn deposits and Sn-rich greissens and
mantos. British Columbia has had no Sn production from skarns.

5. References

Burt, D.M. (1978): Tin Silicate-Borate-Oxide Equilibria in Skarns and Greisens - The System CaO-SnO2-
SiO2-H2O-B2O3-CO2-F2O-1; Economic Geology, Volume 73, pages 269- 282.
Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A. (1986): Mineral Deposit Models; U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, 379
pages.
Einaudi, M.T., Meinert, L.D. and Newberry, R.J. (1981): Skarn Deposits; in Seventy-fifth Anniversary
Volume, 1906-1980, Economic Geology, Skinner, B.J., Editor, Economic Geology Publishing Co.,
pages 317-391.
Kwak, T.A.P. (1987): W-Sn Skarn Deposits and Related Metamorphic Skarns and Granitoids; in
Developments in Economic Geology, Volume 24, Elsevier Publishing Co. 445 pages.
Kwak, T.A.P. and Askins, P.W. (1981): Geology and Genesis of the F-Sn-W (-Be-Zn) Skarn (Wrigglite) at
Moina, Tasmania, Australia; Economic Geology, Volume 76, pages 439-467.
Mitrofanov, N.P. and Stolyarov, I.S. (1982): Comparative Description of Tin-bearing Skarns of the Ladoga
Region and Central Asia; International Geology Revue, Volume 24, No. 11, pages 1299-1305.
K07 - Mo SKARNS

by Gerald E. Ray
British Columbia Geological Survey

Ray, G.E. (1995): Mo Skarns, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallics
and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment and
Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 77-78.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Pyrometasomatic or contact metasomatic Mo deposits.

Commodities (byproducts): Mo (W, Cu, Pb, Zn, Sn, Bi, U, Au).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Coxey (082FSW110), Novelty

(082FSW107); Mount Tennyson (New South Wales, Australia), Little Boulder Creek (Idaho, USA),
Cannivan Gulch (Montana, USA), Azegour (Morocco), Yangchiachangtze (China).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Molybdenite-dominant mineralization genetically associated with a skarn gangue

(includes calcic and magnesian Mo skarns). Mo skarns are broadly separable into polymetallic
and “molybdenite-only” types (see comments below).

Tectonic setting: Late orogenic plutonism (derived from transitional crust) intruding continental margin
carbonate sequences. Also, some are associated with Mo- bearing porphyry systems developed
within intra-oceanic island arcs.

Age of mineralization: Mainly Mesozoic and Paleozoic, but may be any age. In British Columbia, they are
mainly of Early to mid-Jurassic in age.

Host/Associated rock types: Stocks and dikes of evolved, commonly leucocratic quartz monzonite to
granite (some containing primary biotite and muscovite) intruding calcareous clastic rocks.
Deposits tend to develop close to intrusive contacts. Some of the Mo skarns in British Columbia
are associated with high- level intrusions that have explosive breccia textures.

Deposit form: Irregular orebodies along, and controlled by, the intrusive contacts.

Textures: Igneous textures in endoskarn; local explosive breccia textures. Coarse to fine-grained,
massive granoblastic to mineralogically layered textures in exoskarn. Some hornfelsic textures.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Molybdenite ± scheelite ± pyrrhotite ± powellite ±

chalcopyrite ± arsenopyrite ± pyrite ± pyrrhotite ± bismuthinite ± sphalerite ± fluorite. In rare
instances also galena ± magnetite ± uraninite ± pitchblende ± cassiterite ± cobalite ± stannite ±
gold.
Exoskarn alteration: Calcic Mo skarns: Hedenbergite pyroxene (Hd50-80, Jo1-3) ± low Mn grossular-
andradite garnet (Ad40-95) ± wollastonite ± biotite ± vesuvianite. Magnesian Mo skarns: olivine
(Fo96). Retrograde minerals: Calcic skarns: amphibole ± epidote ± chlorite and muscovite.
Magnesian skarns: serpentine ± tremolite ± chlorite.

Endoskarn alteration: Clinopyroxene, K-feldspar, hornblende, epidote, quartz veining, sericite,

molybdenite.
Ore controls: Carbonate or calcareous rocks in thermal aureoles adjacent to intrusive margins.

Associated deposit types: Mo porphyries of quartz monzonite type (L05), Mo-sulphide veins, and Zn-
sulphide veins (I05). Some Mo skarns in China are associated with distal, sphalerite-rich
mineralization.

Comments: Mo skarns are broadly separable into two types: polymetallic (containing molybdenite with
other W, Zn, Pb, Bi, Sn, Co or U-rich minerals), and "molybedenite-only" (containing mainly
molybdenite with no or few other sulphides). Over 85% of the 21 Mo skarns recorded in British
Columbia occur in the Omineca Belt. More than 60% are hosted in cratonic, pericratonic and
displaced continental margin rocks of the Kootenay, Cassiar and Ancestral North America
terranes, and a further 19% are found in the Quesnellia Terrane.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Enriched in Mo, Zn, Cu, Sn, Bi, As, F, Pb, U, Sb, Co (Au).

Geophysical signature: Positive magnetic and induced polarization anomalies.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Worldwide, grades range from 0.1 to 2 % MoS2, and tonnages between 0.1 and 2
Mt. In British Columbia, the Coxey deposit produced 1 Mt of ore grading approximately 0.17 %
MoS2. The Novelty and Giant are polymetallic Mo skarns near Rossland, British Columbia with
unusually high grades of up to 47 g/t Au, 1.4 % Ni, 30.5 % As and 4.84 % Co.

Importance: Mo skarns tend to be smaller tonnage and less economically important than porphyry Mo
deposits.

5. References

Einaudi, M.T., Meinert, L.D. and Newberry, R.J. (1981): Skarn Deposits; in Seventy-fifth Anniversary
Volume, 1906-1980, Economic Geology, Skinner, B.J., Editor, Economic Geology Publishing Co.,
pages 317-391.
Theodore, T.G. and Menzie, W.D. (1984): Fluorine-deficient Porphyry Molybdenum Deposits in the
Western North American Cordillera; Proceedings of the 6th Quadrennial IAGOD Symposium,
Stuttgart, Germany, pages 463-470.
K08 - GARNET SKARNS

by Gerald E. Ray
British Columbia Geological Survey

Ray, G.E. (1999): Garnet Skarns; in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3,
Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry
of Energy and Mines, pages 51-52.

1. Identification

Synonym: Pyrometasomatic or contact metasomatic garnet deposits.

Commodities (byproducts): Garnet (wollastonite, magnetite).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Mount Riordan (Crystal Peak, 082ESW102); San
Pedro (New Mexico, USA).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Garnet-dominant skarn hosted by calcareous rocks generally near an intrusive
contact.

Tectonic settings: Virtually any setting.

Age of deposit: May be any age.

Host/Associated rock types: Garnet is hosted by carbonate or altered calcareous mafic volcanic
sequences that are intruded by relatively oxidized plutons.

Deposit form: Irregular zones of massive garnet developed in exoskarn close to plutonic contacts. The
shape of the deposit may be controlled partly by the morphology of the original conformable
units.

Textures: Coarse grained, massive granoblastic textures in exoskarn.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Abundant and massive, coarse grained garnet (grossular-
andradite) ± wollastonite ± magnetite.

Alteration mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Garnet, clinopyroxene, quartz, feldspar, calcite,
sphene, apatite, axinite, vesuvianite and sericite.

Opaque mineralogy: Economically viable garnet deposits typically have very little or no sulphides.

Ore controls: Plutonic contacts and oxidized carbonate host rocks. The Mount Riordan garnet skarn lies
proximal to the intrusion.

Associated deposit types: Cu, Fe, Au and wollastonite skarns (K01, K03, K04 and K09).
Comments: The best industrial garnets (due to higher specific gravity and hardness) are almandine-
pyrope composition. These generally occur in high grade metamorphic rocks and require
secondary concentration in beach or stream placers to be mined economically. Examples include
the Emerald Creek deposit located in Idaho, USA, and a 6 Mt beach-sand deposit situated near
Geraldton, Western Australia that grades 35 per cent garnet. The Mount Riordan deposit is one
of the largest and highest grade garnet skarns yet identified; its garnet is suitable for the
production of sandblasting and other abrasive products that require high angularity and a wide
range of grain sizes. In British Columbia, there have been intermittent attempts to process the
garnet-rich tailings from the Iron Hill-Argonaut Fe skarn (092F 075).

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: May get very weak W, Mo, Zn and Cu geochemical anomalies.

Geophysical signature: Gravity and possible magnetic anomalies.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: To be economic, garnet skarn deposits should be large tonnage (>20 Mt) and high
grade (> 70% garnet). The Mount Riordan (Crystal Peak) deposit contains reserves of 40 Mt
grading 78% garnet and San Pedro is a 22 to 30 Mt deposit with 85% andraditic garnet.

Economic limitations: The garnet should be free of inclusions, possess a relatively high specific gravity
and high angularity, and be present as discrete grains that can be processed easily by
conventional benefication techniques. Economic concentrations of clean and industrially
suitable grossularite-andradite garnet in skarn are rare. This is because skarn garnets tend to be
relative soft and many contain fine-grained carbonate inclusions. Easy access, low cost
transportation and a ready and reliable market for the product are essential features controlling
the economic viability of a deposit.

Uses: Sandblasting, water-jet equipment and abrasives, such as sandpaper. Grossular-andradite garnets
have more restricted uses than almandine.

Importance: World production in 1995 of industrial garnet was approximately 110 000 tonnes, of which
just under half (valued at $US 11 million) was produced in the U.S. Worldwide, most garnet is
obtained from placer deposits or as a byproduct during hard rock mining of other commodities.
The demand in North America for industrial garnet is growing; skarns are expected to be an
important future source for the mineral.

5. Selected bibliography

Austin, G.T. (1991): Garnet (Industrial); in Mineral Commodity Summaries 1991, Department of the
Interior, United States Bureau of Mines, pages 58-59.
Grond, H.C., Wolfe, R., Montgomery, J.H. and Giroux, G.H. (1991): A Massive Skarn-hosted Andradite
Deposit near Penticton, British Columbia; in Industrial Minerals of Alberta and British Columbia,
Canada, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1991-23, pages 131-
133.
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Garnet; in Industrial Minerals, Geology and World Deposits,
Industrial Minerals Division, Metal Bulletin Plc., London, pages 120-12.
Hight, R.P. (1983): Abrasives; in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 5th edition, American Institute of Mining,
Metallurgy and Petroleum Engineers, Lefond, S.J., Editor, New York, pages 11-32.
Smoak, J.F. (1985): Garnet; Unites States Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 675, pages 297-304.
Ray, G.E., Grond, H.C., Dawson, G.L. and Webster, I.C.L. (1992): The Mount Riordan (Crystal Peak) Garnet
Skarn, Hedley District, Southern British Columbia; Economic Geology, Volume 87, pages 1862-
1876.
K09 - WOLLASTONITE SKARNS

by G.J. Simandl1, S. Paradis2, G.J Orris3 and G.E. Ray1

1
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
Geological Survey of Canada, Sidney, B.C., Canada
3
United States Geological Survey, Tucson, Arizona, USA

Simandl, G.J., Paradis, S., Orris, G.J. and Ray, G.E. (1999): Wollastonite Skarns; in Selected British
Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and
D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, pages 53-56.

1. Identification

Commodities (byproducts): Wollastonite (in some cases garnet, clinopyroxene, high calcium carbonate,
limestone, marble, Cu and possibly other metals).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE#): Canada/International): Mineral Hill (092GNW052), Zippa

Mountain (104B 384), Rossland wollastonite (082FSW341); Fox Knoll and Lewis (New York, USA),
Lappeenranta (Finland), Khila (Belkapahar, India), Koytash (Uzbekistan, Commonwealth of
Independent States).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Wollastonite deposits form irregular masses or lenses in metamorphosed

calcareous rocks. Most form adjacent to or some distance from known igneous intrusions. Some
deposits are located in medium to high grade metamorphic terrains and appear unrelated to
intrusions.

Tectonic settings: Magmatism associated with continental margin orogenesis and rifting; or intracratonic
catazonal and/or magmatic settings.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Exoskarns around granitic, syenitic, anorthositic or other

intrusions in carbonate rocks. Epizonal to catazonal metamorphic environments. Some deposits
are located in catazonal metasedimentary sequences lacking known intrusive bodies and are
associated with mylonite zones that acted as channels for fluids. In these cases, it is difficult to
determine if they are distal to the intrusions or related to the regional metamorphism.

Age of mineralization: Typically Precambrian to Tertiary.

Host/Associated rock types: Hosts are typically calcitic marble, limestone or calcite-rich siliceous
metasedimentary rocks. The most common associated igneous rocks are felsic intrusives,
charnockites, pegmatites and lithologies of the anorthositic suite including gabbros.

Deposit form: Irregular, lens-shaped or planar. Some deposits are several metres to tens of metres thick
and can be traced for hundreds of metres.

Texture/Structure: Wollastonite crystals are accicular and may be porphyroblastic. They can form
rosettes, fan-like textures, and millimeter to decimeter scale layering. Sometimes the
 wollastonite is massive. The wollasonite-rich rocks may contain remnants of the carbonate
protolith.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Wollastonite, sometimes garnet and clinopyroxene or
calcite, rarely Cu and other sulphides.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Garnet, clinopyroxene, calcite and quartz may be major
constituents. Tremolite-actinolite, zoisite, clinozoisite, anorthite, prehnite, sulphides, oxides,
graphite, vesuvianite and titanite may be minor constituents.

Alteration mineralogy: Calc-silicate minerals in high grade metamorphic terrains are commonly affected
by retrograde metamorphism. In some of these cases, retrograde clinozoisite, zoisite, prehnite
and/or chlorite are present. Wollastonite crystal may be partially corroded and retrograded to
quartz and/or calcite.

Weathering: Wollastonite commonly weathers with a positive relief in temperate regions.

Ore controls: Wollastonite often occurs at contacts of carbonate or siliceous calcareous rocks with
igneous intrusions or within horses and roof pendants of carbonate rocks in intrusive bodies.
Fracture and mylonite zones and hinges of folds and other zones of high paleo-permeability are
extremely important, since an open system is the main pre-requisite for formation of high grade
wollastonite deposits (Simandl, 1992; pages 265-277).

Genetic model: Most wollastonite deposits are formed through contact metamorphism or
metasomatism of siliceous limestone or other calcareous rocks. Typically fluids emanating from
the intrusive rocks provide silica, alumina, iron and manganese which react with calcareous
rocks to form skarn minerals. Introduction of silica under favorable physical andchemical
conditions results in the formation of wollastonite according to the following reaction:
1 calcite + 1 SiO2 = 1 wollastonite + 1 CO2

Stability of the wollastonite is dependent on pressure, temperature and X(CO2) and X(H2O) of
the ambient fluid. The temperature required for wollastonite formation increases with increase
in X(CO2) of the fluid and lithostatic pressure. In some cases, the silica required for wollastonite
formation may have been present as impurities within the limy sedimentary protolith. Some
deposits in medium to high grade regional metamorphic settings are interpreted to form by
interaction of metamorphic or metasomatic fluids with calcareous rocks along permeable zones
such as saddle reefs, fracture or fault zones.

Associated deposit types: Cu-, Zn-Pb-, W-, Mo- and Au-bearing skarns (K01, K02, K05, K07, K04) and
porphyry Cu (L04). Wollastonite rocks in catazonal environments may be in some cases be cut by
crystalline graphite veins.

Comments: Some W, Pb-Zn, or Cu skarn prospects are currently considered as potential sources of
wollastonite.

3. Exploration Guides
Geochemical signature: No direct chemical indicators are known for wollastonite, however associated
metallic occurrences can be detected by geochemical methods.

Geophysical signature: Electromagnetic and magnetic methods may be used to delineate intrusive
contacts with calcareous rocks.

Other Exploration Guides: Commonly found in calcareous sediments cut by igneous rocks. Boulder
tracing is a successfully used exploration method; boulders have a rotten wood-like appearance.
Wollastonite usually has a positive relief relative to carbonate host rock. In some areas, greenish
calcite porphyroblasts within calcitic marbles are common in proximity of wollastonite deposits
located in catazonal metamorphic environments.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Highly variable. Wollastonite skarns vary from 0.1 million to 50 million
tonnes. Grades vary between 20 and 80% wollastonite. Clinopyroxene and garnet are recovered
from some deposits and calcite (limestone or marble) is recovered from others. In rare deposits
Cu and wollastonite are recovered as co-products. Median tonnage is 1.3 million tonnes and
median grade is 49% wollastonite (Orris, 1992).

Economic limitations: Deposits that can supply high aspect ratio wollastonite products are highly sought
after. The relative whiteness, brightness, color, aspect ratio of the particles, oil absorption,
particle size, refractive index, pH of 10% slurry, specific gravity and type of impurities do
determine possible applications. Specialized milling techniques and surface modification
significantly increases the price of the wollastonite concentrate. Diopside and garnet may be
separated by electromagnetic methods. If calcite is present and a high quality wollastonite
concentrate is sought, then flotation is required. Flotation increases substantially the initial
capital costs of the project. In glass and ceramic uses, a high iron content due to impurities, such
as garnet, diopside, oxides and sulphides, can be a problem.

Uses: The major end uses of wollastonite are in ceramics, such as semi-vitreous bodies, heat insulators,
acoustic tiles, electrical insulators, and fire-resistant products, such as interior or exterior
construction boards, roofing materials, specialty refractors and glazes. It is also used as a
functional filler in paint, coatings and plastics and metallurgical applications. Use of wollastonite
as reinforcing agent in plastics and as asbestos substitute is increasing. High aspect ratio
wollastonite (>15:1) with favorable physical properties is used mainly in plastic and paint as
functional filler. Markets for low aspect ratio wollastonite are dependent mainly on the chemical
composition and impurities and its end uses are in ceramics, fluxes, glass and limited filler
applications.

Importance: These deposits are the only commercial sources of natural wollastonite. Competition from
synthetic wollastonite is limited to specialty products in the low aspect ratio segment of the
market.

5. References

Anonymous (1994): The Economics of Wollastonite; Fifth Edition, Roskill Information Services Ltd,
London, 138 pages.
Andrews, R.W. (1970): Wollastonite; Monograph, Institute of Geological Sciences, Her Majesty’s
Stationary Office, London, 114 pages.
Bauer, R.R., Copeland, J.R. and Santini, K. (1994): Wollastonite; in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 6th
edition; Carr, D.D. Senior Editor; Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., Littleton
Colorado, pages 1119-1128.
Fischl, P. (1991): Wollastonite and Tremolite Occurrences in British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy,
Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1991-17, 52 pages.
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals and World Deposits; Metal Bulletin, London, 312
pages.
Jain, P.M. (1993): Indian Wollastonite - A Success Story; Industrial Minerals, No. 315, pages 39-41.
Jaworski, B.J. and Dipple, G.M. (1996): Zippa Mountain Wollastonite Skarns, Iskut River Map Area; in
Geological Fieldwork 1995, Grant, B. and Newell, J.M., Editors, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines
and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1996-1, pages 243-249.
Orris, G.J. (1991): Descriptive Model of Wollastonite Skarn; in Some Industrial Mineral Deposit Models:
Descriptive Deposit Models; U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report 91-11A, pages 5-6
Orris, G.J. (1992): Grade and Tonnage Model of Wollastonite Skarns; in Industrial Mineral Deposit
Models: Grade and Tonnage Models; U.S. Department of Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Open
File Report 92-437, pages 20-22.
Simandl, G.J. (1992): Graphite deposits in the Gatineau Area, Quebec; Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Ecole
Polytechnique de Montreal, Montreal (in French), 383 pages.
Simandl, G.J., Valiquette, G., Jacob, H.-L., Paradis, S. (1990): Gîtes de Wollastonite, Province Tectonique
de Grenville, Québec; Canadian institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Bulletin, Volume 83, Number
934, pages 101-107.
Simandl, G.J., Valiquette, G. and Martignole, J. (1989): Genesis of Graphite-wollastonite Deposits,
Grenville Geological Province, Québec; Geological Association of Canada and Mineralogical
Association of Canada, General Program for Annual Meeting, Abstract, page A69.
Xian, Z.-M. (1996): Chinese Wollastonite; Industrial Minerals, Number 345, pages 59-63.
Examples of Skarn Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

K01 Mines Gaspé (Québec), Carr Fork (Yukon) Craigmont, Phoenix
K02 San Antonio (Mexico), Ban Ban (Australia) Piedmont, Contact
K03 Shinyama (Japan), Cornwall (Pennsylvannia) Tasu, Jessie, Merry
Widow, HPH
K04 Fortitude, McCoy, and Tomboy-Minnie (Nevada, USA), Nickel Plate, French,
Buckhorn Mountain (Washington, USA), Diamond Hill, Cante, Good
New World district and Butte Highlands (Montana, Hope, QR-
USA), Nixon Forks (Alaska, USA); Thanksgiving Quesnel River
(Phillippines); Browns Creek and Junction Reefs-
Sheanan-Grants (New South Wales, Australia), Mount
Biggenden (Queensland, Australia), Savage Lode,
Coogee (Western Australia, Australia); Nambija
(Ecuador); Wabu (Irian Jaya, Indonesia)
K05 Cantung & Mactung (Yukon), Pine Creek (California) Emerald Tungsten,
Dimac
K06 Lost River (Alaska), JC (Yukon) Daybreak
K07 Little Boulder Creek (Idaho), Mt. Tennyson (Australia) Coxey, Novelty
K08 San Pedro (New Mexico, USA) Mount Riordan (Crystal
Peak)
K09 Fox Knoll & Lewis (New York) Mineral Hill, Rossland
L - Porphyry

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

L01 Subvolcanic Cu-Ag-Au (As-Sb) Enargite Au, Transitional Au-Ag 22a/25e
L02 Plutonic-Related Au Quartz Veins Intrusion-related gold systems --
L03 Alkalic porphyry Cu-Au Diorite porphyry copper --
L04 Porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au Calcalkaline porphyry 17,20,21a1
L05 Porphyry Mo (Low F- type) Calcalkaline Mo stockwork 21b
L06 Porphyry Sn Subvolcanic tin 20a
L07 Porphyry W Stockwork W-Mo 21c*
L08 Porphyry Mo (Climax-type) Granite molybdenite 16
L09* Porphyry-related Au Granitoid Au, Porphyry Au 20d
L01 - SUBVOLCANIC Cu-Au-Ag (As-Sb)

by Andre Panteleyev
British Columbia Geological Survey

Panteleyev, A. (1995): Subvolcanic Cu-Au-Ag (As-Sb), in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit
Profiles, Volume 1 - Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia
Ministry of Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 79-82.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Transitional, intrusion-related (polymetallic) stockwork and vein.

Commodities (byproducts): Cu, Au, Ag (As, Sb).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Equity Silver (093L 001); Thorn prospect
(104K031, 116); Rochester District (Nevada, USA), Kori Kollo (Bolivia), the 'epithermal gold' zones
at Lepanto (Philippines), parts of Recsk (Hungary) and Bor (Serbia).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Pyritic veins, stockworks and breccias in subvolcanic intrusive bodies with
stratabound to discordant massive pyritic replacements, veins, stockworks, disseminations and
related hydrothermal breccias in country rocks. These deposits are located near or above
porphyry Cu hydrothermal systems and commonly contain pyritic auriferous polymetallic
mineralization with Ag sulphosalt and other As and Sb-bearing minerals.

Tectonic settings: Volcano-plutonic belts in island arcs and continental margins; continental volcanic
arcs. Subvolcanic intrusions are abundant. Extensional tectonic regimes allow high-level
emplacement of the intrusions, but compressive regimes are also permissive.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Uppermost levels of intrusive systems and their adjoining
fractured and permeable country rocks, commonly in volcanic terrains with eroded
stratovolcanoes. Subvolcanic domes and flow-dome complexes can also be mineralized; their
uppermost parts are exposed without much erosion.

Age of mineralization: Mainly Tertiary, a number of older deposits have been identified.

Host/Associated rock types: Subvolcanic (hypabyssal) stocks, rhyodacite and dacite flow-dome
complexes with fine to coarse-grained quartz-phyric intrusions are common. Dike swarms and
other small subvolcanic intrusions are likely to be present. Country rocks range widely in
character and age. Where coeval volcanic rocks are present, they range from andesite to
rhyolite in composition and occur as flows, breccias and pyroclastic rocks with related erosion
products (epiclastic rocks).

Deposit form: Stockworks and closely-spaced to sheeted sets of sulphide-bearing veins in zones within
intrusions and as structurally controlled and stratabound or bedding plane replacements along
permeable units and horizons in hostrocks. Veins and stockworks form in transgressive
 hydrothermal fluid conduits that can pass into pipe-like and planar breccias. Breccia bodies are
commonly tens of metres and, rarely, a few hundred metres in size. Massive sulphide zones can
pass outward into auriferous pyrite-quartz-sericite veins and replacements.

Texture/Structure: Sulphide and sulphide-quartz veins and stockworks. Open space filling and
replacement of matrix in breccia units. Bedding and lithic clast replacements by massive
sulphide, disseminations and veins. Multiple generations of veins and hydrothermal breccias are
common. Pyrite is dominant and quartz is minor to absent in veins.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Pyrite, commonly as auriferous pyrite, chalcopyrite,
terahedrite/tennantite; enargite/luzonite, covellite, chalcocite, bornite, sphalerite, galena,
arsenopyrite, argentite, sulphosalts, gold, stibnite, molybdenite, wolframite or scheelite,
pyrrhotite, marcasite, realgar,hematite, tin and bismuth minerals. Depth zoning is commonly
evident with pyrite-rich deposits containing enargite near surface, passing downwards into
tetrahedrite/tennantite + chalcopyrite and then chalcopyrite in porphyry intrusions at depth.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Pyrite, sericite, quartz; kaolinite, alunite, jarosite
(mainly in supergene zone).

Alteration mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Pyrite, sericite, quartz; kaolinite, dickite, pyrophyllite,
andalusite, diaspore, corundum, tourmaline, alunite, anhydrite, barite, chalcedony,
dumortierite, lazulite (variety scorzalite), rutile and chlorite. Tourmaline as schorlite (a black Fe-
rich variety) can be present locally; it is commonly present in breccias with quartz and variable
amounts of clay minerals. Late quartz-alunite veins may occur.

Weathering: Weathering of pyritic zones can produce limonitic blankets containing abundant jarosite,
goethite and, locally, alunite.

Genetic model: These deposits represent a transition from porphyry copper to epithermal conditions
with a blending and blurring of porphyry and epithermal characteristics. Mineralization is
related to robust, evolving hydrothermal systems derived from porphyritic, subvolcanic
intrusions. Vertical zoning and superimposition of different types of ores is typical due, in large
part, to overlapping stages of mineralizations. Ore fluids with varying amounts of magmatic-
source fluids have temperatures generally greater than those of epithermal systems, commonly
in the order of 300* C and higher. Fluid salinities are also relatively high, commonly more than
10 weight per cent NaCl-equivalent and rarely in the order of 50 %, and greater.

Ore controls: Strongly fractured to crackled zones in cupolas and internal parts of intrusions and flow-
dome complexes; along faulted margins of high-level intrusive bodies. Permeable lithologies,
both primary and secondary in origin, in the country rocks. Primary controls are structural
features such as faults, shearz, fractured and crackled zones and breccias. Secondary controls
are porous volcanic units, bedding plane contacts and unconformities. Breccia pipes provide
channelways for hydrothermal fluids originating from porphyry Cu systems and commonly carry
elevated values of Au and Ag. The vein and replacement style deposits can be separated from
the deeper porphyry Cu mineralization by 200 to 700 m.
Associated deposit types: Porphyry Cu-Au±Mo (L04); epithermal Au-Ag commonly both high-
sulphidation (H04) and low-sulphidation (H05) pyrite-sericite-bearing types; auriferous quartz-
pyrite veins, enargite massive sulphide also known as enargite gold.

Comments: This deposit type is poorly defined and overall, uncommon. It is in large part stockworks and
a closely spaced to sheeted sulphide vein system with local massive to disseminated
replacement sulphide zones. It forms as a high- temperature, pyrite-rich, commonly
tetrahderite, and rarely enargite-bearing, polymetallic affiliate of epithermal Au-Ag
mineralization. Both low and high- sulphidation epithermal styles of mineralization can be
present. As and Sb enrichments in ores are characteristic. If abundant gas and gas condensates
evolve from the hydrothermal fluids there can be extensive acid leaching and widespread, high-
level advanced argillic alteration. This type of alteration is rarely mineralized.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Elevated values of Au, Cu, Ag, As, Sb, Zn, Cd, Pb, Fe and F; at deeper levels Mo,
Bi, W and locally Sn. In some deposits there is local strong enrichment in B, Co, Ba, K and
depletion of Na. Both depth zoning and lateral zoning are evident.

Geophysical signature: Induced polarization to delineate pyrite zones. Magnetic surveys are useful in
some cases to outline lithologic units and delineate contacts. Electromagnetic surveys can be
used effectively where massive sulphide bodies are present.

Other Exploration Guides: Association with widespread sericite-pyrite and quartz-sericite-pyrite that
might be high-level leakage from buried porphyry Cu ± Au ± Mo deposits. Extensive overprinting
of sericite/illite by kaolinite; rare alunite. In some deposits, high-temperature aluminous
alteration minerals pyrophyllite and andalusite are present but are generally overprinted by
abundant sericite and lesser kaolinite. Tourmaline and phosphate minerals can occur. There is
commonly marked vertical mineralogical and geochemical depth-zoning.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: The deposits have pyritic orebodies of various types; vertical stacking and
pronounced metal zoning are prevalent. Small, high-grade replacement orebodies containing
tetrahedrite/tennantite, and rarely enargite, can form within larger zones of pyritization. The
massive sulphide replacement ores have associated smaller peripheral, structurally controlled
zones of sericitic alteration that constitute pyritic orebodies grading ~ 4 g/t gold. Similar
tetrahedrite-bearing ores with bulk mineable reserves at Equity Silver were in the order of 30
Mt with 0.25% Cu and ~86 g/t Ag and 1 g/t Au. At the Recsk deposit, Hungary, shallow breccia-
hosted Cu-Au ores overlie a porphyry deposit containing ~1000 Mt with 0.8 % Cu. The closely
spaced pyritic fracture and vein systems at Kori Kollo, La Joya district, Bolivia contained 10 Mt
oxide ore with 1.62 g/t Au and 23.6 g/t Ag and had sulphide ore reserves of 64 Mt at 2.26 g/t Au
and 13.8 g/t Ag.

5. References
Baksa, C., Cseh-Nemeth, J., Csillag, J., Foldessy, J. and Zelenka, T. (1980): The Recsk Porphyry and Skarn
Deposit, Hungary; in European Copper Deposits, Jankovic, S. and Sillitoe, R.H., Editors, Society
for Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits (SGA), Special Publication No. 1, pages 73-76.
Columba, M. and Cunningham, C.G. (1993): Geologic Model for the Mineral Deposits of the La Joya
District, Oruro, Bolivia; Economic Geology, Volume 88, pages 701-708.
Cyr, J.B., Pease, R.B. and Schroeter, T.G. (1984): Geology and Mineralization at Equity Silver Mine;
Economic Geology, Volume 79, pages 947-968.
Jankovic, S., Terzic. M., Aleksic, D., Karamata, S., Spasov, T., Jovanovic, M., Milicic, M., Grubiv, A. and
Antonijevic, I. (1980): Metallogenic Features of Copper Deposits in the Volcano-Intrusive
Complexes of the Bor District, Yugoslavia; in European Copper Deposits, Jankovic, S. and Sillitoe,
R.H., Editors, Society for Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits (SGA), Special Publication No. 1,
pages 42-49.
Learned, R., Allen, M.S., Andre*-Ramos, O. and Enriquez, R. (1992): A Geochemical Study of the La Joya
District; U. S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1975, pages 25-46.
Long, K., Ludington, S., du Bray, E., Andre*-Ramos, O. and McKee, E.H. (1992): Geology and Mineral
Deposits of the La Joya District, Bolivia, SEG Newsletter, Society of Economic Geologists, Volume
10, Number 1, pages 13-16.
Sillitoe, R.H. (1983): Enargite-bearing Massive Sulfide Deposits High in Porphyry Copper Systems;
Economic Geology, Volume 78, pages 348-352.
Sillitoe, R.H. (1992): The Porphyry-epithermal Transition; in Magmatic Contributions To Hydrothermal
Systems, Geological Survey of Japan, Report No. 279, pages 156-160.
Sillitoe, R.H. (1994): Erosion and Collapse of Volcanoes; Cuases of Telescoping in Intrusion-centered Ore
Deposits, Geology, Volume 22, pages 945-948.
Vikre, P.G. (1981): Silver Mineralization in the Rochester District, Pershing County, Nevada; Economic
Geology, Volume 76, pages 580-609.
L02 - PLUTONIC-RELATED AU QUARTZ VEINS

by David V. Lefebure, BC Geological Survey, and Craig Hart, Yukon Geological Survey

http://ygsftp.gov.yk.ca/publications/openfile/2005/of2005_5/l02_plutonic_related_au_quartz_veins_an
d_veinlets.pdf
L03 - PORPHYRY Cu-Au: ALKALIC

by Andre Panteleyev
British Columbia Geological Survey

Panteleyev, A. (1995): Porphyry Cu-Au: Alkalic, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 1 - Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 83-86.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Porphyry copper, porphyry Cu-Au, diorite porphyry copper.

Commodities (byproducts): Cu, Au (Ag).

Examples (British Columbian - Canada/International): Iron Mask batholith deposits - Afton (092INE023),
Ajax (092INE012, 013), Mt. Polley (Cariboo Bell, 093A008), Mt. Milligan (093N196, 194), Copper
Mt./Ingerbelle (092HSE001, 004), Galore Creek (104G 090), Lorraine (093N 002); Ok Tedi (Papua
New Guinea); Tai Parit and Marian? (Philippines).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Stockworks, veinlets and disseminations of pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite and
magnetite occur in large zones of economically bulk-mineable mineralization in or adjoining
porphyritic intrusions of diorite to syenite composition. The mineralization is spatially,
temporally and genetically associated with hydrothermal alteration of the intrusive bodies and
hostrocks.

Tectonic setting (s): In orogenic belts at convergent plate boundaries, commonly oceanic volcanic island
arcs overlying oceanic crust. Chemically distinct magmatism with alkalic intrusions varying in
composition from gabbro, diorite and monzonite to nepheline syenite intrusions and coeval
shoshonitic volcanic rocks, takes place at certain times in segments of some island arcs. The
magmas are introduced along the axis of the arc or in cross-arc structures that coincide with
deep-seated faults. The alkalic magmas appear to form where there is slow subduction in
steeply dipping, tectonically thickened lithospheric slabs, possibly when polarity reversals (or
`flips') take place in the subduction zones. In British Columbia all known deposits are found in
Quesnellia and Stikinia terranes.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: High level (epizonal) stock emplacement levels in

magmatic arcs, commonly oceanic volcanic island arcs with alkalic (shoshonitic) basic flows to
intermediate and felsic pyroclastic rocks. Commonly the high-level stocks and related dikes
intrude their coeval and cogenetic volcanic piles.

Age of mineralization: Deposits in the Canadian Cordillera are restricted to the Late Triassic/Early
Jurassic (215-180 Ma) with seemingly two clusters around 205-200 and ~ 185 Ma. In southwest
Pacific island arcs, deposits are Tertiary to Quaternary in age.
Host/Associated rock types: Intrusions range from fine through coarse-grained, equigranular to coarsely
porphyritic and, locally, pegmatitic high-level stocks and dike complexes. Commonly there is
multiple emplacement of successive intrusive phases and a wide variety of breccias.
Compositions range from (alkalic) gabbro to syenite. The syenitic rocks vary from silica-
undersaturated to saturated compositions. The most undersaturated nepheline normative rocks
contain modal nepheline and, more commonly, pseudoleucite. The silica-undersaturated suites
are referred to as nepheline alkalic whereas rocks with silica near-saturation, or slight silica over
saturation, are termed quartz alkalic (Lang et al., 1993). Coeval volcanic rocks are basic to
intermediate alkalic varieties of the high-K basalt and shoshonite series and rarely phonolites.

Deposit form: Stockworks and veinlets, minor disseminations and replacements throughout large areas
of hydrothermally altered rock, commonly coincident wholly or in part with hydrothermal or
intrusion breccias. Deposit boundaries are determined by economic factors that outline ore
zones within larger areas of low-grade, laterally zoned mineralization.

Texture/Structure: Veinlets and stockworks; breccia, sulphide and magnetite grains in fractures and
along fracture selvages; disseminated sulphides as interstitial or grain and lithic clast
replacements. Hydrothermally altered rocks can contain coarse-grained assemblages including
feldspathic and calcsilicate replacements ('porphyroid' textures) and open space filling with fine
to coarse, granular and rarely pegmatitic textures.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Chalcopyrite, pyrite and magnetite; bornite, chalcocite and
rare galena, sphalerite, tellurides, tetrahderite, gold and silver. Pyrite is less abundant than
chalcopyrite in ore zones.

Gangue mineralogy: Biotite, K-feldspar and sericite; garnet, clinopyroxene (diopsidic) and anhydrite.
Quartz veins are absent but hydrothermal magnetite veinlets are abundant.

Alteration mineralogy: Biotite, K-feldspar, sericite, anhydrite/gypsum, magnetite, hematite, actinolite,

chlorite, epidote and carbonate. Some alkalic systems contain abundant garnet including the Ti-
rich andradite variety - melanite, diopside, plagioclase, scapolite, prehnite, pseudoleucite and
apatite; rare barite, fluorite, sodalite, rutile and late-stage quartz. Central and early formed
potassic zones, with K-feldspar and generally abundant secondary biotite and anhydrite,
commonly coincide with ore. These rocks can contain zones with relatively high-temperature
calcsilicate minerals diopside and garnet. Outward there can be flanking zones in basic volcanic
rocks with abundant biotite that grades into extensive, marginal propylitic zones. The older
alteration assemblages can be overprinted by phyllic sericite-pyrite and, less commonly, sericite-
clay-carbonate-pyrite alteration. In some deposits, generally at depth in silica-saturated types,
there can be either extensive or local central zones of sodic alteration containing characteristic
albite with epidote, pyrite, diopside, actinolite and rarer scapolite and prehnite.

Ore controls: Igneous contacts, both internal between intrusive phases and external with wallrocks;
cupolas and the uppermost, bifurcating parts of stocks, dike swarms and volcanic vents.
Breccias, mainly early formed intrusive and hydrothermal types. Zones of most intensely
developed fracturing give rise to ore-grade vein stockworks.

Associated deposit types: Skarn copper (K01); Au-Ag and base metal bearing mantos (M01, M04),
replacements and breccias in carbonate and non-carbonate rocks; magnetite-apatite breccias
 (D07); epithermal Au-Ag : both high and low sulphidation types (H04, H05) and alkalic, Te and F-
rich epithermal deposits (H08); auriferous and polymetallic base metal quartz and quartz-
carbonate veins (I01, I05); placer Au (C01, C02).

Comments: Subdivision of porphyry deposits is made on the basis of metal content, mainly ratios
between Cu, Au and Mo. This is a purely arbitrary, economically based criterion; there are few
differences in the style of mineralization between the deposits. Differences in composition
between the hostrock alkalic and calcalkalic intrusions and subtle, but significant, differences in
alteration mineralogy and zoning patterns provide fundamental geologically based contrasts
between deposit model types. Porphyry copper deposits associated with calcalkaline hostrocks
are described in mineral deposit profile L04.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Alkalic cupriferous systems do not contain economically recoverable Mo (< 100
ppm) but do contain elevated Au (> 0.3 g/t) and Ag (>2 g/t). Cu grades vary widely but
commonly exceed 0.5 % and rarely 1 %. Many contain elevated Ti, V, P, F, Ba, Sr, Rb, Nb, Te, Pb,
Zn, PGE and have high CO2 content. Leaching and supergene enrichment effects are generally
slight and surface outcroppings normally have little of the copper remobilized. Where present,
secondary minerals are malachite, azurite, lesser copper oxide and rare sulphate minerals; in
some deposits native copper is economically significant (e.g. Afton, Kemess).

Geophysical signature: Ore zones, particularly those with high Au content, are frequently found in
association with magnetite-rich rocks and can be located by magnetic surveys. Pyritic haloes
surrounding cupriferous rocks respond well to induced polarization surveys. The more intensely
hydrothermally altered rocks produce resistivity lows.

Other Exploration Guides: Porphyry deposits are marked by large-scale, markedly zoned metal and
alteration assemblages. Central parts of mineralized zones appear to have higher Au/Cu ratios
than the margins. The alkalic porphyry Cu deposits are found exclusively in Later Triassic and
Early Jurassic volcanic arc terranes in which emergent subaerial rocks are present. The presence
of hydrothermally altered clasts in coarse pyroclastic deposits can be used to locate mineralized
intrusive centres.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage:

• * Worldwide according to Cox and Singer (U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 88-46, 1988)
20 typical porphyry Cu-Au deposits, including both calcalkaline and some alkalic types, contain
on average:
160 Mt with 0.55 % Cu, 0.003 % Mo, 0.38 g/t Au and 1.7 g/t Ag.
• * British Columbia alkalic porphyry deposits range from <10 to >300 Mt and contain from 0.2 to
1.5 % Cu, 0.2 to 0.6 g/t Au and >2 g/t Ag; Mo contents are negligible. Median values for 22
British Columbia deposits with reported reserves (with a heavy weighting from a number of
small deposits in the Iron Mask batholith) are: 15.5 Mt with 0.58 % Cu, 0.3 g/t Au and >2 g/t Ag.

Uses: Production of chalcopyrite or chalcopyrite-bornite concentrates with significant Au credits.

Importance: Porphyry deposits contain the largest reserves of Cu and close to 50 % of Au reserves in
British Columbia; alkalic porphyry systems contain elevated Au values.

5. References

Barr, D.A., Fox, P.E., Northcote, K.E. and Preto, V.A. (1976): The Alkaline Suite Porphyry Deposits - A
Summary; in Porphyry Deposits of the Canadian Cordillera, Sutherland Brown, A. Editor,
Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 15, pages 359-367.
Lang, J.R., Stanley, C.R. and Thompson, H.F.H. (1993): A Subdivision of Alkalic Porphyry Cu-Au Deposits
into Silica-saturated and Silica-undersaturated Subtypes; in Porphyry Copper-Gold Systems of
British Columbia, Mineral Deposit Research Unit, University of British Columbia, Annual
Technical Report - Year 2, pages 3.2-3.14.
McMillan, W.J. (1991): Porphyry Deposits in the Canadian Cordillera; in Ore Deposits, Tectonics and
Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera, B. C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Paper 1991-4, pages 253-276.
McMillan, W.J. and Panteleyev, A. (1988): Porphyry Copper Deposits; in Ore Deposit Models, Roberts,
R.G. and Sheahan, P.A, Editors, Geoscience Canada, Reprint Series 3, pages 45-58.
Mutschler, F.E. and Mooney, T.C. (1993): Precious Metal Deposits Related to Alkaline Igneous Rocks -
Provisional Classification, Grade-Tonnage Data, and Exploration Frontiers; IUGS/UNESCO
Conference on Deposit Modeling, Ottawa, 1990, Proceedings Volume, Geological Association of
Canada, Special Paper 40, pages 479-520.
Sutherland Brown, A., Editor, (1976): Porphyry Deposits of the Canadian Cordillera; Canadian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 15, 510 pages.
L04 - PORPHYRY Cu+/-Mo+/-Au

by Andre Panteleyev
British Columbia Geological Survey

Panteleyev, A. (1995): Porphyry Cu+/-Mo+/-Au, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 1 - Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 87-92.

1. Identification

Synonym: Calcalkaline porphyry Cu, Cu-Mo, Cu-Au.

Commodities (byproducts): Cu, Mo and Au are generally present but quantities range from insufficient
for economic recovery to major ore constituents. Minor Ag in most deposits; rare recovery of Re
from Island Copper mine.

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International):

• Volcanic type deposits (Cu + Au * Mo) - Fish Lake (092O 041), Kemess (094E 021,094), Hushamu
(EXPO, 092L 240), Red Dog (092L 200), Poison Mountain (092O 046), Bell (093M 001), Morrison
(093M 007), Island Copper (092L 158); Dos Pobres (USA); Far Southeast (Lepanto/Mankayan),
Dizon, Guianaong, Taysan and Santo Thomas II (Philippines), Frieda River and Panguna (Papua
New Guinea).
• Classic deposits (Cu + Mo * Au) - Brenda (092HNE047), Berg (093E 046), Huckleberry (093E 037),
Schaft Creek (104G 015); Casino (Yukon, Canada), Inspiration, Morenci, Ray, Sierrita-Experanza,
Twin Buttes, Kalamazoo and Santa Rita (Arizona, USA), Bingham (Utah, USA),El Salvador, (Chile),
Bajo de la Alumbrera (Argentina).
• Plutonic deposits (Cu * Mo) - Highland Valley Copper (092ISE001,011,012,045), Gibraltar (093B
012,007), Catface (092F 120); Chuquicamata, La Escondida and Quebrada Blanca (Chile).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Stockworks of quartz veinlets, quartz veins, closely spaced fractures and breccias
containing pyrite and chalcopyrite with lesser molybdenite, bornite and magnetite occur in large
zones of economically bulk-mineable mineralization in or adjoining porphyritic intrusions and
related breccia bodies. Disseminated sulphide minerals are present, generally in subordinate
amounts. The mineralization is spatially, temporally and genetically associated with
hydrothermal alteration of the hostrock intrusions and wallrocks.

Tectonic settings: In orogenic belts at convergent plate boundaries, commonly linked to subduction-
related magmatism. Also in association with emplacement of high-level stocks during
extensional tectonism related to strike-slip faulting and back-arc spreading following continent
margin accretion.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: High-level (epizonal) stock emplacement levels in volcano-

plutonic arcs, commonly oceanic volcanic island and continent-margin arcs. Virtually any type of
 country rock can be mineralized, but commonly the high-level stocks and related dikes intrude
their coeval and cogenetic volcanic piles.

Age of mineralization: Two main periods in the Canadian Cordillera: the Triassic/Jurassic (210-180 Ma)
and Cretaceous/Tertiary (85-45 Ma). Elsewhere deposits are mainly Tertiary, but range from
Archean to Quaternary.

Host/Associated rock types: Intrusions range from coarse-grained phaneritic to porphyritic stocks,
batholiths and dike swarms; rarely pegmatitic. Compositions range from calcalkaline quartz
diorite to granodiorite and quartz monzonite. Commonly there is multiple emplacement of
successive intrusive phases and a wide variety of breccias. Alkalic porphyry Cu-Au deposits are
associated with syenitic and other alkalic rocks and are considered to be a distinct deposit type
(see model L03).

Deposit form: Large zones of hydrothermally altered rock contain quartz veins and stockworks, sulphide-
bearing veinlets; fractures and lesser disseminations in areas up to 10 km2 in size, commonly
coincident wholly or in part with hydrothermal or intrusion breccias and dike swarms. Deposit
boundaries are determined by economic factors that outline ore zones within larger areas of
low-grade, concentrically zoned mineralization. Cordilleran deposits are commonly subdivided
according to their morphology into three classes - classic, volcanic and plutonic (see Sutherland
Brown, 1976; McMillan and Panteleyev, 1988):

* Volcanic type deposits (e.g. Island Copper) are associated with multiple intrusions in
subvolcanic settings of small stocks, sills, dikes and diverse types of intrusive breccias.
Reconstruction of volcanic landforms, structures, vent-proximal extrusive deposits and
subvolcanic intrusive centres is possible in many cases, or can be inferred. Mineralization at
depths of 1 km, or less, is mainly associated with breccia development or as lithologically
controlled preferential replacement in hostrocks with high primary permeability. Propylitic
alteration is widespread and generally flanks early, centrally located potassic alteration; the
latter is commonly well mineralized. Younger mineralized phyllic alteration commonly overprints
the early mineralization. Barren advanced argillic alteration is rarely present as a late, high-level
hydrothermal carapace.
* Classic deposits (e.g., Berg) are stock related with multiple emplacements at shallow depth (1
to 2 km) of generally equant, cylindrical porphyritic intrusions. Numerous dikes and breccias of
pre, intra, and post-mineralization age modify the stock geometry. Orebodies occur along
margins and adjacent to intrusions as annular ore shells. Lateral outward zoning of alteration
and sulphide minerals from a weakly mineralized potassic/propylitic core is usual. Surrounding
ore zones with potassic (commonly biotite-rich) or phyllic alteration contain molybdenite *
chalcopyrite, then chalcopyrite and a generally widespread propylitic, barren pyritic aureole or
'halo'.
* Plutonic deposits (e.g., the Highland Valley deposits) are found in large plutonic to batholithic
intrusions immobilized at relatively deep levels, say 2 to 4 km. Related dikes and intrusive
breccia bodies can be emplaced at shallower levels. Hostrocks are phaneritic coarse grained to
porphyritic. The intrusions can display internal compositional differences as a result of
differentiation with gradational to sharp boundaries between the different phases of magma
emplacement. Local swarms of dikes, many with associated breccias, and fault zones are sites of
mineralization. Orebodies around silicified alteration zones tend to occur as diffuse vein
stockworks carrying chalcopyrite, bornite and minor pyrite in intensely fractured rocks but,
 overall, sulphide minerals are sparse. Much of the early potassic and phyllic alteration in central
parts of orebodies is restricted to the margins of mineralized fractures as selvages. Later phyllic-
argillic alteration forms envelopes on the veins and fractures and is more pervasive and
widespread. Propylitic alteration is widespread but unobtrusive and is indicated by the presence
of rare pyrite with chloritized mafic minerals, saussuritized plagioclase and small amounts of
epidote.

Texture/Structure: Quartz, quartz-sulphide and sulphide veinlets and stockworks; sulphide grains in
fractures and fracture selvages. Minor disseminated sulphides commonly replacing primary
mafic minerals. Quartz phenocrysts can be partially resorbed and overgrown by silica.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Pyrite is the predominant sulphide mineral; in some
deposits the Fe oxide minerals magnetite, and rarely hematite, are abundant. Ore minerals are
chalcopyrite; molybdenite, lesser bornite and rare (primary) chalcocite. Subordinate minerals
are tetrahedrite/tennantite, enargite and minor gold , electrum and arsenopyrite. In many
deposits late veins commonly contain galena and sphalerite in a gangue of quartz, calcite and
barite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Gangue minerals in mineralized veins are mainly quartz
with lesser biotite, sericite, K-feldspar, magnetite, chlorite, calcite, epidote, anhydrite and
tourmaline. Many of these minerals are also pervasive alteration products of primary igneous
mineral grains.

Alteration mineralogy: Quartz, sericite, biotite, K-feldspar, albite, anhydrite/gypsum, magnetite,

actinolite, chlorite, epidote, calcite, clay minerals, tourmaline. Early formed alteration can be
overprinted by younger assemblages. Central and early formed potassic zones (K-feldspar and
biotite) commonly coincide with ore. This alteration can be flanked in volcanic hostrocks by
biotite-rich rocks that grade outward into propylitic rocks. The biotite is a fine-grained, 'shreddy'
looking secondary mineral that is commonly referred to as an early developed biotite (EDB) or a
'biotite hornfels'. These older alteration assemblages in cupriferous zones can be partially to
completely overprinted by later biotite and K-feldspar and then phyllic (quartz-sericite-pyrite)
alteration, less commonly argillic, and rarely, in the uppermost parts of some ore deposits,
advanced argillic alteration (kaolinite-pyrophyllite).

Weathering: Secondary (supergene) zones carry chalcocite, covellite and other Cu*2S minerals (digenite,
djurleite, etc.), chrysocolla, native copper and copper oxide, carbonate and sulphate minerals.
Oxidized and leached zones at surface are marked by ferruginous 'cappings' with supergene clay
minerals, limonite (goethite, hematite and jarosite) and residual quartz.

Ore controls: Igneous contacts, both internal between intrusive phases and external with wallrocks;
cupolas and the uppermost, bifurcating parts of stocks, dike swarms. Breccias, mainly early
formed intrusive and hydrothermal types. Zones of most intensely developed fracturing give rise
to ore-grade vein stockworks, notably where there are coincident or intersecting multiple
mineralized fracture sets.

Associated deposit types: Skarn Cu (K01), porphyry Au (K02), epithermal Au-Ag in low sulphidation type
(H05) or epithermal Cu-Au-Ag as high-sulphidation type enargite-bearing veins (L01),
replacements and stockworks; auriferous and polymetallic base metal quartz and quartz-
 carbonate veins (I01, I05), Au-Ag and base metal sulphide mantos and replacements in
carbonate and non- carbonate rocks (M01, M04), placer Au (C01, C02).

Comments: Subdivision of porphyry copper deposits can be made on the basis of metal content, mainly
ratios between Cu, Mo and Au. This is a purely arbitrary, economically based criterion, an
artifact of mainly metal prices and metallurgy. There are few differences in the style of
mineralization between deposits although the morphology of calcalkaline deposits does provide
a basis for subdivision into three distinct subtypes - the 'volcanic, classic, and plutonic' types. A
fundamental contrast can be made on the compositional differences between calcalkaline
quartz-bearing porphyry copper deposits and the alkalic (silica undersaturated) class. The alkalic
porphyry copper deposits are described in a separate model - L03.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Calcalkalic systems can be zoned with a cupriferous (* Mo) ore zone having a
‘barren’, low-grade pyritic core and surrounded by a pyritic halo with peripheral base and
precious metal-bearing veins. Central zones with Cu commonly have coincident Mo, Au and Ag
with possibly Bi, W, B and Sr. Peripheral enrichment in Pb, Zn, Mn, V, Sb, As, Se, Te, Co, Ba, Rb
and possibly Hg is documented. Overall the deposits are large-scale repositories of sulphur,
mainly in the form of metal sulphides, chiefly pyrite.

Geophysical signature: Ore zones, particularly those with higher Au content, can be associated with
magnetite-rich rocks and are indicated by magnetic surveys. Alternatively the more intensely
hydrothermally altered rocks, particularly those with quartz-pyrite-sericite (phyllic) alteration
produce magnetic and resistivity lows. Pyritic haloes surrounding cupriferous rocks respond well
to induced polarization (I.P.) surveys but in sulphide-poor systems the ore itself provides the
only significant IP response.

Other Exploration Guides: Porphyry deposits are marked by large-scale, zoned metal and alteration
assemblages. Ore zones can form within certain intrusive phases and breccias or are present as
vertical 'shells' or mineralized cupolas around particular intrusive bodies. Weathering can
produce a pronounced vertical zonation with an oxidized, limonitic leached zone at surface
(leached capping), an underlying zone with copper enrichment (supergene zone with secondary
copper minerals) and at depth a zone of primary mineralization (the hypogene zone).

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage:

• Worldwide according Cox and Singer (1988) based on their subdivision of 55 deposits into
subtypes according to metal ratios, typical porphyry Cu deposits contain (median values):
Porphyry Cu-Au: 160 Mt with 0.55 % Cu, 0.003 % Mo, 0.38 g/t Au and 1.7 g/t Ag. Porphyry Cu-
Au-Mo: 390 Mt with 0.48 % Cu, 0.015 % Mo, 0.15 g/t Au and 1.6 g/t Ag. Porphyry Cu-Mo: 500
Mt with 0.41 % Cu, 0.016 % Mo, 0.012 g/t Au and 1.22 g/t Ag.
• A similar subdivision by Cox (1986) using a larger data base results in: Porphyry Cu: 140 Mt with
0.54 %Cu, <0.002 % Mo, <0.02g/t Au and <1 g/t Ag. Porphyry Cu-Au: 100 Mt with 0.5 %Cu,
<0.002 % Mo, 0.38g/t Au and 1g/t Ag. (This includes deposits from the British Columbia alkalic
 porphyry class, B.C. model L03.) Porphyry Cu-Mo: 500 Mt with 0.42 % Cu, 0.016 % Mo, 0.012 g/t
Au and 1.2 g/t Ag.
• British Columbia porphyry Cu * Mo ± Au deposits range from <50 to >900 Mt with commonly 0.2
to 0.5 % Cu, <0.1 to 0.6 g/t Au, and 1 to 3 g/t Ag. Mo contents are variable from negligible to
0.04 % Mo. Median values for 40 B.C. deposits with reported reserves are: 115 Mt with 0.37 %
Cu, *0.01 % Mo, 0.3g /t Au and 1.3 g/t Ag.

Economic limitations: Mine production in British Columbia is from primary (hypogene) ores. Rare
exceptions are Afton mine where native copper was recovered from an oxide zone, and
Gibraltar and Bell mines where incipient supergene enrichment has provided some economic
benefits.

Uses: Porphyry copper deposits produce Cu and Mo concentrates, mainly for international export.

Importance: Porphyry deposits contain the largest reserves of Cu, significant Mo resources and close to
50 % of Au reserves in British Columbia.

5. References

Beane, R.E. and Titley, S.R. (1981): Porphyry Copper Deposits Part II. Hydrothermal Alteration and
Mineralization; in 75th Anniversary Volume, Economic Geology, pages 235-269.
Cox, D.P. (1986): Descriptive Model of Porphyry Cu, also Porphyry Cu-Au and Porphyry Cu-Mo; in
Mineral Deposit Models; United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, pages 76-81, also pages
110-114 and 115-119.
Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A. (1988): Distribution of Gold in Porphyry Copper Deposits; U.S. Geological
Survey, Open File Report 88-46, 23 pages.
Gustafson, L.B. and Hunt, J.P. (1975 ): The Porphyry Copper Deposit at El Salvador, Chile; Economic
Geology, Volume 70, pages 857-912.
Lowell, J.D. and Guilbert, J.M. (1970): Lateral and Vertical Alteration- Mineralization Zoning in Porphyry
Ore Deposits; Economic Geology, Volume 65, pages 373-408.
McMillan, W.J. (1991): Porphyry Deposits in the Canadian Cordillera; in Ore Deposits, Tectonics and
Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera, B. C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Paper 1991-4, pages 253-276.
McMillan, W.J. and Panteleyev, A. (1988): Porphyry Copper Deposits; in Ore Deposit Models, Roberts,
R.G. and Sheahan, P.A., Editors, Geoscience Canada Reprint Series 3, Geological Association of
Canada, pages 45-58; also in Geoscience Canada, Volume 7, Number 2, pages 52-63.
Schroeter, T.G., Editor (1995): Porphyry Copper Deposits of the Northwestern Cordillera of North
America; Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, Special Volume 46, in
preparation.
Sutherland Brown, A., Editor, (1976): Porphyry Deposits of the Canadian Cordillera; Canadian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 15, 510 pages.
Titley, S.R. (1982): Advances in Geology of the Porphyry Copper Deposits, Southwestern North America;
The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 560 pages.
Titley, S.R. and Beane, R.E. (1981): Porphyry Copper Deposits Part I. Geologic Settings, Petrology, and
Tectogenesis, in 75th Anniversary Volume, Economic Geology, pages 214-234.
L05 - PORPHYRY Mo (LOW-F-TYPE)

by W. David Sinclair
Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa

Sinclair, W.D. (1995): Porphyry Mo (Low-F-type), in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 1 - Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 93-96.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Calcalkaline Mo stockwork; Granite-related Mo; Quartz-monzonite Mo.

Commodities (byproducts): Mo (Cu, W)

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Endako (093K 006), Boss Mountain (093A 001),
Kitsault (103P 120), Adanac (104N 052), Carmi (082ESW029), Bell Moly (103P 234), Red Bird
(093E 026), Storie Moly (104P 069), Trout Lake (082KNW087); Red Mountain (Yukon, Canada),
Quartz Hill (Alaska, USA), Cannivan (Montana, USA), Thompson Creek (Idaho, USA), Compaccha
(Peru), East Kounrad (Russia), Jinduicheng (China).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Stockwork of molybdenite-bearing quartz veinlets and fractures in intermediate to

felsic intrusive rocks and associated country rocks. Deposits are low grade but large and
amenable to bulk mining methods.

Tectonic setting (s): Subduction zones related to arc-continent or continent-continent collision.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: High-level to subvolcanic felsic intrusive centres; multiple

stages of intrusion are common.

Age of mineralization: Archean (e.g. Setting Net Lake, Ontario) to Tertiary; Mesozoic and Tertiary
examples are more common.

Host/Associated rock types: All kinds of rocks may be hostrocks. Tuffs or other extrusive volcanic rocks
may be associated with deposits related to subvolcanic intrusive rocks. Genetically related
intrusive rocks range from granodiorite to granite and their fine-grained equivalents, with quartz
monzonite most common: they are commonly porphyritic. The intrusive rocks are characterized
by low F contents (generally <0.1 % F) compared to intrusive rocks associated with Climax-type
porphyry Mo deposits.

Deposit form: Deposits vary in shape from an inverted cup, to roughly cylindrical, to highly irregular.
They are typically hundreds of metres across and range from tens to hundreds of metres in
vertical extent.

Texture/Structure: Ore is predominantly structurally controlled; mainly stockworks of crosscutting

fractures and quartz veinlets, also veins, vein sets and breccias.
Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Molybdenite is the principal ore mineral; chalcopyrite,
scheelite, and galena are generally subordinate.

Gangue mineralogy: Quartz, pyrite, K-feldspar, biotite, sericite, clays, calcite and anhydrite.

Alteration mineralogy: Alteration mineralogy is similar to that of porphyry Cu deposits. A core zone of
potassic and silicic alteration is characterized by hydrothermal K-feldspar, biotite, quartz and, in
some cases, anhydrite. K-feldspar and biotite commonly occur as alteration selvages on
mineralized quartz veinlets and fractures but may be pervasive in areas of intense fracturing and
mineralization. Phyllic alteration typically surrounds and may be superimposed to various
degrees on the potassic-silicic core; it consists mainly of quartz, sericite and carbonate. Phyllic
alteration is commonly pervasive and may be extensive. Propylitic alteration consisting mainly of
chlorite and epidote may extend for hundreds of metres beyond the zones of potassic-silicic and
phyllic alteration. Zones of argillic alteration, where present, are characterized by clay minerals
such as kaolinite and are typically overprinted on the other types of alteration; distribution of
argillic alteration is typically irregular.

Weathering: Oxidation of pyrite produces limonitic gossans; oxidation of molybdenite produces yellow
ferrimolybdite.

Ore controls: Quartz veinlet and fracture stockwork zones superimposed on intermediate to felsic
intrusive rocks and surrounding country rocks; multiple stages of mineralization commonly
present.

Genetic model: Magmatic-hydrothermal. Large volumes of magmatic, highly saline aqueous fluids under
pressure strip Mo and other ore metals from temporally and genetically related magma.
Multiple stages of brecciation related to explosive fluid pressure release from the upper parts of
small intrusions result in deposition of ore and gangue minerals in crosscutting fractures,
veinlets and breccias in the outer carapace of the intrusions and in associated country rocks.
Incursion of meteoric water during waning stages of the magmatic-hydrothermal system may
result in late alteration of the hostrocks, but does not play a significant role in the ore-forming
process.

Associated deposit types: Ag-Pb-Zn veins (I05), Mo-bearing skarns (K07) may be present.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Mo, Cu, W and F may be anomalously high in hostrocks close to and overlying
mineralized zones; anomalously high levels of Pb, Zn and Ag occur in peripheral zones as much
as several kilometres distant. Mo, W, F, Cu, Pb, Zn and Ag may be anomalously high in stream
sediments. Mo, W and Pb may be present in heavy mineral concentrates.

Geophysical signature: Magnetic anomalies may reflect presence of pyrrhotite or magnetite in hornfels
zones. Radiometric surveys may be used to outline anomalous K in altered and mineralized
zones. Induced polarization and resistivity surveys may be used to outline high-pyrite alteration
zones.
Other Exploration Guides: Limonitic alteration of pyrite can result in widespread gossan zones. Yellow
ferrimolybdite may be present in oxidized zones. Ag-Pb-Zn veins may be present in peripheral
zones.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Typical size is 100 Mt at 0.1 to 0.2 % Mo. The following figures are for production
plus reserves.
Endako (B.C.): 336 Mt at 0.087 % Mo;
Boss Mountain (B.C.): 63 Mt. at 0.074 % Mo;
Kitsault (B.C.): 108 Mt at 0.115 % Mo;
Lucky Ship (B.C.): 14 Mt at 0.090 % Mo;
Adanac (B.C.): 94 Mt at 0.094 % Mo;
Carmi (B.C.): 34 Mt at 0.091 % Mo;
Mount Haskin (B.C.): 12 Mt at 0.090 % Mo;
Bell Moly (B.C.): 32 Mt at 0.066 % Mo;
Red Bird (B.C.): 34 Mt at 0.108 % Mo;
Storie Moly (B.C.): 101 Mt at 0.078 % Mo;
Trout Lake (B.C.): 50 Mt at 0.138 % Mo;
Glacier Gulch (B.C.): 125 Mt at 0.151 % Mo;
Red Mountain (Yukon): 187 Mt at 0.100 % Mo;
Quartz Hill (Alaska): 793 Mt at 0.091 % Mo;
Thompson Creek (Idaho): 181 Mt at 0.110 % Mo;
Compaccha (Peru): 100 Mt at 0.072 % Mo;
East Kounrad (Russia): 30 Mt at 0.150 % Mo
Importance: Porphyry Mo deposits associated with low-F felsic intrusive rocks have been an important
source of world molybdenum production. Virtually all of Canada’s Mo production comes from
these deposits and from porphyry Cu-Mo deposits.

5. References

Boyle, H.C. and Leitch, C.H.B., (1983): Geology of the Trout Lake Molybdenum Deposit, B.C.; Canadian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Bulletin, Volume 76, No. 849, pages 115-124.
Brown, P. and Kahlert, B. (1986): Geology and Mineralization of the Red Mountain Porphyry
Molybdenum Deposit, South-central Yukon; in Mineral Deposits of Northern Cordillera, Morin,
J.A., Editor, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 37, pages 288-297.
Carten, R.B., White, W.H. and Stein, H.J. (in press): High-grade Granite-related Mo Systems;
Classification and Origin; in Mineral Deposit Modeling, Kirkham, R.V., Sinclair, W.D., Thorpe, R.I.
and Duke, J.M., Editors, Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 40, pages 521-554.
Kirkham, R.V. and Sinclair, W.D. (1984): Porphyry Copper, Molybdenum, Tungsten; in Canadian Mineral
Deposit Types; A Geological Synopsis; Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report
36, pages 51-52.
Kirkham, R.V., McCann, C., Prasad, N., Soregaroli, A.E., Vokes, F.M. and Wine, G. (1982): Molybdenum in
Canada, Part 2: MOLYFILE -- An index-level computer file of molybdenum deposits and
occurrences in Canada; Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report 33, pages 208.
Mutschler, F.E., Wright, E.G., Ludington, S. and Abbott, J. (1981): Granite Molybdenite Systems;
Economic Geology, v. 76, pages 874-897.
Pilcher, S.H. and McDougall, J.J. (1976): Characteristics of some Canadian Cordilleran Porphyry
Prospects, in Porphyry Deposits of the Canadian Cordillera, Sutherland Brown, A. , Editor,
Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 15, pages 79-82.
Sutulov, A. (1978): International Molybdenum Encyclopaedia 1778-1978, Volume 1, Intermet
Publications, Santiago, Chile, page 402.
Theodore, T.G. (1986): Descriptive Model of Porphyry Mo, Low-F; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P.
and Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, page 120.
Theodore, T.G. and Menzie, W.D. (1984): Fluorine-deficient Porphyry Molybdenum Deposits in the
Western North American Cordillera; Proceedings of the Six Quadrennial IAGOD Symposium, E.
Schweitzerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele u. Obermiller), Stuttgart, Germany, pages
463-470.
Westra, G. and Keith S.B. (1981): Classification and Genesis of Stockwork Molybdenum Deposits;
Economic Geology, Volume 76, pages 844-873.
Woodcock, J.R. and Carter, N.C. (1976): Geology and Geochemistry of the Alice Arm Molybdenum
Deposits; in Porphyry Deposits of the Canadian Cordillera, Sutherland Brown, A., Editor,
Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 15, pages 462-475.
L06 - PORPHYRY Sn

by W. David Sinclair
Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa

Sinclair, W.D. (1995): Porphyry Sn, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 -
Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 97-100.

1. Identification

Synonym: Subvolcanic Sn

Commodities (byproducts): Sn (Ag, W)

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Mount Pleasant (New Brunswick, Canada), East
Kemptville (Nova Scotia, Canada), Catavi, Chorolque and Cerro Rico stock (Bolivia), Ardlethan
and Taronga (Australia), Kingan (Russia), Yinyan (China), Altenberg (Germany).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Fine-grained cassiterite in veinlet and fracture stockwork zones, breccia zones, and
disseminated in porphyritic felsic intrusive rocks and associated country rocks.

Tectonic setting: Zones of weak to moderate extension in cratons, particularly post orogenic zones
underlain by thick crust, possibly cut by shallow-dipping subduction zones.

Geological setting: High-level to subvolcanic felsic intrusive centres in cratons; multiple stages of
intrusion may be present.

Age of mineralization: Paleozoic to Tertiary.

Host/Associated rock types: Predominantly genetically related intrusive rocks and associated breccias,
but may also include related or unrelated sedimentary, volcanic, igneous and metamorphic
rocks. Genetically related felsic intrusive rocks are F and/or B enriched and are commonly
porphyritic. Tuffs or other extrusive volcanic rocks may be associated with deposits related to
subvolcanic intrusions.

Deposit form: Deposits vary in shape from inverted cone, to roughly cylindrical, to highly irregular. They
are typically large, generally hundreds of metres across and ranging from tens to hundreds of
metres in vertical extent.

Texture/Structure: Ore is predominantly structurally controlled in stockworks of crosscutting fractures

and quartz veinlets, or disseminated in hydrothermal breccia zones. Veins, vein sets,
replacement zones may also be present.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Cassiterite; stannite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena.
Complex tin- and silver-bearing sulphosalts occur in late veins and replacement zones.
Gangue mineralogy: Pyrite, arsenopyrite, löllingite, topaz, fluorite, tourmaline, muscovite, zinnwaldite
and lepidolite.

Alteration mineralogy: In the Bolivian porphyry Sn deposits, sericite + pyrite ± tourmaline alteration is
pervasive; in some deposits it surrounds a central zone of quartz + tourmaline. Sericitic
alteration is typically bordered by weak propylitic alteration. In other deposits (e.g. , Ardlethan,
Yinyan), central zones are characterized by greisen alteration consisting of quartz + topaz +
sericite; these zones grade outward to quartz + sericite + chlorite alteration.

Weathering: Oxidation of pyrite produces limonitic gossans. Deep weathering and erosion can result in
residual concentrations of cassiterite in situ or in placer deposits downslope or downstream.

Ore controls: Ore minerals occur in fracture stockworks, hydrothermal breccias and replacement zones
centred on 1-2 km2, genetically related felsic intrusions.

Genetic model: Magmatic-hydrothermal. Large volumes of magmatic, highly saline aqueous fluids under
pressure strip Sn and other ore metals from temporally and genetically related magma. Multiple
stages of brecciation related to explosive fluid pressure release from the upper parts of small
intrusions result in deposition of ore and gangue minerals in crosscutting fractures, veinlets and
breccias in the outer carapace of the intrusions and associated country rocks. Mixing of
magmatic with meteoric water during waning stages of the magmatic- hydrothermal system
may result in deposition of some Sn and other metals, particularly in late-stage veins.

Associated deposit types: Sn veins (I13), Sn-polymetallic veins (H07).

Comments: Some of the deposits listed (e.g. Taronga, East Kemptville) are not "subvolcanic" but they
are similar to some porphyry Cu deposits with regard to their large size, low grade, relationship
to felsic intrusive rocks and dominant structural control (ie., mineralized veins, fractures and
breccias).

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Sn, Ag, W, Cu, Zn, As, Pb, Rb, Li, F, B may be anomalously high in hostrocks close
to mineralized zones and in secondary dispersion halos in overburden. Anomalously high
contents of Sn, W, F, Cu, Pb and Zn may occur in stream sediments and Sn, W, F (topaz) and B
(tourmaline) may be present in heavy mineral concentrates.

Geophysical signature: Genetically related intrusions may be magnetic lows (ilmenite- rather than
magnetite-dominant); contact aureole may be magnetic high if pyrrhotite or magnetite are
present in associated skarn or hornfels zones. Radiometric surveys may be used to outline
anomalous U, Th or K in genetically related intrusive rocks or in associated altered and
mineralized zones.

Other Exploration Guides: Sn (-Ag) deposits may be zoned relative to base metals at both regional
(district) and local (deposit) scales.

4. Economic factors
Grade and tonnage: Tens of millions of tonnes at grades of 0.2 to 0.5% Sn. Mount Pleasant (New
Brunswick): 5.1 Mt @ 0.79% Sn; East Kemptville (Nova Scotia): 56 Mt @ 0.165% Sn; Catavi
(Bolivia): 80 Mt @ 0.3% Sn; Cerro Rico stock, Bolivia: averages 0.3% Sn; Ardlethan (Australia): 9
Mt @ 0.5% Sn; Taronga (Australia): 46.8 Mt @ 0.145% Sn; Altenberg, (Germany): 60 Mt @ 0.3%
Sn; Yinyan (China): "large" (50 - 100 Mt?) @ 0.46% Sn

Economic limitations: Low grades require high volumes of production which may not be justified by
demand.

Importance: A minor source of tin on a world scale; when it was in production, East Kemptville was the
major producer of tin in North America.

5. References

Grant, J.N., Halls, C., Avila, W. and Avila, G. (1977): Igneous Systems and Evolution of Hydrothermal
Systems in some Sub-volcanic Tin Deposits of Bolivia; in Volcanic Process in Orogenesis;
Geological Society of London, Special Paper Publication 7, pages 117-126.
Grant, J.N., Halls, C., Sheppard, S.M.F. and Avila, W. (1980): Evolution of the Porphyry Tin Deposits of
Bolivia; in Granitic Magmatism and Related Mineralization, Ishihara, S. and Takenouchi, S.,
Editors; The Society of Mining Geologists of Japan, Mining Geology Special Issue, No. 8, pages
151-173.
Guan, X., Shou, Y., Xiao, J., Liang, S. and Li, J. (1988): A New Type of Tin Deposit - Yinyan Porphyry Tin
Deposit; in Geology of Tin Deposits in Asia and the Pacific, Hutchison, C.S., Editor, Springer-
Verlag, Berlin, pages 487-494.
Lin, G. (1988): Geological Characteristics of the Ignimbrite-related Xiling Tin Deposit in Guangdong
Province; in Geology of Tin Deposits in Asia and the Pacific, Hutchison, C.S., Editor, Springer-
Verlag, Berlin, pages 494-506.
Reed, B.L. (1986): Descriptive Model of Porphyry Sn; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and Singer,
D.A. Editors; U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, pages 108.
Sillitoe, R.H., Halls, C. and Grant, J.N. (1975): Porphyry Tin Deposits in Bolivia; Economic Geology,
Volume 70, pages 913-927.
Taylor, R.G. and Pollard, P.J. (1986): Recent Advances in Exploration Modelling for Tin Deposits and their
application to the Southeastern Asian Environment; GEOSEA V Proceedings, Volume 1,
Geological Society of Malaysia, Bulletin 19, pages 327-347.
L07 - PORPHYRY W

by W. David Sinclair
Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa

Sinclair, W.D. (1995): Porphyry W, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 1 -
Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry
of Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 101-104.

1. Identification

Synonym: Stockwork W-Mo

Commodities (byproducts): W (Mo, Sn, Ag).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Boya; Mount Pleasant (New Brunswick, Canada),
Logtung (Yukon, Canada), Xingluokeng, Lianhuashan and Yanchuling (China).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Stockwork of W-bearing quartz veinlets and fractures in felsic intrusive rocks and
associated country rocks. Deposits are low grade but large and amenable to bulk mining
methods.

Tectonic setting: Zones of weak to moderate extension in cratons, particularly post- collisional zones in
areas of tectonically thickened crust.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: High-level to subvolcanic felsic intrusive centres; multiple

stages of intrusion are common.

Age of mineralization: Paleozoic to Tertiary, but Mesozoic and Tertiary examples are more common.

Host/Associated rock types: Highly variable; mineralized rocks may be predominantly genetically related
intrusive rocks, but may also be related or unrelated sedimentary, volcanic, igneous and
metamorphic rocks. Genetically related felsic intrusive rocks are commonly F-rich (fluorite
and/or topaz bearing) and porphyritic; unidirectional solidification features, particularly comb
quartz layers, may also be present. Tuffs or other extrusive volcanic rocks may be associated
with deposits related to subvolcanic intrusions.

Deposit form: Deposits vary in shape from inverted cup-shaped, to roughly cylindrical, to highly
irregular. They are typically large, generally hundreds of metres across and ranging from tens to
hundreds of metres in vertical extent.

Texture/Structure: Ore minerals is structurally controlled; mainly stockworks of crosscutting fractures

and quartz veinlets, also veins, vein sets, breccias, disseminations and replacements.
Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Main ore mineral is generally either scheelite or wolframite,
although in some deposits both are present. Subordinate ore minerals include molybdenite,
bismuth, bismuthinite and cassiterite.

Gangue mineralogy: Pyrite, pyrrhotite, magnetite, arsenopyrite, löllingite, quartz, K- feldspar, biotite,
muscovite, fluorite, topaz.

Alteration mineralogy: Hydrothermal alteration is pervasive to fracture controlled and, at deposit scale,
is concentrically zoned. It is commonly characterized by the presence of greisen alteration
minerals, including topaz, fluorite and Li- and F-rich micas. At Mount Pleasant, for example,
pervasive greisen alteration consisting of quartz + topaz ± sericite ± chlorite associated with
high-grade W zones and grades laterally into fracture-controlled quartz- biotite-chlorite-topaz
alteration associated with lower grade W zones. Propylitic alteration, mainly chlorite and
sericite, extends as far as 1500 m beyond the mineralized zones. Potassic alteration, dominated
by K-feldspar, occurs locally within the central areas of pervasive greisen alteration. Other
deposits such as Xingluokeng (China) are characterized more by central zones of silicic and
potassic alteration (K-feldspar and biotite); zones of weak greisen alteration consisting of
muscovite and fluorite may be present. Sericitic alteration forms a broad aureole around the
central potassic zone; irregular zones of argillic alteration may be superimposed on both the
potassic and sericitic zones. In detail, alteration patterns may be complex; at Logtung, for
example, different stages of mineralized veins and fractures are characterized by different
assemblages of ore and alteration minerals.

Weathering: Oxidation of pyrite produces limonitic gossans; oxidation of molybdenite, if present, may
produce yellow ferrimolybdenite.

Ore controls: Quartz veinlet and fracture stockwork zones surround or are draped over and are
superimposed to varying degrees on small stocks (<1 km2); multiple stages of mineralization
commonly present; felsic intrusions associated with the deposits are typically F-rich.

Genetic model: Magmatic-hydrothermal. Large volumes of magmatic, highly saline aqueous fluids under
pressure strip W, Mo and other ore metals from temporally and genetically related magma.
Multiple stages of brecciation related to explosive fluid pressure release from the upper parts of
small intrusions result in deposition of ore and gangue minerals in crosscutting fractures,
veinlets and breccias in the outer carapace of the intrusions and associated country rocks.
Incursion of meteoric water during waning stages of the magmatic-hydrothermal system may
result in late alteration of the hostrocks, but does not play a significant role in the ore forming
process.

Associated deposit types: Porphyry W deposits may be part of a spectrum of deposits that include
Climax-type Mo deposits (L08) as one end-member and porphyry Sn deposits as the other (L06).
Vein/replacement W, Sn, Ag deposits may be associated (I05, H07), e.g. Logjam Ag-Pb-Zn veins
peripheral to the Logtung W-Mo deposit. Skarn (contact metamorphic) zones associated with
genetically related felsic intrusions may be mineralized, but are not typical skarn W (i.e. contact
metasomatic) deposits.

3. Exploration Guides
Geochemical signature: W, Mo and Sn are anomalous in hostrocks close to mineralized zones;
anomalously high contents of F, Zn, Pb and Cu occur in wallrocks up to several kilometres from
mineralized zones. W, Sn, Mo, F, Cu, Pb and Zn may be anomalously high in stream sediments
and W, Sn and F (topaz) may be present in heavy mineral concentrates.

Geophysical signature: Genetically related intrusions may be magnetic lows (ilmenite rather than
magnetite dominant); contact aureole may be magnetic high if pyrrhotite or magnetite are
present in associated skarn or hornfels zones. Radiometric surveys may be used to outline
anomalous U, Th or K in genetically related intrusive rocks or in associated altered and
mineralized zones.

Other Exploration Guides: The presence of scheelite can be detected with an ultraviolet lamp.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Tens to more than 100 Mt at grades of 0.2 to 0.3 % W (Lianhushan is exceptional at
0.8 % W). Boya (British Columbia): limited size due to thrust fault truncation, no published
resource data. Mount Pleasant (New Brunswick): Fire Tower zone: 22.5 Mt @ 0.21 % W, 0.10 %
Mo, 0.08 % Bi, (includes 9.4 Mt @ 0.31 % W, and 0.12 % Mo), North zone: 11 Mt @ 0.2 % W, 0.1
% Mo. Logtung (Yukon): 162 Mt @ 0.10 % W, 0.03 % Mo. Xingluokeng (China): 78 Mt @ 0.18 %
W. Lianhuashan (China): ~40 Mt @ 0.8 % W.

Economic limitations: Low grades require high production volumes which may not be justified by current
demand for tungsten.

Importance: Not currently an important source of world W production; some W may be recovered from
deposits in China (e.g. Lianhuashan), but none is recovered at present (1994) from deposits
outside China. Mount Pleasant Tungsten in New Brunswick produced slightly more than 2000 t
of concentrate grading 70 % WO3 from 1 Mt of ore mined from 1983 to 1985.

5. References

Kirkham, R.V. and Sinclair, W.D. (1984): Porphyry Copper, Molybdenum, Tungsten; in Canadian Mineral
Deposit Types: A Geological Synopsis; Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report
36, pages 51-52.
Kirkham, R.V. and Sinclair, W.D. (1988): Comb Quartz Layers in Felsic Intrusions and their Relationship to
Porphyry Deposits; in Recent Advances in the Geology of Granite-related Mineral Deposits,
Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 39, pages 50-71.
Kooiman, G.J.A., McLeod, M.J. and Sinclair, W.D. (1986): Porphyry Tungsten-Molybdenum Orebodies,
Polymetallic Veins and Replacement Bodies, and Tin-bearing Greisen Zones in the Fire Tower
Zone, Mount Pleasent, New Brunswick; Economic Geology, Volume 81, pages 1356-1373.
Liu, W. (1980): Geological Features of Mineralization of the Xingluokeng Tungsten (Molybdenum)
Deposit, Fujian Province; in Tungsten Geology, China, Hepworth, J.V. and Lu, H.Z., Editors,
ESCAP/RMRDC, Bandung, Indonesia, pages 338-348.
Noble, S.R., Spooner, E.T.C. and Harris, F.R. (1986): Logtung: A Porphyry W-Mo Deposit in the Southern
Yukon; in Mineral Deposits of Northern Cordillera, Morin, J.A., Editor, Canadian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 37, pages 274- 287.
Sinclair, W.D. (1986): Molybdenum, Tungsten and Tin Deposits and associated Granitoid Intrusions in
the Northern Canadian Cordillera and adjacent parts of Alaska; in Mineral Deposits of Northern
Cordillera, Morin, J.A., Editor, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 37,
pages 216-233.
Yan, M-Z., Wu, Y-L. and Li, C.-Y. (1980): Metallogenetic Systems of Tungsten in Southeast China and their
Mineralization Characteristics; in Granitic Magmatism and Related Mineralization, Ishihara, S.
and Takenouchi, S., Editors, The Society of Mining Geologists of Japan, Mining Geology Special
Issue, No. 8, pages 215-221.
L08 - PORPHYRY Mo (Climax-type)

by W. David Sinclair
Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa

Sinclair, W.D. (1995): Porphyry Mo (Climax-type), in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 1 - Metallics and Coal, Lefebure, D.V. and Ray, G.E., Editors, British Columbia Ministry
of Employment and Investment, Open File 1995-20, pages 105-108.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Granite molybdenite; Climax Mo; granite-related Mo.

Commodities (byproducts): Mo (W, Sn; pyrite and monazite have also been recovered from the Climax
deposit).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): No unequivocal Climax-type porphyry Mo deposits

occur in British Columbia or other parts of Canada; Climax, Henderson, Mount Emmons and
Silver Creek (Colorado, USA), Pine Grove (Utah, USA), Questa (New Mexico), Malmbjerg
(Greenland), Nordli (Norway).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Stockworks of molybdenite-bearing quartz veinlets and fractures in highly evolved
felsic intrusive rocks and associated country rocks. Deposits are low grade but large and
amenable to bulk mining methods.

Tectonic setting: Rift zones in areas of thick cratonic crust.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: High-level to subvolcanic felsic intrusive centres; multiple

stages of intrusion are common.

Age of mineralization: Paleozoic to Tertiary, but mainly Tertiary.

Host/Associated rock types: Genetically related felsic intrusive rocks are high-silica (>75% SiO2), F-rich
(>0.1% F) granite/rhyolite; they are commonly porphyritic and contain unidirectional
solidification textures (USTs), particularly comb quartz layers. Contents of Rb, Y and Nb are high;
Ba, Sr and Zr are low. Mineralized country rocks may include sedimentary, metamorphic,
volcanic, and older intrusive rocks. Tuffs or other extrusive volcanic rocks may be associated
with deposits related to subvolcanic intrusions.

Deposit form: Deposits typically form an inverted cup or hemispherical shell; shapes may be modified by
regional or local structures. They are typically large, generally hundreds of metres across and
ranging from tens to hundreds of metres in vertical extent.

Texture/Structure: Ore is structurally controlled; mainly stockworks of crosscutting fractures and quartz
veinlets, also veins, vein sets and breccias; disseminations and replacements are less common.
Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Molybdenite; wolframite, cassiterite, sphalerite, galena,
monazite.

Gangue mineralogy: Quartz, pyrite, topaz, fluorite and rhodochrosite.

Alteration mineralogy: Potassic alteration (K-feldspar ± biotite) is directly associated with high-grade Mo
(>0.2% Mo); pervasive silicic alteration (quartz ± magnetite) may occur locally in the lower parts
of high-grade Mo zones. Quartz-sericite-pyrite alteration may extend hundreds of metres
vertically above orebodies; argillic alteration may extend hundreds of metres beyond quartz-
sericite-pyrite alteration, both vertically and laterally. Spessartine garnet occurs locally within
quartz-sericite-pyrite and argillic alteration zones. Greisen alteration consisting of quartz-
muscovite-topaz occurs as alteration envelopes around quartz-molybdenite veins below high-
grade Mo zones. Propylitic alteration is widespread and may extend for several km.

Weathering: Oxidation of pyrite produces limonitic gossans; oxidation of molybdenite produces yellow
ferrimolybdite.

Ore controls: Quartz veinlet and fracture stockwork zones surround or are draped over, and are
superimposed to varying degrees on small, genetically related stocks (area <1 km2); multiple
stages of mineralization are commonly present; abundant comb quartz layers and other USTs
characterize productive intrusions.

Genetic model: Magmatic-hydrothermal. Large volumes of magmatic, highly saline aqueous fluids under
pressure strip Mo and other ore metals from temporally and genetically related magma.
Multiple stages of brecciation related to explosive fluid pressure release from the upper parts of
small intrusions result in deposition of ore and gangue minerals in crosscutting fractures,
veinlets and breccias in the outer carapace of the intrusions and associated country rocks.
Incursion of meteoric water during waning stages of the magmatic-hydrothermal system may
result in late alteration of the hostrocks, but does not play a significant role in the ore-forming
process.

Associated deposit types: Ag-base metal veins (I05), fluorspar deposits. Some porphyry W-Mo deposits
(e.g. Mount Pleasant) may be W-rich Climax-type deposits. Mo may also be present in adjacent
skarn deposits (K07). Climax-type porphyry Mo deposits may be related to rhyolite-hosted Sn
deposits (H07, USGS model 25h).

Comments: This model is based mainly on descriptions of Climax and Climax-type deposits in Colorado.
These deposits tend to have more complex igneous- hydrothermal systems and higher average
Mo grades than low-F-type porphyry Mo deposits.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Mo, Sn, W, Rb, Mn and F may be anomalously high in hostrocks close to and
overlying mineralized zones; Pb, Zn, F and U may be anomalous in wallrocks as much as several
kilometres distant. Mo, Sn, W, F, Cu, Pb, Zn may be anomalous in stream sediments and Mo, Sn,
W, and F (topaz) may be present in heavy mineral concentrates.
Geophysical signature: Genetically related intrusions may be magnetic lows (ilmenite rather than
magnetite dominant). Radiometric surveys may be used to outline anomalous U, Th or K in
genetically related intrusive rocks or in associated altered and mineralized zones.

Other Exploration Guides: Deposits occur in extensional tectonic settings in areas of thick continental
crust. Genetically related felsic intrusive rocks generally have high contents of Nb (>75 ppm. Ag-
Pb-Zn veins, topaz, fluorite and Mn- garnet may be present in peripheral zones. Yellow
ferrimolybdite may be present in oxidized zones.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Deposits typically contain hundreds of millions of tonnes at 0.1 to 0.3 % Mo.
Following figures are production plus reserves (from Carten et al., 1993): Climax, Colorado: 769
Mt @ 0.216% Mo (mineable), Henderson, Colorado: 727 Mt @ 0.171% Mo (geological), Mount
Emmons, Colorado: 141 Mt @ 0.264% Mo (mineable), Silver Creek, Colorado: 40 Mt @ 0.310%
Mo (geological), Pine Grove, Utah: 125 Mt @ 0.170% Mo (geological), Questa, New Mexico: 277
Mt @ 0.144% Mo (mineable), Malmbjerg, Greenland: 136 Mt @ 0.138% Mo (geological), Nordli,
Norway: 181 Mt @ 0.084% Mo (geological).

Economic limitations: Economic viability of these deposits is affected by Mo production from other
types of deposits such as porphyry Cu-Mo deposits, which produce Mo as a coproduct or
byproduct.

Importance: Porphyry Mo deposits of the Climax type have been a major source of world Mo production
and contain substantial reserves.

5. References

Carten, R.B., White, W.H. and Stein, H.J. (1993): High-grade Granite-related Mo Systems: Classification
and Origin: in Mineral Deposit Modeling, Kirkham, R.V., Sinclair, W.D., Thorpe, R.I. and Dute,
J.M. Editors,: Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 40, pages 521-554.
Kirkham, R.V. and Sinclair, W.D. (1984): Porphyry Copper, Molybdenum, Tungsten; in Canadian Mineral
Deposit Types: A Geological Synopsis; Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report
36, pages 51-52.
Kirkham, R.V. and Sinclair, W.D. (1988): Comb Quartz Layers in Felsic Intrusions and their Relationship to
Porphyry Deposits; in Recent Advances in the Geology of Granite-related Mineral Deposits,
Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 39, pages 50-71.
Keith, J.D. and Christiansen, E.H. (1992): The Genesis of Giant Molybdenum Deposits; in Giant Ore
Deposits, Whiting, B.H., Masong, R. and Hodgson, C.J., Editors, Proceedings of the Giant
Deposits Workshop, Queen’s University, Kingston, 11-13 May, 1992.
Ludington, S.D. (1986): Descriptive Model of Climax Mo Deposits; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P.
and Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, page 73.
Mutschler, F.E., Wright, E.G., Ludington, S. and Abbot, J. (1981): Granite Molybdenite Systems; Geology,
Volume 13, pages 469-474.
Wallace, S.R., Muncaster, N.K., Jonson, D.D., MacKenzie, W.B., Bookstrom, A.A. and Surface, V.E. (1968):
Multiple Intrusion and Mineralization at Climax, Colorado; in Ore Deposits of the United States,
1933-1967 (The Graton-Sales Volume), Ridge, J.D., Editor, American Institute of Mining,
Metallurgy and Petroleum Engineers, New York, pages 605-640.
Westra, G. and Keith, S.B. (1981): Classification and Genesis of Stockwork Molybdenum Deposits;
Economic Geology, Volume 76, pages 844-873.
White, W.H., Bookstrom, A.A., Kamilli, R.J., Ganster, M.W., Smith, R.P., Ranta, D.E. and Steininger, R.C.
(1981): Character and Origin of Climax-type Molybdenum Deposits; Economic Geology, 75th
Anniversary Volume, pages 270-316.
Examples of Porphyry Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

L01 Lepanto (Philippines), Resck (Hungary), Kori Kollo Equity Silver, Thorn
(Bolivia)
L02 Mokrsko (Czech Republic), Timbarra (New South --
Wales, Australia)
L03 Tai Parit (Philippines) Afton, Copper Mountain, Galore
Creek
L04 Chuquicamata & La Escondida (Chile) Highland Valley, Gibraltar
L05 Quartz Hill (Alaska) Endako, Kitsault, Glacier Gulch
L06 Llallagua (Bolivia), Potato Hills (Yukon) --
L07 Logtung (Yukon), Xingluokeng (China) Boya
L08 Climax & Henderson (Colorado) --
L09* Marte & Lobo (Chile), Lihir (Papua New Guinea) Snowfields

* Note: All BC deposit profile(s) with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s.
M - Ultramafic/Mafic

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

M01* Flood Basalt-Associated Basaltic subvolcanic Cu-Ni-PGE 5a/5b
Ni-Cu
M02* Tholeiitic intrusion- Gabbroid-associated Ni-Cu 7a
hosted Ni-Cu
M03 Podiform chromite -- 8a/8b
M04 Magmatic Fe-Ti±V oxide Mafic intrusion-hosted Ti-Fe 7b
deposits deposits
M05 Alaskan-type Pt±Os±Rh±Ir Zoned ultramafic, Uralian-type 9
M06 Ultramafic-hosted Serpentinite-hosted asbestos 8d
asbestos
M07 Ultramafic-hosted talc- -- 8f*
magnesite
M08 Vermiculite deposits -- --
M03 - PODIFORM CHROMITE

by Chris Ash
BC Geological Survey

Ash, Chris (1996): Podiform Chromite, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 2 -
Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Employment
and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 109-112.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Alpine type; ophiolite hosted chromite.

Commodities (byproducts): Chromite (may contain platinum group elements Os, Ir and Ru).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Castle Mountain Nickel (082ESE091)

and Scottie Creek (092INW001); Guleman ore field (Turkey); Kalimash - Kukes-Tropoje district,
Bulquize and Todo Manco - Bater-Martanesh district (Mirdita ophiolite, Albania); Tiébaghi
ophiolite and Massif du Sud (New Caledonia), Acoje and Masinloc-Coto (Zambales
range/ophiolite, Luzon, Phillipines); Batamshinsk, Stepninsk, Tagashaisai and Main SE ore fields
(Kempirsai massif, Southern Urals, Russia); Xeraivado and Skoumtsa mines (Vourinos ophiolite,
Greece); Semail ophiolite (Oman); Luobusa, Donqiao, Sartohay, Yushi, Solun, Wudu and
Hegenshan deposits (China) all > 1.5 Mt.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Deposits of massive chromitite occur as pods, lenses or layers within ophiolitic
ultramafic rocks.

Tectonic setting: Obducted fragments of oceanic, lower crustal and upper mantle ultramafic rocks within
accreted oceanic terranes.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Formed as a primary magmatic differentiate during early

olivine and chrome-spinel crystal fractionation of basaltic liquid at an oceanic spreading centre;
(1) as massive to disseminated pods and lenses of chrome-spinel surrounded by a dunite
envelope within depleted mantle harzburgite; or (2) as massive to disseminated cumulate layers
in dunite at the base of the crustal plutonic section.

Age of mineralization: Mesozoic and younger.

Host/Associated rock types: Variably serpentinized peridotite; residual mantle harzburgite; cumulate
dunite.

Deposit form: Podiform, tabular lenses, irregular masses, cumulate layers. Pods and lenses typically
occur in clusters of variable size.

Texture/Structure: Massive to disseminated, nodular (syn. leopard, grape, bean or shot ore), chromite
net, occluded silicate, orbicular.
Ore Mineralogy: Chromite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Variably serpentinized olivine and orthopyroxene,
magnetite, iddingsite.

Weathering: Black, no noticeable affects resulting from surface oxidation.

Ore controls: Proximity to the crust-mantle transition zone. Restricted to dunite bodies in tectonized
harzburgite below this transition, or lower dunitic portions of ultramafic cumulate section above
it.

Genetic model: Early fractional crystallization of chromite from a basaltic liquid either (1) just below the
crust-mantle transition (syn. petrological MOHO) in small magma pockets or possibly conduits
within the residual mantle harzburgite; or (2) immediately above the crust-mantle transition as
cumulate layers within dunite at the base of the axial magma chamber. Pods and lenses in
harzburgite obtain their diagonistic shape as a result subsolidus to hypersolidus ductile
deformation due to mantle convection.

Comments: Ophiolites of suprasubduction zone affinity with harzburgite mantle sections appear to be
the only ophiolite type to host economic deposits of podiform chromite. A lack of any sizable
chromite occurrence in British Columbia may reflect the fact that most ophiolitic complexes in
the province are of mid- ocean ridge affinity. Occurrences of podiform chromite are found in
ophiolitic ultramafic rocks in the Slide Mountain, Cache Creek and Bridge River terranes. Most of
these known occurrences have been reviewed by Hancock (1990).

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Cr

Geophysical signature: Gravity anomaly.

Other Exploration Guides: Found in rocks formed near or within the ophiolitic crust- mantle transition
zone.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Grades range from 20 to 60% Cr2O3 and are a function of the texture of the
chromite; i.e. amount of chromite relative to gangue serpentinite. Tonnages are variable,
ranging from several thousand tonnes to several million tonnes.

Economic limitations: The complex structure and irregular distribution make exploration and
development difficult.

Uses: Chromium has a wide range of uses in the iron and steel industry which accounts for over 75% of
its use. Chromite is also used in making refractory bricks for furnace linings.
Importance: An important source of metallurgical-type chromite ores (45-60% Cr2O3: Cr/Fe = 2.8-4.3).
Podiform chromite is the only source of refractory-type ore (min. 25% Al2O3: min. 60% Cr2O3 +
Al2O3: max. 15% FeO). Historically podiform-type ore fields account for 57% of all chromite
produced.

5. References

Albers, J.P. (1986): Descriptive Model of Podiform Chromite; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and
Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, page 34.
Christiansen, F.G. (1986): Structural Classification of Ophiolitic Chromite Deposits; in Metallogeny of
Basic and Ultrabasic Rocks, Gallagher, M.J., Ixer, R.A., Neary, C.R. and Pichard, H.M., Editors; The
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, pages 279-289.
Duke, J.M. (1983): Ore Deposit Models 7. Magmatic Segregation Deposits of Chromite; Geoscience
Canada, Volume 10, Number 1, pages 15-24.
Hancock, K.D. (1990): Ultramafic Associated Chrome and Nickel Occurrences in British Columbia; B.C.
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1990- 27, 62 pages.
Roberts, S. (1988): Ophiolitic Chromitite Formation: A Marginal Basin Phenomenon?; Economic Geology,
Volume 83, pages 1034-1036.
Singer, D.A., Page, N.J. and Lipin, B.R. (1986): Grade and Tonnage Model of Major Podiform Chromite; in
Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin
1693, pages 38-44.
Singer, D.A. and Page, N.J. (1986): Grade and Tonnage Model of Minor Podiform Chromite; in Mineral
Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, pages
34-38.
Stowe, C.W. (1987): Evolution of Chromium Ore Fields; Van Nostrund Reinhold Co., New York, 340
pages.
Thayer, T.P. (1964): Principal Features and Origin of Podiform Chromite Deposits, and Some
Observations on the Guleman-Soridag District, Turkey; Economic Geology, Volume 59, pages
1497- 1524.
M04 - MAGMATIC Ti-Fe±V OXIDE DEPOSITS

by G.A. Gross1, C.F. Gower2, and D.V. Lefebure3

1
Geological Survey of Canada
2
Newfoundland Department of Mines and Energy
3
British Columbia Geological Survey

Gross, G.A., Gower, C.F., and Lefebure, D.V. (1997): Magmatic Ti-Fe±V Oxide Deposits, in Geological
Fieldwork 1997, British Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment, Paper 1998-1, pages
24J-1 to 24J-3.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Mafic intrusion-hosted titanium-iron deposits.

Commodities (byproducts): Ti, Fe

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Bearpaw Ridge (093I 028); Methuen, Unfravile,
Matthews-Chaffrey, Kingston Harbour (Ontario, Canada); Lac-du-Pin-Rouge, Lac Tio, Magpie
(Quebec, Canada), Sanford Lake (New York, USA), Tellnes, Egersund (Norway), Smaalands-
Taberg, Ulvno (Sweden).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Ilmenite, hemo-ilmenite or titaniferous magnetite accumulations as cross-cutting

lenses or dike-like bodies, layers or disseminations within anorthositic/gabbroic/noritic rocks.
These deposits can be subdivided into an ilmenite subtype (anorthosite-hosted titanium-iron)
and a titaniferous magnetite subtype (gabbro-anorthosite-hosted iron-titanium).

Tectonic setting: Commonly associated with anorthosite-gabbro-norite-monzonite (mangerite)-

charnockite granite (AMCG) suites that are conventionally interpreted to be anorogenic and/or
extensional. Some of the iron-titanium deposits occur at continental margins related to island
arc magmatism followed by an episode of orogenic compression.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Deposits occur in intrusive complexes which typically are
emplaced at deeper levels in the crust. Progressive differentiation of liquids residual from
anorthosite-norite magmas leads to late stage intruions enriched in Fe and Ti oxides and apatite.

Age of mineralization: Mainly Mesoproterozoic (1.65 to 0.90 Ga) for the ilmenite deposits, but this may
be a consequence of a particular combination of tectonic circumstances, rather than any a priori
temporal control. The Fe-Ti deposits with titaniferous magnetite do not appear to be restricted
in time.

Host/Associated rocks: Hosted by massive, layered or zoned intrusive complexes - anorthosite, norite,
gabbro, diorite, diabase, quartz monzonite and hornblende pyroxenite. The anorthosites are
commonly emplaced in granitoid gneiss, granulite, schist, amphibolite and quartzite. Some
deposits associated with lower grade rocks.
Deposit form: Lensoid, dike-like or sill-like bodies of massive ore, or disseminated in mafic host rocks.
Some ore is disseminated as layers in layered intrusions. Typically the massive material has
sharp, cross-cutting contacts with its anorthositic hosts, forming lenses tens to hundreds of
metres wide and several hundred metres long. The massive ore may have apophyses cutting the
host rock, be associated with intrusive breccias and contain anorthositic xenoliths. In layered
deposits individual layers range in thickness from centimetres to metres and may be followed up
to several thousand metres. Lean (disseminated) ore grades into unmineralized host rock. Lac
Tio and Tellnes ore bodies are very large examples of the ilmenite subtype. Lac Tio is an
irregular, tabular intrusive mass, 1100 m long and 1000 m wide. The Tellnes ore body, which is
400 m thick and 2.5 km long, is part of a 14 km long dike.

Texture/Structure: Massive, disseminated or locally in layers. No zoning of ore minerals, but there may
be variation in modal proportions of associated silicates. Medium or coarse grained, primary
magmatic textures. Exsolution intergrowths of either ilmenite and hemo-ilmenite, or
titanomagnetite, titaniferous magnetite or ilmenite in magnetite. Locally the massive ore,
particularly near contacts with host rock, contains abundant xenoliths and xenocrysts derived
from the associated intrusive.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Ilmenite, hemo-ilmenite, titaniferous magnetite and
magnetite. Proportions of ilmenite and magnetite generally correlate with host rock petrology.
Fe-sulphides such as pyrrhotite, pentlandite and chalcopyrite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Silicate minerals, especially plagioclase, orthopyroxene,
clinopyroxene and olivine, with apatite, minor zircon and pleonaste spinel. Orthopyroxene is
rare to absent in the island arc-related titaniferous magnetite deposits.

Alteration mineralogy: Not normally altered.

Weathering: Rarely residual enrichment may occur in weathering zone.

Ore controls: The key control is the development of a late, separate Ti and Fe-rich liquid from a
fractionating magma under stable conditions. Many deposits occur in elongate belts of intrusive
complexes emplaced along deep-seated faults and fractures. Ilmenite deposits are associated
with lower magnesian phases of anorthositic intrusions. Titaniferous magnetite deposits are
commonly associated with magnesian, labradorite phases of anorthositic intrusions or gabbroic
phases near the margins of the stock. In layered intrusions the titaniferous magnetite seams are
commonly within the upper stratigraphic levels and in marginal zones of complex intrusive
bodies.

Genetic models: Progressive differentiation of liquids residual from anorthosite-norite magmas leads to
late enrichment in Fe and Ti. Typically plagioclase crystallization results in concentration of Fe
and Ti in residual magmas which typically crystallize to form ferrodiorites and ferrogabbros.
Layers form by crystal settling and accumulation on the floors of magma chambers and the
disseminated deposits are believed to have formed in-situ. The origin of the discordant deposits,
primarily associated with the Proterozoic anorthosites, is not well understood. Two genetic
models have been suggested - remobilization of the crystal cummulates into cracks or fractures
or emplacement as a Fe-Ti-oxide-rich immiscible melt with little silica.
Associated deposit types: Ni-Cu-Co magmatic sulphide deposits (M02), chromite deposits (e.g. Bushveld
Complex), platinum group deposits (e.g. Stillwater Complex, Bushveld Complex), and placer
ilmenite, magnetite, rutile and zircon (C01, C02).

Comments: Titaniferous magnetite deposits associated with zoned ultramafic complexes in Alaska and
British Columbia, such as Lodestone Mountain (092HSE034) and Tanglewood Hill (092HSE035),
are included with Alaskan-type deposits (M05). Some authors would include them with
magmatic Fe-TiV oxide deposits. In California in the San Gabriel Range occurrences of the
ilmenite-subtype are hosted by anorthosite and ferrodiorite intrusions within a metamorphic
complex composed of gneisses.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Ti, Fe, V, Cr, Ni, Cu, Co geochemical anomalies.

Geophysical signature: Magnetic or EM response, although if the deposit is particularly ilmenite-rich it

may exhibit either a subdued or a strong negative anomaly. Sometimes the subdued response
displays characteristic irregular patterns of negative and positive anomalies that show broad
smooth profiles or patterns.

Other Exploration Guides: Heavy mineral concentrations of ilmenite and titaniferous magnetite in placer
deposits. Abundant apatite in some deposits. Association with anothosite and gabbro intrusive
complexes along deep fracture and fault zones.

4. Economic factors

Grade and tonnage: Both grade and tonnage vary considerably. The ilmenite deposits are up to several
hundreds of millions of tonnes with from 10 to 75% TiO2, 32 to 45% Fe and less than 0.2% V. The
Tellnes deposit comprises 300 Mt averaging 18% TiO2. The Lac Tio deposit, largest of 6 deposits
at Allard Lake, contains more than 125 mt of ore averaging 32% TiO2 and 36% FeO. Titaniferous
magnetite deposits can be considerably larger, ranging up to a billion tonnes with grades
between 20 to 45% Fe, 2 to 20% TiO2 and less than 7% apatite with V contents averaging 0.25%.

Economic limitations: The economic deposits are typically coarse, equigranular aggregates which are
amenable to processing depending on the composition and kinds of exsolution textures of the
Fe-Ti-oxide minerals.

Uses: Titanium dioxide is a nontoxic, powdered white pigment used in paint, plastics, rubber, and paper.
Titanium metal is resistant to corrosion and has a high strengthtoweight ratio and is used in the
manufacturing of aircraft, marine and spacecraft equipment.

Importance: Apart from placers, this type of deposit is the major source of TiO2. These deposits were an
important source of iron (pig iron) in the former Soviet Union. They have been mined for Fe in
Canada, however, the grades are generally lower than those in iron formations and iron
lateritites. The only current iron production is as a coproduct with TiO2 in pyrometallurgial
processing of ilmenite ore.

5. Selected bibliography
Ashwal, L.D. (1993): Anorthosites; SpringerVerlag, Berlin, 422 pages.
Force, Eric R. (1986): Descriptive Model of Anorthosite Ti; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, Denis P. and
Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, pages 32-33.
Force, E.R. (1991): Geology of Titanium-mineral Deposits; Geological Society of America, Special Paper
259, 113 pages.
Gross, G.A. (1965): General Geology and Evaluation of Iron Deposits; Volume I, in Geology of Iron
Deposits in Canada, Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report 22, 111 pages.
Gross, G.A. and Rose, E.R. (1984): Mafic Intrusion-hosted Titanium-Iron; in Canadian Mineral Deposit
Types: A Geological Synopysis; Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report 36,
Eckstrand, O.R., Editor, page 46.
Gross, G.A. (1995): Mafic Intrusion-hosted Titanium-iron; in Geology of Canadian Mineral Deposit Types,
Eckstrand, O.R., Sinclair, W.D. and Thorpe, R.I, (Editors), Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of
Canada, Number 8, pages 573-582.
Hammond, P. (1952): Allard Lake Ilmenite Deposits; Economic Geology, Volume 47, pages 634-649.
Hancock, K.D. (1988): Magnetite Occurrences in British Columbia, Open File 1988-28, B.C. Ministry of
Energy, Minerals and Petroleum Resources, 153 pages.
Korneliussen, A., Geis, H.P., Gierth, E., Krause, H., Robins, B. and Schott, W. (1985): Titanium Ores: an
Introduction to a Review of Titaniferous Magnetite, Ilmenite and Rutile deposits in Norway;
Norges Geologiske Undersøkelse Bulletin, volume 402, pages 723.
Lister, G.F. (1966): The Composition and Origin of Selected Irontitanium Deposits; Economic Geology,
volume 61, pages 275310.
Reynolds, I.M. (1985): The Nature and Origin of Titaniferous Magnetiterich Layers in the Upper Zone of
the Bushveld Complex: a Review and Synthesis; Economic Geology, volume 80, pages 10891108.
Rose, E.R. (1969): Geology of Titnaium and Titaniferous Deposits of Canada; Geological Survey of
Canada, Economic Geology Report 25, 177 pages.
Wilmart, E., Demaiffe, D. and Duchesne, J.C. (1989): Geochemical Constraints on the Genesis of the
Tellnes Ilmenite Deposit, Southwest Norway; Economic Geology, Volume 84, pages 1047-1056.
M05 - Alaskan-type Pt+/-Os+/-Rh+/-Ir

G.T. Nixon
British Columbia Geological Survey

Nixon, G.T. (1996): Alaskan-type Pt+/-Os+/-Rh+/-Ir, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 113-116.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Zoned ultramafic, Uralian-type, Alaskan-type.

Commodities (byproducts): Pt (Ir, Os, Rh, magnetite).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Tulameen Complex and associated placers;

magnetite plus trace platinum group elements (PGE) -Lodestone Mountain (092HSE034),
Tanglewood Hill (092HSE035); chromite - Grasshopper Mountain (092HNE011); olivine -
Grasshopper Mountain Olivine (092HNE189); Red Mountain, Goodnews Bay (Alaska, USA), Tin
Cup Peak (Oregon, USA), Ural Mountains and Aldan Shield (Russia), Fifield district (NSW,
Australia).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Ultramafic intrusive complexes, commonly zoned, forming sills, stocks or intrusive
bodies with poorly known external geometry. Subeconomic platinum group elements in lode
occurrences are associated with: 1) thin (centimetre-scale), disrupted chromitite layers , 2) thick
(metre-scale) concentrations of cumulus magnetite or 3) clinopyroxenite. Economic placer
deposits appear to be derived predominantly from chromitite- hosted PGE occurrences.

Tectonic settings: Traditionally subdivided into orogenic (unstable) and platformal (stable)
environments. In British Columbia, Alaskan-type complexes were emplaced during an episode of
Cordillera-wide, subduction-related arc magmatism followed by an episode of orogenic
compression.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Zoned to crudely layered ultramafic- mafic intrusive

complexes with rarely preserved (or poorly documented) metamorphic aureoles. Intrusive
margins are commonly faulted. Traditionally viewed as deep-seated cumulates diapirically re-
emplaced at high levels in the crust. In British Columbia, at least, most intrusions appear to
represent cumulate deposition in upper crustal (subvolcanic?) magma chambers and the diapiric
re-emplacement model lacks definitive supporting evidence.

Age of mineralization: Precambrian to late Mesozoic; most Alaskan-type complexes in British Columbia
appear to be mid-Triassic to late Early Jurassic in age.

Host/Associated rock types: Predominantly dunite, wehrlite, olivine clinopyroxenite, clinopyroxenite,

hornblende clinopyroxenite, clinopyroxene hornblendite, hornblende- and/or clinopyroxene-
bearing gabbro/diorite. Minor lithologies include chromitite, magnetitite, olivine-hornblende
 clinopyroxenite, and hornblendite. Associated feldspar-bearing lithologies include
gabbro/diorite, monzonite, monzodiorite and minor alkali-feldspar syenite and hornblende-
feldspar ± quartz ± biotite pegmatite.

Deposit form: Lode occurrences of PGEs are primarily controlled by magmatic cumulate stratigraphy:
1) chromitites are restricted to dunites where they form thin discontinuous layers or
schlieren, pods and nodular masses seldom more than a metre in length;
2) magnetitites and concentrations of cumulus magnetite form well bedded, locally
continuous layers up to six m thick intercalated with hornblende clinopyroxenite;
3) lenses and vein-like bodies of relatively coarse-grained or "pegmatoid", biotite and
magnetite-poor, PGE-bearing clinopyroxenites are enclosed by finer grained, biotite and
magnetite-rich, PGE-poor clinopyroxenites.

Texture/Structure: Cumulus and intercumulus textures are most common; poikilitic textures may
predominate locally, especially in hornblende-bearing lithologies. Comparatively rare
macroscopic layering. Euhedral to subhedral chromite concentrations form networks around
olivine or discrete wispy or thin layers in dunite. Chromitites typically form schlieren and nodular
masses due to syndepositional remobilization. Magnetite-rich accumulations usually form thin
to thick bedded layers in hornblende clinopyroxenite. Tectonic deformation, commonly in the
form of ductile shear fabrics, is locally superimposed on magmatic textures, and is especially
prevalent at intrusive contacts.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Three types of PGE mineral (PGM) associations are
recognized in lode occurrences: 1) chromitite-PGM association, principally chromite and Pt-Fe(-
Cu-Ni) alloys (e.g. tetraferroplatinum, isoferroplatinum, rare native platinum, tulameenite) and
minor Os-Ir and Pt-Ir alloys, Rh-Ir sulpharsenides (hollingworthite-irarsite series), sperrylite
(PtAs2), geversite (PtSb2), and laurite (RuS2); 2) magnetitite-PGM association (not well
documented), principally magnetite (Ti-V-rich in certain cases) and Pt-Fe and Os-Ir alloys, and
rare cooperite (PtS); 3) clinopyroxenite-PGM association (known from a single locality - Fifield,
NSW, Australia), principally Pt-Fe alloys (isoferroplatinum-tetraferroplatinum), erlichmanite
(OsS2), cooperite, and sperrylite-geversite. Minor amounts of base metal sulphides
(chalcopyrite, pentlandite, pyrrhotite, pyrite, bornite, violarite, bravoite, millerite,
heazlewoodite) generally accompany the PGM in all three associations.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): The principal gangue minerals include olivine, chrome
spinel, clinopyroxene, and hornblende in ultramafic rocks; hornblende, clinopyroxene and
plagioclase in gabbroic/dioritic rocks; and hornblende, quartz (rare) and alkali feldspar in
leucocratic differentiates. Orthopyroxene is characteristically absent as a cumulus phase but
may form very rare intercumulus grains. Accessory magnetite and apatite are generally
common, and locally abundant in hornblende clinopyroxenite; sphene and zircon occur in felsic
differentiates; phlogopite-biotite is particularly widespread as an accessory phase in British
Columbia.

Alteration mineralogy: Secondary PGM are minor and closely associated with the primary PGM alloys.
Remobilization of PGE is believed to be extremely limited and may be commonly related to
postmagmatic serpentinizaton processes acting during regional metamorphism and
deformation.
Weathering: It has been argued by some that the PGE found in placer occurrences may owe their origin
to the hydromorphic dispersion and precipitation of PGE during normal weathering processes.
The debate continues, but it is clear from a variety of textural, mineralogical and isotopic (Re-Os)
data that the common placer PGE occurrences are the products of mechanical degradation of
magmatic lode occurrences and not surficial remobilization processes.

Ore controls: The PGM appear to be restricted to chromitite, magnetite-rich or clinopyroxenite layers
which formed by primary magmatic crystallization processes. The chromite is typically
associated with dunite whereas the magnetite is found with clinopyroxenite.

Genetic model: The origin of the PGE in Alaskan-type deposits is magmatic with very limited low-
temperature remobilization. A low sulphidation, relatively high oxidation magmatic
environment (subduction-related?) appears to be an important genetic control. The chromitites
in dunite and, to a much lesser extent, the magnetite-rich layers in clinopyroxenite, appear to be
the ultimate source of the placer PGE.

Associated deposit types: Placer deposits (C01, C02) are extremely important since they have been the
only significant economically recoverable source of PGE associated with Alaskan-type
complexes. Some lode deposits have been worked in Russia but their documentation is
extremely poor.

Comments: All of the world's most important Alaskan-derived placers appear to be related to
concentrations of PGE in chromitites. Gold in these placers appears to have been derived from a
separate source. Magnetite accumulations in clinopyroxenites of the Tulameen Complex have
been explored for magnetite.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Primarily Pt, with subsidiary Os, Rh and Ir; other elements such as Cu, Ni, and Cr
may be locally important. Geochemical pathfinder elements for PGE, such as As and Sb, may
also be important.

Geophysical signature: Primarily magnetic; gravity may be important.

Other Exploration Guides: Stream sediment sampling of heavy mineral concentrates for PGE is a key
exploration tool; in favourable circumstances PGE geochemistry and platinum nugget
mineralogy can uniquely distinguish an Alaskan-type heritage from all other common PGE
environments.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: PGE concentrations in grab samples from lode deposits are extremely spotty
such that reliable tonnages and grades are not available. The associated placer deposits are
likewise extremely variable. Maximum grade of Pt from the Goodnews Mining Company
records, Alaska (1957) was approximately “$37 per cubic yard” at February 1993 prices. Placers
in the Tulameen district reportedly yielded some 620 kg of impure platinum between 1889 and
 1936. Some of the placer deposits in the former Soviet Union have yielded exceptional platinum
nuggets of up to 11.3 kg.

Economic limitations: The chromitite-PGE association appears to be the most important in British
Columbia; without exception, all of these chromitite occurrences are small, dispersed
throughout a dunite host, and all have been remobilized soon after deposition within the high-
temperature magmatic environment. A small open pit operation appears to be the only
potentially economic method of PGE extraction. The occurrence of the PGE as small
micrometre-size inclusions in refractory chromite poses problems for processing.

Uses: PGE are primarily used as high-temperature catalysts in a variety of industries, perhaps the most
familiar being platinum for automobile catalytic converters. Other uses include medical and
electronic (fuel cells, thermocouples), and platinum is used in jewelry.

Importance: PGE are classed as a strategic commodity. The most important producers are South Africa
and Russia.

5. References

Duparc, L. and Tikonowitch, M.N. (1920): Le Platine et les Gites Platiniferes de l'Oural et du Monde;
Sonor, Geneve.
Hurlbert, L.J., Duke, J.M., Eckstrand, O.R., Lydon, J.W., Scoates, R.F.J., Cabri, L.J. and Irvine, T.N. (1988):
Geological Environments of the Platinum Group Elements; Geological Association of Canada,
Cordilleran Section Workshop, February 1988, Vancouver, 151 pages.
Johan, Z., Ohnenstetter, M., Slansky, E., Barron, L.M. and Suppel, D. (1989): Platinum Mineralization in
the Alaskan-type Intrusive Complexes near Fifield, New South Wales, Australia Part 1. Platinum-
group Minerals in Clinopyroxenites of the Kelvin Grove Prospect, Owendale Intrusion;
Mineralogy and Petrology, Volume 40, pages 289-309.
Mertie, J.B. Jr. (1976): Platinum Deposits of the Goodnews Bay District, Alaska; U. S. Geological Survey,
Professional Paper 938, 42 pages.
Nixon, G.T. (1992): Platinum-group Elements in Tulameen Coal, British Columbia, Canada - A Discussion;
Economic Geology, Volume 87, pages 1667-1677.
Nixon, G.T. and Hammack, J.L. (1991): Metallogeny of Ultramafic-mafic Rocks in British Columbia with
Emphasis on the Platinum-group Elements; in Ore Deposits, Tectonics and Metallogeny in the
Canadian Cordillera, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1991-4,
pages 125-161.
Nixon, G.T., Cabri, L.J. and Laflamme, J.H.G. (1990): Platinum-group Element Mineralization in Lode and
Placer Deposits associated with the Tulameen Alaskan- type Complex, British Columbia;
Canadian Mineralogist, Volume 28, pages 503-535.
Page, N.J. and Gray, F. (1986): Descriptive Model of Alaskan PGE; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, Denis
P. and Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, page 49.
Rublee, V.J. (1986): Occurrence and Distribution of Platinum-group Elements in British Columbia; B.C.
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1986-7, 94 pages.
M06 - Ultramafic-hosted chrysotile asbestos

Z.D. Hora
British Columbia Geological Survey

Hora, Z.D. (1997): Ultramafic-hosted Chrysotile Asbestos, in Geological Fieldwork 1997, British Columbia
Ministry of Employment and Investment, Paper 1998-1, pages 24K-1 to 24K-4.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Quebec-type asbestos, serpentine-hosted asbestos, ultramafic-intrusion hosted asbestos.

Commodities (byproducts): Chrysotile asbestos (nephrite jade at Cassiar).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canadian/International): Cassiar (104P 005), McDame (104P
084), Letain (104I 006), Ace (104K 025), Asbestos (082KNW075); Thetford Mines, Black Lake,
Asbestos (Quebec, Canada), Belvidere Mine (Vermont, USA), Coalinga (California, USA), Cana
Brava (Brazil), Pano Amiandes (Cyprus), Bazhenovo (Russia), Barraba (New South Wales,
Australia), Barberton (Transvaal, South Africa).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Chrysotile asbestos occurs as cross fibre and/or slip fibre stockworks, or as less
common agglomerates of finely matted chrysotile fibre, in serpentinized ultramafic rocks.
Serpentinites may be part of ophiolite sequence in orogenic belts or synvolcanic intrusions of
Archean greenstone belts.

Tectonic settings: Chrysotile deposits occur in accreted oceanic terranes, usually part of an ophiolite
sequence, or within Alpine - type ultramafic rocks. They are also found in synvolcanic ultramafic
intrusions of komatiitic affinity in Archean greenstone belts. In British Columbia the significant
occurrences are found in the Slide Mountain, Cache Creek and Kootenay terranes.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: The serpentine host must have a nonfoliated texture and
must be situated near a fault that is active during a change in the orientation of the regional
stress from dip-slip to strike-slip fault motion. The serpentinite must be in the stability field of
chrysotile when the change in orientation occurs. Subsequent deformation or temperature
increase may destroy the fibre and result in a different mineralogy.

Age of mineralization: Precambrian to Tertiary. Deposits in British Columbia are considered Upper
Cretaceous, deposits in southeastern Quebec formed during a relatively late stage of Taconic
orogeny (late Ordovician to early Silurian), deposits in Ungava and Ontario are Precambrian.
Chrysotile asbestos deposits are generally considered to be syntectonic and to form during the
later stages of deformation.

Host/Associated rock types: Serpentinite, dunite, peridotite, wehrlite, harzburgite, pyroxenite.

Associated rocks are rodingite and steatite.
Deposit form: In plan orebodies are equidimensional to somewhat oblate zones from 100 to 1000
metres in diameter within masses of serpentinized ultramafic rock. The vertical distribution of
mineralized zones may be in the order of several hundreds of metres.

Texture/Structure: Asbestos veins fill tension fractures in serpentinized ultramafic rocks or form a matrix
of crushed and brecciated body of serpentinite. Usually, the orebodies grade from numerous
stockwork veins in the centre to a lower number of crosscutting veins on the fringes. Cross-fibre
veins, where the chrysotile fibres are at a high angle to the vein walls, are more abundant than
slip fibre veins which parallel the vein walls. Individual veins are up to several metres in length
and for the most part less than 1 cm thick, but may be up to 10 cm thick. In some deposits,
powdery agglomerates of finely matted chrysotile form the matrix for blocks and fragments of
serpentinite rock.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Chrysotile.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Gangue minerals in chrysotile veinlets are brucite and
magnetite. Antigorite and lizardite may also be present in association with chrysotile veining.

Alteration mineralogy: Chrysotile and associated minerals are alteration products of ultramafic rocks.
This process which starts as serpentinization, may be pervasive, but also fracture controlled and
incomplete with serpentine surrounding peridotite (or other rock) cores. In relationship to
changes in temperature, pressure and the fluid chemistry a variety of minerals from lizardite to
talc and antigorite, or tremolite can be produced. Since the serpentinization of ultramafic rocks
is frequently a multiple stage process, which can be either prograde or retrograde, many
deposits contain minerals which do not form in the same stability field. Therefore, the alteration
and gangue mineralogy are practically identical.

Weathering: In northern climates, only physical weathering of chrysotile and the serpentinized host rock
takes place. Brucite and carbonates may be removed in solution and precipitated as
hydromagnesite elsewhere. Lateritic soils should be expected in tropical climates.

Ore controls: Chrysotile veinlets are often best developed in massive serpentinite bodies with no
schistose fabric. Chrysotile stability field; proximity to a fault that is active during change in the
orientation of stress field; limited subsequent deformation and no subsequent medium to high
grade metamorphism after the asbestos formation. Asbestos veins fill tension fractures in
serpentinized ultramafic rocks or form a matrix of crushed and brecciated body of serpentinite.

Genetic models: Chrysotile asbestos deposits develop in nonfoliated, brittle ultramafic rocks under low
grade metamorphic conditions with temperatures of 300 ± 50°C and water pressures less than 1
kbar. The chrysotile forms as the result of fluid flow accompanied by deformation where water
gains access to partly or wholly serpentinized ultramafics along fault and shear zones.

Associated deposit types: Spatial association (but no genetic relationship) with podiform chromite
deposits (M03) and jade (Q01) in ophiolitic sequences. Cyptocrystalline magnesite veins (I17),
ultramafic-hosted talc-magnesite (M07) and anthophyllite asbestos deposits may be genetically
related.
Comments: Anthophyllite, a variety of amphibole, is another asbestiform mineral. Production of
anthophyllite has been limited; Green Mountain mine in North Carolina is the only North
American past producer.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: None.

Geophysical signature: Magnetite, which is a product of both sepentinization and the formation of
chrysotile, can produce well defined, magnetic anomalies. Gravity surveys can distinguish
serpentinite from the more dense (~20%) peridotite.

Other Exploration Guides: Asbestos fibres found in soils. Massive, brittle and unsheared ultramafic
bodies which are partly or fully serpentinized in proximity to faults and shears.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Total fibre content of commercial deposits is between 3 and 10%, the
tonnage is between 500 000 to 150 million tons (in the asbestos industry fibre length is a critical
parameter as well). In British Columbia, company reports indicate the Cassiar mine produced 31
Mt grading 7 to 10% fibre. There are however 25 Mt of tailings with 4.2% recoverable short
fibre. Another 7.3 Mt geological reserves was left in the pit. The adjacent McDame deposit has
measured reserves of 20 Mt @ 6.21% fibre and estimated geological reserves of 63 Mt. In the
Yukon Clinton Creek produced 15 Mt @ 6.3% fibre. The following figures are from Duke (1996)
and include past production plus reserves: Jeffrey, Quebec: 800 Mt @ 6% fibre, Bell-Wing-
Beaver, Quebec: 250 Mt @ 6% fibre, British Canadian, Quebec: 150 Mt @ 6% fibre, Advocate,
Newfoundland: 60 Mt @ 3% fibre. A relatively few deposits have been developed to mine
agglomerates of finely matted chrysotile fibre which have much higher grades.

The very large Coalinga deposit in California has reported short fibre recoveries in the order of
35 to 74%. The Stragari mine in Serbia is recovering 50-60% fibre.

Economic limitations: Fibre lengths may vary significantly within and between deposits; stockwork
mineralization is typically more economically attractive if the proportion of longer fibres is
higher. Typically, the fibre value starts at CDN$180/ton for the shortest grade and reaches
CDN$1750 for the longest (Industrial Minerals, 1997).

Uses: Asbestos-cement products; filler in plastics; break lining and clutch facings; asbestos textiles;
gaskets; acoustic and electric and heat insulation.

Importance: Ultramafic-hosted chrysotile is the only source of asbestos in North America and
considered the least hazardous of commercial asbestos minerals. During the 1980s the market
for asbestos in many countries declined due to health hazard concerns.

5. Selected bibliography
Cogulu, E. and Laurent R. (1984): Mineralogical and Chemical Variations in Chrysotile Veins and
Peridotite Host - Rocks from the Asbestos Belt of Southern Quebec; Canadian Mineralogist,
volume 22, pages, 173-183.
Duke, J.M. (1995): Ultramafic-hosted Asbestos; in Geology of Canadian Mineral Deposit Types,
Eckstrand, O.R., Sinclair, W.D. and Thorpe, R.I., Editors, Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of
Canada, Number 8, pages 263-268.
Harvey-Kelly, F.E.L. (1995): Asbestos Occurrences in British Columbia; British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1995 - 25, 102 pages.
Hemley, J.J., Montoya, J.W., Christ, C.L. and Hosletter, P.B. (1977): Mineral Eqilibria in the MgO-SiO2-H2O
System: I Talc-Chrysotile-Forsterite-Brucite Stability Relations; American Journal of Science,
Volume 277, pages 322-351.
Hemley, J.J., Montoya, J.W., Shaw, D.R. and Luce, R.W. (1977): Mineral Equilibria in the Mgo-SiO2-H2O
System: II Talc-Antigorite-Forsterite-Anthophyllite-Enstatite Stability Relations and Some
Geological Implications in the System; American Journal of Science, Volume 277, pages 353-383.
Hewett, F.G. (1984): Cassiar Asbestos Mine, Cassiar, British Columbia; in The Geology of Industrial
Minerals of Canada, Guillet, G.R. and Martin W., Editors, Canadian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, Montreal, Quebec, pages 258-262.
Mumpton, F.A. and Thompson, C.S. (1975): Mineralogy and Origin of the Coalinga Asbestos Deposit;
Clays and Clay Minerals, Volume 23, pages 131-143.
Nelson, J.L. and Bradford, J.A., (1989): Geology and Mineral Deposits of the Cassiar and McDame Map
Areas, British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1989-1,
pages 323-338.
O'Hanley, D.S. (1987): The Origin of the Chrysotile Asbestos Veins in Southeastern Quebec; Canadian
Journal of Earth Sciences, Volume 24, pages 1-9.
O'Hanley, D.S. (1988): The Origin of the Alpine Peridotite-Hosted, Cross Fibre, Chrysotile Asbestos
Deposits; Economic Geology, Volume 83, pages 256-265
O'Hanley, D.S. (1991): Fault Related Phenomena Associated With Hydration and Serpentine
Recrystallization During Serpentinization; Canadian Mineralogist, Volume 29, pages 21-35.
O'Hanley, D.S. (1992): Solution to the Volume Problem in Serpentinization; Geology, Volume 20, pages
705-708.
O'Hanley, D.S., Chernosky, J.U. Jr. and Wicks, F.J. (1989): The Stability of Lizardite and Chrysotile;
Canadian Mineralogist, Volume 27, pages 483-493.
O'Hanley, D.S., and Offler, R. (1992): Characterization of Multiple Serpentinization, Woodsreef, New
South Wales; Canadian Mineralogist, Volume 30, pages 1113-1126.
O' Hanley, D.S., Schandl, E.S. and Wicks, F.J. (1992): The Origin of Rodingites from Cassiar, British
Columbia, and their use to Estimate T and P(H2O) during Serpentinization; Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta, Volume 56, pages 97-108.
Page, N.J. (1986): Descriptive Model of Serpentine-Hosted Asbestos; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox,
D.P. and Singer, D.A., Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, pages 46-48.
Riordan, P.H., Editor (1981): Geology of Asbestos Deposits; American Institute of Mining and
Metallurgical Engineers, New York, 118 Pages.
Virta, R.L. and Mann, E.L. (1994): Asbestos; in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Carr, D.D., Editor, Society
for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., Littleton, Colorado, pages 97-124.
Wicks, F.J. (1984): Deformation Histories as Recorded by Serpentinites. I. Deformation Prior to
Serpentinization; Canadian Mineralogist, Volume 22, pages 185-195.
Wicks, F.J. (1984): Deformation Histories as Recorded by Serpentinites. II Deformation during the after
Serpentinization; Canadian Mineralogist, Volume 22, pages 197-203.
Wicks, F.J. (1984): Deformation Histories as Recorded by Serpentinites: III. Fracture Patterns
Development Prior to Serpentinization; Canadian Mineralogist, Volume 22, pages 205-209.
Wicks, F.J. and O'Hanley, D.S. (1988): Serpentine Minerals: Structures and Petrology; in Hydrous
Phyllosilicates, Bailey, S.W., Editor, Reviews in Mineralogy, Mineralogical Society of America,
Volume 19, pages 91-167.
Wicks, F.J. and Whittaker, E.J.W. (1977): Serpentine Textures and Serpentinization; Canadian
Mineralogist, Volume 15, pages 459-488.
M06 - Ultramafic-hosted talc-magnesite

G.J. Simandl1 and D. Ogden2

1
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
Omya Inc., Proctor, Vermont, USA.

Simandl, G.J. and Ogden, D. (1999): Ultramafic-hosted Talc-Magensite; in Selected British Columbia
Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V.
Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Ultramafic-hosted magnesite/talc deposits, serpentinite-hosted talc.

Commodities (byproducts): Talc and magnesite (rarely nickel).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Rawhide (092ISW051), South Talc Lake Deposit
(092ISW064), Gisby (092HNW002), J&J (092HNW047); Deloro magnesite-talc deposit (Ontario,
Canada), Luzcan mine of Thetford township and Van Reet mine, Ponton township, (Quebec,
Canada), Windham (Vermont, USA), Lahnaslampi mine (Finland).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Ultramafic-hosted talc-carbonate deposits are located either along regional faults
cutting ultramafic rocks or at contacts between ultramafic rocks and siliceous country rock. The
ultramafic host rock is typically, but not necessarily of ophiolitic affiliation. Deposits related to
regional fault systems cutting ultramafic host rock are commonly magnesite-rich. Deposits
located within sheets of serpentinized peridotite, found along the periphery of ultramafic
intrusions or near the borders of tectonically transported peridotite slices are typically talc-rich.

Tectonic settings: These deposits are found typically in obducted, accreted or otherwise tectonically
transported seafloor and ophiolite slices or lenses and in ancient greenstone belts. However,
serpentinized ultramafic intrusions regardless of tectonic environment should be considered as
a favourable host.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Faulted and metasomatized ultramafic rocks and

tectonically-transported serpentinites in contact with siliceous rocks; the deposits are younger
than the ultramafic protolith.

Age of mineralization: Precambrian or younger. Post or syn-tectonic.

Host/Associated rock types: Talc-carbonate-bearing serpentinite, steatite, talc schist, talc-magnesite-

dolomite schist that may contain serpentine/chlorite schist, dunite and serpentinite with
associated, commonly at least partially serpentinized gabbro, pyroxenite, harzburgite and
websterite or meta-komatiiate sills and lavas. Because many of the talc-bearing rocks are
allochthonous there is a wide variety of associated lithologies.
Deposit form: The fault-related deposits are irregular bodies having their largest dimensions parallel to
the faults. In some cases only the hanging wall of the faults is mineralized. Small ultramafic
lenses are commonly entirely serpentinized, while larger lenses consist of peridotite cores
surrounded by serpentinite. Steatite and talc schists are most likely to be found at the contact of
the serpentinite with siliceous rocks, however they may also form tabular or irregular bodies.

Texture/Structure: Ore is massive or schistose, talc is fine to coarse flakes.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Talc, magnesite, rarely Ni-bearing minerals, such as
pyrrhotite, pentlandite, melnikovite and bravoite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Dolomite, serpentine, chlorite, ankerite (Fe-rich
dolomite), breunerite (Fe-rich magnesite), olivine, magnetite, quartz, pyrite, asbestos, rutile,
calcite, chrome-mica.

Alteration mineralogy: N/A. Talc and magnesite are alteration (metasomatic) products.

Ore controls: Primary control is the presence of a magnesium-rich silicate rock to act as a source of
magnesium. Permeable fault zones or serpentinite-siliceous rock contacts control the sites of
talc formation.

Genetic models: These deposits are commonly magnesite-rich and are linked to CO2 and H2O
metasomatism (carbonatization and hydration) of ultramafic rocks by fluids following faults and
contacts. The following reactions 1, 2a and 2b and 3 illustrate the concept:
1) 18 serpentine + magnetite + 30 CO2 à 9 Talc + 30 breunerite + 27 H2O + 1/2 O2
2) a) 2 olivine + 1 CO2 + H2O à 1serpentine + 1 magnesite
b) 2 serpentine + 3 CO2 à 3 magnesite + 1 talc + 3 H2O
3) 1 serpentine + 2 quartz à 1 talc + H2O

The talc formed during metasomatism and/or regional metamorphism. Silica required for talc
formation was derived from the country rock.

Associated deposit types: Chrysotile deposits (M06), magnesite veins and stockworks (I17) podiform
chromite deposits (M03), famous "verde antique" dimension stone deposits and possibly,
nephrite (Q01) and listwanite-related gold (I01) deposits.

Comments: A similar origin has been proposed to explain the breunerite-talc assemblage in the
Motherlode gold district in California. The hydration / carbonitization of ultramafic rocks differs
from listwanite only by the lack of potassium metasomatism. Carbonitization products in some
cases represent intermediate stage in formation of true listwanites (Halls and Zhao, 1995).

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Talc is a relatively soft but inert mineral in most environments. It may be
enriched in soils overlying talc-bearing zones. Ultramafic rocks are characterized by Mg, Fe, Cr,
Ni, Co suite of elements. Under normal conditions, this signature may be reflected in soils,
stream or lake sediments and in overburden.
Geophysical signature: Unserpentinized portions of the host ultramafic rocks commonly correspond to
strong airborne and ground magnetic anomalies. Talc-rich zones corresponds commonly to
airborne electromagnetic lows.

Other Exploration Guides: Talc-rich zones coincide commonly with topographic lows and can be covered
by lakes and swamps. Some deposits exhibit zoning from siliceous country rock (quartz-sericite-
chlorite schist) into chlorite schist, then into the talc-bearing rocks (talc-carbonate-serpentine-
bearing schists, steatite) with a serpentinite core. Deposits are located within sheets of
serpentinized peridotite, along the periphery of ultramafic intrusions or thin, tectonically
transported slivers, slices or lenses of peridotite. The ultramafic rocks and major faults may be
detected by modern remote sensing technologies.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: The grade and size of these deposits is highly variable. The Deloro deposit
consists of 54% magnesite and 28% talc. It is about 1800 metres in length, 300 metres wide and
has been drilled to the depth of 120 metres. An underground talc mine of Cyprus Minerals Co.,
located at Windham, Vermont consists of lenses exceeding 230 metres in length and 100 metres
in width. The Lahnaslampi orebody in Finland contains over 30 million tonnes exceeding 50%
talc and 0.1 to 0.2% Ni. Nickel concentrate is produced from the tailings at Lahnaslampi. There is
the opportunity that talc could be a by-product from listwanite-hosted gold mines. The
metallurgical tests suggest that in some cases, it is technically possible to produce a magnesite
concentrate as talc by-product. However, economics of the process and exact technical
specifications of the potential product are not well documented.

Economic limitations: Steatite contains more than 90% talc. Flotation is required for most deposits to
produce high-quality fillers for paint and plastic applications, the ceramic and pharmaceutical
industries, and crayons. Underground mining is economically feasible to depths exceeding 300
metres. FeO content of magnesite from these deposits varies from 0.5 to 7%. Research is
underway to chemically reduce iron content of magnesite, in order to achieve refractory grade
magnesia products. Current restrictions placed on asbestos-bearing materials makes the ores
from asbestos-free deposits easier to market.

Uses: Talc from these deposits is commonly used in paper, ceramic, paint, plastic, roofing and electrical
applications. Massive talc and soapstone are used in electric insulation, refractory applications,
as carving stone or as raw material for laboratory sinks.

Importance: Ultramafic-hosted talc-magnesite deposits are important source of talc.

5. References

Andrews, P.R.A. (1994): The Beneficiation of Canadian Talc and Pyrophyllite Ores: a Review of Processing
Studies at CANMET; Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Bulletin, Volume 87, Number
984, pages 64-68.
Anonymous (1993): The Economics of Talc and Pyrophyllite; 7th Edition; Roskill Information Services Ltd.,
London, England, 266 pages.
Bates, R.I. (1969): Geology of Industrial Rocks and Minerals; Dover Publications Inc., New York, 459
pages.
Blount, A.M. and Spohn, T. (1982): Mineralogy of Residual Soils Overlying a Talc Deposit; Mineralium
Deposita, Volume 17, pages 17-21.
Griffis, A.T. and Griffis, R.J. (1984): Magnesite-talc Deposit in Southern Deloro Township, Ontario; in: The
Geology of Industrial Minerals in Canada, Guillet, G.R. and Martin, W., Editors, Canadian
Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, pages 122-124.
Halls, C. and Zhao, R. (1995): Listvenite and related rocks: Perspectives on Terminology and Mineralogy
with Rerence to an Occurrence at Cregganbaun, C. Mayo, Republic of Ireland. Mineralium
Deposita, Volume 30, pages 303-313.
Harris, M. and G.N. Ionides (1994): Update of a Market Study for Talc; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Geological Survey Branch Open File 1994-24, 44 pages.
Hébert, Y. (1987): Géologie des Gîtes de Talc de l’Estrie; Ministère des Ressources naturelles du Québec,
Exploration au Québec, DV pf-25, pages 7-11.
Isokangas, P. (1978): Finland; in Mineral Deposits of Europe, Volume 1, Northwest Europe; Bowie,
S.H.U., Kwalheim, A. and Haslam, H.W., Editors, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, The
Mineralogical Society; pages 39-93.
MacLean, M. (1988): Talc and Pyrophyllite in British Columbia; British Columbia Ministry of Energy,
Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1988-19, 108 pages.
Morgan, J.H. (1957): Talc and Soapstone Deposits of Baker Talc Limited; in The Geology of Canadian
Industrial Mineral Deposits, Proceedings of the 6th Commonwealth Mining and Metallurgical
Congress, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, pages 235-239.
Piniazkiewicz, J., McCarthy, E.F. and Genco, N.A. (1994): Talc; in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 6th
Edition, Carr, D.D., Editor, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., Littleton,
Colorado, pages 1049-1069.
Sims, C. (1997): Talc Markets - A World of Regional Diversity; Industrial Minerals, May 1997, pages 39-
51.
Spence, H.S. (1940): Talc, Steatite and Soapstone; Pyrophyllite; Canada Department of Mines and
Resources, Number 803, 146 pages.
M08 - Vermiculite

G.J. Simandl1, T. Birkett2 and S. Paradis3

1
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
SOQUEM, Québec City, Québec, Canada
3
Geological Survey of Canada, Sidney, B.C., Canada

Simandl, G.J.; Birkett, T. and Paradis, S. (1999): Vermiculite; in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit
Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British
Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines.

1. Identification

Commodity (byproduct): Vermiculite (± apatite).

Examples (British Columbia - Canadian/International): Joseph Lake (093K 100), Sowchea Creek
vermiculite (093K 101); Libby (Montana, USA), Waldrop Pit, Enoreeq area (South Carolina, USA),
Blue Ridge deposits (North Carolina, USA), Palabora deposit (Republic of South Africa).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: These near surface vermiculite deposits may also contain recoverable apatite.
World-class vermiculite deposits occur mainly within zoned ultramafic complexes or
carbonatites. Smaller or lower grade deposits are hosted by dunites, unzoned pyroxenites,
peridotites or other mafic rocks cut by pegmatites and syenitic or granitic rocks.

Tectonic setting: Deposits hosted by carbonatites and ultramafic complexes are commonly related to
rifting within the continental platform or marginal to the platform in geosynclinal settings.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Mafic and ulramafic igneous or metamorphic rocks

exposed to intense weathering and/or supergene, low temperature alteration.

Age of mineralization: Most deposits are derived from rocks of Precambrian to Jurassic age. Deposits
post-date emplacement of intrusive host and regional metamorphism. Their age may be linked
to periods of intense weathering which show up as erosional surfaces, paleo-regolith or
unconformities.

Host/Associated rock types: For major deposits the main hosts are biotitites, pyroxenites, phlogopite-
serpentine rock, phlogopite-diopside±apatite rock and peridotites. Associated rock types are
magnetite pyroxenites, foscorite, carbonatites, and variety of serpentinites that are in contact
with alkali granites, syenites, fenites or pegmatites.

For smaller or marginal deposits located in highly metamorphosed settings the typical host rocks
are amphibolite and biotite schists in contact with pyroxenites or peridotite dykes or lenses,
sometimes cut by pegmatites.

Deposit form: Variable shapes, a function of the geometry of the favourable protolith and zone of fluid
access. Semi-circular surface exposures found with deposits associated with ultramafic zoned
 complexes or carbonatites, usually near the core of the intrusion. Lenticular or planar deposits
of vermiculite are found along serpetinized contacts between ultramafic rocks and metamorphic
country rocks. Individual lenses may be up to 7 metres thick and 30 metres in length. Smaller
lenses may be found along fractures and the margins of pegmatites crosscutting ultramafic
lenses within high grade metamorphic terranes. The degree of alteration and vermiculite grade
generally diminishes with depth. Vermiculite grades of economic interest rarely extend more
than 40 metres below the surface.

Texture/Structure: Vermiculite may be fine-grained or form books up to 20 cm across ("pegmatitic").

Serpentine can form pseudomorphs after olivine.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Vermiculite ± hydrobiotite; ± apatite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Biotite, chlorite, phlogopite, clinopyroxene, tremolite,
augite, olivine, hornblende, serpentine. In some of the deposits acicular tremolite and asbestos
are reported.

Alteration mineralogy: Vermiculite is probably, in part, a low temperature alteration product of biotite.

Weathering: At least in some deposits, weathering is believed to play an important role in

transformation of mafic minerals, mainly biotite, into vermiculite. Weathering also weakens the
ore making blasting unnecessary; in extreme case it results in formation of semi- or
unconsolidated, residual vermiculite deposits.

Ore controls:
1) The existence of a suitable protore, commonly dunite or pyroxenite rock containing abundant
biotite or phlogopite which may be of late magmatic to hydrothermal origin.
2) Deposits occur mainly at surface or at shallow depths, but in some cases as a paleoregolith along
an unconformity.
3) Vermiculite develops from periods of intense weathering or near surface alteration.
4) The maximum depth extent of the ore zone depends on the permeability, porosity, jointing and
fracture system orientation which permit the circulation of meteoric fluids.

Genetic models: Vermiculite can form from variety of mafic minerals, but biotite or Fe-bearing
phlogopite are deemed key components of the protore within economic deposits.

Most of the early studies suggest that vermiculite is a late magmatic, low temperature hydrothermal or
deuteric alteration product. Currently, the most accepted hypothesis is that vermiculite forms
by supergene alteration due to the combined effect of weathering and circulation of meteoric
fluids.

Associated deposit types: Palabora-type complexes or other carbonatites (N01) contain vermiculite
mineralization. Ultramafic-hosted asbestos (M06), ultramafic-hosted talc-magnesite (M07),
nepheline-syenite (R13), Ni and platinoid showings, some sapphire deposits associated with so
called "crossing line" pegmatites and placer platinoid deposits (C01 and C02) may be associated
with the same ultramafic or mafic complexes as vermiculite deposits.
Comments: In British Columbia, vermiculite is reported from surface exposures of granite, granodiorite
and quartz diorite at the Joseph Lake and Sowchea Creek showings in the Fort Fraser/Fort St.
James area (White, 1990). Low grades in combination with the preliminary metallurgical studies
indicate that these occurrences are probably subeconomic (Morin and Lamothe, 1991). Similar
age, or older, mafic or ultramafic rocks in this region may contain coarse-grained vermiculite in
economic concentrations.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Vermiculite in soil.

Geophysical signature: Ultramafic rocks that host large vermiculite deposits are commonly characterized
by strong magnetic anomalies detectable by airborne surveys. Since vermiculite is an alteration
product of ultramafic rocks, vermiculite zones are expected to have a negative magnetic
signature. However, no detailed geophysical case histories are documented.

Other Exploration Guides: The largest commercial deposits usually form in the cores of ultramafic or
alkaline complexes (mainly pyroxenites and carbonatites). The roof portions of these complexes
have the best potential because they may be biotite-rich. Deposits derived from biotite schist
are typically much smaller. All these deposits are commonly associated with some sort of alkali
activity, be it only alkali granite or syenite dykes. Vermiculite deposits may have a negative
topographic relief. A portable torch may be used to identify vermiculite in hand specimen since
it exfoliates and forms golden flakes when heated. Therefore, an excellent time to prospect for
vermiculite is after forest fires. Fenitization halos associated with alkaline ultramafic complexes
and carbonatites increases the size of the exploration target. Horizons of intense paleo-
weathering that exposed mica-bearing ultramafic rocks are particularly favourable.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Deposits with over 35% vermiculite (<65 mesh) are considered high grade.
Most of the economic deposits contain from few hundred thousand to several million tonnes;
although clusters of small, high-grade, biotite schist-hosted deposits ranging from 20 000 to 50
000 tonnes were mined in South Carolina.

Economic limitations: World vermiculite production in 1995 was estimated at 480 000 tonnes. Major
producing countries were South Africa (222 000 tonnes, mainly from Palabora), USA (170 000
tonnes) and Brazil (41 500 tonnes). In the early half of 1996 the prices of South African
vermiculite imported to USA varied from US$127 to 209 per tonne. Deposits must be large
enough to be amenable to open pit mechanized mining. Large flake size (more than 65 mesh) is
preferred. Both wet and dry concentrating methods are in use. Crude vermiculite is moved in
bulk to exfoliation plants that are typically located near the markets. In commercial plants
expansion of 8 to 15 times the original volume is typical, but up to 20 times may be achieved.
The higher the degree of expansion (without decrepitation) the better the concentrate. The
concentrates from those deposits where vermiculite coexists with asbestos or "asbestiform"
tremolite are difficult to market because of the concerns over related health risks.

Uses: Agriculture 40%, insulation 23%, light weight concrete aggregate 19%, plaster and premixes 13%,
other 5% (USA statistics). Other applications include carrier substrate for predatory mites in pest
 extermination, additive to fish feed, removal of heavy metals from soils and absorbent in poultry
litter.

Importance: Some vermiculite is derived from laterite-type deposits. Vermiculite may be substituted in
concrete applications by expanded perlite or by expanded shale. Recently the use of vermiculite
in cement compounds has reduced due to substitution by polystyrene. In agricultural
applications it may be substituted by peat, perlite, sawdust, bark, etc. In ion exchange
applications it may be substituted by zeolites.

5. References
Anonymous (1991): The Economics of Vermiculite, 6th edition, Roskill Information Services Ltd. London,
152 pages.
Anonymous (1997): Vermiculite; Metals and Minerals Annual Review, Mining Journal Limited, pages 95-
96.
Bates, R.I. (1969): Geology of Industrial Rocks and Minerals; Dover Publications Inc., New York, 459
pages.
Boettcher, A.L. (1967): The Rainy Creek Alkaline-ultramafic Igneous Complex near Libby, Montana;
Journal of Geology, Volume 75, pages 526-553.
Bush, A.L. (1968): Lightweight Aggregates; in Mineral Resources of the Appalachian Region, U.S.
Geological Survey, Professional Paper 580, pages 210-224.
Bush, A.L. (1976): Vermiculite in United States; 11th Industrial Minerals Forum, Montana Bureau of
Mines, Special Publication 74, pages 146-155.
Hagner, A.F. (1944): Wyoming Vermiculite Deposits; Geological Survey of Wyoming, Bulletin 34, 47
pages.
Hindman, J.R. (1994): Vermiculite; in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, D.D. Carr, Editor, 6th Edition, Society
for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., Littleton, Colorado, pages 1103-1111.
Morin, L. and Lamothe, J.M. (1991): Testing on Perlite and Vermiculite Samples from British Columbia;
B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Geological Fieldwork 1989, Paper
1990-1, pages 265-268.
Palabora Geological and Mineralogical Staff (1976): The Geology and the Economic Deposits of Copper,
Iron, and Vermiculite in the Palabora Igneous Complex: A Brief Review; Economic Geology,
Volume 71, pages 177-192.
White, G.V. (1990): Perlite and Vermiculite Occurrences in British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy,
Mines and Petroleum Resources, Geological Fieldwork 1989, Paper 1990-1, pages 481-268.
Examples of Ultramafic/Mafic Deposits
BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples
M01* Noril'sk (Russia), Duluth (Minnesota)
M02* Lynn Lake (Manitoba), Kluane (Yukon) Giant Mascot, Nickel
Mountain
M03 Josephine ophiolite (Oregon), Coto (Philippines), Elazig Castle Mountain, Scottie Creek
(Turkey)
M04 Methuen, Unfravile, Matthews-Chaffrey, Kingston --
Harbour (Ontario, Canada), Lac-du-Pin-Rouge, Lac
Tio, Magpie (Quebec, Canada); Sanford Lake
(New York, USA); Tellnes, Egersund (Norway);
Smaalands-Taberg, Ulvno (Sweden)
M05 Red Mountain, Goodnews Bay (Alaska), Tin Cup Peak Tulameen Complex
(Oregon)
M06 Thetford Mines, Black Lake, Asbestos (Québec, Canada); Cassiar, McDame, Letain, Ace,
Belvidere Mine (Vermont, USA), Coalinga Asbestos
(California, USA); Cana Brava (Brazil); Pano
Amiandes (Cyprus); Bazhenovo (Russia); Barraba
(New South Wales, Australia); Barberton
(Transvaal, South Africa)
M07 Thetford & Magog (Québec), Deloro (Ontario) --
M08 Enoree (USA) Fort Fraser area

* Note: All BC deposit profile(s) with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s.
N - Carbonatites

BC Profile Deposit Type Approximate USGS Model

# Synonyms #
N01 Carbonatite-hosted -- 10
deposits
N02 Kimberlite-hosted Diamond pipes 12
diamonds
N03 Lamproite-hosted -- 12
diamonds
N01 - CARBONATITE-Associated deposits: MAGMATIC, REPLACEMENT AND RESIDUAL

by T.C. Birkett1 and G.J. Simandl2

1
SOQUEM, Sainte-Foy, Quebec, Canada
2
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada

Birkett, T.C. and Simandl, G.J. (1999): Carbonatite-associated Deposits: Magmatic, Replacement and
Residual; in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals,
G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and
Mines, pages 73-76.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Nephelinitic and ultramafic carbonatite-hosted deposits.

Commodities (byproducts): Niobium, tantalum, REE, phosphate, vermiculite (see also M08, this volume),
Cu, Ti, Sr, fluorite, Th, U magnetite (hematite, Zr, V, nickel sulphate, sulphuric acid, calcite for
cement industry).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International):

Magmatic: Aley (REE, niobium, 094B 027), St. Honoré (niobium, Quebec, Canada), Mountain Pass
(REE, California, USA), Palabora (apatite, South Africa).

Replacement/Veins: Rock Canyon Creek (Fluorite, REE, 082JSW018), Bayan Obo (REE, China),
Amba Dongar (fluorite, India), Fen (Fe, Norway), Palabora (Cu, vermiculite, apatite, South
Africa).

Residual: Araxa, Catalao and Tapira (niobium, phosphate, REE, Ti, Brazil), Cargill and Martison
Lake (phosphates, Ontario, Canada).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Carbonatites are igneous rocks with more than 50% modal carbonate minerals;
calcite, dolomite and Fe-carbonate varieties are recognized. Intrusive carbonatites occur
commonly within alkalic complexes or as isolated sills, dikes, or small plugs that may not be
associated with other alkaline rocks. Carbonatites may also occur as lava flows and pyroclastic
rocks. Only intrusive carbonatites (in some cases further enriched by weathering) are associated
with mineralization in economic concentrations which occur as primary igneous minerals,
replacement deposits (intra-intrusive veins or zones of small veins, extra-intrusive fenites or
veins) or residual weathering accumulations from either igneous or replacement protores.
Pyrochlore, apatite and rare earth-bearing minerals are typically the most sought after mineral
constituents, however, a wide variety of other minerals including magnetite, fluorite, calcite,
bornite, chalcopyrite and vermiculite, occur in economic concentrations in at least one
carbonatite complex.

Tectonic setting: Carbonatites occur mainly in a continental environment; rarely in oceanic

environments (Canary Islands) and are generally related to large-scale, intra-plate fractures,
 grabens or rifts that correlate with periods of extension and may be associated with a broad
zones of epeirogenic uplift.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Carbonatites intrude all types of rocks and are emplaced
at a variety of depths.

Age of mineralization: Carbonatite intrusions are early Precambrian to Recent in age; they appear to be
increasingly abundant with decreasing age. In British Columbia, carbonatites are mostly upper
Devonian, Mississippian or Eocambrian in age.

Host/Associated rock types: Host rocks are varied, including calcite carbonatite (sovite), dolomite
carbonatite (beforsite), ferroan or ankeritic calcite-rich carbonatite (ferrocarbonatite),
magnetite-olivine-apatite ± phlogopite rock, nephelinite, syenite, pyroxenite, peridotite and
phonolite. Carbonatite lava flows and pyroclastic rocks are not known to contain economic
mineralization. Country rocks are of various types and metamorphic grades.

Deposit form: Carbonatites are small, pipe-like bodies, dikes, sills, small plugs or irregular masses. The
typical pipe-like bodies have subcircular or elliptical cross sections and are up to 3-4 km in
diameter. Magmatic mineralization within pipe-like carbonatites is commonly found in crescent-
shaped and steeply-dipping zones. Metasomatic mineralization occurs as irregular forms or
veins. Residual and other weathering-related deposits are controlled by topography, depth of
weathering and drainage development.

Texture/Structure: REE minerals form pockets and fill fractures within ferrocarbonatite bodies.
Pyrochlore is disseminated; apatite can be disseminated to semi-massive; bastnaesite occurs as
disseminated to patchy accumulations; fluorite forms as veins and masses; hematite is semi-
massive disseminations; and chalcopyrite and bornite are found in veinlets.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate):

Magmatic: bastnaesite, pyrochlore, apatite, anatase, zircon, baddeleyite, magnetite, monazite, parisite,
fersmite.
Replacement/Veins: fluorite, vermiculite, bornite, chalcopyrite and other sulphides, hematite.
Residual: anatase, pyrochlore and apatite, locally crandallite-group minerals containing REE.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Calcite, dolomite, siderite, ferroan calcite, ankerite,
hematite, biotite, titanite, olivine, quartz.

Alteration mineralogy: A fenitization halo (alkali metasomatized country rocks) commonly surrounds
carbonatite intrusions; alteration mineralogy depends largely on the composition of the host
rock. Typical minerals are sodic amphibole, wollastonite, nepheline, mesoperthite, antiperthite,
aegerine-augite, pale brown biotite, phlogopite and albite. Most fenites are zones of
desilicification with addition of Fe3+, Na and K.

Weathering: Carbonatites weather relatively easily and are commonly associated with topographic lows.
Weathering is an important factor for concentrating residual pyrochlore or phosphate
mineralization.
Ore controls: Intrusive form and cooling history control primary igneous deposits (fractional
crystallization). Tectonic and local structural controls influence the forms of metasomatic
mineralization. The depth of weathering and drainage patterns control residual pyrochlore and
apatite deposits, and vermiculite deposits.

Genetic models: Worldwide, mineralization within carbonatites is syn- to post-intrusion and commonly
occurs in several types or stages:
1) REE-rich carbonatite and ferrocarbonatite, magmatic magnetite, pyrochlore
2) Fluorite along fractures
3) Barite veins
4) U-Th minerals + silicification
5) calcite veining and reprecipitation of Fe oxides (hematite)
6) Intense weathering may take place at any later time.
Magmatic mineralization may be linked either to fractional crystallization or immiscibility of magmatic
fluids. Metasomatism and replacement are important Not all mineralization types are associated
with any individual carbonatite intrusion. In general, it is believed that economic Nb, REE and
primary magnetite deposits are associated with transgressive (late) igneous phases, but
understanding of the majority of deposits is not advanced enough to propose any general
relationship of timing. Mineralization at St. Honoré, for example, is probably relatively early-
formed.

Associated deposit types: Nepheline syenite (R13) and nepheline syenite-related corundum deposits and
sodalite. REE and zircon placer deposits (C01, C02) deposits can be derived from carbonatites.
Wollastonite occurrences are in some cases reported in association with carbonatites. Fluorite
deposits are known from the roof zones of carbonatite complexes (I11). Kimberlites and
lamproites (common host-rocks for diamonds) may be along the same tectonic features as
carbonatites, but are not related to the same magmatic event.

Comments: Carbonatites should be evaluated for a variety of the mineral substances as exemplified by
the exceptional Palabora carbonatite which provides phosphate (primary and possibly
hydrothermal), Cu (hydrothermal), vermiculite (weathering) and also Zr, U and Th as byproducts.
While extrusive carbonatite rocks are known to contain anomalous REE values, for example the
Mount Grace pyroclastic carbonatite in British Columbia, they are not known to host REE in
economic concentrations.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Resistant niobium or phosphate minerals in soils and stream sediments; F, Th
and U in waters.

Geophysical signature: Magnetic and radiometric expressions and sometimes anomalous radon gas
concentrations furnish primary targets.

Other Exploration Guides: Carbonatites are commonly found over broad provinces, but individual
intrusions may be isolated. Fenitization increases the size of target in regional exploration for
carbonatite-hosted deposits. U-Th (radioactivity) associated with fluorite and barite within
carbonatites are considered as indirect REE indicators. Annular topographic features can
coincide with carbonatites.
 4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Araxa deposit contains 300 million tonnes grading 3% Nb2O5; Cargill deposit
consists of 60 million tonnes at 20% P2O5; Niobec deposit hosts 19 million tonnes grading 0.66 %
Nb2O5; MINFILE (Aley) 094B 027 has extensive zones exceeding 0.66% Nb2O5 and locally
exceeding 2%.

Economic limitations: Competitive markets are established for most of the commodities associated with
carbonatites. In 1996, the world consumption was estimated at 22 700 tonnes of Nb2O5. Araxa
mine, the largest single source of Nb2O5 in 1996, produced 18 300 tonnes of concentrate which
was largely reduced into standard ferro-niobium. Brazil’s second largest producer, Catalao,
produced 3 600 tonnes of ferroniobium. The largest North American producer is Niobec Mine
which produced 3 322 tonnes of Nb2O5 which was also reduced to ferro-niobium.

At the end of 1996 standard grade ferro-niobium sold at $US 15.2/kg, vacuum grade at $US
37.5/kg, nickel-niobium at US$ 39.7 - 55.1/kg of contained niobium. Demand for REE in 1996
was estimated at 65,000 tonnes/year contained rare earth oxides or US$ 650 million. Currently
China accounts for nearly half of the world production due largely to heavy discounting, USA is
the second largest producer. Separated rare earths account for 30% of the market by volume
but 75% by value. Tantalum primary production for 1996 was estimated at 100.1 tonnes of
Ta2O5 contained in tantalum-bearing tin slags (principally from smelters in Brazil, Thailand and
Malaysia) and 426.0 tonnes of Ta2O5 in tantalite or other minerals.

Uses: Rare Earths - mainly as a catalyst in oil refining, catalytic converters, glass industry, coloring
agents, fiber optics, TV tubes, permanent magnets, high strength alloys and synthetic minerals
for laser applications. Phosphate: fertilizers, phosphorus, and phosphoric acid. Sr: Color TV
screens, pyrotechnics and magnets. Nb: carbon stabilizer in stainless steel, niobium carbide used
in cutting tools, Nb-containing temperature-resistant steel used in turbines, Nb-base alloys in
reactors, super alloys for military and aerospace applications. Tantalum: in corrosion-resistant
alloys; implanted prosthesis; nuclear reactors and electronic industry. Carbonates may be used
in local portland cement industries. Vermiculite is exfoliated and used in agriculture, insulation,
as lightweight aggregate, and other construction materials.

Importance: Carbonatites are the main source of niobium and important sources of rare earth elements,
but have to compete for the market with placer deposits and offshore placer deposits (Brazil,
Australia, India, Sri-Lanka). They compete with sedimentary phosphate deposits for a portion of
the phosphate market.

5. References
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Phosphate Rock; in Industrial Minerals Geology and World
Deposits, Industrial Minerals Division, Metal Bulletin Plc., London, pages 190-204.
Höy, T. (1987): Geology of the Cottonbelt Lead-Zinc-magnetite Layer, carbonatites and Alkalic Rocks in
the Mount Grace Area, French Cap Dome, Southeastern British Columbia; British Columbia
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Bulletin 80, 99 pages.
Korinek, G.J. (1997): Tantalum; Metals and Minerals, Annual Review, Mining Journal Ltd., pages 73-75.
Korinek, G.J. (1997): Rare Earths, Metals and Minerals, Annual Review, Mining Journal Ltd., pages 70-71.
Korinek, G.J. (1997): Niobium, Metals and Minerals, Annual Review, Mining Journal Ltd., page 63.
Le Bas, M.J., Sprio, B. and Xueming, Y. (1997): Origin, Carbon and Strontium Isotope Study of the
Carbonatitic Dolomite Host of the Bayan Obo Fe-Nb-REE Deposit, Inner Mongolia, Northen
China, Mineralogical Magazine, Volume 21, pages 531-541.
Mariano, A.N. (1989a): Nature of Economic Mineralization in Carbonatites and Related Rocks. in
Carbonatites: Genesis and Evolution, K. Bell, Editor, Unwin Hyman, London, pages 149-176.
Mariano, A.N. (1989b): Economic Geology of Rare Earth Minerals. in Geochemistry and Mineralogy of
Rare Earth Elements, B.R. Lipman and G.A. KcKay, Editors, Reviews in Mineralogy, Mineralogical
Society of America, Volume 21, pages 303-337.
Pell, J. (1994): Carbonatites, Nepheline Syenites, Kimberlites and Related Rocks in British Columbia;
British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Bulletin 88, 133 pages.
Pell, J. (1996): Mineral Deposits Associated with Carbonatites and Related Alkaline Igneous Rocks; in
Undersaturated Alkaline Rocks: Mineralogy, Petrogenesis and Economic Potential, Editor, R.H.
Mitchell, Mineralogical Association of Canada, Short Course Volume 24, pages 271-310.
Richardson, D.G. and Birkett, T.C. (1996a): Carbonatite-associated Deposits; in Geology of Canadian
Mineral Deposit Types, O.R. Eckstrand, W.D. Sinclair and R.I. Thorpe, Editors, Geological Survey
of Canada, Geology of Canada Number 8, pages 541-558.
Richardson, D.G. and Birkett, T.C. (1996b): Residual Carbonatite-associated Deposits; in Geology of
Canadian Mineral Deposit Types, O.R. Eckstrand, W.D. Sinclair and R.I. Thorpe, Editors,
Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada, Number 8, pages 108-119.
N02 - KIMBERLITE-Hosted DIAMONDS

by Jennifer Pell
Consulting Geologist

Pell, J. (1999): Kimberlite-hosted Diamonds: Magmatic, Replacement and Residual; in Selected British
Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and
D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, pages 77-80.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes, diamond pipes, group 1 kimberlites.

Commodities (byproducts): Diamonds (some gemstones produced in Russia from pyrope garnets and
olivine).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): No B.C. deposits, see comments below for
prospects; Koala, Panda, Sable, Fox and Misery (Northwest Territories, Canada), Mir,
International, Udachnaya, Aikhal and Yubilenaya (Sakha, Russia), Kimberly, Premier and Venetia
(South Africa), Orapa and Jwaneng (Botswana), River Ranch (Zimbabwe).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Diamonds in kimberlites occur as sparse xenocrysts and within diamondiferous
xenoliths hosted by intrusives emplaced as subvertical pipes or resedimented volcaniclastic and
pyroclastic rocks deposited in craters. Kimberlites are volatile-rich, potassic ultrabasic rocks with
macrocrysts (and sometimes megacrysts and xenoliths) set in a fine grained matrix. Economic
concentrations of diamonds occur in approximately 1% of the kimberlites throughout the world.

Tectonic setting: Predominantly regions underlain by stable Archean cratons.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: The kimberlites rise quickly from the mantle and are
emplaced as multi-stage, high-level diatremes, tuff-cones and rings, hypabyssal dikes and sills.

Age of mineralization: Any age except Archean for host intrusions. Economic deposits occur in
kimberlites from Proterozoic to Tertiary in age. The diamonds vary from early Archean to as
young as 990 Ma.

Host/Associated rock types: The kimberlite host rocks are small hypabyssal intrusions which grade
upwards into diatreme breccias near surface and pyroclastic rocks in the crater facies at surface.
Kimberlites are volatile-rich, potassic ultrabasic rocks that commonly exhibit a distinctive
inequigranular texture resulting from the presence of macrocrysts (and sometimes megacrysts
and xenoliths) set in a fine grained matrix. The megacryst and macrocryst assemblage in
kimberlites includes anhedral crystals of olivine, magnesian ilmenite, pyrope garnet, phlogopite,
Ti-poor chromite, diopside and enstatite. Some of these phases may be xenocrystic in origin.
Matrix minerals include microphenocrysts of olivine and one or more of: monticellite,
perovskite, spinel, phlogopite, apatite, and primary carbonate and serpentine. Kimberlites
crosscut all types of rocks.
Deposit form: Kimberlites commonly occur in steep-sided, downward tapering, cone-shaped diatremes
which may have complex root zones with multiple dikes and "blows". Diatreme contacts are
sharp. Surface exposures of diamond-bearing pipes range from less than 2 up to 146 hectares
(Mwadui). In some diatremes the associated crater and tuff ring may be preserved. Kimberlite
craters and tuff cones may also form without associated diatremes (e.g. Saskatchewan); the
bedded units can be shallowly-dipping. Hypabyssal kimberlites commonly form dikes and sills.

Texture/Structure: Diamonds occur as discrete grains of xenocrystic origin and tend to be randomly
distributed within kimberlite diatremes. In complex root zones and multiphase intrusions, each
phase is characterized by unique diamond content (e.g. Wesselton, South Africa). Some crater-
facies kimberlites are enriched in diamonds relative to their associated diatreme (e.g. Mwadui,
Tanzania) due to winnowing of fines. Kimberlite dikes may display a dominant linear trend which
is parallel to joints, dikes or other structures.

Ore Mineralogy: Diamond.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Olivine, phlogopite, pyrope and eclogitic garnet, chrome
diopside, magnesian ilmenite, enstatite, chromite, carbonate, serpentine; monticellite,
perovskite, spinel, apatite. Magma contaminated by crustal xenoliths can crystallize minerals
that are atypical of kimberlites.

Alteration mineralogy: Serpentinization in many deposits; silicification or bleaching along contacts.

Secondary calcite, quartz and zeolites can occur on fractures. Diamonds can undergo
graphitization or resorption.

Weathering: In tropical climates, kimberlite weathers quite readily and deeply to "yellowground" which
is predominantly comprised of clays. In temperate climates, weathering is less pronounced, but
clays are still the predominant weathering product. Diatreme and crater facies tend to form
topographic depressions while hypabyssal dikes may be more resistant.

Ore controls: Kimberlites typically occur in fields comprising up to 100 individual intrusions which often
group in clusters. Each field can exhibit considerable diversity with respect to the petrology,
mineralogy, mantle xenolith and diamond content of individual kimberlites. Economically
diamondiferous and barren kimberlites can occur in close proximity. Controls on the differences
in diamond content between kimberlites are not completely understood. They may be due to:
depths of origin of the kimberlite magmas (above or below the diamond stability field);
differences in the diamond content of the mantle sampled by the kimberlitic magma; degree of
resorption of diamonds during transport; flow differentiation, batch mixing or, some
combination of these factors.

Genetic model: Kimberlites form from a small amount of partial melting in the asthenospheric mantle at
depths generally in excess of 150 km. The magma ascends rapidly to the surface, entraining
fragments of the mantle and crust, en route. Macroscopic diamonds do not crystallize from the
kimberlitic magma. They are derived from harzburgitic peridotites and eclogites within regions
of the sub-cratonic lithospheric mantle where the pressure, temperature and oxygen fugacity
allow them to form. If a kimberlite magma passes through diamondiferous portions of the
mantle, it may sample and bring diamonds to the surface provided they are not resorbed during
 ascent. The rapid degassing of carbon dioxide from the magma near surface produce fluidized
intrusive breccias (diatremes) and explosive volcanic eruptions.

Associated deposit types: Diamonds can be concentrated by weathering to produce residual

concentrations or within placer deposits (C01, C02, C03). Lamproite-hosted diamond deposits
(N03) form in a similar manner, but the magmas may be of different origin.

Comments: In British Columbia the Cross kimberlite diatreme and adjacent Ram diatremes (MINFILE # -
082JSE019) are found near Elkford, east of the Rocky Mountain Trench. Several diamond
fragments and one diamond are reported from the Ram pipes.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Kimberlites commonly have high Ti, Cr, Ni, Mg, Ba and Nb values in overlying
residual soils. However, caution must be exercised as other alkaline rocks can give similar
geochemical signatures. Mineral chemistry is used extensively to help determine whether the
kimberlite source is diamondiferous or barren (see other exploration guides). Diamond-bearing
kimberlites can contain high-Cr, low-Ca pyrope garnets (G10 garnets), sodium-enriched eclogitic
garnets, high chrome chromites with moderate to high Mg contents and magnesian ilmenites.

Geophysical signature: Geophysical techniques are used to locate kimberlites, but give no indication as
to their diamond content. Ground and airborne magnetometer surveys are commonly used;
kimberlites can show as either magnetic highs or lows. In equatorial regions the anomalies are
characterized by a magnetic dipolar signature in contrast to the "bulls-eye" pattern in higher
latitudes. Some kimberlites, however, have no magnetic contrast with surrounding rocks. Some
pipes can be detected using electrical methods (EM, VLF, resistivity) in airborne or ground
surveys. These techniques are particularly useful where the weathered, clay-rich, upper portions
of pipes are developed and preserved since they are conductive and may contrast sufficiently
with the host rocks to be detected. Ground based gravity surveys can be useful in detecting
kimberlites that have no other geophysical signature and in delineating pipes. Deeply weathered
kimberlites or those with a thick sequence of crater sediments generally give negative responses
and where fresh kimberlite is found at surface, a positive gravity anomaly may be obtained.

Other Exploration Guides: Indicator minerals are used extensively in the search for kimberlites and are
one of the most important tools, other than bulk sampling, to assess the diamond content of a
particular pipe. Pyrope and eclogitic garnet, chrome diopside, picroilmenite, chromite and, to a
lesser extent, olivine in surficial materials (tills, stream sediments, loam, etc.) indicate a
kimberlitic source. Diamonds are also usually indicative of a kimberlitic or lamproitic source;
however, due to their extremely low concentration in the source, they are rarely encountered in
surficial sediments. Weathered kimberlite produces a local variation in soil type that can be
reflected in vegetation.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: When assessing diamond deposits, grade, tonnage and the average value
($/carat) of the diamonds must be considered.. Diamonds, unlike commodities such as gold, do
not have a set value. They can be worth from a few $/carat to thousands of $/carat depending
on their quality (evaluated on the size, colour and clarity of the stone). Also, the diamond
 business is very secretive and it is often difficult to acquire accurate data on producing mines.
Some deposits have higher grades at surface due to residual concentration. Some estimates for
African producers is as follows:

Pipe Tonnage (Mt) Grade (carats*/100 tonne)

Orapa 117.8 68
Jwaneng 44.3 140
Venetia 66 120
Premier 339 40

* one carat of diamonds weighs 0.2 grams

Economic limitations: Most kimberlites are mined initially as open pit operations; therefore, stripping
ratios are an important aspect of economic assessments. Serpentinized and altered kimberlites
are more friable and easier to process.

Uses: Gemstones; industrial uses such as abrasives.

Importance: In terms of number of producers and value of production, kimberlites are the most
important primary source of diamonds. Synthetic diamonds have become increasingly important
as alternate source for abrasives.

5. Selected bibliography
Atkinson, W.J. (1988): Diamond Exploration Philosophy, Practice, and Promises: a Review; in
Proceedings of the Fourth International Kimberlite Conference, Kimberlites and related rocks,
V.2, Their Mantle/crust Setting, Diamonds and Diamond Exploration, J. Ross, editor, Geological
Society of Australia, Special Publication 14, pages 1075-1107.
Cox, D.P. (1986): Descriptive Model of Diamond Pipes; in Mineral Deposit Models, Cox, D.P. and Singer,
D.A., Editors (1986), U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, 379 pages.
Fipke, C.E., Gurney, J.J. and Moore, R.O. (1995): Diamond Exploration Techniques Emphasizing Indicator
Mineral Geochemistry and Canadian Examples; Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin 423, 86
pages.
Griffin, W.L. and Ryan, C.G. (1995): Trace Elements in Indicator Minerals: Area Selection and Target
Evaluation in Diamond Exploration; Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Volume 53, pages 311-
337.
Gurney, J.J. (1989): Diamonds; in J. Ross, A.L. Jacques, J. Ferguson, D.H. Green, S.Y. O'Reilly, R.V.
Danchin, and A.J.A. Janse, Editors, Kimberlites and Related Rocks, Proceedings of the Fourth
International Kimberlite Conference, Geological Society of Australia, Special Publication Number
14, Volume 2, pages 935-965.
Haggerty, S.E. (1986): Diamond Genesis in a Multiply-constrained Model; Nature, Volume 320, pages 34-
37.
Helmstaedt, H.H. (1995): "Primary" Diamond Deposits What Controls Their Size, Grade and Location?; in
Giant Ore Deposits, B.H. Whiting, C.J. Hodgson and R. Mason, Editors, Society of Economic
Geologists, Special Publication Number 2, pages 13-80.
Janse, A.J.A. and Sheahan, P.A. (1995): Catalogue of World Wide Diamond and Kimberlite Occurrences: a
Selective Annotative Approach; Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Volume 53, pages 73-111.
Jennings, C.M.H. (1995): The Exploration Context for Diamonds; Journal of Geochemical Exploration,
Volume 53, pages 113-124.
Kirkley, M.B, Gurney, J.G. and Levinson, A.A. (1991): Age, Origin and Emplacement of Diamonds:
Scientific Advances of the Last Decade; Gems and Gemnology, volume 72, Number 1, pages 2-
25.
Kjarsgaard, B.A. (1996): Kimberlite-hosted Diamond; in Geology of Canadian Mineral Deposit Types, O.R.
Eckstrand, W.D. Sinclair and R.I. Thorpe, editors, Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of
Canada, Number 8, pages 561-568.
Levinson, A.A., Gurney, J.G. and Kirkley, M.B. (1992): Diamond Sources and Production: Past, Present,
and Future; Gems and Gemmology, Volume 28, Number 4, pages 234-254.
Macnae, J. (1995): Applications of Geophysics for the Detection and Exploration of Kimberlites and
Lamproites; Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Volume 53, pages 213-243.
Michalski, T.C. and Modreski, P.J. (1991): Descriptive Model of Diamond-bearing Kimberlite Pipes; in
Some Industrial Mineral Deposit Models: Descriptive Deposit Models, editors, Orris, G.J and
Bliss, J.D., U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report 91-11a, pages 1-4.
Mitchell, R.H. (1991): Kimberlites and Lamproites: Primary Sources of Diamond; Geoscience Canada,
Volume 18, Number 1, pages 1-16.
Nixon, P.H. (1995): The Morphology and Nature of Primary Diamondiferous Occurrences; Journal of
Geochemical Exploration, Volume 53, pages 41-71.
Pell, J.A. (1997): Kimberlites in the Slave Craton, Northwest Territories, Canada; Geoscience Canada,
Volume 24, Number 2, pages 77-96.
Scott Smith, B.H. (1996): Kimberlites; in Undersaturated Alkaline Rocks: Mineralogy, Petrogenesis and
Economic Potential, R.H. Mitchell, editor, Mineralogical Association of Canada, Short Course 24,
pages 217-243.
Scott Smith, B.H. (1992): Contrasting Kimberlites and Lamproites; Exploration and Mining Geology,
Volume 1, Number 4, pages 371-381.
N03 – LAMPROITE-HOSTED DIAMONDS

by Jennifer Pell
Consulting Geologist

Pell, J. (1999): Lamproite-hosted Diamonds: Magmatic, Replacement and Residual; in Selected British
Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and
D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, pages 81-84.

1. Identification

Synonyms: None.

Commodity: Diamonds.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): No B.C. examples; Argyle, Ellendale

(Western Australia), Prairie Creek (Crater of Diamonds, Arkansas, USA), Bobi (Côte d'Ivoire),
Kapamba (Zambia), Majhgawan (India).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Diamonds occur as sparse xenocrysts and in mantle xenoliths within olivine
lamproite pyroclastic rocks and dikes. Many deposits are found within funnel-shaped volcanic
vents or craters. Lamproites are ultrapotassic mafic rocks characterized by the presence of
olivine, leucite, richterite, diopside or sanidine.

Tectonic setting: Most olivine lamproites are post-tectonic and occur close to the margins of Archean
cratons, either within the craton or in adjacent accreted Proterozoic mobile belts.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Olivine lamproites are derived from metasomatized

lithospheric mantle. They are generally emplaced in high-level, shallow "maar-type" craters
crosscutting crustal rocks of all types.

Age of mineralization: Any age except Archean. Diamondiferous lamproites range from Proterozoic to
Miocene in age.

Host/Associated rock types: Olivine lamproite pyroclastic rocks and dikes commonly host mineralization
while lava flows sampled to date are barren. Diamonds are rarely found in the magmatic
equivalents. Lamproites are peralkaline and typically ultrapotassic (6 to 8% K2O). They are
characterized by the presence of one or more of the following primary phenocryst and/or
groundmass constituents: forsteritic olivine; Ti-rich, Al-poor phlogopite and tetraferriphlogopite;
Fe-rich leucite; Ti, K-richterite; diopside; and Fe-rich sanidine. Minor and accessory phases
include priderite, apatite, wadeite, perovskite, spinel, ilmenite, armalcolite, shcherbakovite and
jeppeite. Glass and mantle derived xenocrysts of olivine, pyrope garnet and chromite may also
be present.

Deposit form: Most lamproites occur in craters which are irregular, asymmetric, and generally rather
shallow (often the shape of a champagne glass), often less than 300 metres in depth. Crater
 diameters range from a few hundred metres to 1500 metres. Diamond concentrations vary
between lamproite phases, and as such, ore zones will reflect the shape of the unit (can be pipes
or funnel-shaped). The volcaniclastic rocks in many, but not all, lamproite craters are intruded
by a magmatic phase that forms lava lakes or domes.

Texture/Structure: Diamonds occur as discrete grains of xenocrystic origin that are sparsely and
randomly distributed in the matrix of lamproites and some mantle xenoliths.

Ore Mineralogy: Diamond.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Olivine, phlogopite, richterite, diopside, sanidine;
priderite, wadeite, ilmenite, chromite, perovskite, spinel, apatite, pyrope garnet.

Alteration mineralogy: Alteration to talc carbonate sulphide or serpentine-septechlorite + magnetite has

been described from Argyle (Jacques et al., 1986). According Scott Smith (1996), alteration to
analcime, barite, quartz, zeolite, carbonate and other minerals may also occur. Diamonds can
undergo graphitization or resorption.

Weathering: Clays, predominantly smectite, are the predominant weathering product of lamproites.

Ore controls: Lamproites are small-volume magmas which are confined to continental regions. There are
relatively few lamproites known world wide, less than 20 geological provinces, of which only
seven are diamondiferous. Only olivine lamproites are diamondiferous, other varieties, such as
leucite lamproites presumably did not originate deep enough in the mantle to contain
diamonds. Even within the olivine lamproites, few contain diamonds in economic
concentrations. Controls on the differences in diamond content between intrusions are not
completely understood. They may be due to: different depths of origin of the magmas (above or
below the diamond stability field); differences in the diamond content of the mantle sampled by
the lamproite magma; differences in degrees of resorption of diamonds during transport; or
some combination of these factors.

Genetic model: Lamproites form from a small amount of partial melting in metasomatized lithospheric
mantle at depths generally in excess of 150 km (i.e., within or beneath the diamond stability
field). The magma ascends rapidly to the surface, entraining fragments of the mantle and crust
en route. Diamonds do not crystallize from the lamproite magma. They are derived from
harzburgitic peridotites and eclogites within regions of the sub-cratonic lithospheric mantle
where the pressure, temperature and oxygen fugacity allow them to form in situ. If a lamproite
magma passes through diamondiferous portions of the mantle, it may sample them and bring
diamonds to the surface provided they are not resorbed during ascent.

Associated deposit types: Diamonds can be concentrated by weathering to produce residual

concentrations or by erosion and transport to create placer deposits (C01, C02, and C03).
Kimberlite-hosted diamond deposits (N02) form in a similar manner, but the magmas may be of
different origin.

3. Exploration Guides
Geochemical signature: Lamproites can have associated Ni, Co, Ba and Nb anomalies in overlying
residual soils. However, these may be restricted in extent since lamproites weather readily and
commonly occur in depressions and dispersion is limited. Caution must be exercised as other
alkaline rocks can give similar geochemical signatures.

Geophysical signature: Geophysical techniques are used to locate lamproites, but give no indication as
to their diamond content. Ground and airborne magnetometer surveys are commonly used;
weathered or crater-facies lamproites commonly form negative magnetic anomalies or dipole
anomalies. Some lamproites, however, have no magnetic contrast with surrounding rocks.
Various electrical methods (EM, VLF, resistivity) in airborne or ground surveys are excellent tools
for detecting lamproites, given the correct weathering environment and contrasts with country
rocks. In general, clays, particularly smectite, produced during the weathering of lamproites are
conductive; and hence, produce strong negative resistivity anomalies.

Other Exploration Guides: Heavy indicator minerals are used in the search for diamondiferous
lamproites, although they are usually not as abundant as with kimberlites. Commonly, chromite
is the most useful heavy indicator because it is the most common species and has distinctive
chemistry. To a lesser extent, diamond, pyrope and eclogitic garnet, chrome spinel, Ti-rich
phlogopite, K-Ti-richterite, low-Al diopside, forsterite and perovskite can be used as lamproite
indicator minerals. Priderite, wadeite and shcherbakovite are also highly diagnostic of
lamproites, although very rare.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: When assessing diamond deposits, grade, tonnage and the average value
($/carat) of the diamonds must be considered. Diamonds, unlike commodities such as gold, do
not have a set value. They can be worth from a few to thousands of $/carat depending on their
quality (evaluated on the size, colour and clarity of the stone). Argyle is currently the only major
lamproite-hosted diamond mine. It contains at least 75 million tonnes, grading between 6 and 7
carats of diamonds per tonne (1.2 to 1.4 grams/tonne). The Prairie Creek mine produced
approximately 100 000 carats and graded 0.13 c/t. Typical reported grades for diamond-bearing
lamproites of <0.01 to .3 carats per tonne are not economic (Kjarsgaard, 1995). The average
value of the diamonds at Argyle is approximately $US 7/carat; therefore, the average value of a
tonne of ore is approximately $US 45.50 and the value of total reserves in the ground is in
excess of $US 3.4 billion.

Uses: Gemstones; industrial uses such as abrasives.

Importance: Olivine lamproites have only been recognized as diamond host rocks for approximately the
last 20 years as they were previously classified as kimberlites based solely on the presence of
diamonds. Most diamonds are still produced from kimberlites; however, the Argyle pipe
produces more carats per annum (approximately 38,000 in 1995), by far, than any other single
primary diamond source. Approximately 5% of the diamonds are good quality gemstones.

5. Selected bibliography

Atkinson, W.J. (1988): Diamond Exploration Philosophy, Practice, and Promises: a Review; in
Proceedings of the Fourth International Kimberlite Conference, Kimberlites and Related Rocks,
 Volume 2, Their Mantle/Crust Setting, Diamonds and Diamond Exploration, J. Ross, Editor,
Geological Society of Australia, Special Publication 14, pages 1075-1107.
Bergman, S.C. (1987): Lamproites and other Potassium-rich Igneous Rocks: a Review of their Occurrence,
Mineralogy and Geochemistry; in Alkaline Igneous Rocks, J.G. Fitton and B. Upton, Editors,
Geological Society of London, Special Publication 30, pages 103-190.
Fipke, C.E., Gurney, J.J. and Moore, R.O. (1995): Diamond Exploration Techniques Emphasizing Indicator
Mineral Geochemistry and Canadian Examples; Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin 423, 86
pages.
Griffin, W.L. and Ryan, C.G. (1995): Trace Elements in Indicator Minerals: Area Selection and Target
Evaluation in Diamond Exploration; Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Volume 53, pages 311-
337.
Haggerty, S.E. (1986): Diamond Genesis in a Multiply-constrained Model; Nature, Volume 320, pages 34-
37.
Helmstaedt, H.H. (1995): "Primary" Diamond Deposits What Controls their Size, Grade and Location?; in
Giant Ore Deposits, B.H. Whiting, C.J. Hodgson and R. Mason, Editors, Society of Economic
Geologists, Special Publication Number 2, pages 13-80.
Jacques, A.L., Boxer, G., Lucas, H. and Haggerty, S.E. (1986): Mineralogy and Petrology of the Argyle
Lamproite Pipe, Western Australia; in Fourth International Kimberlite Conference, Perth,
Western Autralia, Extended Abstracts, pages 48-50.
Jennings, C.M.H. (1995): The Exploration Context for Diamonds; Journal of Geochemical Exploration,
Volume 53, pages 113-124.
Kjarsgaard, B.A. (1996): Lamproite-hosted Diamond; in Geology of Canadian Mineral Deposit Types, O.R.
Eckstrand, W.D. Sinclair and R.I. Thorpe, Editors, Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of
Canada, Number 8, pages 568-572.
Levinson, A.A., Gurney, J.G. and Kirkley, M.B. (1992): Diamond Sources and Production: Past, Present,
and Future; Gems and Gemmology, Volume 28, Number 4, pages 234-254.
Macnae, J. (1995): Applications of Geophysics for the Detection and Exploration of Kimberlites and
Lamproites; Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Volume 53, pages 213-243.
Mitchell, R.H. (1991): Kimberlites and Lamproites: Primary Sources of Diamond; Geoscience Canada,
Volume 18, Number 1, pages 1-16.
Mitchell, R.H. and Bergman, S.C. (1991): Petrology of Lamproites; Plenum Press, New York, 447 pages.
Nixon, P.H. (1995): The Morphology and Nature of Primary Diamondiferous Occurrences; Journal of
Geochemical Exploration, Volume 53, pages 41-71.
Scott Smith, B.H. (1992): Contrasting Kimberlites and Lamproites; Exploration and Mining Geology,
Volume 1, Number 4, pages 371-381.
Scott Smith, B.H. (1996): Lamproites; in Undersaturated Alkaline Rocks: Mineralogy, Petrogenesis and
Economic Potential, R.H. Mitchell, Editor, Mineralogical Association of Canada, Short Course 24,
pages 259-270.
Scott Smith, B.H. and Skinner, E.M.W. (1984): Diamondiferous Lamproites; Journal of Geology, Volume
92, pages 433-438.
Examples of Industrial Rock Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

N01 Palabora (South Africa), Oka (Québec), Mountain Pass Aley, Mount Grace tuff
(California)
N02 Koala, Panda, Sable, Fox and Misery (Northwest Territories, --
Canada); Mir, International, Udachnaya, Aikhal and
Yubilenaya (Sakha, Russia); Kimberly, Premier and
Venetia (South Africa); Orapa and Jwaneng (Botswana);
River Ranch (Zimbabwe)
N03 Argyle, Allendale (Western Australia); Prairie Creek (Crater of --
Diamonds, Arkansas, USA); Bobi (Côte d'Ivoire);
Kapamba (Zambia); Majhgawan (India)
O – Pegmaite
BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #
O01 Rare element pegmatite - Zoned pegmatite (Lithium- 13a*,b*
LCT family Cesium-Tantalum)
O02 Rare element pegmatite - Niobium-Yttrium-Fluorine --
NYF family pegmatite
O03 Muscovite pegmatite Mica-bearing pegmatite 13f*
O04* Feldspar-quartz Barren pegmatite IM13g*,e*
pegmatite
Examples of Pegmaitie Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

O01 Bikita Field (Zimbabwe), Blackhills (South Dakota) --
O02 South Platte district (Colorado), Bancroft (Ontario) --
O03 Rajahstan (India), Appalachian Province (USA) --
O04 Buckingham (Québec) --
P - Metamorphic Hosted

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

P01 Andalusite hornfels -- -
P02 Kyanite, muscovite, garnet in Kyanite-sillimanite -
metasediments schists
P03 Microcrystalline graphite Amorphous graphite 18
P04 Crystalline flake graphite -- 37
P05 Vein graphite Lump and chip graphite 37
P06 Corundum in aluminous -- --
metasediments
P01 - ANDALUSITE HORNFELS

by Z.D. Hora
British Columbia Geological Survey

Hora, Z.D. (1999): Andalusite Hornfels; in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3,
Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry
of Energy and Mines, pages 85-87.

1. Identification

Synonym: Chiastolite hornfels.

Commodities (byproducts): Andalusite (staurolite, garnet).

Examples: [BRITISH COLUMBIA (MINFILE #) - Canada/International]: Kootenay (082FSE099), Kwoiek

Needle (092ISW052), Atna Peak (103H 040); Kiglapait (Labrador, Canada), Canso (Nova Scotia,
Canada), McGerrigle Pluton (Quebec, Canada), Groot Marico-Zeerust, Thamazimbi, Lydenburg
(Tranvsaal, South Africa), Glomel (France), Tomduff (Ireland), Spargoville (Western Australia),
Aktash (Uzbekistan).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Andalusite occurs in metamorphosed rocks of originally clay-rich composition

(usually pelitic) in thermal aureoles formed in the proximity of igneous intrusions. Andalusite is
formed under conditions of high temperature and low pressure.

Tectonic settings: Mostly in orogenic belts, but also may occur in a platformal environment. Orogenic
plutonism intruding pelitic sedimentary sequence.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Andalusite hornfels is a product of thermal

recrystallization of rocks with high alumina and low calcium contents. The protolith is usually
argillaceous sediment, but may also be hydrothermally altered volcanic or volcaniclastic rock.
The whole spectrum of granitic to gabbroic igneous rocks can act as a source of heat may cover
the whole spectrum from granitic to gabbroic composition. Metamorphic zonation of the
contact aureole is characterized by distinct mineral assemblages and textural features, where
andalusite may be major or minor component, fine grained or as crystal porphyroblasts several
millimetres or even centimetres in size.

Age of mineralization: Precambrian to Tertiary. The largest producing deposits are related to intrusion of
the Bushveld Igneous Complex (South Africa) about 1.95 billion years old. The deposit in France,
the second largest producer in the world is related to granite of Hercynian age. The occurrences
in British Columbia are Cretaceous and Eocene in age.

Host/Associated rock types: The host rocks are chiastolite metapelite. The associated rocks are spotted
slates, andalusite-cordierite hornfels, staurolite hornfels, spinel-corundum hornfels, silimanite
hornfels, skarns and a variety of igneous intrusions.
Deposit form: Large intrusions into pelitic sedimentary units may produce tabular deposits 20 to 60
metres wide and up to 6 kilometres long. Majority of occurrences are small and irregular in
shape. Primary deposits may be associated with alluvial and eluvial accumulations.

Texture/Structure: Andalusite forms euhedral crystals as porphyroblasts in a fine grained matrix.

Individual crystals may reach the size of 60 millimetres in length. Randomly oriented minerals
are characteristic of decussate texture. The chiastolitic rocks are characterized by fairly
homogenous distribution and size of the andalusite crystals.

Ore Mineralogy: (Principle and subordinate): Andalusite, staurolite, garnet.

Gangue mineralogy: (Principle and subordinate): Fine grained hornfels matrix - usually cordierite, biotite,
muscovite, chlorite and quartz.

Alteration mineralogy: Retrograde metamorphism results in andalusite being altered to mica and
staurolite or mica and chlorite. Such alteration (even partial) may render the andalusite
unusable for industrial applications.

Weathering: Andalusite is not highly susceptible to chemical weathering and as such, may accumulate in
alluvial sediments or as a residual deposit.

Ore controls: Andalusite development is a factor of the composition of the protolith and the high
temperature/low pressure conditions adjacent to an igneous intrusion. The chemical nature and
thickness of the original sedimentary layers and their respective distance from the intrusive
contact are the main controls on the formation of andalusite hornfels orebodies. Although the
metamorphic aureole may extend a large distance, typically only a few areas within the aureole
satisfy the conditions necessary to produce economic accumulations of andalusite.

Genetic models: Andalusite deposits develop in pelitic rocks with high alumina and low calcium contents
at temperatures of 550° to 600°C and low pressures of about two kilobars. Such conditions
usually develop within the contact aureole of an intrusive. At higher temperatures, sillimanite or
corundum and spinel would form at the expense of andalusite.

Associated deposit types: Wollastonite (K09) and garnet (K08) skarns form under similar circumstances
from calcium-rich protoliths. Andalusite hornfels deposits can be the source for placer
andalusite (C01, C02). Microcrystalline graphite (P03) and gem corundum (Q09) are also found
in contact aureoles of igneous rocks.

Comments: Under special conditions, regional, low pressure metamorphism can result in crystallization
of sufficient andalusite to be a commercial grade. Some contact aureoles of large intrusive
complexes, like the Bushveld Complex, are so extensive that they have features similar to
regional low-pressure metamorphism.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: None.

Geophysical signature: None.

Other Exploration Guides: Andalusite, corundum and spinel in alluvial deposits; geological contacts of
pelitic sediments with plutonic rocks; sedimentary roof pendants in large plutonic complexes.
Most deposits are found within one km of the related igneous intrusion. Economic deposits are
more likely in prospective regions with well developed weathering profiles.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: South African deposits contain approximately 35 Mt of economically
recoverable reserves. The Andafrax deposit is a 60 m thick zone with 5 to 20% andalusite
crystals and with production of about 36 ktpy. The Grootfontein mine contains 15% andalusite
with annual production capacity estimated at 140 kt. The Krugerspost deposit has an average
width of 20 m with andalusite content 8 to 12% and annual mine production about 30 kt. The
Havercroft mine has a 50 m thick hornfels ore zone with 7 to 8% andalusite and annual mine
capacity about 50 kt. The Hoogenoeg mine ore contains between 8 and 12% andalusite;
production capacity is 35 kt per year. The Kerphales deposit in France contains 15% andalusite
crystals and is about 400 m thick. It has proven and possible reserves of 10 Mt and produces 65
kt per year.

Economic limitations: Andalusite concentrate should contain from 57 to 61% Al2O3 and 0.6 to 0.9%
Fe2O3 and is priced between US$180 and US$140 per tonne (Industrial Minerals, 1997).
Because of extreme hardness, some fresh andalusite hornfels are uneconomic to process in
spite of high andalusite content and only the weathered zones are mined (Hoogenoeg mine,
South Africa). Andalusite recovery generally ranges from 50 to 60%, some production from
primary deposits is supplemented from adjacent alluvial accumulations.

Uses: The most important use of andalusite is in monolithic refractories and unfired bricks for blast and
glass furnaces, cement kilns and combustion chambers. Smaller quantities are used in specialty
ceramics, like spark plugs, acoustic tiles, etc.

Importance: Andalusite is a high quality, raw material for high-alumina refractory products. It can be
substituted by synthetic mullite, kyanite and sillimanite.

5. Selected bibliography

Grobbelaar, A.P. (1994): Andalusite, in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Carr, D.D. Senior Editor, Society for
Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc. Littleton, Colorado, pages 913-920.
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals and World Deposits, Metal Bulletin, London, 312
pages.
Kerrick, D.M. (1990): The Al2SiO5 Polymorphs; Reviews in Mineralogy, Volume 22, Mineralogical Society
of America, Washington, D.C., 406 pages.
Kerrick, D.M. (1993): Contact Metamorphism, Reviews in Mineralogy, Volume 26. Mineralogical Society
of America, Washington, D.C., 821 pages.
Pell, J. (1988): The Industrial Mineral Potential of Kyanite and Garnet in British Columbia, British
Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1988-26, 43 pages.
Simandl, G.J., Hancock, K.D., Church, B.N. and Woodsworth, G.J. (1995): Andalusite in British Columbia -
New Exploration Targets, in Geological Fieldwork 1994, British Columbia Ministry of Energy,
Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1995-1, pages 385-394.
P02 - KYANITE, MUSCOVITE, GARNET IN METASEDIMENTS

by G.J. Simandl1, S. Paradis2, W.H. McCracken3 and K.D. Hancock4

1
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
Geological Survey of Canada, Sidney, B.C., Canada
3
F.S. Alloys and Minerals Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
4
Spokane Resources Ltd., Vancouver, B.C., Canada

Simandl, G.J., Paradis, S., McCracken, W.H. and Hancock, K.D. (1999): Kyanite, Muscovite, Garnet in
Metasediments; in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial
Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy
and Mines, pages 89-92.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Sillimanite deposits, kyanite deposits, muscovite schist deposits.

Commodities (byproducts): Kyanite or sillimanite (± muscovite, ± garnet; possibly staurolite and

corundum). In some deposits garnet or mica may be considered as the principal commodity.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE) - Canada/International): Trail Bay and Dudevoir Passage showings
also referred to as Tsimpsean Peninsula (103J 024), Yellow Creek (083D 007), Hawkesbury Island
kyanite (103H 058); NARCO and Lac Croche kyanite deposits (Quebec, Canada), Willis Mountain
kyanite, (Virginia, USA), Graves Mountain, (Georgia, USA) and sillimanite-corundum deposits of
Sonapahar area (India) and Pella district (South Africa).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Kyanite and sillimanite occur as porphyroblasts or crystalline masses in schists,
gneisses, quartzites and paragneisses formed by metamorphism from aluminous sedimentary
rocks. Muscovite and garnet are often associated with kyanite and can be economically
important. The host metamorphic sequences are deformed and often cut by pegmatites.
Kyanite deposits are located in high pressure metamorphic terrains, while sillimanite occurs
mainly in schists and gneisses affected by high-temperature and pressure metamorphism.

Tectonic settings: Mainly in highly deformed metasedimentary belts where tectonic setting at the time
of sedimentation is difficult or impossible to establish. Exposed catazone of the continental
shield and core complexes along continental margin are good examples.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Host lithologies derived from high-alumina protoliths,

such as high-alumina shale, paleo-regolith, paleo-placer or alteration zones. The kyanite and
sillimanite deposits occur in metasedimentary belts, metasedimentary roof pendants and
contact metamorphic zones.

Age of mineralization: Coincides with the age of metamorphism; most deposits are Precambrian.
Host/Associated rock types: Kyanite- and/or sillimanite-bearing gneiss, schist and quartzite associated
with marble, biotite and garnet paragneiss, mica schist, hornblende schist, orthogneiss,
clinopyroxenite, amphibolite, pegmatite and variety of other intrusive rocks.

Deposit form: Stratabound; high-grade lenses, pockets and discordant planar or irregular zones may be
present within low-grade stratiform mineralization. Mineable portions of the deposits are at
least several metres in thickness and may be exposed over hundreds of metres along strike.
Larger deposits are exposed over an area of several thousands of square metres.

Texture/Structure: Kyanite and sillimanite-bearing rocks can be porphyroblastic or lepidoblastic and are
commonly schistose or gneissic; size of porphyroblasts may increase near the contact with
intrusive or pegmatite sweat-outs. Abundant solid inclusions within aluminum silicates.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Kyanite/ ± muscovite, ± garnet, ± staurolite or sillimanite/±
corundum.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, biotite, ± muscovite, ± garnet, feldspar, ±
staurolite, ± corundum, ± graphite, ± sulphides, ± oxides, ± amphiboles, ± sapphire, ± cordierite,
± andalusite, and ± rutile.

Alteration mineralogy: Pyrophyllite, muscovite and sericite are common alteration products of kyanite.

Weathering: In general intense weathering facilitates separation of kyanite family minerals from gangue
minerals.

Ore controls: Stratigraphy, chemical composition of the protolith and degree of metamorphism. High-
grade zones within the mineralized units are commonly located in crests of folds, sheer zones
and sweat-outs that were open to fluids at the time of the crystallization of anhydrous,
aluminous silicates.

Genetic model: Kyanite, sillimanite, garnet and muscovite are metamorphic minerals. Kyanite deposits
are hosted by quartzites, schists and paragneisses of high pressure metamorphic terrains.
Sillimanite occurs mainly in schists and gneisses affected by high-temperature, high-pressure
metamorphism.

Associated deposit types: Garnet-bearing paragneiss, some of the abyssal pegmatites (O04), crystalline
flake graphite (P04) deposits. Secondary (C01) and primary (P06) sapphires and placer kyanite,
sillimanite, andalusite and garnet or staurolite deposits (C02, C03) do coexist in similar
geological environment.

Comments: In North America, kyanite is the most widely used Al2SiO3 polymorph. Sister polymorphs are
andalusite and sillimanite. When calcined these minerals are converted to mullite, a highly
refractory phase. Kyanite converts to mullite at 1370°C. This conversion is accompanied by a
non reversible volume expansion of 18%. Because of this volume change, calcination of kyanite
is required before it can be used in refractory shapes. For discussion on the andalusite see
deposit model P01. Masses of sillimanite-corundum rock with nearly monomineralic sillimanite
veins or pods, enclosed by garnet-biotite schists are mined in South Africa and India. Sillimanite
in the form of nodules or prismatic crystals may in the future be potentally recoverable from the
 host rock. Fibrolite variety of sillimanite is not economically recoverable from unaltered gneisses
because of processing difficulties.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: N/A.

Geophysical signature: Regional geophysical data, such as EM, radiometric methods, etc. may be used as
indirect tools to trace favourable metasedimentary units if marker horizons or igneous
intrusions have distinctive signatures.

Other Exploration Guides: Delimit areas where metamorphic conditions required to form anhydrous
aluminum silicates were reached. Identify favorable lithologies and pay special attention to
crests of folds and metasediment-intrusive rocks contacts. Panning along stream beds for heavy
minerals is an effective exploration tool, since the density of aluminum silicates varies from 3.1
to 3.7 g/cm3.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Graves Mountain has possible reserves of 30 Mt at 25% kyanite and Willis
Mountain reports indicated reserves of 65 Mt at 25% kyanite.

Economic limitations: Anhydrous aluminum silicate polymorphs are relatively low priced products.
Transportation distance and processing required for specific end uses may limit the market area.
Processing to mullite or precalcination does increase the market area for kyanite, assuming
favourable energy costs near the mine site. Kyanite concentrates should contain a minimum of
56% Al2O3 and 42% SiO2, with less than 1% Fe2O3, 1.2% TiO2, 0.1% MgO and 0.1% CaO. In
general, the coarse-grained concentrates command the highest prices; therefore, ores
containing larger kyanite crystals with minor amounts of unwanted mineral inclusions are
particularly attractive. Several large, high-grade deposits are not exploited because the kyanite
incorporates deleterious mineral inclusions. Co-production of mica and garnet as part of hard-
rock kyanite operations should be considered in modern feasibility studies. Sillimanite
concentrates are derived mainly as a byproduct of heavy mineral sand operations. The well-
known sillimanite-corundum sources from Assam, India are nearly exhausted. Similar product
was also mined in the Pella District, Republic of South Africa. Fibrolite sillimanite is not mined
from gneisses because of processing difficulties. Occurrences with "matchstick"-sized crystals
were mined in the past and are more amenable to upgrading.

Uses: These deposits represent low-cost raw materials for mullite-based, high-performance refractories
characterized by high hot strength and resistance to chemically corrosive environments. Kyanite
has applications in high-performance refractory products used in both brick and monolitic
applications. Also utilized in steel and glass industries, cement kilns, heat treatment furnaces,
ceramic and petrochemical industries. Kyanite has new applications in non-slip flooring, glazes
and abrasives. Sillimanite-corundum boulders are cut directly into refractory shapes. Assuming
comparable grades, sillimanite concentrate could compete with andalusite, both of these
minerals are characterized by a relatively low volume increase during mullitization if compared
to kyanite. However, currently there is a very limited market incentive to produce sillimanite
concentrate.
Importance: Kyanite derived from quartzites and schists is the most commonly used anhydrous
aluminum silicate in North America. In Europe and in Japan, andalusite is the most preferred
polymorph, because it does not require precalcination.

5. References

Golani, P. R. (1989): Sillimanite-Corundum Deposits of Sonapahar, Meghalaya, India: a Metamorphosed

Precambrian Paleosol; Precambrian Research, v.43, pp.175-189.
Hancock, K.D. and Simandl, G.J. (1996): Kyanite at Prince Rupert and Kitimat; in Geological Fieldwork
1995, Grant, B. and Newell, J.M., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Paper 1996-1, pages 251-258.
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals - Geology and World Deposits; Metal Bulletin
Plc., London, 312 pages.
Jones, J.O. and Eiletsen, N.A. (1954): Investigations of the Willis Mountain Kyanite Deposit, Buckingham
County, Virginia; Unites Sates Bureau of Mines, Report of Investigations Number 5075, 54 pages.
Kuzvart, M. (1984): Industrial Minerals and Rocks;, Elsevier, 454 pages.
Pell, J. (1988): The Industrial Mineral Potential of Kyanite and Garnet in British Columbia, British
Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1988-26, 43 pages.
Simandl, G.J. ( 1989): Géologie et Potentiel Economique du Secteur de la Mine Narco; Gouverrnement
du Quebec, Ministère de l’Energie et des Resources; MB-89-68, 25 pages.
Sweet, P.C. (1994): Kyanite and Related Minerals; in Industrial Minerals and Rocks; Carr, D.D., Editor,
Society for Mining, Mettallurgy, and Exploration Inc., pages 921-927.
Varley, E.R. (1965): Sillimanite; Overseas Geological Surveys, Her Majesty Stationary Office, London, 165
pages.
P03 - MICROCRYSTALLINE GRAPHITE

by G.J. Simandl1 and W.M. Kenan2

1
British Columbia Geological Survey
2
Asbury Graphite Mills Inc., Asbury, New Jersey

Simandl, G.J. and Kenan, W.M. (1999): Microcrystalline Graphite; in Selected British Columbia Mineral
Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure,
Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, pages 93-95.

1. Identification

Synonym: "Amorphous graphite" is a technically incorrect but commonly used commercial term for the
same product.

Commodity: Microcrystalline graphite.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Kellog Mine in Moradillos (State of

Sonora, Mexico), Kaiserberg, Styria region (Austria) and Velké Vrbno-Konstantin (Czech
Republic).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Most amorphous graphite deposits are formed by contact or regional
metamorphism of coal beds or other highly carbonaceous sedimentary rocks. Deposits may
consist of several beds or lenses, each a few metres thick and up to several kilometres in length.
Typical host rocks are quartzites, phyllites, schists and metagraywackes.

Tectonic settings: Continental margin or intracratonic basins.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Near shore sedimentary rocks with intercalated coal
seams, or other highly carbonaceous sedimentary beds, that are metamorphosed by nearby
igneous intrusions or affected by regional metamorphism.

Age of mineralization: Most of the deposits are Mississippian to Cretaceous in age or younger.

Host/Associated rock types: The host rocks are coal seams or other highly carbon-rich rock types and
their low to medium grade metamorphic equivalents. Amorphous graphite deposits occur within
sequences of chlorite and muscovite schists, phyllites, quartzites, metagraywackes, limestones,
sandstones and conglomerates which may be cut by diabasic or granitic intrusions with
associated andalusite-bearing hornfels.

Deposit form: Stratiform or lens-shaped; beds may be deformed and/or repeated by folding and
faulting. Pinching and swelling of beds is common. Deposits may consist of several beds, each
one to few metres thick. They may be exposed for hundreds of metres to several kilometres in
strike length.
Texture/Structure: Graphite-bearing beds may contain lenses of hangingwall or footwall host rocks and
are characterised by abundant slickensides. Graphite ore is schistose or massive.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Microcrystalline graphite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Meta-anthracite ± anthracite ± quartz ± mica ± coke ±
clay ± pyrite and other sulphides ± apatite ± gypsum.

Alteration mineralogy: N/A.

Weathering: Weathered outcrops of microcrystalline graphite are typically dull, porous and dark-gray to
black.

Ore controls: Coal beds invaded by intrusive rocks or sedimentary sequences with coal seams or other
carbon-rich rocks metamorphosed typically to greenschist facies. Size, grade and mineral
impurities of the graphite deposit depend on the characteristics of the original coal seams and
carbon-bearing or carbonaceous sediments. Degree of metamorphism controls the degree of
graphitization. Graphite may grade into coal with increasing distance from the heat source.
Temperatures required for graphitization are lower under shear conditions. Faults and folds may
control the thickness or repetition of graphite beds.

Genetic models: Graphitization can be described as an extreme case of coal maturation. Coal maturation
involves the following sequence: peat - lignite - bituminous coal - semi-anthracite - anthracite -
meta-anthracite - microcrystalline graphite. Source of heat in contact-metamorphic
environment may be plutons, dikes or sills adjacent to coal beds.

Associated deposit types: Coal deposits, (A03, A04, A05). Some coal beds may be only partially
converted into graphite. Expending shale (R02) and bentonite deposits (E06) are commonly
associated with coal. Andalusite deposits (P01) may be present in cases where graphite is
formed by contact metamorphism.

Comments: Although several areas appear favorable for the formation of amorphous graphite there are
no known deposits in British Columbia. Meta-anthracite is reported at Guess Creek near
Smithers and Flint Creek near Hazelton.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Graphite may be present in residual soils. Positive vanadium and nickel
anomalies and negative boron anomalies associated with graphite beds were reported by Tichy
and Turnovec (1978). This enrichment is probably related to the trace element content of the
protolith, therefore, each deposit may have its own geochemical characteristics. It is unlikely
that the chemical signature could be used effectively in grassroots mineral exploration.

Geophysical signature: Graphite deposits have been located using induced polarization (IP), resistivity,
ground and airborne electromagnetic (EM), spontaneous potential (SP) and
audiomagnetotelluric (AMT) surveys. Outcrops may have associated radioactivity because of
trace amounts of uranium.
Other Exploration Guides: The most important regional exploration guides for high-grade amorphous
deposits are: 1) coal beds invaded by igneous rocks or 2) coal seams traced across regional
metamorphic isograds into low to medium-grade metamorphic areas.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: The mean size of the deposits reported by Bliss and Sutphin (1992) is 4 900
000 tonnes. Major active mines contain over 80 per cent carbon, but the average grade of some
of the European deposits may be as low as 55%. Some beds may be only partly graphitized.

Economic limitations: Mines are mainly open pit, however underground mining is possible depending on
the thickness and orientation of the ore. Prices of amorphous graphite are substantially lower
than the prices of the crystalline flake graphite. The ore is commonly hand-sorted. Quantity and
type of impurities and ash content are major concerns. The degree of graphitization varies from
one deposit to an other and as a result, proportions of microcrystalline graphite to carbon also
varies.

Uses: Microcrystalline graphite is used in brake linings, foundry applications, lubricants, pencils,
refractories, and steel making. The graphite may contain several percent volatile material. In
fact, some meta-anthracite from South Korea is marketed as microcrystalline graphite, but it
may be due largely to export restrictions on energy exports from Korea.

Importance: Metamorphosed coal beds are the main source of microcrystalline graphite. For most
applications, synthetic graphite and crystalline graphite may be substituted for amorphous
graphite but at increased cost.

5. Selected bibliography

Bliss, J.D. and Sutphin, D.M. (1992): Grade and Tonnage Model of Amorphous Graphite: Model 18k; in
G.J. Orris and J.D. Bliss, Editors, U.S. Geological Survey, Open File Report 92-437, pages 23-25.
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals - Geology and World Deposits; Metal Bulletin
Plc., London, 312 pages.
Graffin, G.D. (1975): Graphite; in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 4th Edition; American Institute of
Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., pages 691-705.
Krauss, U.H., Schmitt, H.W., Taylor, H.A., Jr. and Suthphin, D.M. (1988): International Strategic Minerals
Inventory Summary Report - Natural Graphite; U.S. Geological Survey, Circular 930-H, 29 pages.
Kuzvart, M. (1984): Industrial Minerals and Rocks; Elsevier; New York, 454 pages.
Riddle III, H.M. and Kenan, W.M. (1995): Natural and Synthetic Graphite Powders; Industrial Minerals,
Number 338, pages 61-65.
Tichy, L. and Turnovec, I. (1978): On possible Geochemical Identification of Graphite in South Bohemia
(In Czech); Geologicky Pruzkum, Volume 20, pages 73-75.
Weis, P.L. and Salas, G.A. (1978): Estimating Reserves of Amorphous Graphite in Sonora, Mexico;
Engineering and Mining Journal, volume 179, Number 10, pages 123 - 128.
P04 - CRYSTALLINE FLAKE GRAPHITE

by G.J. Simandl1 and W.M. Kenan2

1
British Columbia Geological Survey
2
Asbury Graphite Mills Inc., Asbury, New Jersey

Simandl, G.J. and Kenan, W.M. (1999): Crystalline Flake Graphite; in Selected British Columbia Mineral
Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure,
Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, pages 97-99.

1. Identification

Synonym: Disseminated flake graphite deposits.

Commodity: Crystalline flake graphite and crystalline graphite powder.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): AA prospect (092M 017), Black Crystal
(082FNW260), Mon (093N 203); Lac Knife deposit, Asbury Graphite mine and Peerless Mine
(Quebec, Canada), Graphite Lake and Black Donald mines (Ontario, Canada); American Graphite
Company mine (New York State, USA).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Disseminated flakes graphite deposits are commonly hosted by porphyroblastic and
granoblastic marbles, paragneisses and quartzites. Alumina-rich paragneisses and marbles in
upper amphibolite or granulite grade metamorphic terrains are the most favourable host rocks.
Highest grades are commonly associated with rocks located at the contacts between marbles
and paragneisses and deposits are thickest within fold crests. Minor feldspathic intrusions,
pegmatites and iron formations also contain disseminated flake graphite.

Tectonic settings: May be found in any setting with favourable paleo-environment for accumulation and
preservation of organic materials, such as intracratonic or continental margin-type basins.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Metasedimentary belts of granulite or upper amphibolite

facies invaded by igneous rocks.

Age of mineralization: Known deposits are mostly of Precambrian age, but could be of any age.

Host/Associated rock types: Marbles, paragneisses, quartzites, magnetite-graphite iron formations,

clinopyroxenites, amphibolites and pegmatites can host flake graphite deposits. Associated
lithologies are orthogneisses, charnockites, orthopyroxenites, amphibolites, granulites and
variety of intrusive rocks.

Deposit form: Stratiform lens-shaped or saddle-shaped. Individual, economically significant deposits are
several metres to tens of metres thick and hundreds of metres in strike length.

Texture/Structure: Strong foliation, schistosity and lepidoblastic texture for paragneiss and schists.
Granoblastic, equigranular or porphyroblastic textures in marbles.
Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Crystalline flake graphite ± microcrystalline graphite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): In carbonate-hosted graphite deposits: calcite,

clinopyroxene, pyrite and other sulphides ± dolomite ± anorthite ± chlorite ± clinozoisite ±
zoisite ± garnet. In paragneiss-hosted graphite deposits: feldspar, quartz, biotite, ±
clinopyroxene ± garnet ± sillimanite ± kyanite ± sulphides ± clinozoisite ± scapolite ± secondary
gypsum.

Alteration mineralogy: Chlorite, prehnite, zoisite and clinozoisite are common retrograde minerals in
porphyroblastic marbles.

Weathering: Jarosite is a common weathering product of disseminated pyrite-bearing, gneiss-hosted

graphite deposits.

Ore controls: Low grade, large tonnage deposits are hosted mainly by paragneisses and are stratabound.
Higher grade portions of these deposits are commonly located in fold crests; along paragneiss-
marble, quartzite-marble and quartzite-paragneiss contacts; or along other zones that acted as
channels for retrograde metamorphic fluids.

Genetic models: Low-grade, stratabound and stratiform deposits are believed to be a product of
graphitization of the organic material within pre-metamorphic protolith (carbonates and shales).
The crystallinity of graphite is linked to the degree of metamorphism. Higher grade portions of
these deposits are usually structurally controlled, and were probably enriched during the
retrograde phase of the regional or contact metamorphism. Late graphite precipitation
(enrichment) may have been triggered by internal or external buffering or fluid mixing.

Associated deposit types: Commonly associated with vein-graphite deposits (P05).

Comments: Can be spatially associated with kyanite, sillimanite, mica and garnet (P02), dimension stone
(R03), wollastonite skarn (K09) and abyssal (ceramic) pegmatite (Q04) deposits.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Graphite concentrations in residual soils and stream beds. Geochemical trace
element methods were pioneered in USSR although these methods do not rival with geophysical
methods in effectiveness.

Geophysical signature: Effective methods for detecting high grade mineralization (where at least locally
the individual flakes are touching) are airborne EM, ground VLF and other EM methods. Induced
polarisation, applied potential and self potential are also used, although IP is considered
relatively expensive and in many cases too sensitive.

Other Exploration Guides: Graphite deposits commonly form clusters. Overall quality of graphite flake
increases with the intensity of regional metamorphism. Metasedimentary rocks of upper
amphibolite or granulite facies represent the best exploration ground. Traces of graphite within
a metasedimentary sequence indicate that the oxidation-reduction conditions were favourable
for the preservation of graphite deposits. High-grade ores are associated with fold crests and
 contacts between adjacent lithological units. In some regions, blue quartz is found in close
spatial association with crystalline-flake graphite deposits and could be considered as an
empirical indirect indicator of favourable environment for graphite exploration.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Grade and tonnage of producing mines and developed prospects varies
substantially. The median grade and size is 9.0% and 2 400 000 tonnes respectively (Bliss and
Sutphin, 1992). Depending on market conditions, large deposits containing high proportions of
coarse flakes, which can be easily liberated, may be economic with grades as low as 4%.

Economic limitations: Price of the commercial concentrate is determined by flake size, degree of
crystallinity (toughness), graphitic carbon content, ash content and type of the impurities.
Crystalline flake graphite is commonly chemically-and heat-treated to enhance its properties.
Depending on the applications, the most common limiting technical parameters are the carbon
content, the diameter of the graphite flakes, the degree of crystallinity (which is related to the
flake toughness), the type of impurities and the ash content. Metallurgical and consumer tests
are therefore required to market flake graphite.

Uses: Main uses are in refractors, lubricants, brake linings, foundry moulds and dressings, crucibles,
electrodes, pencils and others. Graphite use in non-traditional applications, such as expanded
graphite and graphite foils, is increasing, while the demand for use in refractors is highly cyclical.

Importance: Flake graphite can be substituted for in most of its applications, however substitute
materials are more expensive and do not perform as well.

5. Selected bibliography

Krauss, U.H., Schmitt, H.W., Taylor, H.A., Jr. and Suthphin, D.M. (1988): International Strategic Minerals
Inventory Summary Report- Natural Graphite; U.S. Geological Survey, Circular 930-H, 29 pages.
Marchildon, N., Simandl, G.J. and Hancock, K.D. (1992): The AA Graphite Deposit, Bella Coola Area,
British Columbia: Exploration Implications for the Coast Plutonic Complex; in: Geological
Fieldwork 1992, Grant, B. and Newell, J.M., Editors, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Paper 1993-1, pages 389-397.
Riddle III, H.M. and Kenan, W.M. (1995): Natural and Synthetic Graphite Powders; Industrial Minerals,
Number 338, pages 61-65.
Rogers, R.S. (1995): Graphite; in Descriptive Mineral Deposit Models of Metallic and Industrial Mineral
Deposit Types and Related Mineral Potential Assessment Criteria; M.C. Rogers, P.C. Thurston,
J.A. Fyon, R.I. Kelly and, F.W. Breaks, Editors, Open File Report 5916, Ontario Geological Survey,
pages 167-171
Simandl, G.J., Paradis, S., Valiquette, G., and Jacob, H.L. (1995): Crystalline Graphite Deposits,
Classification and Economic Potential, Lachute-Hull-Mont Laurier Area, Quebec; in Proceedings
of 28th Forum on the Geology of Industrial Minerals, Martinsburg, West Virginia, May 3-8, 1992,
pages 167-174.
Simandl, G.J. (1992): Gîtes de Graphite de la Région de la Gatineau, Québec; Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,
Ecole Polytechnique, Montréal (in French), 383 pages.
Sutphin, D.M. (1991): Descriptive Model of Disseminated Flake Graphite; in Some Industrial Mineral
Deposit Models; Descriptive Deposit Models, G.J. Orris and J.D. Bliss, Editors, U.S. Geological
Survey, Open File Report 91-11A, pages 49-51
Bliss, J.D. and Sutphin, D.M. (1992): Grade and Tonnage Model of Disseminated Flake Graphite: Model
371; in G.J. Orris and J.D. Bliss, Editors; U.S. Geological Survey, Open File Report 92-437, pages
67-70.
P05 - VEIN GRAPHITE IN METAMORPHIC TERRAINS

by G.J. Simandl1 and W.M. Kenan2

1
British Columbia Geological Survey
2
Asbury Graphite Mills Inc., Asbury, New Jersey

Simandl, G.J. and Kenan, W.M. (1999): Vein Graphite in Metamorphic Terrains; in Selected British
Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and
D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, pages 101-103.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Lump and chip graphite, epigenetic graphite.

Commodity: Crystalline lump and chip graphite.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Calumet, Clot, Walker and Miller mines
and St. Sauveur occurrences (Quebec, Canada), Dillon (Montana, USA), Bogala Mine (Sri Lanka),
deposits of South Kerala (India).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Graphite veins currently mined are from few centimetres to a metre thick. Typically
they cut amphibolite to granulite grade metamorphic rocks and/or associated intrusive rocks.

Tectonic setting (s): Katazone (relatively deep, high-grade metamorphic environments associated with
igneous activity; conditions that are common in the shield areas).

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Veins form in high-grade, dynamothermal metamorphic

environment where metasedimentary belts are invaded by igneous rocks.

Age of mineralization: Any age; most commonly Precambrian.

Host/Associated rock types: Hosted by paragneisses, quartzites, clinopyroxenites, wollastonite-rich

rocks, pegmatites. Other associated rocks are charnockites, granitic and intermediate intrusive
rocks, quartz-mica schists, granulites, aplites, marbles, amphibolites, magnetite-graphite iron
formations and anorthosites.

Deposit form: Veins are from a few millimetres to over a metre thick in places, although usually less than
0.3 meter thick. Individual veins display a variety of forms, including saddle-, pod- or lens-
shaped, tabular or irregular bodies; frequently forming anastomosing or stockwork patterns.
The mines in Sri Lanka are from 30 metres to 400 metres deep; individual veins rarely extend
more than tens of metres.

Texture/Structure: Rosettes, coarse flakes, "fibers" or "needles" oblique or perpendicular to wall

rock, or in some cases schistosity subparallel to the vein walls.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Crystalline and microcrystalline graphite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Depends largely on the host-rock.
In marble or skarn: calcite ± wollastonite ±scapolite ± hedenbergite ± zoisite ± clinozoisite ±
prehnite ± quartz ± titanite ± sulphides ± diopside. In most of other rocks: feldspar ± apatite ±
garnet ± scapolite ± biotite ± sillimanite ± secondary iron oxides.

Alteration mineralogy: Most veins are not surrounded by macroscopically distinguishable alteration
halos, while some veins have narrow (< 1cm thick) alteration halos that are not well
documented. Sillimanite, graphite-sillimanite or graphite-tourmaline alteration is reported
adjacent to the veins in Sri Lanka and New Hampshire. In Quebec, some of the veins cut rocks
with contact metamorphic or skarn characteristics. Sillimanite, graphite-sillimanite or graphite-
tourmaline alteration is reported adjacent to the veins in Sri Lanka and New Hampshire.

Weathering: In the near surface environments, graphite grades are enhanced by weathering out of
gangue minerals.

Ore controls: Veins form along joints, breccia zones, crests of folds, decollements along geological
contacts and foliations. Joints in brittle lithologies (such as hornfels or skarns in contact
metamorphic aureoles associated with deep seated intrusive rocks) are particularly favourable.
Relatively reducing conditions (within the graphite stability field).

Genetic models: The origin of graphite veins is controversial. The ultimate source of carbon may be vary
from one deposit to other. Although most of the veins are hosted by high grade metamorphic
rocks, the graphite precipitation may take place during the retrograde phase of the regional or
contact metamorphism. This is suggested by coexistence of low temperature minerals such as
prehnite with vein-graphite. Depending on the occurrence, the interaction of fluid with the host
rock (internal or external buffering), such as oxidation of CH4-bearing fluids by wall rock, cooling
of a hot fluid nearly saturated with respect to graphite, or fluid mixing are the most probable
causes of vein formation.

Associated deposit types: Commonly associated with disseminated crystalline flake graphite deposits
(P04) and in some cases with wollastonite deposits (K09) and abyssal (ceramic) pegmatites
(O04).

Comments:
1. Crystalline graphite veins hosted by ultramafic rocks are relatively uncommon and are not
covered by this profile.
2. Portions of the AA crystalline flake graphite deposit, located near the southern tip of Bentick
Arm, British Columbia, contain microscopic graphite veinlets, suggesting that graphite veins may
also occur in the metasedimentary roof pendants of the Coast Plutonic Complex.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Veins may have in some cases narrow (< 1cm thick) alteration halos that are not
well documented and are to thin to be of use in exploration. The chemical composition of ore is
influenced mainly by the composition of gangue minerals.
Geophysical signature: Ground electromagnetic methods (VLF in initial exploration stage, horizontal or
vertical loupe at later stages) and resistivity are the most appropriate methods to locate large
graphite veins. "Mise a la masse" is useful in vein delineation.

Other Exploration Guides: Graphite veins are most common in highly metamorphosed terrains and in
several cases are associated with crystalline flake graphite deposits. Because graphite is inert in
the weathering environment, boulder tracing and use of electomagnetic mats may be effective.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Veins contain 40 to 90% graphitic carbon before hand sorting. No reliable
data is available on the tonnages for individual veins.

Economic limitations: Since the deposits are relatively narrow veins, the mines are typically small scale,
labour intensive and underground. The ore is hand sorted, washed and screened. Where
possible, consumers substitute the less expensive and readily available crystalline flake graphite
for vein graphite. The main technical parameter of the vein-graphite concentrate is its ability to
mould to any shape and flow when exposed to extreme pressures.

Uses: Graphite from veins is used mainly in: powder metals, special refractories, copper graphite and
carbon graphite brushes for electrical applications.

Importance: The only current source of crystalline lump graphite is Sri Lanka; it is exported world-wide.
British Columbia has no documented vein graphite occurrences.

5. Selected bibliography

Cirkel, F. (1907): Graphite, its Properties, Occurrences, Refining and Uses: Canada Department of Mines,
Mines Branch, Ottawa, Number 202, 263 pages.
Dobner, A., Graf, W., Hahn-Winheimer, P., and Hirner, A. (1978): Stable Carbon Isotopes of Graphite
from Bogala Mine, Sri Lanka; Lithos, volume 11, pages 251-255.
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals - Geology and World Deposits, London, Metal
Bulletin Plc., 312 pages.
Frost, B.R. (1979): Mineral Equilibria Involving Mixed Volatiles in a C-O-H Fluid Phase: The Stabilities of
Graphite and Siderite; American Journal of Science, volume 279, pages 1033-1059.
Krauss, U.H., Schmitt, H.W., Taylor, H.A., Jr. and Suthphin, D.M. (1988): International Strategic Minerals
Inventory Summary Report- Natural Graphite; U.S. Geological Survey, Circular 930-H, 29 pages.
Riddle III, H.M. and Kenan, W.M. (1995): Natural and Synthetic Graphite Powders; Industrial Minerals,
Number 338, pages 61-65.
Rumble III., D. and Hoering, T.C. (1986): Carbon Isotope Geochemistry of Graphite Vein Deposits from
New Hampshire, U.S.A; Geochemica and Cosmochemica Acta; volume 50, pages 1239-1247.
Simandl, G.J., Paradis, S., Valiquete G., Jocob, H.-L. (1995): Crystalline Graphite Deposits, Classification
and Economic Potential, Lachute-Hull-Mont Laurier Area, Quebec; in Proceedings, 28th Forum
on the Geology of Industrial Minerals, Martinsburg, West Virginia, May 3-8, 1992, pages 167-
174.
Simandl, G.J. (1992): Graphite deposits in the Gatineau Area, Quebec; Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Ecole
Polytechnique de Montreal, Montreal; (in French), 383 pages.
Soman, K., Lobzova, R.V. and Sivadas, K.M. (1986): Geology, Genetic Types, and Origin of Graphite in
South Kerala, India; Economic Geology, volume 81, pages 997-1002.
Sutphin, D.M. (1991): Descriptive Model of Graphite Veins; in Open File Report 91-11A, United States
Geological Survey, pages 52-54.
P06 - CORUNDUM IN ALUMINA-RICH METASEDIMENTS

by G.J. Simandl1 and S. Paradis2

1
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
Geological Survey of Canada, Sidney, B.C., Canada

Simandl, G.J. and Paradis, S. (1999): Corundum in Alumina-rich Metasediments; in Selected British
Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and
D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, Open File 1999-10, pages
105-108.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Corundum-bearing schists and paragneisses; corundum in metapelites and metabauxites are
covered by this model.

Commodities (byproducts): Industrial-grade corundum (gem corundum) and emery.

Examples: (British Columbia - Canada/International): Blu Star (082FNW259); Elk Creek, Bozeman and
Bear Trap deposits (Montana, USA), Gangoda and Tannahena occurrences (Sri Lanka).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Corundum occurs as porphyroblasts or idiomorphic, xenomorphic or skeletal

crystals within high grade, regionally metamorphosed belts. It is confined to specific
metamorphic layers and concordant lenses of alumina-rich gneisses and schists. It is rarely of
gem quality. Emery is a fine-grained, black, granular rock composed of intergrowths of
corundum, magnetite, hercinite or hematite that commonly forms in medium to high grade
metamorphic environments.

Tectonic settings: Corundum in gneisses occurs mostly in fold belts or deep cratonic (catazonal)
environments exhumed in thrust belts or by erosion. Emery and related meta-bauxites may be
found in wide variety of tectonic environments.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Most of these deposits form in high-grade, mainly

granulite facies, dynamothermal metamorphic (catazonal) environments. Metasedimentary
belts containing aluminous strata or lenses, in some cases intruded by igneous rocks, are
particularly favourable. Emery deposits are also known to occur in similar and lower grade
metamorphic environments.

Age of mineralization: Corundum is considered syn-metamorphic. The protolith may be Precambrian or

younger. Rocks that were exposed at the surface during periods of extreme chemical
weathering are particularly favourable.

Host/Associated rock types: Corundum-bearing gneisses and schists are associated with sillimanite-
garnet-biotite gneisses, kyanite-mica schists, quartzites, clinopyroxenites, pegmatites, syenites
or alkaline intrusions, anorthosites, charnockites, migmatites, granitic and intermediate
intrusive rocks, quartz-mica schists, granulites, aplites, marbles, cordierite-bearing gneisses,
 amphibolites and wollastonite-scapolite rocks. The lithologies hosting metasedimentary emery
lenses are commonly lower metamorphic grade equivalents of above listed rocks.

Deposit form: Corundum-bearing, stratabound and discontinuous layers and lenses in gneisses are from
20 centimetres to a few metres in thickness and may be traced for tens to hundreds of metres
along strike. These layers are commonly strongly deformed, with coarse-grained "sweat outs"
which may cut across the gneissic texture. Emery may form lenses from 5 to more than 50
metres thick and more than 100 metres in length.

Texture/Structure: Gneissosity and schistosity is generally parallel to the compositional layering and
corundum mineralization; however, if migmatization or granitization was involved, corundum
zones may be irregular or vein-like. The texture of corundum-bearing rocks varies from fine-
grained, equigranular to coarse-grained (approaching pegmatitic), locally displaying pseudo-
orbicular texture. Corundum crystals may be idiomorphic, xenomorphic or skeletal and may vary
from near gem quality to those with abundant solid inclusions. Emery deposits in the low
metamorphic grade areas, may contain corundum pseudomorphs after diaspore.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Industrial grade corundum is a dominant constituent of
corundum-bearing gneiss. Same gneiss may also contain specimen quality materials and
exceptionally near gem quality stones. Corundum is also the essential constituent of emery ores.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): In corundum-bearing schists and gneisses: feldspar,
quartz, ± sillimanite, ± muscovite, ± biotite, ± rutile, ± titanite, ± zircon, ± apatite, ± tourmaline, ±
magnetite, ± kyanite, ± calcite, ± dolomite, ± chlorite, ± prehnite, ± amphibole, ± pleonaste, ±
cordierite, ± sapphirine, ± chloritoid.
In emery-type deposits: magnetite, spinel (typically hercinite), ± hematite are the most common
impurities. Diaspore, staurolite, kyanite ± hydrargite, ± garnet, ± mica, ± chloritoid, ± chlorite, ±
calcite, ± epidote may be also present.

Alteration mineralogy: Corundum crystals commonly alter to muscovite along fractures and twinning
planes. Retrograde corundum alteration to diaspore and margarite is also known. Vermiculite-
rich layers may form at the contact between corundum-bearing and mafic rocks or marbles.

Weathering: Post-depositional exposure of rocks to intense weathering produces high-alumina protolith

required to form isochemical metamorphic emery and corundum deposits. Corundum is
resistant to chemical and mechanical weathering. Weathering facilitates crystal recovery from
the hardrock deposits. Corundum may be enriched in residual soils or eroded and deposited as
placer-type deposits. A large proportion of alluvial gem corundum is sometimes interpreted to
be derived from corundum layers within garnet-sillimanite-biotite gneisses (Dahanayake and
Ranasinghe, 1981).

Ore controls: The principal controls are the chemical composition (high alumina and low silica content)
of the protolith and a high regional metamorphic grade, typically granulite facies. On the other
hand, emery deposits may form at temperatures as low as 420°C.

Associated deposit types: Sillimanite deposits (P02). Corundum and garnet placer deposits (C01 and C02)
are sometimes derived from these corundum deposits. Crystalline flake graphite (P04), vein
 graphite deposits (P05), and muscovite (Q03) and quartz feldspar pegmatites (Q04) may occur in
the same geological settings.

Genetic models: In most cases, coarse corundum-bearing metasediments are believed to form by the
isochemical metamorphism of alumina-rich regoliths, including bauxite protoliths formed under
conditions of tropical weathering. Hydrothermal alteration zones containing clays, alunite and
diaspore and igneous rocks, such as nepheline syenites and anorthosites, are also considered as
favourable, premetamorphic protoliths. Alternatively, some of the deposits are interpreted to
have formed by preferential concentration of alumina in restites associated with extreme
metamorphism, migmatization and granitization.

Comments: Corundum occurrences formed in shallow, low pressure hydrothermal environments, such
as the Empress porphyry deposit, British Columbia and the Semiz-Buru deposit in Kazakhstan,
are not covered by this model. In most of geological environments, corundum occurs in silica-
undersaturated rocks. Corundum may coexist with quartz at unusually high pressures (Shaw and
Arima, 1988).

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Corundum and associated minerals, such as sillimanite, ± garnet, ± sapphirine
and ± pyroxene in heavy mineral concentrates from stream, lake, till and residual soils. Emery
may be also detected in heavy mineral concentrates.

Geophysical signature: Magnetite-bearing emery deposits may be detected by magnetometer surveys.

Other Exploration Guides: Aluminous lithologies within metasedimentary sequences in high grade
metamorphic belts. These aluminous lithologies commonly contain high alumina silicate
assemblages. Contacts between silica-deficient intrusions and alumina-rich metasediments.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Typical, individual corundum-bearing lenses and layers contain 5 to 28%
corundum and most contain less than 7 500 tonnes of ore. In emery rock, the corundum content
may reach 70%. The emery is crushed, but in most cases the corundum is not separated from
gangue minerals.

Economic limitations: Most of the gneiss-hosted corundum deposits contain industrial grade corundum
with little or no high quality gem-quality stones. Mining is typically by open cast, because of
relatively low prices of industrial grade corundum (U.S.$ 150.00 to 275.00 per tonne). Residual
and placer deposits are not only less expensive to exploit, but typically contain a higher
proportion of gem-quality material due to the break-up of micro-fractured stones during stream
transport. Synthetic corundum competes with natural corundum in gem applications and has
replaced it in most high technology industrial applications.

Uses: Corundum materials are used as abrasives, in refractory applications, as hardener for heavy-duty
concrete floors and as anti-skid material on bridges and entrances to toll booths.
Importance: In industrial applications both emery and corundum have to compete with a number of
higher-performance synthetics, such as silicon carbide and fused alumina, or lower priced
natural materials, such as garnet. Natural and synthetic diamond are also competing for the
same market. As a result, combined consumption of corundum and emery in the USA is
estimated in order of 10 000 tonnes per year. The U.S. Bureau of Mines considers corundum
deposits as a possible substitute for bauxite in high-alumina refractories. The United States
imports over 90% of refractory grade bauxite. Unlike bauxite, corundum does not require
thermal processing. Preliminary flotation studies of corundum-bearing gneisses were successful
in producing refractory grade materials (Smith and Liewellyn, 1987).

5. References

Andrews, P.R.A. (1991): Summary Report No. 15: Minor Abrasives-Corundum, Emery, Diatomite,
Pumice, Volcanic Ash and Staurolite; Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology, Division
Report MSL 91-110 ®, 91 pages.
Cartwright, I. and Barnicoat, A.C. (1986): The Generation of Quartz-normative Melts and Corundum-
bearing Restites by Crustal Anatexis: Petrogenic Modelling Based on an Example From the
Lewisian of the North-West Scotland; Journal of Metamorphic Geology, Volume 3, pages 79-99.
Cooray, P.G. and Kumarapeli, P.S. (1960): Corundum in Biotite-sillimanite Gneiss from near Polgahawela,
Ceylon. Geological Magazine, Volume XCVII, pages 480-487.
Clabaugh, S.E. (1952): Corundum Deposits of Montana. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin, 983, 99 pages.
Clabaugh, S.E. and Armstrong, F.C. (1950): Corundum Deposits of Gallantin and Madison Counties,
Montana. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin, 969-B, 52 pages.
Dahanayake, K. (1980): Modes of Occurrence and Provenance of Gemstones of Sri Lanka. Mineralium
Deposita, Volume 15, pages 81-86.
Dahanayake, K. and Ranasinghe, A.P. (1981): Source Rocks of Gem Minerals A case Study from Sri Lanka;
Mineralium Deposita, Volume 16, pages 103-111.
Eardley-Wilmont, V.L. (1927): Abrasives, Part 2: Corundum and Diamond. Energy Mines and Resources
Canada, Mines Branch Report 675.
Fenstra, A. (1996): An EMP and TEM-AEM Study of Margarite, Muscovite and Paragonite in
Polymetamorphic Metabauxites of Naxos (Cyclades, Greece) and the implications of Fine-scale
Mica Interlayering and Multiple Mica Generations; Journal of Petrology; Volume 37, pages 201-
233.
Golani, P.R. (1989): Sillimanite-Corundum Deposits of Sonapahar, Meghalaya, India: A Metamorphosed
Precambrian Paleosol; Precambrian Research, Volume 43, pages 175-189.
Jansen, J.B.H. and Schuilling, R.D. (1976): Metamorphism of Naxos: Petrology and Geothermal
Gradients; American Journal of Science, Volume 276, pages 1225-1253.
Kuzvart, M. (1984): Industrial Minerals and Rocks; Elsevier, Oxford, 453 pages.
Pratt, J.H. (1906): Corundum and its Occurrence and Distribution in the United States. U.S. Geological
Survey Bulletin. 269, 175 pages.
Shaw, R.K. and Arima, M. (1988): A Corundum-quartz Assemblage from the Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt,
India: Evidence for High P-T Metamorphism?, Journal of Metamorphic Geology, Volume 16,
pages 189-196.
Smith, C.W. and Liewellyn, T.O. (1987): Pioneering Studies on Flotation of Corundum From a Montana
Gneiss; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Report of Investigations 9119, 4 pages.
Examples of Metamorphic Hosted Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

P01 Kiglapait (Labrador, Canada), Canso (Nova Scotia, Canada), Kootenay,
McGerrigle Pluton (Québec, Canada); Groot Marico-Zeerust, Kwoiek
Thamazimbi, Lydenburg (Tranvsaal, South Africa); Glomel Needle,
(France); Tomduff (Ireland); Spargoville (Western Australia); Atna
Aktash (Uzbekistan) Peak
P02 Willis Mountain (Virginia), NARCO (Québec) --
P03 Kellog Mine in Moradillos (State of Sonora, Mexico); Kaiserberg, --
Styria region (Austria); Velké Vrbno-Konstantin (Czech
Republic)
P04 Lac Knife deposit, Asbury Graphite mine and Peerless Mine AA prospect,
(Québec, Canada), Graphite Lake and Black Donald mines Black
(Ontario, Canada); American Graphite Company mine (New Crystal,
York State, USA) Mon
P05 Calumet, Clot, Walker and Miller mines and St. Sauveur occurrences --
(Québec, Canada); Dillon (Montana, USA); Bogala Mine (Sri
Lanka); deposits of South Kerala (India)
P06 Gallatin & Madison Counties (Montana) --
Q - Gems and Semi-Precious Stones

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

Q01 Jade -- --
Q02 Rhodonite -- --
Q03* Agate -- --
Q04* Amethyst -- --
Q05* Jasper -- --
Q06 Columbia-type emerald -- 31c
Q07 Schist-hosted emerald Exometamorphic --
emerald deposit
Q08 Sedimentary rock-hosted opal Australian-type opal --
Q09 Gem corundum in contact zones -- --
Q10 Gem corundum hosted by alkalic -- --
rocks
Q11 Precious opal in volcanic Volcanic opal --
sequences
Q01 - JADE (Nephrite)

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Nephrite, nephrite jade, jadestone, greenstone (in New Zealand).

Commodity: Jade

Examples (British Columbia - Canadian/International): Jade King (092HSW097), Birkenhead (092JNE063),

Marshall Creek (092JNE064), Noel Creek (092JNE118), O`Ne-ell Creek (093K 005), Mt. Sidney
Willians (093K 043), Mt.Ogden (093N157,165), Wheaton Creek (104I082,085,104), Provencher
Lake (104I064,065,066,078,111), Cassiar (104P005) - Yukon, Alaska, Wyoming, California China,
Taiwan, New Zealand, Australia, Siberia, Transvaal.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Nephrite is an exceptionally tough, bright green to nearly black massive aggregate
of fine grained fibrous amphibole – tremolite or actinolite. Nephrite jade occurs as lenticular
bodies. They are associated with serpentinites that are intrusive into or in fault contact with
suites of greenstones, chert, pelite and limestone.

Tectonic setting: Alpine type serpentinites, ophiolite complex preceding a formation of island arc. In
British Columbia the significant occurrences are found in Bridge River, Southern Cache Creek,
Slide Mountain, and Northern Cache Creek terranes.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: The initial geological setting requires the formation of
ultramafic rocks that form in proximity of ribbon chert and argillites or are structurally emplaced
next to these types of sediments. The ultramafic rocks are frequently associated with regional
fault systems where serpentinites are in contact with cherts and siliceous sediment or siliceous
intrusive rocks. Subsequent geological processes, in particular serpentinization, is the main
factor in forming nephrite jade.

Age of mineralization: Globally, nephrite occurrences are hosted by Precambrian serpentinites in

Zimbabwe to Tertiary ultramafic rocks in New Zealand. In B.C. jade is hosted by mid-
Pennsylvanian oceanic crustal rocks and Permo-Triassic sediments. Deformation with resulting
greenschist metamorphism took place during Middle to Late Jurassic time and was followed by
further deformation and dextral strike slip in Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary. It is thought that
the jade formation occurred during the later stages of deformation. At least on some sites,
nephrite is contemporary with origin of rodingite.

Host/Associated rocks: Serpentinized ultramafic rocks (harzburgite, dunite, pyroxenite) in contact with
argillite and cherty sediments. Associated rocks are rodingite and similar heterogeneous calc-
silicate rocks (in BC frequently called “whiterock”).
Deposit form: Lenticular nephrite bodies typically less than 10 metres wide, 100 metres long at surface
occur near contact of major serpentinite mass or in smaller satellite serpentinite slices. In
general parallel to the contact with sediments or granitic intrusives and along shear zones.

Texture/Structure: Massive, very fine grained rock that is light to dark green or almost black in colour.
Under the microscope nephrite is characterized by microfibrous tremolite that occurs as
interlocking, twisted and felted bundles, tufts and sheaf-like aggregates. Accessory minerals, like
magnetite, picotite or garnet, are frequently present in the otherwise fine grained amphibole
matrix.

Ore Mineralogy: Actinolite – tremolite; chromite, magnetite, picotite,uvarovite (chromium garnet).

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Rodingite – a heterogeneous mixture of

zoisite/clinozoisite, serpentine, actinolite/tremolite, wollastonite, prehnite and garnet) / talc,
chlorite, sphene, magnetite.

Alteration mineralogy: Nephrite jade is an alteration product resulting from a metasomatic reaction
between serpentinite and a source of silica, usually cherty metasediments.

Weathering: Jade is resistant to weathering in contrast to the common host rocks, serpentine and
metasediments, and frequently forms boulder trains along its outcrops. Jade may be a common
component in alluvial and colluvial deposits.

Ore controls: Serpentinization of ultramafic rocks in contact with high silica and calcium rocks to
produce the formation of tremolite. Key element is large volumes of fluids moving through the
serpentinized ultramafics capable to produce the metasomatic reaction with chemically right
environment.

Genetic models: The studies on serpentinites indicate, that nephrite is a result of the desilication and
calcium metasomatism produced in contact of serpentinites with sedimentary rocks under close
to the blueschist metamorphic conditions.The reaction zone develop at a time when larger
masses of ultramafic mantle are tectonically emplaced into the base of the crust or moved
tectonically higher into it. This may produce a metasomatic reaction resulting in nephrite lenses
surrounded by tremolite/chlorite alteration zone (usually called "whiterock"). Ultramafic rock
must be below olivine stability field for the reaction to occur. Monomineralic and fine grained
jade is stable in a variety of thermodynamic conditions. Evidence is pointing to conclusion, that
nephrite jade forms during highly dynamic tectonic activity with fast changing local conditions in
temperature, pressure and circulating fluids. Formation of nephrite is considered to occur at
temperatures between 500ºC and 290ºC with pressure between 4 and 8 Kb where the water
pressure was nearly equal to the total pressure.

Associated deposit types: Ultramafic hosted talk-magnesite (M07), ultramafic hosted asbestos (M06).
The Cassiar asbestos deposit produced jade periodically as a by-product.

Comments: There are two types of jade - nephrite and jadeite. While nephrite jade is mineralogically a
variety of amphibole, jadeite is a variety of pyroxene. All known Canadian jade occurrences are
the nephrite variety.
 3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Not normally used.

Geophysical signature: Magnetic highs can be used to identify ultramafic and serpentinite bodies.

Other Exploration Guides: Prospecting for boulder trains and boulders in creeks. The boulders typically
have a smooth surface and need to be broken or drilled to see the jade quality. Presence of
“whiterock” or rodingite in serpentine outcrop.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Grades depend on colour, impurities, and presence of fractures. The highest
quality jade has a uniform bright green translucent colour (emerald) with little or no impurities
and limited fractures. Also the stone`s fabric, i.e. orientation of individual grains is important. In
situ deposits range in size from a few tonnes to more than 4000 tonnes, although not all of the
deposit will be commercial jade. Jade cobbles and boulders are also exploited and can be up to
tens of tones in weight.

Economic limitations: Top grade jade (without flaws and of good colour) is routinely flown out to the
nearest good road, otherwise road access is required. Non-standard colours can come into
vogue at times.

Uses: Semiprecious stone used for carving, tiles and ornamental applications. In primitive cultures, jade
has been used for weapons, tools and gemstones. Some cultures particularly value jade as a
precious stone like Chinese, Maori in New Zealand or Maya Indians in Mexico and Guatemala.

Importance: Annual exports of B.C. jade are approximately 100 to 200 tonnes. In 1991, a 32 tonne jade
boulder was sold for $CDN 350,000 to be carved into a Buddha statue in Thailand. In 1996 the
best quality raw jade sold for $100 per kilogram. Most of the jade produced in British Columbia
is regularly exported to Far East countries, some to New Zealand. BC is leading world exporter of
nephrite jade.

5. References
Coleman, R. (1967): Low-Temperature Reaction Zones and Alpine Ultramafic Rocks of California, Oregon
and Washington. U.S.Geological Survey, Bulletin 1247, 49 pages.
Fraser, M. (2000): Nephrite Jade; Western Canadian Gemstone Newsletter, Winter 2000 Edition, Volume
2, Number 1, 5 pages.
Gunning, D.F. (1995): Exploring British Columbia`s Stone Industry; Stone World, Volume 12, Number 10,
pages 40-50.
Holland, S.S. (1961): Jade in British Columbia; British Columbia Minister of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Annual Report for the Year 1961, pages 119-126.
Keverne, R., Editor (1995): Jade; Lorenz Books, London, UK, 376 pages.
Leaming, S.F. (1984): Jade in British Columbia and Yukon Territory, in Guillet, G.R. and Martin, W., The
Geology of Industrial Minerals in Canada, The Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
Special Volume 29, pages 270-273.
Leaming, S.F. (1978): Jade in Canada, Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 78-19, 59 pages.
Makepeace, K. and Simandl, G.J. (2004): Jade (Nephrite) in British Columbia, Canada;in G.J.Simandl,
W.J.McMillan and N.D.Robinson, Editors, 37th Annual Forum on Industrial Minerals Proceedings,
Industrial Minerals with emphasis on Western North America,British Columbia Ministry of
Energy and Mines, Geological Survey Branch, Paper 2004-2, pages 287-288.
Scott, A. (1996): Jade. The Mystical Mineral; Equinox, Number 89, September/October 1986, pages 63-
69.
Simandl, G.J., Riveros, C.P. and Schiarizza, P. (2000): Nephrite (Jade) Deposits, Mount Ogden Area,
British Columbia (NTS 093N 13W); British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Paper 2000-1, pages 339-347.
Simandl, G.J., Paradis, S. and Nelson, J. (2001): Jade and Rhodonite Deposits, British Columbia,
Canada; in Proceedings of the 34th Forum on Industrial Minerals, Salt lake City (1998); Utah
Geological Survey Miscellaneous Publication 01-2, pages 163 – 171.
Thompson, B., Brathwaite, B. and Christie, T. (1995): Mineral Wealth of New Zealand; Institute of
Geological and Nuclear Scienes Limited, Information Series 33, 170 pages.
Ward, F. (1987): Jade. Stone of Heaven; National Geographic, Volume 172, Number 3, pages 282-315.
Q02 - RHODONITE

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Manganese spar, manganolite (pyroxmangite)

Commodities/by-products: Rhodonite / jasper

Examples (British Columbia - Canadian/International): Hill 60 (092B 027), Hollings (092B 074), Rocky
(092C 113), Arthur Point (092M015), Clearcut (082ESE241), OrofinoMtn (082ESW009), Olalla
(082ESW017), Ashnola Pinky (082ESW208), Joseph Creek (092P148), Snowy Creek (104P067),
/ Evelyn Creek (Yukon).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Lenses of bedded or massive rhodonite hosted by laminated cherts and cherty tuffs
at the base of turbiditic sandstone, siltstone and argillite sequences, usually in proximity to
mafic volcanics or greywackes. Red jasper beds with laminated hematite, pyrite and magnetite
are sometimes associated with deposits of rhodonite.

Tectonic setting: Island arcs, back arc basins, sea floor spreading areas. Epicratonic or continental margin
marine basins associated with oceanic faults or rifts.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Deep to shallow marine basins. The widespread soft-
sediment structures present in the host rock and within the rhodonite bodies suggest deposition
of an unstable, gel-like sediment. Submarine hydrothermal activity in mafic environment,
abundant silica to feed radiolarian population in the area. Similar modern environments have
been described from the Galapagos, southwest Pacific island arc, Gulf of Aden and Mid-Atlantic
Ridge.

Age of mineralization: In British Columbia described as mostly Mississippian, Carboniferous or Permian

in age, also Upper Triassic. Recently found in a Lower Cretaceous unit. Globally, this type
probably may occur in oceanic units of any age.

Host/Associated rocks: Ribbon cherts, laminated cherts and cherty tuffs with argillite interbeds; pillow
basalts, mafic tuffaceous sediments and greywacke turbidites in the lower part of sequence;
sandstone, argillite, calcarenite and limestone in the upper part. Rhodonite is also found in the
metamorphosed equivalents of these rocks; typically prehnite-pumpellyite to greenschist grade.

Deposit form: Stratiform lenses of rhodonite that are metres thick and intermittently extend laterally
some hundreds of metres. Frequently discontinuous and pinching out over tens of metres or
less. Thin rhodonite bands less than 10 centimetres across often pinch out over several metres.
Thicker rhodonite layers can be followed for distances of more than 50 metres.
Texture/Structure: The texture of rhodonite varies from laminated to patchy. Massive rose-pink layers
alternate with darker bands and minor yellow and grey chert. Soft sediment deformation
features are frequent, particularly along the hanging wall of major rhodonite lenses. Embedded
fragments of roof sediment in chert rhodonite and small "ghost" radiolarians infilled by
microcrystalline quartz are common. Crosscutting and bedding parallel rhodonite veinlets up to
a few millimetres thick are typical. Some rhodonite lenses adjacent to footwall contain layers
and round shaped metallic, black nodules of braunite (Mn,Si)2O3 from 5 to 10 millimetres in
diameter that are overgrown with concentric pink rhodonite rims. The predominant minerals in
massive rhodonite-rich zones are usually microcrystalline quartz interbedded with disseminated,
mottled and banded rhodochrosite and rhodonite, interlayered with hematite and garnet-rich
bands. Manganese oxide is invariably present lining hairline fractures and as surface coatings.
Rhodonite occurs as intergrowths with massive or crystalline rhodochrosite as euhedral
elongate tabulate crystals, stellated crystal masses or sheath-like bundles enclosed within and
encroaching upon a microcrystalline quartz matrix. Rhodonite also forms spongy porphyroblasts
up to 500 microns in length. Some rhodonite exhibits mammillary growth textures.
Rhodochrosite ranges from a massive carbonate to a mixture of with microcrystalline quartz,
rhodonite or disseminated hematite. At higher metamorphic grades the rhodonite exhibits more
granoblastic to porphyroblastic texture.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Rhodonite, rhodochrosite, pyroxmangite / microcrystalline

silica, barite, spessartine garnet, bustamite, tephroite, palenzonaite, penninite, clinochlore,
stilpnomelane, adularia.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Jasper, chert and manganese oxide / argillite interbeds.

Alteration mineralogy: Effects of metamorphism: amphibole, graphite, phlogopite, garnet, plagioclase in

higher metamorphic grades; garnet - tremolite – adularia – prehnite - epidote quartz association
in lower metamorphic grades.

Weathering: Widespread development of black oxidized manganese secondary products as veinlets, on

fractures and coating surfaces.

Ore controls: The primary control on rhodonite deposits are a favourable stratigraphic package of deep
water marine sedimentary and volcanic rocks with a significant sequence of cherts containing
manganese-rich layers. Secondary controls are synsedimentary and later deformation that can
create thicker or thinner lenses and later processes, such as cross-cutting veinlets, that reduce
the value of the rhodonite or rhodochrosite.

Genetic models: Manganese is deposited as a distal member of volcanogenic products from

hydrothermal solutions generated in rifting environment where the thermal fluids percolated
through sea-floor basalts and associated rocks of similar chemical composition. These solutions
would be hot, slightly acid, strongly reducing, and enriched in Mn, Fe, Si, Ba, Ca, K, Li, Rb and
trace metals. Separation of Fe from Mn may occur within the seafloor at depth with the
formation of sulphides like pyrite and on the seafloor when the hydrothermal solution mixed
with cold, alkaline and oxygenated seawater and precipitated chemical sediments. Nucleation
and precipitation kinetics of Mn and Si oxides are sluggish; therefore, they are often distributed
distally from the hydrothermal vent. At lower temperatures the manganese precipitates as
amorphous oxyhydroxides and Mn4+ oxides, moderately higher temperatures could promote
 syndepositional Mn silicate and carbonate. The hydrothermal sediments can form mounds and
retain level of semi-plasticity for extended time which can lead to synsedimenatary deformation
and slumping. Alternatively, Mn silicate and carbonate may form during subsequent diagenetic
or metamorphic episodes.

Associated deposit types: Red jasper with taconite iron mineralization (G01), all manganese oxide
deposits associated with volcanogenic origin (G02) and volcanogenic massive sulphides
(G04, G05, G06).

Comments: The name "Rhodonite" is rather a misnomer. The rock is a mixture of pink manganese
silicates and a carbonate with fine grained silica. There are many manganese deposits described
from all parts of world that are considered of volcanogenic origin. Deposits of rhodonite outside
of the Canadian Cordillera are rather uncommon. One possible explanation is that glaciation
may have exposed primary deposits which could be deeply weathered with a thick zone of
manganese oxides in non-glaciated areas.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Anomalous in manganese, enriched in base metals, barium and strontium.

Geophysical signature: Not used, probably reflecting the small size of the orebodies and similarities to
the associated chert.

Other Exploration Guides: Oceanic terrains, chert beds, particularly with red jasper, and black staining.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Lenses from up to 3 metres thick and 15 metres long on surface. In most
economic deposits, rhodonite and rhodochrosite account for at least 45% of the lens.

However, rock hounds often contribute some supply from lenses with lower contents of the
semi-precious stone. Two properties in Western Canada were active producers for 20 years –
one in Yukon and the other on the British Columbia coast. After the initial major production
period, both have been largely inactive for more than 10 years.

Economic limitations: Physical/chemical properties affect the end use. Brighter colours due to
rhodochrosite and attractive dendrite black veining increase aesthetic value. Dense fracturing
decreases the value and uncemented microfractures restrict carving of larger statues. The
relatively high unit value for rough rhodonite allows for processing far away from the original
source, frequently overseas.

Uses: Semiprecious stone used in lapidary, jewellery and carvings.

Importance: The North American market is very small - only a few tonnes annually. Semi-precious stone
used to produce jewellery and carvings. The industry considers rhodonite as a potential
substitute for pink coral when environmental considerations prevent its production.

5. References
Cowley, P. (1979): Correlation of Rhodonite Deposits on Vancouver Island and Saltspring Island, British
Columbia, Bachelor thesis, Department of Geological Sciences, The University of British
Columbia, 54 pages.
Crerar, D.A., Namson,J., Chyi, M.S., Williams, L. and Feigenson, M.D. (1982): Manganiferous Cherts of
the Franciscan Assemblage: I. General Geology, Ancient and Modern Analogues, and
Implications for Hydrothermal Convection at Oceanic Spreading Centers, Economic Geology,
volume 77, Number 3, pages 519-540.
Danner, W.R. (1976): Gem Materials of British Columbia, in Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology,
Proceedings Volume, Eleventh Forum on the Geology of Industrial Minerals, Special Publication
74, pages 156-169.
Flohr, M.J.K. (1992): Geochemistry and Origin of the Bald Knob Manganese Deposit, North
Carolina, Economic Geology, volume 87, pages 2023-2040.
Flohr, M.J. and Huebner, J.S., (1990): Microbanded Manganese Formations: Protoliths in the Franciscan
Complex, California, U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper 1502, 72 pages.
Glasby, G.P. (1977): Marine Manganese Deposits, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
465 pages.
Hancock, K.H. (1992): Arthur Point (Sea Rose) Rhodonite, Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum
Resources, Exploration in British Columbia 1991, pages 89-98.
Hora, Z.D. (1988): Industrial Minerals in Island Arcs, in Metallogeny of Volcanic Arcs, BC Ministry of
Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Short Course Notes, Open File 1998-5, section B, pages
L1-L41
Hora, Z.D., Langrova, A. and Pivec, E.(2005): Contribution to the Mineralogy of the Arthur Point
Rhodonite Deposit, Southwestern British Columbia; in Geological Fieldwork 2004, BC Ministry of
Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 2005 – 1, pages 177-185.
Hora, Z.D., Langrova, A. and Pivec, E. (2007): Rhodonite from the Bridge River Assemblage, Downton
Creek (NTS 092J/09), Southwestern British Columbia; in Geological Fieldwork 2006, BC Ministry
of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 2007-1, pages 39 – 43.
Leaming, S.F. (1966): Rhodonite in British Columbia, The Canadian Rockhound, pages 5-11.
Massey, N.W.D. (1992): Geology and Mineral Resources of the Duncan Sheet, Vancouver Island
92B/13, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1992-4, 112 pages.
Nelson, J.A., Hora, Z.D., and Harvey-Kelly, F. ( 1990): A New Rhodonite Occurrence in the Cassiar Area,
Northern British Columbia (104P/5), B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources,
Geological Fieldwork 1989, Paper 1990-1, pages 347-350.
Sargent, H. (1956): Manganese Occurrences in British Columbia, in J.G.Reyna, Editor, Symposium Sobre
Yacimientos de Manganeso, XX Congreso Geologico Internacional, Mexico, Tomo III., pages 15-
34.
Simandl, G.J. and Church, B.N. (1996): Clearcut Pyroxmangite/Rhodonite Occurrence, Greenwood Area,
Southern British Columbia (82/E2), in Geological Fieldwork 1995, BC Ministry of Energy, Mines
and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1996-1, pages 219-222.
Simandl, G.J., Hancock, K.D., Nelson, J.A., and Paradise, S. (1997): Rhodonite Deposits in British
Columbia, Canada, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Annual Meeting, Paper CIM
MPM2-F3, abstract.
Simandl, G.J., Paradis, S. and Nelson, J. (2001): Jade and Rhodonite Deposits, British Columbia,
Canada; in Proceedings of the 34th Forum on Industrial Minerals, Salt Lake City (1998), Utah
Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Publication 01-2, pages 163 – 171.
Snyder, W.S. (1978): Manganese Deposited by Submarine Hot Springs in Chert-Greenstone Complex,
Western United States, Geology, volume 6, pages 741-744.
Sorem, R.K. and Gunn, D.W. (1967): Mineralogy of Manganese Deposits, Olympic Peninsula,
Washington, Economic Geology, volume 62, pages 22-56.
Q06 - COLOMBIA-TYPE EMERALDS

by G.J. Simandl1, S. Paradis2 and T. Birkett3

1
British Columbia. Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
Geological Survey of Canada, Pacific Geoscience Centre, Sidney, B.C., Canada
3
SOQUEM, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada

Simandl, G.J., Paradis, S. and Birkett, T. (1999): Colombia-type Emeralds; in Selected British Columbia
Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V.
Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, Open File 1999-10, pages 109-
112.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Emerald veins, Muzo and Chivor-type emerald deposits.

Commodity: Emeralds (pale-green and colorless beryl gemstones).

Examples (British Columbia - Canadian/International): No Colombia-type emerald deposits are known in

British Columbia. Chivor, La Mina Glorieta, Las Cruces, El Diamante, El Toro, La Vega de San
Juan, Coscuez and Muzo (Colombia).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Colombia-type emerald deposits consist mainly of carbonate-pyrite-albite quartz

veins forming "en échellon" or conjugate arrays and cementing breccias. So called "stratiform
tectonic breccias" may also contain emeralds. Emeralds are disseminated in the veins as
clusters, single crystals or crystal fragments; however, the best gemstones are found in cavities.
Country rocks are black carbonaceous and calcareous shales.

Tectonic setting: Probably back arc basins (shales deposited in epicontinental marine anoxic
environments spatially related to evaporites) subjected to a compressional tectonic
environment.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: The deposits are controlled by deep, regional

decollements, reverse or thrust faults; hydraulic fracture zones, intersections of faults and by
permeable arenite beds interbedded with impermeable black shales.

Age of mineralization: Colombian deposits are hosted by Cretaceous shales. Ar/Ar laser microprobe
studies of Cr-V-K-rich mica, believed to be penecontemporaneous with the emerald
mineralization, indicate 32 to 38 Ma for Muzo area and 65 Ma for Chivor district. It is not
recommended to use these age criteria to constrain the exploration programs outside of
Columbia.

Host/Associated rocks: Emerald-bearing veins and breccias are hosted mainly by black pyritiferous shale,
black carbonaceous shale and slate. Claystone, siltstone, sandstone, limestone, dolomite,
conglomerate and evaporites are also associated. Two special lithologies described in close
association with the deposits are albitite (metasomatized black shale horizons) and tectonic
 breccias ("cenicero"). The latter consist of black shale and albitite fragments in a matrix of albite,
pyrite and crushed black shale.

Deposit form: The metasomatically altered tectonic blocks may be up to 300 metres in width and 50 km
in length (Beus, 1979), while individual productive zones are from 1 to 30 metres in thickness.
Emeralds are found in en échelon and conjugate veins that are commonly less than 10
centimetres thick, in hydraulic breccia zones and in some cases in cenicero.

Texture/Structure: Emeralds are found disseminated in veins as clusters, single crystals or crystal
fragments, however, the best gemstones are found in cavities. Quartz is cryptocrystalline or
forms well developed hexagonal prisms, while calcite is fibrous or rhombohedral. In some cases,
emerald may be found in black shale adjacent to the veinlets or cenicero.

Ore Mineralogy: Emerald; beryl specimens and common beryl.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Two vein stages are present and may be superimposed,
forming composite veins. A barren stage 1 consisting mainly of fibrous calcite and pyrite and a
productive second stage with associated rhombohedral calcite and dolomite, albite or
oligoclase, pyrite, ± quartz and minor ± muscovite, ± parisite, ± fluorite, ± barite, ± apatite, ±
aragonite, ± limonite and anthracite/graphite-like material. Some pyrite veins also contain
emeralds. Cavities within calcite-rich veins contain best emerald mineralization. Solid inclusions
within emerald crystals are reported to be black shale, anthracite/graphite-like material, calcite,
dolomite or magnesite (?), barite, pyrite, quartz, albite, goethite and parisite.

Alteration mineralogy: Albitization, carbonatization, development of allophane by alteration of albite,

pervasive pyritization and development of pyrophyllite at contacts between veins and host rocks
has also been reported.

Weathering: In Columbia the intense weathering and related alteration by meteoric water of stratiform
breccias and albitites are believed to be responsible for the formation of native sulfur, kaolinite
and gypsum. Albite in places altered to allophane.

Ore controls: Deep, regional fault systems (reverse or thrust); intersections of faults; breccia zones;
permeable arenites interbedded with impermeable shales.

Genetic models: The hypotheses explaining the origin of these deposits are fast evolving. The most
recent studies favor a moderate temperature, hydrothermal-sedimentary model. Compressional
tectonics result in formation of decollements that are infiltrated by alkaline fluids, resulting in
albitization and carbonatization of shale and mobilization of Be, Al, Si, Cr, V and REE. The
alkaline fluids are believed to be derived from the evaporitic layers or salt diapirs. As the
regional compression continues, disharmonic folding results in the formation of fluid traps and
hydrofracturing. A subsequent decrease in fluid alkalinity or pressure could be the main factor
responsible for emerald precipitation. Organic matter is believed to have played the key role in
emerald precipitation (Cheilletz and Giuliani, 1996, Ottaway et al., 1994).

Associated deposit types: Spatially associated with disseminated or fracture-related Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe
deposits of unknown origin and barite and gypsum (F02) deposits.
Comments: Colombia-type emerald deposits differ from the classical schist-hosted emerald deposits
(Q07) in many ways. They are not spatially related to known granite intrusions or pegmatites,
they are not hosted by mafic/ultramafic rocks, and are emplaced in non-metamorphosed rocks.
Green beryls, where vanadium is the source of colour, are described at Eidsvoll deposit
(Norway) where pegmatite cuts bituminous schists. Such deposits may be better classified as
pegmatite-hosted.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Black shales within the tectonic blocks are depleted in REE, Li, Mo, Ba, Zn, V and
Cr. The albitized zones contain total REE<40 ppm while unaltered shales have total REE values of
190 ppm. Stream sediments associated with altered shales have low K/Na ratio. Soils overlying
the deposits may have also low K/Na ratio.

Geophysical signature: Geophysics may be successfully used to localize major faults where outcrops are
lacking. The berylometer, has applications in ground exploration.

Other Exploration Guides: Regional indicators are presence of beryl showings, available sources of Cr
and Be and structural controls (decollement, reverse faults, fault intersections). In favourable
areas, exploration guides are bleached zones, albitization and pyritization. White metasomatic
layers within black shale described as albitites, and stratiform polygenetic breccias consisting of
black shale fragments cemented by pyrite, albite and shale flour are closely associated with the
mineralization.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Distribution of emeralds within the mineralized zones is erratic; therefore,
pre-production tonnage estimates are difficult to make. The official grade reported for
Colombian deposits is approximately 1 carat/m3. All stones are valued according to size,
intensity of the green colouration and flaws, if present. Tonnages for individual deposits are
unknown; however, Chivor reportedly produced over 500,000 carats between 1921 and 1957.

Economic limitations: The earliest developments were by tunneling. To reduce mining costs benching,
bulldozing and stripping of mountainsides were introduced. Recently, apparently to reduce
environmental pressures, underground developments have been reintroduced at Muzo. Physical
and chemical properties of high-quality synthetic emeralds match closely the properties of
natural stones. There is currently uncertainty if synthetic emeralds can be distinguished from
the high-quality, nearly inclusion-free natural specimens. Recent attempts to form an
association of emerald producers may have a similar effect on emerald pricing as the Central
Selling Organization has on diamond pricing.

Uses: Highly-valued gemstones.

Importance: Currently, world production of natural emeralds is estimated at about $US 1 billion. In 1987
ECONOMINAS reported emerald production of 88,655,110 carats worth US$ 62,910,493.
Colombia is the largest producer of natural emeralds by value; most of the gemstones come
from the Muzo and Chivor districts. The other major producing countries are Brazil, Zambia,
 Zimbabwe, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Russia and Madagascar which have schist-hosted emerald
deposits (Q07). Brazil is the world’s largest producer of emeralds by weight.

5. References

Beus, A.A. (1979): Sodium: A Geochemical Indicator of Emerald Mineralization in the Cordillera Oriental,
Colombia; Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Volume II, pages 195-208.
Cheilletz, A. and Giuliani, G. (1996): The Genesis of Colombian Emeralds: a Restatement; Mineralium
Deposita, Volume 31, pages 359-364.
Cox, D.P. (1986): Descriptive Model of Emerald Veins; in Mineral Deposit Models, D.P. Cox and D. Singer,
Editors, United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, page 219.
Escovar, R. (1975): Geologia y Geoquimica de las Minas de Esmeraldas de Gachalà, Cundinamaraca;
Boletin Geologico,Volume 22(3), pages 116-153.
Giuliani, G., Rodriguez, C.T. and Rueda, F. (1990): Les Gisements d’émeraude de la Cordillère Orientale
de la Colombie: Nouvelles Données Métallogéniques; Mineralium Deposita, Volume 25, pages
105-111.
Giuliani, G., Cheilletz, A., Arboleda, C., Carrillo, V., Rueda, F. and Baker, J. (1995a): An Evaporitic Origin or
the Parent Brines of Colombian Emeralds: Fluid Inclusion and Sulfur Isotope Evidence; European
Journal of Mineralogy, Volume 7, pages 151-165.
Kazmi, A.H., and Snee., L.W. (1989): Emeralds of Pakistan. Geology, Gemology and Genesis, in: Kazmi,
A.H., and Snee, L.W., Editors; Geological Survey of Pakistan. Van Nostrand Company, New York,
269 pages.
Koslowski, A., Metz, P. and Jaramillo, H.A.E. (1988): Emeralds from Somondoco, Colombia: Chemical
Composition, Fluid Inclusion and Origin; Neues Jarhrbuch für Mineralogie Abhandlungen,
Volume 159, pages 23-49.
Oppenheim, V. (1948): The Muzo Emerald Zone, Colombia, S. A; Economic Geology, Volume 43, pages
31-38.
Ottaway, T.L., Wicks, F.J., Bryndzia, L.T., Kyser, T.K. and Spooner, E.T.C. (1994): Formation of the Muzo
Hydrothermal Emerald Deposit in Colombia; Nature, Volume 369, pages 552-554.
Sinkankas, J. and Read, P. (1986): Beryl; Butterworths Gem Books, USA, 225 pages.
Van Landgham, S.L. (1984): Geology of World Gem Deposits; Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., Publishers,
USA. 406 pages.
Q07 - SCHIST-HostED EMERALDS

by G.J. Simandl1, S. Paradis2 and T. Birkett3

1
British Columbia. Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
Geological Survey of Canada, Pacific Geoscience Centre, Sidney, B.C., Canada
3
SOQUEM, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada

Simandl, G.J., Paradis, S. and Birkett, T. (1999): Schist-hosted Emeralds; in Selected British Columbia
Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V.
Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, Open File 1999-10, pages 113-
117.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Emerald deposits commonly described as "suture zone-related", "pegmatite-related schist-

hosted" or "exometamorphic", "exometasomatic", "biotite schist-type", "desilicated pegmatite
related" and "glimerite-hosted" are covered by this model.

Commodities (byproducts): Emerald (industrial grade beryl, other gemstones, such as aquamarine,
chrysoberyl, phenakite, tourmaline).

Examples (British Columbia - Canadian/International): Socoto and Carnaiba deposits (Brazil), Habachtal
(Austria), Perwomaisky, Mariinsky, Aulsky, Krupsky, Chitny and Tsheremshansky deposits
(Russia), Franqueira (Spain), Gravelotte mine (South Africa), Mingora Mines (Pakistan).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Emerald deposits principally related to mafic and ultramafic schists or
unmetamorphosed ultramafic rocks in contact with felsic rocks, either pegmatoid dykes, granitic
rocks, paragneisses or orthogneisses. Such contacts may be either intrusive or tectonic.

Tectonic setting: Found in cratonic areas as well as in mobile belts. In many cases related to major
Phanerozoic or Proterozoic suture zones that may involve island arc-continent or continent-
continent collision zones. The lithological assemblages related to suture zones commonly form a
"tectonic mélange" and in some areas are described as "ophiolitic melange".

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Mainly in greenstone belts, but also in other areas where
Cr-bearing rocks may be adjacent to pegmatites, aplites, granites and other felsic rocks rich in
beryllium.
Metamorphic grade is variable; however, it typically reaches green schist to amphibolite facies.

Age of mineralization: The deposits are hosted by Archean age rocks or younger. The age of
mineralization is typically linked to either a period of tectonic activity or a time of pegmatoid
emplacement.

Host/Associated rocks: Biotite schists ("biotites", "phlogopitites" and "glimerites") are a particularly
favourable host. Other favourable hosts are metamorphosed mafic volcanic rocks, such as
epidote-chlorite-actinolite-bearing rock, chlorite and chlorite-talc schists, talc and talc-carbonate
 schists, white mica schists, mafic schists and gneisses and amphibolites. Less commonly
emeralds occur in unmetamorphosed mafic or ultramafic rocks and possibly listwaenites.
Pegmatites or quartz veins in the contact zone between granitic rocks and mafic rocks may in
some cases host emeralds. A wide variety of rocks can be associated with schist-hosted emerald
deposits, including granite, syenite, tonalite, granodiorite, a variety of orthogneisses, marbles,
black phyllites, white mica schists, mylonites, cataclasites and other metasedimentary rocks.

Deposit form: Most of the mineralization is hosted by tabular or lenticular mafic schists or "blackwall
zones". Favourable zones are a few metres to tens of metres wide and follow the contacts
between felsic and mafic/ultramafic lithologies for distances of tens to hundreds of metres, but
economically minable portions are typically much smaller. For example, minable bodies in the
Urals average 1 metre in thickness and 25 to 50 metres in length. Pegmatoids, where present,
may form horizontal to steeply dipping pods, lens-shaped or tabular bodies or anastomosing
dykes which may be zoned.

Texture/Structure: In blackwall or schists lepidoblastic texture predominates. The individual, discrete

emerald-bearing mafic layers within the favourable zones may be complexly folded, especially
where the mineralization is not spatially associated with pegmatites. Emeralds are commonly
zoned. They may form porphyroblasts, with sigmoidal orientation of the inclusion trails; beryl
may form the rims separating phenakite form the surrounding biotite schist; or emerald crystals
may be embedded in quartz lenses within the biotite schist. Chrysoberyl may appear as
subhedral porphyroblasts or skeletal intergrowths with emerald, phenakite or apatite. Where
disseminated beryl crystals also occur within pegmatites, they are short, commonly fractured,
prismatic to tabular with poor terminations; but may be up to 2 metres in length and 1 metre in
cross section. Long, prismatic, unfractured crystals occur mainly in miarolitic cavities.

Ore Mineralogy: Emerald and other beryls (in some cases aquamarine or morganite), ± chrysoberyl and
industrial grade beryl. Spodumene gems (in some cases kunzite) may be found in related
pegmatites.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): In the schist: biotite and/or phlogopite, talc, actinolite,
plagioclase, serpentine, ± fuchsite, ± quartz, ± carbonates, ± chlorite, ± muscovite, ± pyrite,
epidote, ± phenakite, ± milarite and other beryllium species, ± molybdenite, ± apatite, ± garnet,
± magnetite, ± ilmenite, ± chromite, ± tourmaline, ± cassiterite. In the pegmatoids: feldspars
(commonly albite), quartz, micas; ± topaz, ± phenakite , ± molybdenite, ± Sn and W-bearing
minerals, ± bazzite, ± xenotime, ± allanite, ± monazite, ± phosphates, ± pollucite, ± columbite-
tantalite, ± kyanite, zircon, ± beryllonite, ± milarite and other beryllium species. Emerald crystals
may contain actinolite-tremolite, apatite, biotite, bityite, chlorite, chromite, columbite-tantalite,
feldspar, epidote, fuchsite, garnet, hematite, phlogopite, pyrrhotite, rutile, talc, titanite and
tourmaline inclusions.

Alteration mineralogy: Limonitization and pyritization are reported in the host rocks. Kaolinite,
muscovite, chlorite, margarite, bavenite, phenakite, epidimyte, milarite, bityite, bertrandite,
euclase are reported as alteration products of beryl.

Weathering: Weathering contributes to the economic viability of the deposits by softening the matrix,
and concentrating the beryl crystals in the overlaying soil or regolith.
Ore controls:
1) The principal control is the juxtaposition of beryllium and chromium-bearing lithologies along
deep suture zones. Emerald crystals are present mainly within the mafic schists and in some
cases so called "blackwall zones" as described ultramafic-hosted talc deposits (M07). In this
settings it may be associated with limonite zones.
2) This often occurs near the contacts of pegmatoids with mafic schists. Emerald crystals are
present mainly within the mafic schists, although in some cases some of the mineralization may
be hosted by pegmatoids.
3) Another prospective setting is along fracture-controlled glimmerite zones.
4) Mineralization may be concentrated along the planes of regional metamorphic foliation,
especially in cores of the folds where the relatively high permeability favors chemical exchange
and the development of synmetamorphic reaction zones between chromium and beryllium-
bearing lithologies.
5) Serpentinite roof pendants in granites are prospective.

Genetic models: The origin of schist-hosted emerald deposits is controversial as is the case with many
deposits hosted by metamorphic rocks. All emerald deposits require special geological
conditions where chromium (± vanadium) and beryllium coexist. Where pegmatoids or
plagioclase-rich lenses occur within ultramafic rocks, the crystalization of emeralds is commonly
explained by interaction of pegmatites or pneumatolytic-hydrothermal, Be-bearing fluids with
Cr-bearing mafic/ultramafic rocks. In other cases, emeralds in schists form by syn- or post-
tectonic regional metamorphic chemical exchange (metasomatism) between felsic rocks, such
as felsic gneisses, garnet mica schists or pre-metamorphic pegmatoids, with the adjacent Cr-
bearing rocks such as schists, gneisses or serpentinites. Contacts between Cr- and Be-bearing
source rocks may be tectonic, as is the case for "suture zone-related" deposits.

Associated deposit types: Feldspar-quartz and muscovite pegmatites (O03, O04). Mo and W
mineralization may be associated with emeralds. Some porphyry W deposits (L07) have
associated beryl. Tin-bearing granites are in some cases associated with emeralds. Gold was
mined at Gravelotte Emerald Mines (no information about the gold mineralization is available).

Comments: Recently, microprobe studies have shown that the green color of some beryls is due to
vanadium rather than chrome. In most cases both Cr and V were detected in the beryl crystal
structure. There are two schools of gemmologists, the first believes that strictly-speaking the
vanadium-rich beryls are not emeralds. The second school believes that gem quality beryls
should be named based on their physical, and more particularly, color properties. It is possible
that pegmatoid-related or suture zone-related emerald deposits hosted by black shales or other
chromium and/or vanadium-bearing rocks will be discovered. In those cases it will be difficult to
decide if these deposits are schist-hosted or Columbia-type (Q06) emeralds.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: The presence of beryl in eluvial and alluvial deposits is good pathfinder. The
distribution of beryllium in stream sediments proved to be useful in Norway when coupled with
identification of the individual drainage basins and knowledge of the geological environment.

Geophysical signature: A portable field detector that uses 124Sb as a gamma radiation source, the
berylometer, is used to detect Be in outcrop. The instrument should be held less than 4 cm from
 the sample. Radiometric surveys may be useful in detecting associated radioactive minerals
where pegmatites are involved. Magnetic and electromagnetic surveys may be useful in tracing
suture zones where ultramafic rocks and felsic rocks are faulted against each other.

Other Exploration Guides: Any Be occurrences in a favorable geological setting should be considered as
positive indicators. If green, chromium and/or vanadium-bearing beryls are the main subject of
the search then ultramafic rocks, black shales or their metamorphic equivalents represent the
most favorable host rocks. If exploration is focused on a variety of gem-quality beryls (not
restricted to emerald), or if the targeted area is not mapped in detail, then Be occurrences
without known spatial association with Cr- or V-bearing lithologies should be carefully
considered. Minerals associated with emeralds in the ores may be considered as indirect
indicators. A wide variety of field-tests based on fluorescence, alkalinity, staining, density and
refractive index have been used in the past to distinguish beryl.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: The grade and tonnage of these deposits is difficult to estimate due to
erratic emerald contents (gram/tonne), episodic nature of the mining activity which often
results in high grading, and variability in the quality of gemstones (value/carat). For example, at
the Mingora mines in Islamia Trench two, 15 to 30 centimetres thick layers of talc-rich rock
surrounding quartz lenses contained 1000 to 5000 carats of good stones up to 30 carats in size.
Some of the individual pits in the area produced less than 1000 carats. The cumulative
production of the Mingora emerald mines was reported between 20 000 to over 50 000
carats/year between 1979 and 1988. At Gravelotte Emerald Mine, at least 23 000 kg of emeralds
of varying grades have been produced since 1929 from several zones. For the same mine
promotional literature states that " conservative estimates" of ore within the Cobra pit are 1.69
million tonnes that could result in production of 17 000 kg of emeralds ( approximately 1gram
/tonne). It is estimated that about 30% of the emeralds could be sold, but only 2-3% of these are
believed to be gem quality. In the Urals the Mariinsky deposit was explored to a average depth
of 500 metres by boreholes and underground workings. To determine emerald content, bulk
samples as large as 200 tonnes are taken systematically at 100 metres interval along the
favourable zone. No grade and tonnage are available.

Economic limitations: Mining of precious stones in underdeveloped countries and smaller deposits is
done using pick and shovel with limited use of jackhammers and bulldozers. Larger schist-hosted
emerald deposits, may be successfully exploited by a combination of surface and underground
mining. The Mariinsky deposit was mined by open pit to the depth of 100 metres and is
exploited to the depth of 250 metres by underground methods. "Low impact" explosives,
expanding plastics or hydraulic wedging are used to break the ore. The ore is milled, screened
and manually sorted.

Uses: Transparent and colored beryl varieties, such as emerald, morganite and aquamarine, are highly
valued gemstones. Industrial grade beryls commonly recovered as by-products are a source of
Be oxide, Be metal alloys used in aerospatial and defence applications, Be oxide ceramics, large
diameter berylium-copper drill rods for oil and gas, fusion reactors, electrical and electronic
components. Berylium metal and oxides are strategic substances, and may be substituted for by
steel, titanium and graphite composites in certain applications. Phosphor bronze may replace
 beryllium-copper alloys. However, all known substitutes offer lower performance than Be-based
materials.

Importance: Schist-hosted deposits are the most common source of emeralds, although the largest and
most valuable gemstones are most frequently derived from the Colombia-type deposits. Besides
schist-hosted deposits and pegmatites, beryl for industrial applications may be also be present
in fertile granite and syenite complexes that may be parent to pegmatites. A major portion of
the beryl ore used in the U.S.A. as raw material for beryllium metal is recovered as a byproduct
of feldspar and quartz mining from pegmatites.

5. References
Beus, A.A. (1966): Geochemistry of Beryllium and Genetic Types of Beryllium Deposits; W.H. Freeman,
San Francisco, 401 pages.
Brinck, J.W. and Hofmann, A. (1964): The Distribution of Beryllium in the Oslo Region, Norway - a
Geochemical, Stream Sediment Study; Economic Geology, Volume 59, pages 79-96.
Frantz, G., Gilg, H.A., Grundmann, G. and Morteani, G. (1996): Metasomatism at a Granitic Pegmatite-
Dunite Contact in Galicia: The Franqueira Occurrence of Chrysoberyl (alexandrite), Emerald, and
Phenakite: Discussion; Canadian Mineralogist, Volume 34, pages 1329-1331.
Giuliani, G., Silva, L.J.H.D. and Couto, P. (1990): Origin of Emerald Deposits of Brazil; Mineralium
Deposita, Volume 25, pages 57-64.
Grundmann, G. and Morteani, G. (1989): Emerald Mineralization during Regional Metamorphism: The
Habachtal (Austria) and Leydsdorp (Transvaal, South Africa) Deposits; Economic Geology,
Volume 84, pages 1835-1849.
Kazmi, A.H., Anwar, J. and Hussain, S. (1989): Emerald Deposits of Pakistan; in Emeralds of Pakistan,
Geology, Gemology and Genesis, A.H. Kazmi and L.W. Snee, Editors, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,
New York, USA. Pages 39-74.
Kazmi, A.H., Lawrence, R.D., Anwar, J., Snee, L.W. and Hussain, A.S. (1986): Mingora Emerald Deposits
(Pakistan): Suture-associated Gem Mineralization; Economic Geology, Volume 81, pages 2022-
2028.
Kramer, D.A., Cunningham, L.D. and Osborne, S. (1997): Beryllium Annual Review-1996; Mineral Industry
Surveys; United States Geological Survey, 7 pages.
Laskovenkov, A.F. and Zhernakov, V.I. (1995): An Update on the Ural Emerald Mines; Gems and
Gemology, Summer issue, pages 106-113.
Martin-Izard, A., Paniagua, A., Moreiras, D., Aceveddo, R.D. and Marcos-Pasqual, C.
(1995): Metasomatism at a Granitic Pegmatite-Dunite Contact in Galicia: The Franqueira
Occurrence of Chrysoberyl (alexandrite), Emerald and Phenakite; Canadian Mineralogist,
Volume 33, pages 775-792.
Martin-Izard, A., Paniagua, A., Moreiras, D., Aceveddo, R.D. and Marcos-Pasqual, C.
(1996): Metasomatism at a Granitic Pegmatite-Dunite Contact in Galicia: The Franqueira
Occurrence of Chrysoberyl (alexandrite), emerald, and phenakite: Reply; Canadian Mineralogist,
Volume 34, pages 1332-1336.
Muligan, R. (1960): Geology of Canadian Beryllium Deposits, Geological Survey of Canada; Economic
Geology Report, Number 23, 109 pages.
Robb, L.J. and Robb, V.M. (1986): Archean Pegmatite Deposits in the North-eastern Transvaal; in Mineral
deposits of South Africa, C.R. Anhaeusser, and S. Maske, Editors, Geological Society of South
Africa, Johannesburg, Volumes 1 and 2, pages 437-449.
Sinkankas, J. (1959): Gemstones of North America; D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, 75 pages.
Sinkankas, J. (1981): Emerald and other Beryls; Chilton Book Company, Radnor, Pennsylvania, pages 1-
665.
Q08 - SEDIMENT-HOSTED PRECIOUS OPAL

by S. Paradis1, J. Townsend2 and G J. Simandl3

1
Geological Survey of Canada, Pacific Geoscience Centre, Sidney, British Columbia, Canada
2
South Australia Department of Mines and Energy
3
B.C. Geological Survey, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada

Paradis, S., Townsend, J. and Simandl, G.J. (1999): Sediment-hosted Precious Opal; in Selected British
Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and
D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, Open File 1999-10, pages
119-122.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Australian opal deposits.

Commodity: Gem quality opal (precious and common).

Examples (British Columbia - Canadian/International): Lightning Ridge and White Cliffs (New South
Wales, Australia) , Mintabie, Coober Pedy, Lambina and Andamooka (South Australia) Yowah,
New Angledool (Queensland, Australia).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Most of the Australian opal occurs in cracks, partings, along bedding planes, pore
spaces and other cavities in strongly weathered sandstones generally underlain by a
subhorizontal barrier of reduced permeability. The barriers consist mainly of claystones,
siltstones and ironstone strata.

Tectonic settings: The tectonic setting at the time of deposition and lithification of the opal-bearing
lithologies is not indicative of favourable environment for opal. However, the presence of a
terrestrial (non-marine) environment at the time of intense weathering is essential.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Clastic sediments were deposited in the shallow inland
basins. Subsequently, these areas were affected by climatic/paleo-climatic changes
(transformation into desert environment) that have resulted in rapid fluctuation in water table
levels and entrapment of silica-rich waters.

Age of mineralization: In Queensland, Australia the host rocks are Cretaceous or Paleozoic and have
been affected by deep weathering during the Early Eocene and Late Oligocene. The latter period
is believed by some to be related to opal precipitation. Similar conditions favourable for opal
deposition could have prevailed in different time periods in other parts of the world.

Host/Associated rocks: Sandstones, conglomerate, claystone and silty claystone. Associated lithologies
are feldspathic rocks weathered to kaolinite, silcrete and siliceous duricrust, shales and shaley
mudstones, limestones, dolostones and ironstones. Exceptionally, precious opal may be found in
weathered crystalline basements stratigraphically underlying the lithologies described above.
Deposit form: Opal occurrences are stratabound. Favorable subhorizontal, precious opal-bearing
intervals can exceed 10 m in thickness, and are known to persist for distances of one to over 100
km. The distribution of individual precious opal occurrences within favorable areas is erratic.
Veins are subhorizontal to subvertical and locally up to 10 cm thick. They pinch and swell,
branch or terminate abruptly. A single vein can contain chalky to bony to blue, gray or milky
common opal and precious opal.

Texture/Structure: Opal occurs as veinlets, thin seams in vertical and horizontal joints, desiccation cracks
in ironstone layers, lenses and concretions, and replacing fossils (shell and skeletal) and wood
fragments. Opal also forms pseudomorphs after glauberite4. In places opal seems to follow
cross bedding. In unusual cases opal pieces eroded from the original host are incorporated into
younger sediments. In silicified sandstones precious opal may form the cement around detrital
quartz grains, in other areas, the opal may be cut by gypsum or alunite-filled fractures. The
lithologies above the opal may contain characteristic red-brown, gypsiferous silt-filled tubules.
4
Glauberite: 4[Na2 Ca(SO4 )2 ], widespread as a saline deposit formed as a precipitate in salt lake
environments, also occurs under arid conditions as isolated crystals embedded in clastic
sediments.

Ore Mineralogy: Precious opal.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Host rock, common opal, gypsum and gypsum-shot
opal, alunite, hematite, limonite/goethite.

Alteration mineralogy: N/A.

Weathering: Feldspathic rocks strongly altered to kaolinite typically overly the Australian precious opal-
bearing deposits. Opal exposed to arid weathering environments may desiccate, crack and lose
its value; however, gem quality opal may be found at depth.

Ore controls: 1) Regional configuration of impermeable layers permitting groundwater pooling. 2) Local
traps within regional sedimentary structure, such as bedding irregularities, floored by
impermeable layers, porous material (e.g. fossils) or voids where opal can precipitate.

Genetic models: Australian opal is hosted mainly by strongly weathered sandstones which are underlain
by claystone, siltstone and ironstone that form relatively impermeable barriers. Periods of
intense weathering are evidenced by indurated crust horizons. Silica-transporting solutions
derived from intense weathering of feldspar within sandstones percolated downward to the
contact between the porous sandstone and the underlying impermeable layers. During a
subsequent dehydration (dry) period silica was progressively concentrated by evaporation. The
last, most concentrated solutions or colloidal suspensions were retained within bedding
irregularities at the permeable/impermeable rock interface, in joints and in other traps. Gem-
quality opal was formed by ordered settling and hardening of silica microspheres of uniform
dimensions. Disordered arrangement of silica microspheres or variability in microsphere size
results in formation of common opal.

Associated deposit types: Possibly clay deposits (B05).

Comments: There is good reason to believe that a similar mode of opal formation could also take place
in porous terrestrial and waterlain pyroclastic rocks, assuming favorable geological and paleo-
climatic setting.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: N/A

Geophysical signature: Most opal fluoresces brightly if exposed to ultraviolet light. Limited success was
achieved using magnetic field and resistivity to find ironstone and ironstone concretions that
commonly contain precious opal in Queensland.

Other Exploration Guides: Unmetamorphosed or weakly metamorphosed areas known for:

1) prolonged periods of deep chemical paleoweathering characterized by rock saturation and
dehydration cycles;
2) broad sedimentary structures permitting shallow underground solution pooling;
3) local traps where opal could precipitate from nearly static, silica-bearing ground waters; and
4) presence of common opal.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: No reliable estimates of grade or tonnage are available for individual
deposits. Until 1970 the only records of production were annual returns submitted by opal
buyers. Miners fear that reporting the true production would be used for taxation purposes. As
with other gemstones, reporting the grades in terms of grams or carats per tonne may be
strongly misleading. Large and exceptional quality stones command very high prices. Precious
opal may be transparent, white, milky-blue, yellow or black. It is characterized by the internal
play of colors, typically red, orange, green or blue. The best opal from Lightning Ridge was worth
as much as $Aus. 10 000.00 per carat in cut form and Mintabie opal varied from $Aus. 50.00 to
10 000.00 per ounce of rough. Most of the white to milky colored opal from Coober Pedy was
worth $Aus. 10.00 to 100.00 per ounce of rough, but the prices of top quality precious black and
crystal opals exceeded $Aus. 5 000.00 per ounce. The value-added aspect of the gem industry is
fundamental. An opal miner receives 1 to 50% of the value of cut and polished stone.

Economic limitations: In Australia mining is largely mechanized, either underground or on surface. Opal-
bearing seams are generally found at shallow depths (< 30 metres). Opal is still recovered from
old tailings by hand sorting over conveyer belts using ultraviolet light. Large and exceptional
quality stones command very high prices and the unexpected recovery of such stones may
change an operation from losing money to highly profitable. Stones from these deposits are
believed to have better stability under atmospheric conditions than opal from most volcanic-
hosted deposits.

Uses: A highly priced gemstone that is commonly cut into solid hemispherical or en cabochon shapes.
Doublets are produced where the precious opal is too thin, needs reinforcement or
enhancement; plastic cement, a slice of common opal or other support is added to the back of
the opal.
Importance: Australian sedimentary-hosted opal deposits account for most of the opal produced today.
The situation is likely to continue since these deposits recently attracted important Japanese
investment. In 1990, the Coober Pedy, Andamooka and Mintabie produced opal worth over
$Aus. 47 million. Total production estimates for Australia are in the order of $Aus. 100 million
annually.

5. References

Barnes, L.C., Towsend, I.J., Robertson, R.S. and Scott, D.C. (1992): Opal, South Australia’s Gemstone;
Handbook No.5 (revised edition), Department of Mines and Energy, Geological Survey of South
Australia, 176 pages.
Cipriani, C. and Borelli, A. (1986): Simon & Schuster’s Guide to Gems and Precious Stones; K. Lyman,
Editor, Simon & Schuster Inc., New York, 384 pages.
Daragh, P.I., Gaskin, A.J. and Sanders, J.V. (1976): Opals; Scientific American, Volume 234, pages 84-95.
Downing, P.B. (1992): Opal Identification and Value; Majestic Press, 210 pages.
Hiern, M.N. (1976): Precious Opal-South Australia; in Economic Geology of Australia and Papua New
Guinea, Volume 4, Industrial Minerals and Rocks, C.L. Knight, Editor, Australian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, Monograph Series, Volume II, pages 322-323.
Jones, J.B. and Segnit, E.R. (1971): The Nature of Opal. Nomenclature and Constituent Phases; Geological
Society of Australia Journal, Volume 18, pages 57- 68.
Keeling, J.L. and Farrand, M.G. (1984): Origin and Formation of Matrix Opal from Andamooka; South
Australia Geological Survey, Quarterly Geological Notes, Volume 90, pages 3-10.
Nichol, D. (1975): Opal Occurrences near Granite Downs Homestead; Mineral Resources Review, South
Australia, Volume 135, pages 164-168.
Towsend, I.J., Wildy, R.L., Barnes, L.C. and Crettenden, P.P. (1988): The Opal Industry in South Australia
1984-1986; Mineral Resources Review, South Australia, Volume 156, pages 106-107.
Q09 - ULTRAMAFIC-RELATED CORUNDUM

by G.J. Simandl1 and S. Paradis2

1
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
Geological Survey of Canada, Mineral Resources Division, Sidney, B.C., Canada

Simandl, G.J. and Paradis, S. (1999): Ultramafic-related Corundum (Contact Metamorphic/Metasomatic);

in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V.
Lefebure and T. Höy, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, Open File 1999-10,
pages 123-127.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Plumasite and marundite deposits, contact-metamorphic corundum and emery,

"desilication" or metasomatic sapphire.

Commodities (byproducts): Rubies, sapphires, industrial grade corundum and emery.

Examples (British Columbia - Canadian/International): Corundum Hill (North Carolina, USA), Emery Hill
(New York, USA), Natal and Birdcage camp (South Africa), Umba (Tanzania), Kinyiki Hill and
Penny Lane ruby mine (Kenya).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Sapphire, ruby and industrial grade corundum occur within, or adjacent to, aplite,
pegmatite, albitite, plumasite or marundite dykes, sills and rarely plugs cutting mafic and
ultramafic rocks and their metamorphosed equivalents. Industrial grade corundum is also found
commonly along contacts of mafic/ultramafic intrusions with metapelites or other felsic country
rocks. It may occur both within country rock and the intrusion.

Tectonic settings: These deposits occur in orogenic belts where felsic rocks are thrust against silica-
undersaturated rocks and within the stable cratons.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Corundum is commonly found in quartz-free reaction

zones located along contacts of silica-deficient rocks, such as ultramafic and mafic rocks, with
pegmatite, paragneiss, syenite gneiss or other felsic rocks. Country rocks are typically affected
by medium to high grade regional metamorphism.

Age of mineralization: Archean or younger. Abrasive-grade corundum deposits are commonly

contemporaneous with contact metamorphism, while gem-quality corundum may post-date
metamorphism and the peak of the tectonic activity.

Host/Associated rocks: Common host rocks are vermiculite ± chlorite ± asbestos-bearing rocks,
plumasite (coarse grained rock consisting of anhedral corundum crystals in an oligoclase matrix),
marundite (corundum in margarite matrix), syenite, pegmatite, aplite or hornfels. Associated
rocks are ultramafics, a variety of mafic lithologies including gabbro, amphibolite, anorthosite,
serpentinite, anthophyllite-chlorite-talc schist, peridotite and dunite and peraluminous
orthogneisses or paragneisses.
Deposit form: Most of the dyke-associated or fracture-controlled deposits that crosscut ultramafic and
mafic rocks are planar or lens-shaped; rarely forming vertical plugs. They are less than a metre
to 10 metres in thickness and may extend from few metres to several tens of metres along
strike. These deposits exhibit several types of mineralogical zoning from the center of the
deposit outwards:

1. Corundum-chlorite > spinel - chlorite > enstatite > talcose rock > friable dunite > dunite;
2. plumasite > biotitite > pegmatite > serpentinite;
3. aplite> plumasite>spinel-magnetite rock > vermiculite and/or chlorite > actinolite >
talc>serpentinite;
4. barren pegmatite> marundite > talc-chlorite zone>amphibolite (pegmatite may not be present).

Lenticular or irregularly shaped, corundum-bearing pockets may be also present along the
tectonic contacts between gneiss and serpentinite. Some of the gem-quality and most of the
industrial grade corundum and emery deposits occur near the contacts of mafic and ultramafic
intrusions with country rocks. Emery may form veins, layers and irregular or lens-shaped masses
within both endo- and exometamorphic reaction zones. Most of the corundum is typically found
in metapelites adjacent to such intrusions.

Texture/Structure: Sapphire and ruby may form rhombohedral or hexagonal prisms or they may occur
as clear portions of large, poikilitic corundum crystals that may exceptionally reach over a metre
in length. In South African plumasites the corundum crystals commonly vary from 3 millimetres
to 10 centimetres. In marundite, corundum occurs as coarse hexagonal crystals embedded in
scaly or rosette-shaped aggregates of margarite. Emery rock is typically equigranular, fine-
grained (<1mm). It may form layers, veinlets or lenses and irregular zones of massive ore in
intrusive and country rock.

Ore Mineralogy:

In plumasite and marundite: sapphires, rubies, specimen- quality or industrial grade corundum.

Within contact metamorphic zones of mafic and ultramafic intrusions: mostly emery or
silimanite-corundum rock or coarse industrial-grade corundum.

Along tectonic contacts: rubies, sapphires, specimen and industrial grade corundum.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate):

In plumasites: mainly plagioclase, ± biotite, ± amphibole, ± fuchsite, ± tourmaline. Some of the

solid inclusions identified within sapphires and rubies are zircon, rutile, apatite, boehemite,
monazite, hematite, mica, calcite, pyrrhotite and graphite.

In marundites: margarite, ± feldspar, ± biotite, ± apatite, ± garnet, ± tourmaline, ± fuchsite, ±

kyenite (?), ± talcose material and possibly anthophyllite.

In metasomatic zones cross-cutting ultramafic rocks without plumasite core: vermiculite, ±

chlorite. The main solid inclusion in gem corundum is vermiculite.
 In contact metamorphic deposits: a) In emery ores: Hercinite, pleonaste, magnetite, hematite/
ilmenite, ilmenohematite. hypersthene, sapphirine, sillimanite, cordierite, garnet, biotite,
feldspar, staurolite, gahnite. Some of the minor constituents in emery ore may be due to
hostrock inclusions. b) In sillimanite-corundum rock: rutile and ilmenite are trace constituents.

Alteration mineralogy: Corundum may retrograde into diaspore or mica. In marundites it is commonly
partially replaced by gibbsite and margarite.

Weathering: Some uneconomical primary gemstone and industrial grade deposits may form viable
residual or placer deposits.

Ore controls: There are three major spatial controls: 1) fracture zones control metasomatic and
plumasite mineralization within the mafic/ultramafic rocks; 2) tectonic contacts control
mineralization pockets located between gneisses and serpentinites; and 3) contact metamorphic
zones around mafic intrusions are also favourable.

Genetic models: A number of theories explaining the origin of these deposits have been proposed over
the years. The three models that appear the most likely are:
a) Desilication of granitic pegmatites or pegmatitic fluids by interaction with silica-
undersaturated country rocks. This is particularly popular theory to explain the origin of
fracture-controlled mineralization associated with marundite, plumasite, vermiculite rock,
pegmatite or aplite crosscutting ultramafic country rocks.
b) In the contact metamorphic/metasomatic settings, the high ratio of Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O)
and low silica content that favor corundum formation may be achieved by magmatic interaction
of mafic or ultramafic rocks with metapelites or by partial melting of the pelitic country rocks.
c) Where the felsic rocks were thrust against ultramafic rocks, reaction zones may have formed
under open system conditions during regional metamorphism.

Associated deposit types: Placer-type corundum deposits (C01 and C02) and corundum-bearing residual
soils. Vermiculite (M08), nepheline syenite (R13) and pegmatites (O01, O02, O03 and O04) may
be genetically related to some of the corundum deposits covered by this profile. Corundum-
bearing metapelites (P06) may also be present in the same geological setting.

Comments: Emery is a black granular rock formed by intergrowths of corundum with magnetite,
hercinite or hematite. Emery deposits may also form during regional metamorphism of
aluminous sediments, such occurrences are described in the profile P06 (this volume). It is used
mainly as an abrasive or for anti-skid surfaces. "Anolite", a highly-priced ornamental stone
formed from a famous ruby-bearing zoisite amphibolite from Longido (Tanzania), is closely
associated with serpentinites (Keller, 1992). Due to the lack of outcrops, it is not clear if this
deposit belongs to the metasomatic type of mineralization described in this profile. Marble and
skarn-hosted ruby/sapphire deposits, such as those described by Okrush et al. (1976), also may
be similar in origin. Some of these deposits may have formed by essentially isochemical regional
metamorphism, while others may be pegmatite and aplite-related metasomatic zones. Marble
hosted deposits should be considered as a distinct deposit type.

3. Exploration Guides
Geochemical signature: Corundum-bearing lithologies are silica-undersaturated and characterized by
their high Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O) ratio. Saphire, ruby, corundum or emery may be found in
heavy mineral concentrates from stream sediments or tills. As well, the solid inclusions within
corundum crystals, corundum texture, and associated minerals in the concentrates may be
indicative of the type of primary source, such as gem corundum hosted by alkalic rocks (Q10),
corundum in aluminous metasediments (P06) and gem corundum in marbles.

Geophysical signature: Ultramafic rocks associated with this deposit type may be detected and possibly
delimited by magnetic or electromagnetic surveys. Magnetite-bearing emery deposits may be
detected using a magnetometer.

Other Exploration Guides: Some vermiculite occurrences may be worth examining for gem corundum.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Grades are rarely reported for hard rock-hosted sapphire and ruby deposits.
They are difficult to determine as these deposits are often high-graded and mined sporadically.
A substantial proportion of the production is sold on the black market. Grades of up to 2000
carats of rough gems per ton are reported from the weathered extension of sapphire and ruby
rock occurrences at Umba (Tanzania). In another portion of the same property 100 000 carats
were recovered from soil above apparently barren veins, but the grade is not reported. In South
Africa, plumasites contain 5 to 80% corundum with typical grades around 30 to 40%. Larger
deposits may contain 5 to 10 thousand tonnes, but average tonnage is more likely less than 2
thousand tonnes. These deposits were mined in the first half of the 19th century to about 40
metres. Typical content of eluvial deposits associated with plumasites varies from 10 to 20% by
volume. The emery deposits of Emery Hill (Peekskill area) consisted of veins (some less than 2cm
thick), pods and thin layers parallel to the schistosity. The emery consisted of varying
proportions of spinel (0 to 65%), magnetite (20-30%) and corundum (15 to 65%).

Economic limitations: Together with emerald, red beryl and diamond, ruby and sapphire are the most
valuable gemstones. The most valuable rubies are dark purplish red ("pigeon's blood red"). The
most desirable color for sapphire is "Kashmir blue". Star rubies and sapphires exhibit asterism
better than any other gems. The color of many natural corundum gems is artificially enhanced
by heat treatment. . Due to the highly variable grades and relatively small deposit size, these
hard rock deposits are commonly mined by open-cast methods and in some cases by primitive
underground methods.

Uses: Depending on quality, corundum may be used as a gemstone, abrasive or friction material on non-
slip surfaces. Sillimanite-corundum rock is a relatively highly priced material for refractory
applications. Some corundum-bearing rocks are used as ornamental stones.

Importance: Most corundum gems are recovered from regoliths, residual soils or gravels, and as
byproducts of placer mining (C01, C02). They may be also found in alkali basalts, lamprophyres
(Q10) and rarely in aluminous metamorphic rocks (P06) and marbles. However, deposits of this
type, remain worthwhile targets for prospectors and small exploration companies. Clear, nearly
inclusion-free corundum crystals are produced synthetically, and compete with natural gems.
Silicon carbide and artificial corundum manufactured from bauxite has largely replaced
corundum and emery in most industrial abrasive applications. Today, the combined
 consumption of industrial grade corundum and emery in the USA is estimated to be less than
10,000 tonnes/year.

5. References

Andrews, P.R.A. (1991): Summary Report No. 15: Minor Abrasives-Corundum, Emery, Diatomite,
Pumice, Volcanic Ash and Staurolite; Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology, Division
Report MSL 91-110 ®, 91 pages.
Barker, F. (1964): Reaction Between Mafic Magmas and Pelitic Schist, Cortland, New York; American
Journal of Science, Volume 262, pages 614-634.
De Villiers, S.B. (1976): Corundum; in Mineral Resources of the Republic of South Africa, Coetze, C.B.,
Editor, Geological Survey of South Africa, Volume 7, pages 341-345.
DuToit, A.L. (1918): Plumasite (Corundum-aplite) and Titaniferous Magnetite Rocks from Natal;
Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa, Volume 21, pages 53-73.
Grant, J.A. and Frost, B.R. (1990): Contact Metamorphism and Partial Melting of Pelitic Rocks in the
Aureole of Laramie Anothosite Complex, Morton Pass, Wyoming; American Journal of Science,
Volume 290, pages 425-427.
Hall, A.L. (1920): Corundum in Northern and Eastern Transwal; Union of South Africa Geological Survey,
Memoir 15.
Keller, P.C. (1992): Gemstones of East Africa; Geosciece Press Inc., 144 pages.
French, A.E. (1968): Abrasives; in Mineral Resources of the Appalachian Region; United States Geological
Survey, Professional Paper 580, pages 261-268.
Game, P.M. (1954): Zoisite-amphibolite with Corundum from Tanganyika; Mineralogical Magazine,
London, Volume 30, pages 458-466.
Gillson, J.L. and Kania, J.E.A. (1930): Genesis of the Emery Deposits near Peekskill, New York; Economic
Geology, Vol. 25, pages 506-527.
Hughes, R.W. (1990): Corundum. Butterworth-Heinmann, London, 314 pages.
Keller, P.C. (1990): Gemstones and Their Origin; Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 144 pages.
Larsen, E.S. (1928): A Hydrothermal Origin of Corundum and Albitite Bodies; Economic Geology, Volume
23, pages 398-443.
Okrusch, M., Bunch, T.E. and Bank, N. (1976): Paragenesis and Petrogenesis of a Corundum-bearing
Marble at Hunza (Kashmir); Mineralium Deposita, Volume 11, pages 278-297.
Pattison D.R.M. and Harte, B. (1985): A Petrogenic Grid for Pelites in the Ballachulish Aureole and other
Scottish Thermal Aureoles; Journal of Geological Society of London, Volume 142, pages 7-28.
Pattison D.R.M. and Tracy, J. (1991): Phase Equilibria and Thermobarometry of Metapelites; in Contact
Metamorphism, D.M. Kerrick, Editor, Reviews in Mineralogy and Petrology, Volume 26,
Mineralogical Society of America, pages 105-204.
Robb, L.J. and Robb, V.M. (1986): Archean Pegmatite Deposits in the North-Eastern Transwaal; in
Anhausser, C.R. and Maske, S. Editors, Mineral Deposits of Southern Africa Volume I, Geological
Society of South Africa, Johannesburg, pages 437-449.
Rossovskiy, L.N. and Konovalenko, S.I. (1977): Corundum Plagioclasite of the Southwestern Pamirs;
Doklady Academie Science. U.S.S.R., Earth Science Section, Volume 235, pages 145-147
Sinkankas, J. (1959): Gemstones of North America; D. Van Nostrand Company Inc, New York, 675 pages.
Solesbury, F.W. (1967): Gem Corundum Pegmatites in NE Tanganyika; Economic Geology, Volume 62,
pages 983-991.
Q10 - ALKALI BASALT AND LAMPROPHYRE-HOSTED SAPPHIRE and RUBY

by G.J. Simandl1 and S. Paradis2

1
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
Geological Survey of Canada, Mineral Resources Division, Sidney, B.C., Canada

Simandl, G.J. and Paradis, S. (1999): Alkali Basalt and Lamprophyre-hosted Sapphire and Ruby; in
Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl,
Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, Open File
1999-10, pages 129-132.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Alkali basalt-hosted, lamprophyre-hosted or volcaniclastic-hosted gem corundum deposits.

Commodities (byproduct): Sapphire and ruby (zircon).

Examples (British Columbia - Canadian/International): Mark diatreme (082N 089); Yogo Gulch (Montana,
USA) Braemar, Stratmore and Kings Plains Creek (New South Wales, Australia), Changle (China).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Sapphires and rubies are found as xenocrysts in some hypabyssal or eruptive alkalic
rocks. The residual soil or regolith overlying these rocks can be enriched in sapphires and rubies
due to intense weathering which liberates the megacrysts from the matrix.

Tectonic settings: Host rocks occur in continental and pericontinental settings related to rifts, deep
faults and/or hot-spots. In some cases they are interpreted to be subduction zone-related.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Corundum gems are brought to the surface by alkali basalt
eruptions. The highest grades are associated with diatreme and base surge lithologies that
erode quickly unless capped by weathering-resistant rocks, such as lava flows. Significant
corundum can also be present in lava flows and hypobysal equivalents of these corundum-rich
volcanic pulses.

Age of mineralization: Post-dates tectonic and metamorphic events. Typically hosted by Cenozoic or
younger rocks. Oligocene and Miocene in New South Wales, Australia.

Host/Associated rocks: Lava flows, hypabyssal intrusions and volcaniclastic rocks of alkali basalt,
lamprophyre, nephelinite, basanite or phonolite composition. Highly altered and/or weathered
volcaniclastic rocks, including reworked lahar flows and base surge and ash-fall deposits
commonly have the highest gem corundum content. Mantle and crustal rock xenoliths, including
lherzolites, peridotites and in some cases corundum-bearing gneiss, occur in the above
lithologies. There are little or no restrictions as to the lithology of the wallrock.

Deposit form: With the exception of diatremes and volcanic necks, host igneous rocks are generally
tabular bodies (dykes, lava flows, pyroclastic flows). The flows and their erosional remnants vary
from less than a metre to several metres in thickness and extend from hundreds of metres to
 more than several kilometres. Extensive, thin, heavy minerals-enriched layers can carry higher
grades. They form volcaniclastic aprons around diatremes and are possibly produced by base
surges. High grade zones may also form thin blankets associated with unconformities or recent
erosional surfaces. The lamprophyre dykes, such as Yogo, may consist of several en echelon
segments from less than a metre to several metres thick and hundreds of metres in length.

Texture/Structure: In extrusive rocks, sapphire and ruby occur as megacrysts that are typically bi-
pyramidal, stepped and tapering or barrel shaped. The corundum crystals can be corroded and
etched. Some crystals are zoned, contain a variety of solid inclusions and can be intergrown with
other minerals. They may have spinel reaction rims. In New South Wales they are typically less
than 1 carat in weight (about 5 mm or less). In Thailand the typical size of sapphires from alluvial
sediments is 3-6 mm, but crystals up to 9.5 x 6 x 5.5 cm are also reported. Rubies of about 1-1.5
cm in diametre were found in some localities. In Yogo lamprophyre dykes, most of the sapphire
occurs as subhedral to anhedral grains. The most common shape is a wafer with etched surfaces
and a thin spinel crust. The host lithologies may contain numerous mantle or crust xenoliths,
some of them corundum-bearing gneisses.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Sapphire, ruby; ± zircon.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): In alkali volcanic rocks the gangue minerals are feldspar
(mainly anorthoclase), pyroxene, ± analcime, ± olivine, amphiboles, such as kaersutite, ilmenite,
± magnetite, ± spinel, ± garnet, with minor biotite/phlogopite, spinel and chrome diopside and
zircon ± rutile. Vesicles may contain amorphous silica, andesine and zeolites.

In lamprophyre hypabyssal rocks, pyroxene, phlogopite, ± calcite (mainly in veins), ± olivine, ±

analcime are major constituents. Minor constituents are magnetite, apatite, chlorite,
serpentine, amphibole, brucite and feldspar.

The main solid inclusions reported within the corundum in volcanic rocks are: spinels (hercynite,
gahnite), ilmenite, rutile, ilmeno-rutiles, columbite, uranopyrochlore-betafite, zircon, akali
feldspar, plagioclase, mica, thorite, sulphides and glass.

Alteration mineralogy: Volcaniclastic rocks that host gem corundum are commonly clay-altered and
ferruginized due to combination of alteration and weathering.

Weathering: Palagonitic clasts and "clast in clast" structures are visible in weathered volcaniclastic rocks
that host gem corundum. Weathering can greatly enhance the gem corundum grade and
transform a low grade occurrence into a deposit of economic interest. The near surface portion
of Yogo dike was weathered to a yellowish clay. Ore from the Yogo Gulch deposit was left on
surface to weather for few months to reduce the need for crushing.

Ore controls: Primary controls are sapphire and ruby-bearing alkali basalt, lamprophyre, nephelinite,
basanite or phonolite dikes, flows, pyroclastics or possibly diatremes. Unconformities,
paleoregoliths or current errosional surfaces intersecting sapphire/ruby-bearing lithologies
provide a vector for identifying secondary deposits.

Genetic models: Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the origin of the sapphire-bearing
lithologies. Most of proposed models involve alkali volcanic or hypabyssal rocks incorporating
 previously formed sapphires and/or rubies as xenocrysts and transporting them to the surface in
a similar way to diamonds in kimberlites (N02). Any volcanic rock type with the potential to host
sapphires (alkali basalts, kimberlites, lamproids, lamprophyres) must originate at greater depth
than that required for the formation of sapphire. There is no consensus about the source
lithology or magma for gem corundum. Corundum gems may have formed by metamorphism of
aluminous sediments; crystallization in deep-seated syenitic melts or from undersaturated
fractionated felsic melts; contact reactions between ultramafic/mafic intrusions and alumina-
rich metasediments in deep continental crust; metamorphism of aluminous sediments
contained in subducting oceanic crust, etc.

Associated deposit types: Can be the source for placer corundum ± zircon ± diamond deposits
(C01, C02, C03, C04) and corundum-bearing regolith.

Comments: Syenite-hosted corundum deposits, such as the Blue Mountain deposit (Ontario, Canada),
may also be a source of corundum. These occurrences are described as nepheline syenite
deposits (R13). Corundum is also known to occur as discrete crystals in diatremes of carbonatitic
and kimberlitic affinity.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: "Zircospilian" association (zircon-corundum-spinel-ilmenite-anorthite) can be

considered characteristic of these deposits. Corundum gemstones and indirect indicator
minerals, such as kaersutite and chrome diopside (derived from lherzolite xenoliths), in heavy
mineral concentrates from stream and lake sediments or from tills. Blue-green-yellow zoned
corundum is particularly characteristic of Australian and Asian deposits. These corundums
contain up to 0.04 wt% Ga2O3 and have low Cr/Ga and Ti/Ga ratios.

Geophysical signature: Electromagnetic and magnetic surveys may be effectively used in delimiting
sapphire/ruby-bearing host rocks, assuming good contrast with surrounding lithologies.

Other Exploration Guides: Pipes, dikes, plugs and diatremes of alkali lithologies are positive indicators. In
some localities there appears to be a positive correlation between the abundance of mantle-
derived xenoliths and corundum (Guo and O’Reilly,1996). Unexplained sapphire, ruby or
corundum occurrences in favourable tectonic settings warrant follow-up.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: No reliable grades in terms of carats recovered or dollars per metric tonne
are available for most of the hard rock-hosted gem deposits. In New South Whales, corundum is
typically present as trace constituent in basalts, but volcaniclastic sediments may contain as
much as 12 kg of corundum per cubic metre of material (Peacover, 1994). The Yogo dike yielded
about 10 carats/ton between 1897 and 1929. The grade varied probably from 0 to 70
carats/tonne. It supplied about 16 million carats valued in the rough at about $2.5 US million.
About 2.25 million carats were gem quality. Approximately 675 000 carats of cut sapphires,
worth $ US 20-30 million were obtained (Claubaugh, 1952). More recently, the production for
1984 was 4 000 carats with $US 3 million in sales for finished jewelry (Voynock, 1985). According
to Brownlow and Komorowski (1988), the weight of average stone is less than 1 carat.
Economic limitations: Red beryl, emerald, diamond, ruby and sapphire are the most valuable
gemstones. The colors of corundum reflect variations in trace element contents. The most
valuable rubies are dark purplish red ("pigeon's blood red"). The most desirable color for
sapphire is Kashmir blue. The color and clarity of many natural corundum crystals is commonly
artificially enhanced by heat treatment to increase the proportion of stones suitable for faceting
(Turnovec, 1987). For example, the treatment of material from Laos can increase the proportion
of stones suitable for faceting by 20% by weight. Star rubies and sapphires exhibit asterism
better than any other gems. Synthetic corundum competes with natural crystals in gem
applications and has replaced natural corundum crystals in most high technology applications.
Nevertheless, the "magic" of the natural stones persist in the gem industry.

Uses: Gemstones, specimen samples, industrial grade abrasives and friction surfaces.

Importance: Primary (hard rock) sapphire-bearing deposits of this type are relatively rare. Most of the
corundum gems are recovered from associated residual soils or placer deposits. Sapphire-
bearing, alkali volcanic rocks are source rocks for some of the large alluvial sapphire deposits,
such as the Kings Plain deposits in the Inverell-Glen Innes and Anakie districts of Eastern
Australia, Pailin gem fields in Cambodia and Bo Rai deposits of Thailand. In 1993-94, the
sapphire production in eastern Australia was estimated at A$ 20 to 25 million (65-75 million
carats).

5. References

Aspen, P., Upton B.G.J. and Dickin, A.P. (1990): Anorthoclase, Sanadine and Associated Megacrysts in
Scottish Alkali Basalts: High -pressure Syenitic Debris from Upper Mantle Sources?; European
Journal of Mineralogy, Volume 2, pages 279-294.
Brownlow, A.H. and Komorowski, J-C. (1988): Geology and Origin of Yogo Sapphire Deposit, Montana,
Economic Geology, Volume 83, pages 875-880.
Claubaugh, S.E. (1952): Corundum Deposits of Montana; U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 983, 100 pages.
Coenraads, R.R. (1992): Surface Features of Natural Rubies and Sapphires Associated with Volcanic
Provinces. Journal of Gemmology, Volume 23, pages 151-160.
Guo, J., Wang, F. and Yakoumelas, G. (1992): Sapphires from Changle in Shadong Province, China; Gems
and Gemmology, Volume 28, pages 255-260.
Guo, J. and O’Reilly, S.Y. (1996): Corundum from Basaltic Terrains: a Mineral Inclusion Approach to the
Enigma; Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, Volume 122, pages 368-386.
Harlan, S.S. (1996): Timing of Emplacement of the Sapphire-bearing Yogo Dike, Little Belt Mountains,
Montana; Economic Geology, Volume 91, pages 1159-1162.
Hughes, R.W. (1990): Corundum. Butterworth-Heinmann, London, 314 pages.
Jobbins, E.A. and Berrangé, J.P. (1981): The Pailin Ruby and Sapphire Gemfield, Cambodia; Journal of
Gemmology, Volume XVII, Number 8, pages 555-567.
Levinson, A.A. and Cook , F.A. (1994): Gem Corundum in Alkali Basalt: Origin and Occurrence, Gems &
Gemology, Winter 1994, pages 253-262.
Meyer, H.O.A. and Mitchell, R.H. (1988): Sapphire-bearing ultramafic Lamprophyre from Yogo, Montana:
A Ouachitite; Canadian Mineralogist, Volume 26, pages 81-88.
Oakes, G.M., Barron, L.M. and Lismund, S.R. (1996): Alkali Basalts and Associated Volcaniclastic Rocks as
a Source of Sapphire in Eastern Australia; Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, Volume 43, pages
289-298.
Peacover, S.R. (1994): Exploration Licence 38867. Final report. Great Northern Mining Corporation
N.L., New South Wales Geological Survey, Files 1994/114 (unpublished).
Sutherland, F.L. (1996): Alkaline rocks and Gemstones, Australia: A Review and Synthesis. Australian
Journal of Earth Sciences, Volume 43, pages 323-343.
Turnovec, I. (1987): Termické Zušlechtovaní Laoských Safiru; Geologický Pruzkum, no.1, pages 27-28.
Voyinik, S.M. (1985): The Great American Sapphire: Missoula, Montana; Mountain Press Publishing Co.,
199 pages.
Q11 - VOLCANIC-HOSTED PRECIOUS OPAL

by S. Paradis1, G.J. Simandl2 and A. Sabina3

1
Geological Survey of Canada, Pacific Geoscience Centre, Sidney, B.C., Canada
2
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
3
Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Paradis, S., Simandl, G.J. and Sabina, A. (1999): Opal Deposits in Volcanic Sequences; in Selected British
Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and
D.V. Lefebure, Editors, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, pages 133-136.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Hydrothermal or "volcanic opal".

Commodities (byproducts): Precious opal (common opal, chalcedony, jasper, agate).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Klinker (082LSW125), Northern Lights (093E 120),
Whitesail Range (maps 93E10W and 93E11E) and a precious opal occurrence near Falkland,
Eagle Creek (093K 095); pale green and apple green common opal occurs at Savona Mountain
(092INE158); Queretaro Mines (Mexico), Virgin Valley (Nevada, USA), Tepe Blue Fire Opal Mine
(Idaho, USA).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Opal occurs commonly in seams of volcanic ash or lahars sandwiched between
successive lava flows. It occurs mainly as open space fillings and impregnations. Common opal,
opalized wood and to some extent "fire opal" are widespread within Triassic or younger volcanic
sequences, but precious opal is rare. Where opal occurs in massive volcanic rocks, it occurs also
as open space fillings, however the opal-bearing areas are much smaller. Regardless of volcanic
hostrock, the precious opal occurrences are discrete, whereas common opal occurs over large
areas.

Tectonic settings: Volcanic arcs, rifts, collapsed calderas, hot spot related volcanism and others.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Volcanic sequences formed in subaerial or shallow marine

environments where porous, pyroclastic or lacustrine rocks are interbedded with lava flows.

Age of mineralization: Tertiary or younger, commonly Miocene.

Host/Associated rocks: Common host rocks are rhyolite, basalt, andesite and trachyte lavas, lahars and
other volcaniclastic rocks. Associated rocks are perlite, bentonite, scoria, volcanic ash and
diatomite; volcanic rocks may be intercalated with lacustrine sedimentary rocks.

Deposit form: Favourable opal-bearing horizons are commonly stratabound. Occurrences of precious
opal within these horizons are commonly considered as erratic, controlled by permeability at
the time of opal deposition. Individual precious opal-bearing fractures or lenses may grade into
common opal and agate over distances of centimetres.
Texture/Structure: Opal occurs as open space fillings in irregular cavities, narrow discontinuous seams,
partially-filled pillow tubes, fractures, vesicles, matrix in volcaniclastic rocks and replacing wood
fragments and logs. Common opal may form miniature stalagmites and stalactites within
cavities, nodules in clay or diatomite beds and "thunder eggs".

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Precious opal; "fire opal", chalcedony, agate, common opal.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Common opal, agate, fragments of host rock, clays,
zeolites, quartz, jasper, celadonite, manganese and iron oxides.

Alteration mineralogy: Opal-bearing cavities may have zeolite and celadonite coatings, but so do the
barren cavities. There is no known alteration which is specific to precious opal.

Weathering: In arid environments, opal in surface outcrops may desiccate, become brittle and crack.
Such material is not suitable as a gemstone. However, these opal bodies may be gem-quality at
depth.

Ore controls: Open spaces and other permeable zones open to the silica-bearing solutions.

Genetic models: In many large opal districts, it is believed that during the longer periods of volcanic
inactivity, shallow lakes developed. Forests grew along the lake-shores and driftwood
accumulated in the lakes. Volcanic eruptions covered everything with pyroclastic materials
capped by lava flows resulting in aquifers, perched water tables, and anomalies in the thermal
gradient. This in conjunction with subsequent brittle tectonic deformation resulted in ideal
conditions for the formation of hydrothermal systems. A variety of silica forms, including silica
sinter, opaline silica, chalcedony and common opal are believed to have formed by deposition of
silica-bearing fluids. The dissolved SiO2 content in water is well known to be temperature
dependent with the maximum dissolution at around 325°C, however, the conditions needed for
the precipitation of precious opal in volcanic environment are not well understood. At least a
portion of the opal-CT in volcanic rocks is believed to precipitate directly from supersaturated
solutions. The temperatures of formation for precious opal are expected to be relatively low by
analogy to sedimentary-hosted precious opal deposits, but temperatures as high as 160°C are
reported from fluid inclusion studies. No precious opal is reported from active hydrothermal
fields, such as Geyser Valley, Yellowstone or Whakarewarewa (New Zealand). This suggests that
the precious opal forms only under very specific physico-chemical conditions. Eh and definitely
pH may be important. Chemical composition of hydrothermal fluids in terms of silica
concentrations, as well as Na, K, Cl, Ca, SO4, HCO3, B, Li and other elements may be important.
The composition of the silica-bearing fluid is probably modified during migration through the
permeable host rock, specially if the latter contains zeolites and/or clays. Zeolites act as
molecular sieves and are well known for their cation exchange properties.

Associated deposit types: Associated deposits can be beds of diatomaceous earth (F06), volcanic ash
(E06), zeolite deposits (D01, D02), perlite and a variety of semi-precious or ornamental silica
gemstones, such as jasper (Q05), moss agate (Q03), and chalcedony. Other deposit types
occurring in the same setting are hot-spring Au-Ag (H03), hot-spring Hg (H02), agate (Q03) and
hydrothermal Au-Ag-Cu: high sulphidation (H04). It is possible that these deposit types are the
source of primary amorphous silica.
Comments: Precious opal is characterized by a play of color. The term common opal, as used here,
covers any opal that does not show this play of colors. Some common opal specimens may be
used as gemstones, but in general they have substantially lower value than precious opal. The
term "Fire Opal" describes a common opal having a transparent orange to red-orange base
color. Such opal is commonly faceted. Precious and common opal coexist within the same
deposits.

Common opal and opaline silica are also commonly associated with the spectacular hydrothermal
systems characterized by hot springs pools and geysers, mud pots, geyser terraces and
fumaroles where it may be deposited as common opal, opaline silica or silica sinter. The well
known examples of such systems are: Yellowstone hot springs; Geyser Valley in Kamchatka and
now inactive Waimangu Geyser (Taupo volcanic zone, New Zealand). It is possible that some of
the precious opal is formed by the dissolution of the previously formed common opal, silica
sinter in the same conditions as sedimentary rock-hosted precious opal deposits.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Mn oxide fracture coating was observed in the proximity of the Klinker deposit.
In some cases the indicator elements used in exploration for epithermal metalliferous deposits
such as Hg, Sb and As may be indirectly applied to precious opal exploration.

Geophysical signature: N/A, except for detecting perched water tables and faults (mainly VLF and
resistivity). Thermometry may have use where precious opal is associated with recent
hydrothermal activity.

Other Exploration Guides: Boulder tracing is commonly used in opal exploration. Unmetamorphosed or
weakly metamorphosed (zeolite facies) terrains (gem opal deteriorates and becomes brittle if
subject to moderate temperatures); Tertiary or younger volcanic rocks. Areas containing known
occurrences of precious or common opal, opalized wood and possibly chalcedony. Opal
occurrences hosted by volcaniclastic rocks are commonly confined to the same lithologic unit
over a large area. The presence of warm springs in an appropriate setting may also be
considered as an indirect exploration indicator.

At the MINFILE (Klinker) 082LSW125 deposit, mineralogical zoning within vesicule fillings may be used to
delimit the most favourable areas. For example the common opal occurs only within broad
areas of agate mineralization and precious opal only in small areas within the common opal
mineralization.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Grade and tonnage for volcanic-hosted opal deposits are not well
documented, largely because the opal extraction is done by individuals or family type
businesses. The precious opal distribution within most deposits is erratic, "Bonanza-type". The
deposits at Querétaro were discovered in 1835 and are still in production. Furthermore, the
term "grade" as commonly used for metalliferous deposits is much harder to apply to gemstone
deposits and especially to opal deposits. For example "fire opal" ranges in value from $CDN 5 to
 300 per gram. Average commercial precious opal will sell probably around $CDN40 per gram,
the top quality stones may sell for $CDN 1400.00 per gram.

Economic limitations: Some of the common opal specimens may be used as semi-precious or
ornamental stones, but in general they have substantially lower value than precious opal. Gem
opal contains up to 10% water, which contributes to the translucency of the specimens. Precious
opal from some localities, such as Virgin Valley in Nevada, are generally not suitable for gems
because they crack too easily; however the opal from many other volcanic-hosted occurrences is
as stable as that from the Australian sedimentary-hosted deposits. Deposits located in intensely
weathered terrains are easier to mine than deposits in unaltered rocks. Prices of the best quality
opal have risen steadily since 1991. There is a relatively good market for precious opal,
nevertheless strong marketing and value-added processing are considered essential parts of
successful opal mining operations.

Uses: Precious opal is highly priced gemstone; "fire opal" may be faceted, opalized wood is a speciality
ornamental stone commonly used for book ends.

Importance: Volcanic rock-hosted opal deposits are numerous, but most of today's high quality opal
production comes from Australian sedimentary-hosted deposits.

5. References

Broughton, P.L. (1974): A Recent Discovery of Blue Opal in Western Idaho; Lapidary Journal, October,
pages 1102-1106.
Cuthbert, D.L. (1969): Precious Opal in Idaho; Lapidary Journal, October, pages 928-930.
Downing, P.B. (1992): Opal Identification and Value; Majestic Press, 210 pages.
Leechman, F. (1961): The Opal Book, Ure Smyth Pty. Ltd, 255 pages.
Panczner, B. (1994): Mexican Opal, Rock & Gem, October, pages 58-62.
Paradis, S. and Simandl, G.J. (1998): Precious Opal in British Columbia, Wat on Earth, Volume 11, pages
8-10.
Rienhart, J.S. (1980): Geysers and Hydrothermal Energy, Springer-Verlag, New York, 223 pages.
Sanders, J.V. (1975): Microstructure and Crystallinity of Gem Opals; American Mineralogist, Volume 60,
pages 749-757.
Sinkankas, J. (1959): Gemstones of North America, D.Van Nostrand Commpany, Inc., Princeton, New
Jersey.
Simandl, G.J., Hancock, K.D., Callaghan, B., Paradis, S. and Yorke-Hardy, R. (1997): Klinker Precious Opal
Deposit, South Central British Columbia, Canada - Field Observations and Potential Deposit-scale
Controls; British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Geological
Fieldwork 1996, pages 321-327.
Simandl, G.J., Paradis S., Diakow, L.J., Wojdak, P. and Hartley, A. (1999): Precious Opal in White Sail
Range, West-Central British Columbia, Canada. British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Geological Fieldwork 1998, pages 285-293.
Spencer, R.J., Levinson, A.A. and Koivula, J.I. (1992): Opal from Querétaro, Mexico: Fluid Inclusion Study;
Gems & Gemology, Volume 28, pages 28-34.
Spendlove, E. (1991): Idaho Opal; Rock & Gem, October, pages 32-39.
Zeitner, J.C. (1979): The Opal of Querétaro; Lapidary Journal, July, pages 868-880.
Zeitner, J.C. (1987): Querétaro Opals; Lapidary Journal, June, pages 20-26.
Examples of Gem and Semi-Precious Stone Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

Q01 -- Cry Lake, Ogden Mountain
Q02 -- Hill 60, Arthur Point,
Cassiar
Q03* -- --
Q04* Thunder Bay (Ontario), Artigas (Uruguay), Maraba --
(Brazil)
Q05* -- --
Q06 Chivor and Muzo districts (Columbia) --
Q07 Habachtal (Austria), Leysdorp (South Africa), Socoto --
(Brazil)
Q08 Coober Pedy (Australia) --
Q09 Umba (Tanzania), Kinyki Hill (Kenya) --
Q10 Yogo Gulch (Montana) --
Q11 -- --

* Note: All BC deposit profile(s) with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s.
R - Industrial Rocks

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model #

R01 Cement shale -- --
R02 Expanding shale -- --
R03 Dimension stone - granite -- --
R04 Dimension stone - marble -- --
R05 (covered Dimension stone - andesite --
in R03)
R06 Dimension stone - sandstone -- 30d*
R07 Silica-rich rocks High-silica quartzite 30e*
R08 Flagstone -- --
R09 Limestone -- --
R10 Dolomite -- --
R11 Volcanic ash - pumice -- --
R12 Volcanic glass - perlite -- IM25ka*
R13 Nepheline syenite -- --
R14 Alaskite -- --
R15* Crushed rock Road metal, Riprap, Railroad --
ballast
R01 - Cement "Shale"

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Claystone, mudstone.

Commodities: Cement shale.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Dunsmuir shale - Nanaimo area

(Haslam shale; 092F 345), Sumas Mountain (Huntingdon Formation), Buse Lake, Wabamum
shale and Wapiabi shale in Alberta.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Sedimentary rocks with a high clay mineral content such as claystone, mudstone
and shale. Rock must provide silica and alumina and contain very small amounts of sodium,
potassium and magnesium minerals to be used for cement manufacturing. The presence of
sulphur in any form is considered detrimental.

Tectonic settings: A variety of sedimentary basins: foreland, forearc or island arc type; also oceanic
environments. In a continental setting: rift- and graben-type basins, lacustrine depressions and
continental shelves.
Sedimentary rocks with a high clay mineral content such as claystone, mudstone and shale. Rock must
provide silica and alumina and contain very small amounts of sodium, potassium and
magnesium minerals to be used for cement manufacturing. The presence of sulphur in any form
is considered detrimental.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Nonmarine and shallow marine basins with low-energy
environments. Oxidizing sedimentary environments.

Age of mineralization: Paleozoic to Tertiary. In British Columbia, the best deposits occur in Tertiary
lacustrine sedimentary basins.

Host/Associated rock types: Cement “shales” have a broad compositional range in clay and silt content,
from argillite to siltstone. The host sequence typically includes sandstone, conglomerate and
sometimes coal seams or tuffaceous sediments.

Deposit form: Stratiform, bedded sediments. May be flat or deformed by folding and faulting. Lacustrine
deposits are from several to tens of metres thick with a lateral extent of several hundreds of
metres to a few kilometres. Marine deposits are much more extensive.

Texture/Structure: Laminated, frequently with thin silty or sandy interbeds in lacustrine deposits.
Marine shale is more uniform in composition.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Pyrite; gypsum, chlorides, sulphates and Mn minerals.
Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Waste consists of altered, fractured and unsound rock;
stone containing inhomogenities, like blacks knots and aggregates of mafic minerals; and any
minerals that upon weathering could produce stains, e.g. pyrite, chalcopyrite.

Metamorphic mineralogy: Metamorphism can lead to increased sodium and potassium content and
recrystallization into harder rocks with a higher melting point.

Weathering: Alteration of pyrite improves the acceptability of the weathered shale for the cement
industry. A similar effect has a possible decrease in alkali content due to converting illite into
kaolinite and the chemical weathering of feldspar in original sediment. Also soluble salts –
chlorides and sulphates – can be removed during the weathering process.

Ore controls: No specific ore controls for shale used to make cement. A wide variety of shale can be
used.

Genetic models: Clay-rich sediments are generally a product of the chemical weathering of
aluminosilicate minerals. These can be accumulated in lacustrine as well as in marine
environments. Kaolin is the preferred weathering product.

Associated deposit types: Ceramic clays (E07), expanding clays (R02) and coal seams
(A02, A03, A04, A05).

Comments: In some instances, where a clay resource is not available locally, industry is using
anorthosite instead.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: High alumina and silica, very low sodium, potassium and magnesium. Some iron
is acceptable.

Geophysical signature: Geophysical methods are not used.

Other Exploration Guides: The most readily ascertainable regional attribute is lacustrine sediments
associated with coal seams. Marine shale with a thick weathered profile, or deposited in a
nonreducing environment.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: The main components in cement clinker are 62.5–63.5% CaO, 21–22% SiO2,
4–6% Al2O3 and 2–3% Fe2O3. Presence of deleterious minerals containing Na, K and S must be
carefully monitored. Depending on the purity of limestone, some of the latter three elements
may be part of the carbonate rock. Cement “shale” can add the necessary silica and alumina to
obtain roughly the required chemistry for the clinker. Any deficiencies in silica or iron contents
can be corrected by adding quartz or iron oxide; in some instances even bauxite may be added
to increase the alumina content. Therefore, the industry often uses the nearest acceptable
“shale” and adjusts by adding other feedstock. The noncarbonate component in cement mixture
is only 22%. Typical cements contain between 0.5% and 1.5% of combined Na2O and K2O.
Sometimes only a weathered zone of shale deposit can be used.
Economic limitations: The current standard for making Canadian cement is between 0.6% and 1.0%
combined Na2O + K2O in the final clinker, which usually comes from the shale. As well, the shale
should be homogeneous and not very difficult to grind. As a low-value commodity, cement shale
is generally restricted to local markets. Cement and clinker, on the contrary, are higher-value
commodities; therefore, they can travel longer distances.

Uses: As a source of silica and alumina (and sometimes iron) in cement manufacturing.

Importance: A typical North American cement plant has a capacity of 1 million tonnes of cement
annually. Consumption of cement “shale” is tied closely to the capacity of local Portland cement
plants and the demand for cement and cement products in general. Deposits are relatively
common throughout the continent and the world; however, they may be scarce locally. Shale
makes up approximately 30% of Portland cement.

5. References
Ames, J.A., Cutcliffe, W.E. and Macfadyen, J.D. (1994): Cement and cement raw materials; in Carr, D.D.,
Senior Editor, Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration,
Littleton, Colorado, pages 295–316.
Harben. P.W. (1995): The Industrial Minerals HandyBook; Metal Bulletin PLC, London, UK, 253 pages.
Harben, P.W. and Kuzvart, M. (1996): Industrial Minerals—A Global Geology; Metal Bulletin PLC, London,
UK, 462 pages.
Kuzvart, M. (1984): Industrial Minerals and Rocks; Elsevier, New York, 454 pages.
McCammon, J.W. and Robinson, J.W. (1970): Dunsmuir Shale Pit; in Geology, Exploration and Mining in
British Columbia, BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, page 496.
Murray, H.H. (1994): Common clay; in Carr, D.D., Senior Editor, Industrial Minerals
and Rocks, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado, pages 247-248.
Read, P.B. (1996): Industrial mineral potential of the Tertiary rocks, Vernon and adjacent map
areas; in Geological Fieldwork 1995, BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources,
Paper 1996-1, pages 207–218.
Rodgers, M.C. (1995): Clay and Shale; in Rogers, M.C., Thurston, P.C., Fyon, J.A., Kelly, R.I. and Breaks.
F.W., Editors, Descriptive Mineral Deposit Models of Metallic and Industrial Deposit Types and
Related Mineral Potential Assessment Criteria; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report
5916, pages 168–171.
Stonehouse, D.H. (1984): Cement in Canada; in Guillet, G.R. and Martin, W., Editors, The Geology of
Industrial Minerals in Canada, The Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume
29, pages 307–310.
Virta, R.L. (2001): Clay and shale; in Mineral Industry Surveys, United States Geological Survey,
pages 18.1–18.27.
R02 - Expanding Shale

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Bloating shale, coated lightweight aggregate, pyroplastic clay/shale/slate and a number of
commercial product names.

Commodities (byproducts): Lightweight aggregate (pozzolan). Explanding slate may be a by-product of

roofing slate.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Saturna Island (092B043), Regal

(092B085), Niagara Creek (092B046); Upper Cretaceous Wabamum shales in Alberta,
glaciolacustrine clays in Alberta and Saskatchewan.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Beds of claystone and mudstone or "shale" and slate, deposited usually in low
energy marine or lacustrine environments. The rock expands to produce a porous, volcanic
cinder or slag-like material when rapidly heated to 1000 to 1300 °C.

Tectonic settings: Wide variety of sedimentary basins, including oceanic foreland, forearc or island arc
type, and also rift and graben type basins, lacustrine depressions and shelf accumulations in the
continental environment.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: In British Columbia form in primarily low energy

environments in Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary non-marine and shallow marine sedimentary
basins. Elsewhere also form in deep sea shales, lacustrine basins, glaciolacustrine lakes and
turbidites. Low energy, subaqueous anaerobic depositional environments collecting primarily
mud over long periods of time. Deposits can be distal from erosional source or associated with
source producing only fine clastic material.

Age of mineralization: Precambrian to Holocene.

Host/Associated rock types: Host rocks are argillite, mudstone, siltstone, shale and slate occurring within
sequences of sandstones and conglomerates, with or without coal, and a very minor carbonate
component.

Deposit form: Stratiform, bedded deposits, may be flat or deformed by folding and faulting. The deposit
thickness may be from several tens to hundreds of metres, lateral extent of kilometers or more
within beds that can be much more extensive.

Texture/Structure: Expanding shale, slate and clay are usually thinly to thickly laminated, fairly uniform
in appearance along strike. Some lacustrine deposits may be thickly bedded to almost massive.
Depending on level of lithification, some may exhibit a conchoidal to semi-conchoidal fracture.
Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Clay minerals (illite, smectite, kaolinite), silica,
feldspar, mica, calcite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Interbeds of siliceous siltstone and sandstone; pyrite,
gypsum and amorphous carbon.

Weathering: Alteration of illite and smectite clays into kaolinite, oxidation of pyrite and/or leaching
away of carbon may result in loss of expanding properties.

Ore controls: The introduction of volatile component (molecular water like in finely dispersed gypsum,
some clay minerals or some organic substances) and a fluxing component (alkalies such as
feldspar) that melts the rock at the same temperature at which the volatile component escapes.

Genetic models: Clays and silts are deposited in a reducing environment with very small amounts of
other materials. Gas is trapped in the sediment and incorporated into a "shale' during
lithification. Marine, littoral, lacustrine and fluviatile clays, shales and slates are all possible
expanding products. Low grade metamorphism (for example shale to slate) may not hinder the
expanding properties.

Associated deposit types: Common clays and shales (E07), cement shales (R01), coal seams
(A02, A03, A04, A05), black roofing slate.

Comments: A variety of admixtures (for example carbonate, sulphate and organic-added in minor
quantities to common, non-bloating clays can produce expanding properties. This process has
been used commercially on a minor scale where natural expanding materials are not available.
In recent years, the US EPA has been developing a process to use the municipal wastes as
admixture in clays to produce the lightweight aggregate.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Favourable shales usually have between 52 – 80 % SiO2, 11 – 25 % Al2O3 and 10-
25% combined fluxes (Fe2O3,FeO, S, CaO, MgO, P2O5, Na2O, K2O, NO3).

Geophysical signature: Geophysical methods are not utilized.

Other Exploration Guides: Most readily ascertainable regional attribute is the depositional environment
with a thick shale or argillite sequence. Economic deposits occur within homogeneous, argillitic
sediment sequences, deposited usually in a reducing environment.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Certain clays, shales and slates have the property of expanding into a porous
product when heated rapidly to 1,000 to 1,300 degrees C. The fusion into a viscous form and
evolution of the gas must take place simultaneously. This gas may be oxygen, sulphur dioxide, or
carbon dioxide. Illitic and montmorillonitic sediments are more favorable for expansion, as are
darker colored and unweathered shales. Thinly fissile slates tend to expand unidimensionally,
which is undesirable. Depending on its end use, expanded shale product must meet a variety of
quality specifications. Unit weight of expanded product may vary from 881 to 1121 kg/m3.
 Depending on the final concrete product, there are requirements for compressive strength,
ignition loss, adsorption and sizing. Material should be homogeneous and free of hard interbeds,
such as quartzite. Distribution of the volatile component may have impact on product density
and its homogeneity.can influence quality. Homogeneity is an important quality parameter. The
reported average annual production capacity for operating plants in the United States in 1970
was 150,000 tons per year. The present U.S. total annual production is 3.8 million tones from
plants operating in 16 states. In Canada, three producers report annual sales of between
200,000 and 400,000 m3.

Economic limitations: Expanded shales are often developed primarily as a lightweight aggregate in
regions lacking sources of quality hard rock aggregate and sand and gravel and distant from
sources of pumice and volcanic cinder. Therefore, the relationship between production
expenses and transportation cost is very important in competition with alternative materials.
The consumption of lightweight aggregates declined during the late 1970's and 1980's due to
rising energy costs and the use of high performance concrete. During the last decade, the
production levels in North America kept steady.

Uses: Specialty aggregate for insulation, particularly for water and sewer systems on the prairies (about
50%), and low density concrete products. Small quantities are also used in horticulture.

Importance: Relatively common deposits throughout North America and the world. Particularly
important for durable, inorganic insulation around water lines and other thermally sensitive
infrastructure in cold regions with deep freezing of surface in winter time, also in areas lacking
standard construction aggregate sources. There is research into recycling fly ash and other
waste products as an alternative for expanding shale.

5. References

Bush, A.L. (1973): Lightweight Aggregate; in Brobst, D.A. and Pratt, W.P., Editors, United States Mineral
Resources, U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper 820, pages 233-355.
Conley, J.E., Wilson, H., Klinefelter, T.A. and others (1948): Production of Lightweight Concrete
Aggregates from Clays, Shales, Slates, and Other Materials; U.S.Bureau of Mines, R.I. 4401, 121
pages.
Harben, P.W. and Kuzvart, M. (1996): Industrial Minerals – A Global Geology; Metal Bulletin PLC,
London, UK, 462 pages.
Kuzvart, M. (1984): Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Elsevier, New York, 454 pages.
Mason, B.H. (1994): Lightweight Aggregates; in Carr, D.D., Senior Editor, Industrial Minerals and
Rocks, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado, pages 343-350.
McCammon, J.W. (1966): British Columbia Lightweight Aggregates Ltd., in Minister of Mines and
Petroleum Resources Annual Report, Province of British Columbia, page 264.
McCarl, H.N. (1975): Aggregates-Lightweight Aggregates; in Lefond, S.J., Industrial Minerals and
Rocks, American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., New York,
pages 85-96.
Vagt, O. (2002): Mineral Aggregates; in Canadian Mineral Yearbook 2000, Minerals and Metals
Sector, Natural Resources Canada, pages 34.1-34.8
Virta, R.L. (2001): Clay and Shale; in Mineral Industry Surveys, U.S. Geological Survey, pages 18.1-18.27
R03 - Dimension Stone - "Granite"

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

Hora, Z.D. (2007): Dimension Stone "Granite", in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Commercial term "granite" for dimension stone includes all fine, medium and coarse-
grained, igneous rocks and some metamorphic rocks.

Commodities (byproducts): Dimension stone blocks and a variety of shaped, split products (aggregate,
rip-rap).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Kelly Island (092F 196), Fox Island (092F
378) Nelson Island (092F 189), Squamish (092GNW067), Ashlu River (092GNW070), Elaho River
(092JW041), Skagit Valley (092HSW159), East Anderson River (092HNW075), Beaverdell
(082ESW169), Okanagan Sunset (082LSW068), Pacific Pearl (082ENW083), Nelson
(082FSW343); Sudbury, Vermilion Bay (Ontario), Lac Saint-Jean, Saint Didace, Riviere a Pierre
(Quebec), Black Hills (South Dakota), Massachusets, Georgia, Vermont, North Carolina; Sardinia
(Italy), Norway, Finland, India, Brazil.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Dimension stone deposits in plutonic intrusions of granite, syenite, gabbro,
anorthosite and other igneous rocks. Fresh, unaltered rock masses with jointing at least 2
metres apart and an absence of microfractures may be suitable for quarrying. Quarriable bodies
may be up to several hundred metres large, but are not very common since the majority of
intrusives have high frequency of joints.

Tectonic settings: Granitic plutons in subduction setting, zones of extension, back-arc spreading, island-
arc environment. In continental setting, alkaline intrusions associated with extensional tectonic
and rift zones.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Synorogenic and post-orogenic intrusions emplaced at

different levels within the earth crust. Post-orogenic intrusions are considered more apt to be
free of internal strain and to make a better quality dimension stone.

Age of mineralization: Precambrian to Tertiary.

Host/Associated rock types: The host intrusive rocks are a variety of compositions, including granite,
syenite, diorite, gabbro and anorthosite. Higher grade metamorphic equivalents are also
produced under the “granite” name. Associated rocks can be related dikes and pegmatites.
Deposit form: Massive unfractured parts of large intrusive bodies without exfoliation features and
particularly lacking systems of microfractures. Usually a sound core or large mass, several
hundred metres to more than one thousand metres in diameter, irregular in shape, that is
surrounded by more fractured and microfractured rock. The size of some bodies may increase
with depth; however, even deeply eroded intrusives can exhibit microfractured areas. A single
intrusive body may contain several such bodies separated from each other by fractured rock. In
more deeply eroded areas, large groups of exfoliated huge boulders may provide a source of
commercial blocks.

Texture/Structure: Texture is typically granular, but may be gneissic, either homogeneous or banded,
with parallel alignment of mineral grains. Commercial stones are coarse to fine-grained,
sometimes porphyritic with feldspar phenocrysts in intrusive rocks, or augen aggregates in
metamorphic ones. Augen gneiss can be an attractive commercial stone. Good quality
dimension stone has a well developed interlocking texture.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Most commonly an interlocking texture composed of
feldspar, quartz, hornblende, pyroxene and mica. Some commercial stone is composed of a
single mineral, such as pyroxenite or anorthosite. Coarser grained mica may be detrimental for
the stone to take a good polish.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Waste consists of altered, fractured and unsound rock;
stone containing inhomogenities, like blacks knots and aggregates of mafic minerals; and any
minerals that upon weathering could produce stains, e.g. pyrite, chalcopyrite.

Alteration mineralogy: Typically rock must be fresh to be useable. But some alteration products, epidote
for example, can produce attractive colour or veining without affecting the physical properties
of the stone.

Weathering: Chemical weathering may affect the stone by producing unsightly stains as a result of
leaching soluble components, particularly iron, and occasionally also copper. Undesireable
minor components, like pyrite or other sulphides, and some other iron and manganese minerals,
in dimension stone may oxidize and stain in contact with moisture. This may differ in distinct
climatic zones; stone with excellent performance record in continental climate may be very
sensitive to a coastal climate (salt), or smog-filled air in large cities. Also, not all biotite, or even
pyrite, may be sensitive to weathering. Some feldspars and altered feldspars, olivine,
hornblende and pyroxene are more sensitive to the loss of polish then other minerals. Physical
weathering produces structural deterioration and decreases strength and durability. This is
particularly important for stones affected by development of microfractures, especially in
climatic areas with frequent freeze/thaw cycles which can cause flaking.

Ore controls: Frequency of joints and any change in composition, colour, or texture which affects
significantly the look and performance of the stone.

Genetic model: Due to the cooling of magma and tectonic processes, intrusive rocks develop joints and
fractures of variable frequency. Also, the presence of volatile components and hydrothermal
processes may affect the soundness of the rocks.
Associated deposit types: Marble (R04), andesite (R05), and sandstone (R06) dimension stone, Alaskite
(R14) and anorthosite (as a cement raw material).

Comments: Requirements for soundness, homogeneous character and absence of components

producing staining generally excludes granitic rocks in areas of metallic mineralization.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: NIL

Geophysical signature: Resistivity surveys have been used to identify low fracture densities and deeply
weathered zones in areas with Pleistocene cover. Also, well developed microfracturing in
contrast with the sound stone can be outlined by a resistivity survey. Some intrusions will have
strong, positive or negative, magnetic or gravity signatures that could be used to identify their
location or extent.

Other Exploration Guides: Intrusive rocks showing consistent and uniform colour with few fractures or
forming large boulders. Prospect for large boulder fields as a result of exfoliation and
unfractured and smooth rock faces exposed along mountain slopes. Use air photo studies to
locate probable areas of intrusions with few large fractures. The type of physical weathering can
distinguish an unsound stone, particularly a sharp, angular and raspy surface and angular,
detrital feldspar are indicators of low strength and high absorption of water.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Opening face should be at least 50 metres long; some quarries can reach a
thousand metres wide. Physical properties of stone are an important aspect and have to meet
American Society for Testing and Materials Standards (ASTM). These may significantly differ
depending on the end use. Outside wall cladding is much more demanding on the strength than
for example a floor tile. As BC producers have proven, even a small operation of few thousand
tonnes per year from a quarry site can be a successful business venture.

Economic limitations: Waste to commercial size block is an important economic factor. This changes
within the deposit as well as from deposit to deposit. If the quarry can sell the waste for
aggregate or other commercial products, like split facing stone, landscaping chips and roofing
chips, then a more fractured common granite can afford larger waste to block ratio. As a rule of
thumb, common types of granite can afford some 20% of waste, while the high end value stone
(Blue Pearl larvikite) can have waste up to 80% of quarried rock. For exterior applications, the
stone should take good, uniform and lasting polish with good frost resistance. Transportation is
a major cost of the finished product. Common types of granite can compete in local markets
only, while special varieties (black, red, blue) can travel worldwide.

Uses: Granite tile, facing sheets, monumental stone, and masonry blocks. Waste rock can be used for
ashlar, curbing stone, flagstone and facing chips, paving stone and aggregate.

Importance: This deposit type is a main source of granite for dimension stone applications.

5. References
Anonymous (1995): Stone Report: Canada, Dimensional Stone, Volume 11, Number 10, pages 36-62.
Alseth, J. (1995): Current Thoughts on Stone Testing, Dimensional Stone, Volume 11, Number 10, pages
25-35.
Barton, W.R. (1968): Dimension Stone, U.S. Bureau of Mines, IC 8391, 147 pages.
Bates, R.L. and Jackson, J.A. (1987): Glossary of Geology, American Geological Institute, 788
pages.
Bellemare, Y. (2002): Exploitation de la Pierre de Taille au Quebec Dans la Province de Grenville de 1983
a 1997; in Dunlop, S. and Simandl, G.J., Editors, Industrial Minerals in Canada, Canadian Institute
of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, Special Volume 53, pages 209-220.
Bowles, O. (1956): Granite as Dimension Stone, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Information Circular 7753, 18
pages.
Carr, G.F. (1955): The Granite Industry of Canada, Department of Mines and Technical Surveys, Number
846, pages 159-186.
Dolley, T.P. (2001): Dimension Stone; in Mineral Industry Surveys, U.S. Geological Survey, pages 74.1-
74.11.
Gunning, D.F. (1998): British Columbia`s Industry Benefiting From Investment, Dimensional Stone,
Volume 14, Number 6, pages 20-24.
Gunning, D.F. (1996): Market Study of Dimension Stone in the Western United States, unpublished
report for British Columbia Trade Development Corporation, 121 pages.
Gunning, D.F. (1995): Exploring British Columbia`s Stone Industry, Stone World, October 1995, pages 40-
50.
Harben, P. and Purdy, J. (1991): Dimension Stone Evaluation from Cradle to Gravestone; Industrial
Minerals, February 1991, pages 47-61.
Nantel, S. (1984): L`Industrie de la Pierre de Taille au Quebec: Aspects Geologiques des Exploitations de
Granite; in Guillet, G.R. and Martin, W., The Geology of Industrial Minerals in Canada, The
Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 29, pages 70-78.
Parks, W.A. (1917): Building and Ornamental Stones of Canada, Volume 5, Province of British Columbia,
No. 452, Canada Department of Mines, 233 pages.
Page, J.W. (1989): British Columbia Dimension Stone Market Study, unpublished report for the B.C.
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, 49 pages.
Power, W.R. (1994): Stone, Dimension; in Carr, D.D., Senior Editor, Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Society
for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado, pages 981-1001.
Rodgers, M.C. (1995): Dimension Stone; in Rogers, M.C., Thurston, P.C., Fyon, J.A., Kelly, R.I. and Breaks.
F.W., Descriptive Mineral Deposit Models of Metallic and Industrial Deposit Types and Related
Mineral Potential Assessment Criteria; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5916, pages
139-142.
Shadmon, A. (1989): Stone. An Introduction, Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd, London, UK, 139
pages.
Simandl, G.J. and Gunning, D.F. (2002): Dimension and Ornamental Stone in British Columbia; in Dunlop,
S. and Simandl, G.J., Editors, Industrial Minerals in Canada, Canadian Institute of Mining,
Metallurgy and Petroleum, Special Volume 53, pages 21-25.
Springstead, S. (1995): Across the Canadian Border, Stone Companies Continue to Develop, Stone World,
October 1995, pages 32-38.
Vagt, O. (2002): Stone; in Canadian Minerals Yearbook 2000, Natural Resources Canada, pages 51.1-
51.15.
White, G.V. (1987): Dimension Stone Quarries in British Columbia; in Geological Fieldwork 1986, B.C.
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1987-1, pages 309-344.
Zdunczyk, M.J. (2002): Dimension Stone: Fact, fiction, fractures, fickled and future, North American
Mineral News, Metal Bulletin PLC, Issue 83, April 2002, pages 9-12.
R04 - Dimension Stone - "Marble"

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

Hora, Z.D. (2007): Dimension Stone "Marble", in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Commercial term “marble” includes all carbonate-rich sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
that are suitable for dimension stone, such as limestone, crystalline limestone, dolomite or
marble.

Commodities (byproducts): Marble blocks (lime or cement rock, aggregate, rip-rap and white fillers).

Examples (British Columbia - Canada/International): Marblehead (082KSE076), Lardeau (082KSE077),

Anderson Bay (092F 088), Hisnit Inlet (092F 020); Tyndall stone (Manitoba), Bruce Peninsula
(Ontario), Saint-Marc-des-Carrieres (Quebec),Pittsford District (Vermont, USA), Sylacauga
(Alabama, USA), Tate District (Georgia, USA), Yule Creek (Colorado, USA), Takaka Hill (New
Zealand), Carrara (Italy), Thassos, Attica, Argolis (Greece), Spain, Portugal.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Marble dimension stone deposits occur in recrystallized/metamorphosed limestone

or dolomite, where a general lack of joints makes the recovery of large blocks feasible. The
marble should take a good polish and have an aesthetically pleasing colour and texture. Some
metamorphosed limestones are suitable for dimension stone and are referred to as “marble” by
the stone industry.

Tectonic settings: Continental shelf and subsiding marginal marine basins and island arc environments.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Subtropical and tropical shallow sea environments.

Slightly magnesian limestone, is the typical carbonate sediment; dolomite is rather uncommon.
Original limestone is frequently aragonite, later recrystallized into calcite. Most of dolomite is
secondary, magnesium being introduced during lithification, diagenesis and regional
hydrothermal dolomitization. Both rocks become parts of folded, faulted and thrusted,
sometimes metamorphosed and recrystallized geological units as parts of orogenic belts and
uplifted, exposed platform sediments.

Age of mineralization: Late Proterozoic to Mesozoic, some limestones may be Tertiary.

Host/Associated rocks: Depends on tectonic setting. In an island arc environment, the associated rocks
are frequently a variety of volcanic, usually more mafic rocks and tuffaceous sediments, and
sedimentary rocks, often greywacke, sandstone and argillite, with or without chert. Where
metamorphosed, these rocks become schists, slates, gneisses and quartzites. Limestone may be
contaminated by a tuffaceous component and form very colourful varieties. Higher
metamorphic grades may result in skarn mineralogy. In a continental shelf setting, the volcanic
 component is usually missing and the associated rocks are argillites, sandstones, greywackes
and the occasional conglomerate.

Deposit form: The metamorphosed carbonate deposits are stratiform, may be folded, and may have
gradational contacts. The thicknesses of mineable marble deposits range from 10 metres to
several hundred metres. Marble deposits commonly extend more than a hundred metres along
strike; often individual deposits are parts of continuous carbonate belts (like in the Appalachian
belt from Vermont to Alabama).

Texture/Structure: Bedded with compositional and colour layers. Some marbles display complexly
folded bedding or breccias that can enhance their appearance. In metamorphic marbles, the
carbonate is so thoroughly recrystallized that much, or even all of the sedimentary features, are
obliterated and replaced with an interlocking, mosaic texture. Highly metamorphosed varieties
may exhibit features indicating a plastic flow, where original layering may be stretched or pulled
apart and highly deformed. The limestones and weakly metamorphosed varieties may contain
fossils and retain biological textures. In some deposits, fractured carbonate has been re-
cemented to form a healed breccia texture.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Calcite and dolomite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): A large group of minerals that affect the processing and
final appearance – some are harder than calcite or dolomite and result in elevations on a
polished surface (chert, other forms of silica, silicate minerals like garnet and spinel, pyrite).
Others are softer, or with well-developed cleavage, that results in hollows (graphite, phlogopite,
chlorite, talc, tremolite, wollastonite, brucite). Some prevent the stone from taking a good
polish (clay, finely disseminated graphite and hematite). Some are easy to oxidize and stain
(pyrite).

Alteration mineralogy: Recrystallization due to metamorphism improves the stone’s ability to take a
high polish and results in more massive beds, sometimes with enhanced colours and texture
features. Soft minerals like clays may recrystallize into harder silicates that take a good polish.
Secondary veining may cement the broken and fractured carbonate rock into attractive textured
stone breccia. The metamorphic process may also totally remove the dark-coloured organic
matter disseminated in original limestone or recrystallize it in the form of graphite.

Weathering: Solution weathering results in a variety of karst features, but may also produce
semiprecious varieties like Mexican onyx, a banded form of aragonite precipitated from
hydrothermal waters or from calcium-rich groundwater in karst areas. Mexican onyx and other
semiprecious varieties are sometimes included commercially under the term marble. Marbles
with a silicate component (tremolite, flogopite and garnet) might significantly deteriorate in
durability and strength. The weathering of pyrite results in unsightly stains and further
deterioration by sulphuric acid attacking the surrounding carbonate. Exposure to salty air in
coastal areas and smog in the cities frequently results in a rapid loss of luster on exposed
polished marbles. Frequently, a weathered surface of the outcrop can indicate presence of
impurities and their impact on stone quality.

Ore controls: The basic ore control is rock of suitable composition, attractive colour and consistent
appearance. The frequency of bedding planes and transversal jointing determines the waste to
 ore ratio and the economics of production. In some regions, quarries are developed only in
thickened beds near fold hinges.

Genetic models: Most limestone of economic importance were partly or wholly biologically derived from
seawater and accumulated in a relatively shallow, subtropical and tropical marine environment.
Calcium carbonate producing organisms, such as corals, algae and mollusks can build reef
structures hundreds of kilometres long and kilometres wide. Limestones that form in a high-
energy environment have more probability to be high-purity carbonate rocks. Very fine
carbonate muds, sometimes contaminated with clay-sized particles of silica and silicate
minerals, accumulate in a low-energy environment of lagoons and deep water. Under some
specific conditions, original calcium carbonates may be enriched in magnesium, thus
transforming original limestone into dolomite. Under both regional and contact metamorphism,
carbonate rocks recrystallize, sometimes reacting with internal contaminants to form a new
suite of minerals. Such recrystallization may result in a significant improvement of aesthetic
appeal to the end user in resulting colour, structure and texture. Both contact and regional
metamorphism may remove black or dark grey organic substances resulting in highly prized pure
white carbonate.

Associated deposit types: Limestone (R09), sandstone (R06), skarns (K01 to K09), travertine (H01).

Comments: So called “green marble”, or “Verde Antico”, of Italy and Greece in particular, is a variety of
serpentine, classed commercially as a marble. Under low metamorphic conditions, peridotites
and related rocks may produce bright green serpentinite, which has been used as a building and
ornamental stone since ancient times.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: High-purity marbles will consist almost exclusively of calcite or dolomite and
contain only very minor amounts of other elements.

Geophysical signature: Resistivity methods can outline karst features in covered terrain.

Other Exploration Guides: Favourable marble beds are commonly found in belts of regionally
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks or adjacent to a specific suite of intrusions, which have
thermally metamorphosed carbonate beds. Massive beds exposed along valley slopes and in
natural cuts and outcrops. Green “marble” in serpentinite belts, usually parts of accreted
ophiolitic oceanic crust.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Canada and United States produce annually close to 500,000 tonnes of
ornamental limestone and marble. Approximately 40 production centres are scattered over the
continent, in at least ten states and three provinces. Commercial stone must meet ASTM
specifications for its intended use.

Economic limitations: “Marble” may be not attractive economically when dolomite forms thin layers in
calcite because of different hardness and usually difference in grain size when dolomite is
significantly finer grained than calcite. Waste to commercial size block ratio – depending on the
 type of quarry, waste should normally not surpass 25 to 30% of mined material. This may be
higher if there is a market for the rejected material, for example, white limestone, which can be
processed into calcium carbonate fillers, landscaping chips, etc. Limestone and marble in
particular, are very sensitive to blast shock; therefore, in marble deposits the use of blasting
must be avoided entirely. Also the mineral composition – presence of some deleterious minerals
may be a limiting factor on the end use and restrictive to potential end uses. Minor components,
like pyrite and other easily oxidized minerals, can stain marble when installed in some
environments. Hard inclusions like chert nodules, silica veinlets, intrusive sills and dikes can
make the marble difficult to process into a quality product and/or lead to differential
weathering. Common types of marble can be produced and processed for a local market only;
special varieties (coloured, snow-white) can travel globally. Marble deposits have been
successfully quarried underground throughout history. Marble deposit production in British
Columbia has partly been quarried both from open pit quarries and underground. Modern
methods using chainsaws and wiresaws have simplified removing blocks from underground
quarries.

Uses: Marble tile, facing sheets, monumental stone, statues, fillers for paper and plastics, soil
conditioner.

Importance: Marble has provided structural, building and ornamental stone for millennia. Many
historical landmarks, artwork, buildings and structures used marble or limestone.

5. References

Alseth, J. (1995): Current Thoughts on Stone Testing, Dimensional Stone, Volume 11, Number 10, pages
25–62.
Barker, J.M. and Austin, G.S. (1994): Stone, Decorative; in Carr, D.D., Senior Editor Industrial Minerals
and Rocks, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado, pages 367–378.
Bowles, O. (1939): The Stone Industries, 2nd Edition, New York, McGraw-Hill, pages 168–229.
Bowles, O. (1956): Limestone and Dolomite, United States Bureau of Mines, Information Circular 7738,
29 pages.
Bowles, O. (1958): Marble, United States Bureau of Mines, Information Circular 7829, 31 pages.
Bates, R.L. (1969): Geology of Industrial Rocks and Minerals; Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 459
pages.
Currier, L.W. (1960): Geologic Appraisal of Dimension Stone Deposit, United States Geological Survey,
Bulletin 1109, 78 pages.
Harben, P. and Purdy, J. (1991): Dimension Stone Evaluation from Cradle to Gravestone, Industrial
Minerals, February, pages 47–61.
Parks, W.A. (1912): Report on the Building and Ornamental Stones of Canada, Volume 1,Canada
Department of Mines, Number 100, 376 pages.
Parks, W.A. (1917): Report on the Building and Ornamental Stones of Canada, Volume.V, Canada
Department of Mines, Number 452, 233 pages.
Power, W.R. (1994): Stone, Dimension; in Carr, D.D., Senior Editor, Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Society
for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado, pages 987–1001.
Shadmon, A. (1989): Stone. An Introduction, Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd., London, United
Kingdom, 139 pages.
Vagt, O. (1999): Stone; in Canadian Minerals Yearbook, Minerals and Metals Sector, Natural Resources
Canada, pages 51.1–51.14.
White, G.V. (1987): Dimension Stone Quarries in British Columbia; in Geological Fieldwork 1986, BC
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1987-1, pages 309–344.
Zdunczyk, M.J. (2002): Dimension Stone: Facts, fiction, fractures, fickled and future, North American
Mineral News, Metal Bulletin PLC, Issue 83, April 2002, pages 9–12.
R05 - Dimension Stone - Andesite

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

Originally a R05 profile was planned, but R03 covers this deposit profile (ZDH, DVL; 2009).
R06 - Dimension Stone - Sandstone

by Z.D. Hora

Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Bluestone, brownstone, freestone, arkose, greywacke, quartzite.

Commodities (byproducts): Building stone.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Newcastle Island (092GSW022),

Gabriola Island (092GSW021), Saturna Island (092B 068), Denman Island (092F 426), Jack Point
(092GSW049),Koksilah (092B 122); Paskapoo sandstone, Alberta; Nepean sandstone, Ontario;
Wallace sandstone, Nova Scotia; Potsdam sandstone, New York; Ohio sandstone, Ohio; UK,
France, Germany.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Uniform massive beds of sandstone with very few and well spaced (over 1 metre)
fractures and bedding planes. Sandstone must be suitable to be removed from a quarry face in
square shaped blocks that are 10 tonnes or larger with minimum waste. Some sandstones may
be feldspathic (arkose) or with prominent dark component (greywacke).

Tectonic settings: Shallow marine or lacustrine basins, tectonically rather quiet with wide spread uplift
or downthrust events.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Shallow continental shelf, inland sea or large continental
lacustrine basins with low energy environment and a steady supply of well sorted, detrital, sand
size particles. The mineral composition is influenced by the regional climate over the source
area; speed, type and intensity of weathering and speed of transportation into the sedimentary
basin.

Age of mineralization: Any age. Dimension stone sandstones are known to be of Cambrian,
Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary ages.

Host/Associated rock types: Sandstone beds are part of sedimentary sequences, which may include
shale, siltstone, greywacke, limestone and conglomerate. Coal may be associated with
sandstone beds. Limestone beds in sandstone sequences are rather uncommon.

Deposit form: Massive beds of thickness more than 1 metre, may be layered or cross bedded, uniform in
appearance. Deposits commonly extend over areas of at least several square kilometers. Usually
the deposits are horizontal or tilted, rarely folded.

Texture/Structure: Sandstones possessing uniform grain size and a massive, inconspicuous cementing
matrix; they can exhibit bedding and cross bedding features. In outcrop the stone has a smooth
 surface with very few irregularities which would result from preferential weathering, either due
to inhomogeneous composition or the presence of microfractures.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, feldspar, volcanic rock fragments; clay, ferrous and
ferric oxides, chlorite, mica, calcium carbonate, detrital coal.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Clay, silt and mica layers, wispy coal layers,
conglomerate; pyrite, phosphatic nodules, fossil shells.

Alteration mineralogy: Weathering of the sandstone can change ferrous ions into ferric iron
staining or overall colour change. Feldspathic component may alter into a variety of clay
minerals.

Weathering: Sandstone weathering may result both in physical and chemical deterioration. High
porosity sandstones are sensitive to freeze – thaw activity resulting in exfoliation and surface
erosion. Chemical deterioration may affect cementing matrix (carbonate leaching), oxidation of
some components (pyrite) with resulting rusty stains and soluble salts leaching out of the stone
and precipitated as white stains on the surface or enhancing exfoliation activity. Most common
weathering effect, even in the best quality sandstones is changing the bluish colour of fresh
stone into beige or brown as a result of oxidation of ferrous component into ferric. This change
does not have to affect the physical durability of the stone.

Product controls: The primary control is the presence of thicker sandstone beds. Secondary controls are
absence of significant deformation and limited amounts of other rock types.

Genetic model: Shallow continental shelf or inland sea or large lacustrine basin with low energy
environment and a steady supply of well sorted clastic material. After the deposition, the
accumulated sediment has to be cemented either by a chemical process (usually carbonate or
silica) or by a physical compaction.

Associated deposit types: Cement shale (R01), expanding shale (R02), coal (A03, A04, and A05), silica
sandstone/quartzite (R07).

Comments: In British Columbia, sandstone as a building stone was replaced in part by so called
“Haddington Island andesite”, which has very similar look, but much better physical properties
and durability. Sandstones are in general not suitable for polishing and are used with rough or
just plain cut surface. Only some quartzites may have potential for polished ornamental stone
products (Babette Lake quartzite). Use of sandstone in Canada and North America in particular is
very limited, quarried mostly for maintenance and repairs of heritage structures.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: High silica contents and low aluminosilicate and carbonate contents.

Geophysical signature: Resistivity can identify fracture density and bedding features in areas of
insufficient outcrops, also the presence of clay layers and their frequency can be established.
Shallow seismic can identify inhomogeneities in the deposit – like shale layers, weakly cemented
beds and different lithologies.
Other Exploration Guides: Large smooth bedrock exposures in cuts, on valley slopes and along
shorelines lacking fragmented rock are good indicators. An air photo study can identify large
outcrop areas and boulder fields.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Required properties, standard specifications for stone used in construction
and industrial applications, are listed in ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials)
designations, particularly C616. Production volumes in North America are relatively small, in
1998 dimension sandstone production in USA was reported to total 185,000 tonnes, coming
from 30 production centers, with value of approximately US$ 80 per metric tonne. In Canada, six
provinces in 1999 produced 47,000 tonnes, with value of CDN$ 125 per metric tonne.

Economic limitations: The frequency of joints, structural and textural inhomogeneities, presence of shale
interbeds and abundance of irregular and oblique shape fractures are all features that increase
waste and affect the volume of sandstone needed to be removed in recovering square 10 to 20
tonnes blocks. Economic deposits can afford a maximum of 25 to 30 % of waste. The price per
metric tonne does allow for only a minimum waste to saleable block ratio. The presence of
some undesirable minor components like pyrite can produce unsightly stains if in contact with
moisture that diminish the desirability and value of a particular stone. Susceptibility to an
increased rate of deterioration due to smog in the cities or salty air in coastal areas tends to
reduce sandstone demand in such areas. Transportation is a major cost factor in reaching more
distant markets.

Uses: Sandstone is a traditional building stone in many parts of Europe and elsewhere. Originally it was
used as ashlar and construction blocks, lintels, sills, door and window frames and grinding
wheels. Presently sandstone is utilized mostly for maintenance and repair of heritage buildings,
paving and wall facing sheets and ashlar. Flagstone is a common substitute.

Importance: In the past a very important structural material, replaced in the 20th century by more
durable materials. Important stone used for restoration, repairs and maintenance of heritage
structures.

5. References

Barton, W.R. (1968): Dimension Stone. U.S. Bureau of Mines, IC8391, 147 pages.
Bowles, O. and Barton, W.R. (1963): Sandstone as Dimension Stone. U.S. Bureau of Mines, IC 8182, 30
pages.
Burwash, R.A., Cruden, D.M. and Mussieux, R. (2002): The Geology of Parliament Buildings 2. The
Geology of the Alberta Legislative Building. Geoscience Canada, Vol.29, No.4, page 139-146.
Currier, L.W. (1960): Geologic Appraisal of Dimension Stone Deposit. U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin
1109, 78 pages.
Dolley, T.P. (1999): Stone, Dimension; in Mineral Industry Surveys, U.S. Geological Survey, pages 73.1-
73.10.
Harben, P. and Purdy, J. (1991): Dimension Stone Evaluation. From Cradle to Gravestone. Industrial
Minerals, Number 281, pages 47 – 61.
 Lawrence, D.E. (2001): Building Stones of Canada`s Federal Parliament Buildings. Geoscience
Canada, Volume 28, Number. 1, pages 13-30.
Mustard, P.S. (1994): The Upper Cretaceous Nanaimo Group, Georgia Basin; in Geology and Geological
Hazards of the Vancouver Region, Southwestern British Columbia, Monger, J.W.H.,
Editor, Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin 481, pages 27-96.
Parks, W.A. (1917): Report on Building and Ornamental Stones of Canada, Volume V., Province of British
Columbia. Canada Department of Mines, No. 452, 233 pages.
Power, W.R. (1994): Stone, Dimension; in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Carr, D.D., Senior Editor, Society
for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado, page 987 – 1001.
Shadmon, A. (1989): Stone. An Introduction. Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd., London, U.K.,
139 pages.
Vagt, O. (1999): Stone; in Canadian Minerals Yearbook, Minerals and Metals Sector, Natural Resources
Canada, page 51.1 – 51.14.
White, G.V. (1988): Sandstone Quarries Along the Strait of Georgia; B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Geological Fieldwork 1987, Paper 1988 – 1, pages 385-392.
Zdunczyk, M.J. (2002): Dimension Stone: Facts, Fiction, Fractures, Fickled and Future, North American
Minerals News, Metal Bulletin PLC, Issue 83, April 2002, pages 9-12.
R07 - Silica-rich Rocks

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: High silica quartzite, quartz sandstone, silica rock silicastone.

Commodities: Silica sand, lump silica.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Golden (082N001), (082N043),

Longworth (093H038), Bridesville (082ESW144) – Selkirk, Manitoba, Badgley Island, Ontario, St.
Canut, Quebec; Oriskany sandstone, Pennsylvania and West Virginia, St.Peter sandstone, Illinois
and Missouri.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Uniform, massive beds of siliceous sediments, such as sandstone and chert, or their
metamorphic equivalents, like quartzite. These beds are commonly formed in sedimentary
sequences, although some cherts can be found with volcanic rocks. They have high silica
contents with very limited impurities, usually under 1%.

Tectonic settings: Siliceous sediments formed on a shallow continental shelf or deposited in inland seas,
large lacustrine basins or rift zones on the continent. Cherts form in oceanic environments
associated with island arcs and spreading centers. Quartzites found in orogenic belts of all ages.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Siliceous sediments deposited into a low energy

environment slowly sinking or stagnant sedimentary basin. Source area has to be rich in
siliceous sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic rocks to provide a steady supply of well sorted
and weathered clastic material to estuaries along the shoreline. Weathering conditions before
and during transportation should be able to separate resistant quartz from less stable feldspars,
hornblende and pyroxenes, transporation will separate the clay minerals and mica with heavy
minerals from the silica particles. Cherts form in oceanic environments near and distal to
spreading centres and rift zones and along volcanic belts as exhalative deposits. They can also
form as biogenic and/or chemical precipitates of selica gel in an oceanic environment.

Age of mineralization: Precambrian to Tertiary. Modern protolithic facies on the seafloor.

Host/Associated rock types: Siliceous sediments are found with a wide spectrum of clastic and
carbonate rocks, including coal and associated with clay deposits. Cherts are found with felsic to
mafic and ultramafic volcanics and associated greywacke and shale. Quartzites and
metamorphic cherts are found with the metamorphic equivalents of the rocks listed previously.

Deposit form: The siliceous sediments occur as metres thick beds that can extend more than tens of
kilometres, while the chert beds may be up to several tens of metres thick and laterally extend
for hundreds of metres but are frequently discontinuous.
Texture/Structure: Silica-rich sediments typically have uniform grain size, may be well lithified or friable,
and can be layered, cross bedded or massive beds. Massive or rhythmically bedded chert is
found sometimes with argillaceous interbeds and soft sediment deformation features.
Quartzites as metamorphosed equivalents of sandstones or cherts usually display the structure
of the original rock.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz; chert can also have other forms of amorphous and
microcrystalline silica.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Siliceous sediments can contain clay minerals, pyrite,
mica and minor heavy minerals (rutile, sphene, ilmenite, zircon, etc.). Cherts can contain clay
minerals, hematite, manganese oxides, pyrite; rhodonite, rhodochrosite, calcite, barite.

Alternate mineralogy: Fractures can have secondary Fe - Mn hydroxides and/or calcium carbonate.

Weathering: Usually weather resistant, resulting in morphological highs. Only some friable sandstones
result in depressions.

Ore controls: Source terrains that minimize impurities and despositional environments that includes
long or repeated transportation with intensive wear of particles which includes separation from
other silicates like feldspars for example. This may occur both by physical as well as chemical
weathering.

Genetic models: Siliceous sediments form on the shallow continental shelf and in inland seas or large
lacustrine basins with a relatively low energy environment and a steady supply of well sorted
silica sand. After the deposition, the accumulated sediment will be cemented by compaction, a
minor clay component, or introduced secondary silica. Chertsform in deep water oceanic
environment with hydrothermal activity and abundance of radiolarians suggest oceanic
upwelling that enriches water in nutrients., or recrystallized under metamorphic conditions.

Associated deposit types: Siliceous sediments - building stone; cherts - Sedex and VMS deposits, marine
diatomite.

Comments: Crystalline silica in dust form is considered a carcinogenic health hazard. Mineral processing
of alaskite feldspar rocks can produce a very high purity (10 to 200 ppm impurities) silica co-
product.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: In general more than 98% silica with traces of other elements.

Geophysical signature: Only where contrast with host rocks is significant.

Other Exploration Guides: Look for resistant ridges and outcrops and absence of impurities in hand
sample visible to the naked eye.

4. Economic factors
Typical grade and tonnage: Each use has its very specific requirement for the particle size and shape,
physical strength and permissible amounts of different impurities. For lump silica the concerns
are purity, sizing of crushed rock (fracture and bedding density) and contamination by Ca, Fe,
Mn, Ti, Al, Na and K minerals or graphite and silica sand they are friability and size of silica
particles and contamination by Fe, Mn and Al minerals and refractory minerals of Al, Zr, Cr.
Generally silica contents have to be 98% with significant impurities removable by processing.
Which depend on the end use. Even high purity orthoquartzite usually contains minute titanium
minerals which are detrimental for silicon metal (even at 0.2% TiO2). Also, even trace of Ca can
make silica unacceptable for specific end uses. Lasca grade silica may contain impurities in ppm
only. Such contaminants may be absent in oceanic cherts. Individual deposits range from 1
million tonnes to 100 million tonnes.

Economic limitations: While some very specific silica raw materials may be relatively expensive, the
basic types of silica sand or lump silica are low priced, bulk commodities sensitive to
transportation costs. For its main uses, silica sand from sandstones has a number of substitutes
and their use depends on local or regional availability. Silica is available as a co-product or by-
product of feldspar and residual kaolin mining and is produced locally from dune and beach
sands. Foundry sand can be substituted by some other minerals, like olivine, for example.

Uses: Most silica is used in the form of sand to manufacture glass products and as foundry sand. In
North America, about one third is used in glass and one-fifth as foundry sand. The remaining
silica is divided among a multitude of metallurgical and chemical uses, including cement,
ceramics, fillers and blasting sand. Very high quality silica is being used for a long list of synthetic
silicas and silicon chemicals, silicon metal, ferrosilicon and silicon carbide, cultured silica crystals
and silica glass. Silica sand for hydraulic fracturing has to be well rounded and to withstand very
high pressures when pumped into oil and gas wells to enhance the recovery. The past
widespread use of fine grained silica rocks was to make acid refractory bricks (dinas) used in iron
metallurgy. These silica rocks were termed “dinas rock”.

Importance: In the year 2000 Canadian production was 2.0 million tonnes and the United States
produced 28.5 million tones annually. Cement, glass and ceramics are unthinkable without silica,
so is the use as a foundry sand. Most of other applications are less visible, but equally important
for industrial societies.

5. References
Dolley, T.P. (2001): Silica; in Mineral Industry Surveys, U.S. Geological Survey, pages 67.1-67.19.
Dumont, M. (2002): Silica; in Canadian Mineral Yearbook, Minerals and Metals Sector, Natural Resources
Canada, pages 46.1-46.12.
Foye, G. (1987): Silica Occurrences in British Columbia, Open File 1987-15, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines
and Petroleum Resources, 55 pages.
Harben, P.W. (1995): The Industrial Minerals HandyBook, Metal Bulletin PLC, London, UK, 253 pages.
Harben, P.W. and Kuzvart, M. (1996): Industrial Minerals. A Global Geology, Metal Bulletin PLC, London,
UK, 462 pages.
Heinrich, E. W.M. (1981): Geologic Types of Glass-sand Deposits and Some North American
Representatives, Geological Society of America, Bulletin, Volume 92, pages 611-613.
Kendall, T. (2000): Written in Sand. The World of Specialty Silicas, Industrial Minerals, Number
390, Metal Bulletin PLC, London, UK, pages 49-59.
Loughbrough, R. (1993): Silica Sand. The Essential Ingredient; in Skillen, A.D. and Griffiths, J.B., Raw
Materials for the Glass & Ceramic Industries, Consumer Survey, Metal Bulletin PLC, London, UK,
pages 29-35.
Moore, M.A., Morrall, F.J. and Brown, R.C. (1998): Crystalline Silica Issues and Impacts for Industry,
Industrial Minerals, Number 367, Metal Bulletin PLC, London, UK, pages 109-117.
Murphy, T.D. (1960): Distribution of Silica Resources in Eastern United States, U.S. Geological Survey,
Bulletin 1072 – L, pages 657-665.
Zdunczyk, M.J. and Linkous, M.A. (1994): Silica. Industrial Sand and Sandstone; in Carr, D.D., Senior
Editor, Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton,
Colorado, pages 879-911.
R08 - Flagstone

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Paving stone, facing stone, split stone.

Commodities (byproducts): Paving and wall cladding stone, ashlar, roofing slate as a co-product,
(aggregate, landscaping stone).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Nipple Mountain (082ENW109),

Porcupine Creek (082FSW279), Sheep Creek (082FSW288), Revelstoke (082LNE025), McNaab
Creek (092GNW009), Jervis Inlet (092JW029), Dome Creek (093H028), Beaverdell
(082ESW169); Exshaw, Alberta; Coconino sandstone, Arizona; Pennsylvania Bluestone,
Pennsylvania and New York.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Flagstone is a rock, often sedimentary or metasedimentary, that splits into sheets
and slabs with parallel sides due to bedding, schistosity, cleavage, planar weakness or natural
jointing. Flagstone can be of any type of rock as long as it meets the basic requirements of
soundness and resistance to abrasion and weathering.

Tectonic settings: Practically any setting; type of lithified sediments , sand dunes, volcanosedimentary
deposits, schistose metamorphic rocks, magmatic and volcanic rocks.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Clastic and chemical sediments and their metamorphic
equivalents; intrusive and volcanic rocks and their tuffaceous equivalents.

Age of mineralization: Any age - Precambrian to Tertiary.

Host/Associated rock types: Sandstone, siltstone, shale, carbonate rocks; quartzite, gneiss, schist, slate,
marble; granitic rocks, rhyolite, phonolite and related tuffs (particularly zeolitized).

Deposit form: Bedded or schistose unit which may be flat or steeply dipping. Plutonic bodies of intrusive
rocks, lava flows. Deposits of flagstone are usually tens of metres thick by thousands of metres
square.

Texture/Structure: Sedimentary and metasedimentary: Bedded structure with absence of folding or

other irregularities affecting flat surface. Clastic sediments cemented by silica, calcium, calcium
carbonate or by compaction. Foliated metamorphosed equivalents with graphite or mica
separating individual sheets. Igneous: Magmatic rocks may be equigranular or porphyritic. More
commonly the igneous rocks have a blocky or platy structure with large scale open folds, banded
intrusives and flows with preferential parallel splitting.
Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Rocks types that are resistant to weathering due to the
presence of silicate and carbonate minerals and with lack of clays, sulphides and minerals
susceptible to chemical or physical weathering, like cordierite and chlorite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Clay and coaly wisps and layers, carbonate and siliceous
nodules and veinlets, massive thick beds not splitting in a saleable product, different colour
unhomogenities like black nodules and knots, beds or zones with minerals producing unsightly
stains.

Alteration mineralogy: Clay minerals after feldspars, sericite, chlorite, zeolites.

Weathering: Microfractures and presence of clay minerals may result in exfoliation. High porosity can be
frost sensitive. Bi-valent iron component turns into tri-valent form, resulting in colour change
from bluish-green into beige to brown. Common sulphides like pyrite and pyrrhotite, some
biotite and other iron containing minerals oxydize, producing rusty stains and spots. Also the
presence of soluble salts (chloride, sulphate or carbonate) in some rocks (mostly sandstones,
but also limestones and siltstones) can result in unsightly staining and exfoliation.

Product controls: Frequency of bedding planes to produce a standard thickness of the product,
frequency of jointing to allow production of commercial size of sheets and shapes with
minimum waste. Distribution and presence of deleterious minerals affecting the end use and
durability of product in construction trades. Presence of unusable beds, like conglomerate in
sandstone etc.

Genetic models: Sandstone – beach and near shore clastic sediment in low energy environment, deltaic
fans in shallow sea, aeolian deposits, diagenetically cemented by silica, limestone or by
compaction. Quartzite may be the metamorphic equivalent. Laterally may grade into siltstone or
silty limestone. Slate – a clayey, monotonous and uniform deep water sediment with well
developed cleavage as a result of low grade metamorphism. Schist – fine grained clastic or
clayey sediment highly metamorphosed into the muscovite or biotite schist, where mica layers
separate quartz-feldspathic sheets. Limestone – organic or inorganic sediment in a variety of
marine environments, of bedded texture. .As flagstone frequently with many impurities,
sometimes fossiliferous. Beds may be separated by clayey partings. Tuff – air-fall or waterlain,
finegrained volcanic ash cemented by recrystalization, devitrification (zeolitization for example)
or compaction. Igneous rocks – medium to fine grained magmatic rocks, sometimes porphyritic,
of massive or banded texture, with preferential splitting in sheets.

Associated deposit types: Sandstone - coal (A02, A03) , expanding shale, cement shale, dimension
sandstone; slate - schist - slate, quartzite, sandstone, limestone; marble, industrial limestone
(cement and lime, filler); zeolite, diatomite, bentonite, sedimentary kaolin; igneous rocks -
dimension granite, crushed aggregate.

Comments: Some flagstones are produced by cutting or splitting large square blocks of sandstone, slate
and granite. Roofing slate is a type of flagstone that splits into thin sheets.

3. Exploration Guides
Geochemical signature: High silica, feldspar, mica, sometimes carbonates.

Geophysical signature: Not normally used. This is very often a cottage type industry where economics do
not allow expensive exploration methods.

Other Exploration Guides: Good flagstone is indicated by large sheets of stone naturally exposed by
physical weathering.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: For many end uses the most important criteria is previous performance.
While there are ASTM specifications for a number of physical properties required in specific
applications, many popular stones have never been thoroughly tested. Annual production in the
USA is between 130,000 and 140,000 tonnes from some 50 main quarrying site. Established
producers in British Columbia and Alberta were processing in the year 2000 approximately
17,500 tonnes a year from 13 sites.

Economic limitations: Most of the flagstone types are used in local or regional markets, and the use of
some particular stone depends on the personal taste, or sometimes fashion. Also, local
availability is an important factor for choosing one stone over another. Transportation cost has
important role in distributing flagstone to more distant markets. Only few flagstones, of
particularly attractive or a rather unusual colour or texture can reach far away destinations.
Such products are for example so called “Pennsylvania Bluestone” from New York, red or green
slate from Vermont, and “Tyndall Stone” dolomitic limestone from Manitoba.

5. References

Barker, J.M. and Austin, G.S. (1994): Stone, Decorative; in Carr, D.D., Senior Editor, Industrial Minerals
and Rocks, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado, pages 367 – 378.
Bowles, O. and Barton, W.R. (1963): Sandstone as Dimension Stone. U.S. Bureau of Mines, IC 8182, 30
pages.
Currier, L.W. (1960): Geologic Appraisal of Dimension Stone Deposit. U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin
1109, 79 pages.
Dolley, T.P. (1990): Stone, Dimension; in Mineral Industry Surveys, U.S. Geological Survey, pages 73.1-
73.10
Hora, Z.D. (2003): Feldspathic Sandstone Flagstone from near Hudson Hope, Northern British Columbia -
Potential for Sandstone Production in British Columbian; in Geological Fieldwork 2002, British
Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, Paper 2003-1, pages 175-185.
Power, W.R. (1994): Stone, Dimension; in Carr, D.D., Senior Editor, Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Society
for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado, pages 987 – 1001.
Shadmon, A. (1989): Stone. An Introduction. Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd., London, U.K..,
139 pages.
Vagt, O. (1999): Stone; in Canadian Mineral Yearbook, Minerals and Metals Sector, Natural Resources
Canada, page 51.1 – 51.14
R09 - Limestone

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Limerock, cement rock, calcium carbonate.

Commodities (byproducts): Limestone (aggregate, rip-rap, white fillers).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Blubber Bay (092F 397, 479), Lafarge
Limestone (092F 396), Gillies Bay (092F 395), Imperial (092F 394), Bamberton (092B 005),
Benson Lake (092L 295), Pavilion Lake (092INW081), Harper Ranch (092INE001), Lost
Creek (082FSW307), Dahl Lake (093G 032), Ptarmigan Creek (093H 017); Palliser Formation
Cadomin and Exshaw limestones (Alberta), Detroit River Group – Woodstock, Beachville
(Ontario), Trenton Group – Joliette, Beauport, Saint-Constant (Quebec), Mississippian Monte
Cristo limestone, Lucerne Valley, (California, USA), Ordovician Kimmswick limestone, Clarksville
(Missouri, USA).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Calcium carbonate sedimentary rock that occurs in beds, usually tens of metres
thick, with or without minor dolomite. High-grade limestone can be almost pure (less than 1.4%
impurities for chemical lime). Lowest grades of limestone (marlstone) can be used for cement
with as little as 65% calcium carbonate, with contamination by finely disseminated clay and
silica. The limestone may be recrystallized by various degrees of metamorphic grade. Marl and
chalk are poorly lithified forms of limestone.

Tectonic settings: Recent and Ancient continental shelf and subsiding marginal marine basins are the
most common settings; island arc environments also important.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Subtropical and tropical shallow sea environment. Calcium
carbonate, usually slightly magnesian, is the typical primary component; dolomite is rather
uncommon. The original mineral is frequently aragonite, later recrystallized into calcite. During
lithification and diagenesis, under a variety of geological processes, it may be partially or
completely dolomitized (see R10).

Age of rock formation: Late Proterozoic to Holocene, main producers globally are Paleozoic, Mesozoic
and Tertiary.

Host/Associated rock types: Shelf-deposited limestone beds are often found within thicker sedimentary
sequences with associated dolomite, argillite, sandstone and intermediate sedimentary rocks.
Island arc limestone often has a volcanic component, such as tuffaceous rocks, sills, submarine
lava and palagonite breccia. Sometimes found in cherty layers and interbeds.
Deposit form: Lenses, massive beds; folded and unfolded. Thickness of mineable limestone deposits
range from ten to several hundreds of metres. The areal extent of some deposits covers
hundreds of square kilometres.

Texture/Structure: Massive, bedded, fine- to coarse-grained, sometimes with crossbedding features,

sometimes porous, fossiliferous, with stylolites. Interbeds with chert nodules.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Calcium carbonate with minor dolomite, clay, shale and
silica. Some limestones may contain finely dispersed bitumen.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): All types of silicate rocks, chert, pyrite, intrusive dikes
on Texada Island.

Alteration mineralogy: Groundwater dissolution results in karst cavities, which are frequently filled with
clay. Metamorphism recrystallizes the limestone and mobilizes the dispersed bitumen, which
can remain as graphite. With high metamorphic grades, clay and silica will recrystallize into
skarn-like groups of silicate minerals and crystalline silica.

Weathering: Solution weathering results in a variety of karst landforms in most climatic areas, but
intensifies with a warmer climate. Most intensive karstification may produce deposits of
bauxite.

Ore controls: Favourable limestone units often occur in belts that reflect original depositional
environments. Limestone very often forms well-defined stratigraphic and lithological units.
Horizontally, limestone will grade gradually into impure limestone and other sedimentary facies,
which will reduce the value depending on the end use due to the changes in chemical
composition and quantity and type of contaminants. Highly sought white limestone for mineral
fillers is usually a product of the contact or regional metamorphic processes.

Genetic model: Most limestone deposits of economic importance were biologically derived from
seawater as detrital calcium carbonate and accumulated in a relatively shallow marine
environment.The other form is by organic framebuilders like coral and algae as local and
regional reef structures. The environment of deposition determines the size, shape and purity of
the carbonate rock.

Associated deposit types: Deposits of dolomitic limestone and dolomite (R10), marble building stone
(R04).

Comments: A relatively small percentage of limestone contains alumina and other oxides in the right
proportions to make cement and are termed "cement rock". Recrystallization of limestone may
have a significant effect on the limestone use. Particularly coarse crystalline rock may decrepit
during calcinations and make the rock unusable in rotary and vertical kilns. In some African
countries, carbonatites are used in the absence of sedimentary limestone to manufacture both
cement and lime.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: High CaCO3 content.

Geophysical signature: Resistivity has been used to identify karst features in covered terrain.

Other Exploration Guides: Regional belts of sedimentary rocks with limestone potential are the
primary exploration tool. Karst topography and underground streams indicate carbonate units.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Limestone is an extremely versatile industrial rock processed into many end
products. Diverse uses have diverse quality requirements, controlled by specifications on
chemical composition, physical properties, local availability and consistency. Some specifications
deal with the final product and may be controlled during processing (for example, cement).
Other end uses require exact limits in composition or physical properties. There are numerous
ASTM standards and industry specifications defining a typical grade for each particular
application.

The main global limestone uses are cement and lime manufacturing. In 2000, the U.S. produced
15 million tonnes of lime and 83 million tonnes of cement. In the same year, the U.S. imported
25 million tonnes of cement and 113 thousand tonnes of lime.

A typical cement plant in developed countries has a capacity of approximately 1 million tonnes
annually, while a typical lime plant will produce between 100 and 200 thousand tonnes of lime
per year. Because high-grade limestone contains 44% carbon dioxide, a plant requires almost
2 tonnes of limestone for every tonne of product.

In many regions, where rocks of magmatic origin are absent, fine-grained, unmetamorphosed
limestone and dolomite are the most common source of crushed, quarried aggregate. Some of
these types of stone products can be a source of extremely undesirable alkali-aggregate
reactivity. Such reactivity may result in early deterioration of concrete structures.

In filler application, a calcium carbonate and dolomite mix is extremely undesirable due to the
difference in hardness. For many applications, paper in particular, the presence of dolomite
contamination ruins the product.

Economic limitations: In some regions, limestone is mined by underground methods even for uses such
as cement production. Limestone used for paper and fillers requires a high brightness (over
90GE), chemical purity, absence of hard minerals like quartz and absence of graphite or other
colour components. For high-end uses, flotation to remove deleterious components is routine.
Lime is produced from limestone with high calcium carbonte (>9597%) and low MgO (<5%)
contents. The rock must not decrepitate in the kiln during calcination. Cement normally contains
<6% MgO and <0.6% Na2O + K2O in the final product. Transportation is frequently a major
cost of the finished product. Limestone quarries operate near many cities; limestone products
often travel longer distances to markets. For example, white filler-grade limestone in
Washington State is shipped by rail some 600 kilometres from the quarry to the processing
plant. Lime-grade limestone from Texada Island is barged to coastal users from Alaska to
northern California. Cement is imported to many coastal points in the United States from
overseas.
Uses: Cement, lime, soil conditioner, glass, fillers, fluxing agent, acid neutralization. Some limestone is
used for dimension stone and is discussed in profile R04.

Importance: This deposit type accounts for virtually all production of cement and lime in North America.

5. Selected bibliography

Ames, J.A., Cutcliffe, W.E. and Macfadyen, J.D. (1994): Cement and Cement Raw Materials; in Carr, D.D.,
Senior Editor, Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration Inc.,
Littleton, Colorado, pages 296-216.
Carr, D.D., Rooney, L.F. and Freas, R.C. (1994): Limestone and Dolomite; in Carr, D.D., Senior Editor,
Industrial Minerals and Rocks: Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration Inc., Littleton,
Colorado, pages 605–629.
Bates, R.L. (1969): Geology of Industrial Rocks and Minerals; Dover Publications Inc., New York,
459 pages.
Bathurst, R.G.C. (1975): Carbonate Sediments and Their Diagenesis; Elsevier Scientific Publication
Company, New York, 658 pages.
Bowles, O. (1956): Limestone and Dolomite; U.S. Bureau of Mines, IC 7738, 29 pages.
Fischl, P. (1992): Limestone and Dolomite Resources in British Columbia; BC Ministry of Energy, Mines
and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1992-18, 150 pages.
Harben, P.W. (1995): The Industrial Minerals HandyBook; Metal Bulletin PLC, London, UK, 253 pages.
Harben, P.W. and Kuzvart, M. (1996): Industrial Minerals, A Global Geology, Metal Bulletin PLC, London,
UK, 462 pages.
Malhotra, V.M., Program Principal (1991): Petrography and Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity; Course Manual,
CANMET, Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, 509 pages.
Miller, M.M. (2001): Lime; in Mineral Industry Surveys, U.S. Geological Survey, pages 40.140.15.
Soles, J.A., Editor (1990): International Workshop on Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete;
Occurrences, Testing and Control, Proceedings, CANMET, Energy, Mines and Resources Canada,
386 pages.
Van Oss, H.G. (2001): Cement; in Mineral Industry Surveys, U.S. Geological Survey, pages 17.117.19.
Vagt, O. (2002): Cement; in Canadian Mineral Yearbook 2000, Minerals and Metals Sector, Natural
Resources Canada, pages 14.114.8.
Vagt, O. (2002): Lime; in Canadian Mineral Yearbook 2000, Minerals and Metals Sector, Natural
Resources Canada, pages 29.1–29.7.
R10 - Dolomite

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Dolostone, dolomitite, dolospar.

Commodities (byproducts): Dolomite (aggregate, filler). Sometimes dolomite may be a byproduct of

quarrying limestone.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Crawford Creek (082FNE113), Pilot

Point (082FNE075), Oro Viejo (082M 254), Rock Creek (082ESE200), / Gunton, Stonewall, Stony
Mountain (Manitoba), Guelph, Bruce Peninsula (Ontario), Portage-du-Fort, Havre-Saint-Pierre
(Quebec), Kelly Cove (Nova Scotia), Addy, Keystone (Washington), St.Paul, Minneapolis
(Minnesota), Thornton, Joliet, Kankakee (Illinois),York (Pennsylvania),Sussex and Somerset Co.
(New Jersey) USA; United Kingdom; Italy; France.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: A bedded or massive carbonate sedimentary rock that occurs as tabular bodies
concordant with stratigraphy and beds up to tens of metres thick and zones controlled by faults
and permeable zones. Dolomite contains more than 90% of the mineral dolomite and is usually
a finely crystalline and slightly porous rock. Calcite is the most common other mineral.

Tectonic settings: Dolomite is more common in Recent and Ancient continental shelf and
subsiding marginal marine environment, however, economically attractive deposits also occur in
island arc environments.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Dolomite is most common as a secondary replacement of

marine sediments that were a slightly magnesian calcium carbonate that was frequently
aragonite originally and later recrystallized into calcite. Circulating ground water (sea water,
hypersaline brine, pore water) containing magnesium reacted with the calcium carbonate to
produce dolomitic limestones and dolomites. Dolomite may also form as a primary sediment,
but this is not very common.

Age of mineralization: Dolomite can be any age, but the ages of dolomitization for secondary deposits
often are not well defined. Large scale regional dolomitization in western Canada has been
linked to fluid circulation taking place during Devono-Mississippian and late Cretaceous-Tertiary
periods. Generally these deposits are believed to be concurrent with large scale tectonic
activity.

Host/Associated rock types: Dolomites are often found within thicker sedimentary sequences with
associated limestones, dolomitic limestones, argillites, sandstones and evaporates. In island
arcs, dolomites often have a volcanic component, such as tuffaceous rocks, sills, submarine
lavas, palagonite breccias and sometimes cherty layers and interbeds.
Deposit form: Large tabular bodies concordant with stratification that may be up to several tens of
metres thick and extend for hundreds to thousands of metres. There are also regional
nonconformable dolomitized zones, sometimes controlled by faults and by permeability of both
the host and adjacent sedimentary units.

Texture/Structure: Finely to medium grained, crystalline, sucrosic texture, sometimes retaining textures
like fossils and laminations of original limestone. Solution-collapse breccias and replacement
zones are usually a medium grained, white, granular texture.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Dolomite / quartz, brucite, calcite, chert, kaolinite, illite,
sometimes bitumen.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Limestone and dolomitic limestone.

Alteration mineralogy: Dolomite is typically an alteration product. It may be accompanied by a variety of

sulphides (pyrite, sphalerite, galena), Fe-Mn-Mg-Ca carbonates, chlorite, barite, gypsum or
anhydrite and fluorspar. High temperature/low pressure metamorphism may result in
converting dolomite into a mixture of periclase (Mg0) and calcite. Periclase in nature easily
alters into brucite Mg(OH)2.

Weathering: In outcrop dolomitic layers in limestone may have a positive relief because of their lower
solubility. Common to see concentrations of iron in the rims of individual dolomite crystals
which result in the brown-yellow colour of dolomite outcrops. Because of higher porosity, some
secondary dolomites are more susceptible to physical weathering and outcrops have frequently
sandy talus developments (because of the sugary texture).

Ore controls: Ore control reflects the mode and intensity of dolomitization. In some deposits a primary
control is the chemical composition of the carbonate rock, in some others it is the upper and
lower limits of the original limestone bed. For some deposits, the locations where fluid
pathways along faults and permeable zones intersect reactive carbonate rocks are the control
on the location of the replacement zones.

Genetic model: A number of models for dolomitization have been suggested by the scientific
community.
• Hypersaline water from a shelf lagoon percolated through the underlying sediment,
transforming calcium carbonate into dolomite.
• Burial compaction resulting in expulsion of pore water containing Mg2+ from shales may react
with
adjacent limestones to form dolomite.
• Elevated topography of a mountain thrust belt provides the hydrodynamic potential for gravity-
driven meteoric fluids which became enriched in soluble components, including Mg2+, that react
with calcium carbonate beds in the subsurface to form stratiform dolomite zones.
• Tectonic loading and compression during the buildup of orogenic thrust belts may cause the
rapid expulsion of formation fluids into the foreland basins and bring the necessary Mg2+ to
react with limestone deposits in the basin.

The two models listed below are currently the most popular explanation for most of global
dolomites.
 • Dolomitization can occur within the mixing zone of phreatic sea water with fresh groundwater.
The Mg2+ions for dolomitization are derived primarily from seawater. The delivery mechanism is
the
continual circulation of seawater induced by the flow of fresh groundwater.
• Deep convection circulation of basinal brines has been invoked for forming some regional
subsurface dolomites. Deep crustal scale convection of meteoric ground waters to 10 kilometres
depth appears to have been the dominant subsurface flow during Early Tertiary time in
southeastern B.C. Thermal convection can support long-lived flow systems that are capable of
cycling subsurface solutions many times through the rock mass. Alternately thermal convection
can occur in strata beneath the sea bed, the sea water-derived solutions would be continuously
added to the system to provide an ongoing source of magnesium.

Associated deposit types: Mississippi Valley Type Pb, Zn (E12), barite (E17) and fluorspar (E11) deposits,
limestone (R09), accumulations of oil and natural gas, hydrogen sulphide.

Comments: Most dolomite production is as quarried rock for use as aggregate which relies mainly on its
physical properties.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: High magnesium in carbonate rock.

Geophysical signature: While karst features in dolomite are rather uncommon, resistivity and gravity
could be used to outline karst affected areas.

Other Exploration Guides: Sometimes yellow or brown colour of outcrops, sandy talus. Because of lower
solubility, dolomite does not fizz with diluted hydrochloric acid.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Commercial dolomite must be very high purity carbonate rock, and almost
stochiometric in composition (30.4% CaO and 21.9% MgO). Industry specifications are set for
the calcined product – i.e. a dolomitic lime. Depending on the end use, the limits for impurities
are usually between 0.1 and 4.5 % Fe2O3, SiO2 between 0.5 and 1.0%, and Al2O3 between 0.3 and
0.8%.

Economic limitations: Information on dolomite production is difficult to obtain. In mineral statistic data,
dolomite is covered together with limestone, and individual uses are frequently confidential. It is
estimated, that USA and Canada together produce 500,000 tonnes of calcined dolomite
annually. The quantity of dolomite used as a granular or ground industrial product is not
relatively small. Dolomite used for magnesium metal may be as much as one million tonnes
annually, but is gradually being replaced by other sources, such as seawater. Some limestone
operators produce dolomite and limestone from different beds as coproducts.

Uses: Refractory products, magnesium metal ore, dolomitic lime, glass, desulphurization of coal, iron
and steel, smelter flux, variety of fillers, mineral wool, agriculture soil conditioner.
Importance: As a source of magnesium to improve a fluidity of molten product, like in mineral wool.
float glass, slag in metallurgical process very important. As agriculture soil conditioner the
magnesium content improves the neutralizing power, and helps to retain the soil nutrients
better than pure limestone. In many other end uses dolomite can be substituted by some other
industrial minerals.

5. References

Anani, A. (1984): Applications of Dolomites. Industrial Minerals, Number 205, pages 45-55.
Bathurst, R.G.C. (1975): Carbonate Sediments and their Diagenesis, Elsevier Scientific Publishing
Company, 658 pages.
Bowles, O. (1956): Limestone and Dolomite, U.S. Bureau of Mines, IC 7738, 29 pages.
Carr, D.D., Rooney, L.F. and Freas, R.C. (1994): Limestone and Dolomite, on Carr, D.D., Senior Editor,
Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton,
Colorado, pages 605-629.
Cervato, C. (1990): Hydrothermal Dolomitization of Jurassic-Cretaceous Limestones in the Southern Alps
(Italy): Relation to Tectonics and Volcanism, Geology, v.18, pages 458-461.
Colby, S.F. (1941): Occurrences and Uses of Dolomite in the United States, U.S. Bureau of Mines, IC
7192, 21 pages.
Fischl, P. (1992): Limestone and Dolomite Resources in British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Open File 1992 – 18, 150 pages.
Goudge, M.F. (1934): Limestones of Canada. Part II Maritime Provinces, Canada Department of Mines,
No.742, 186 pages.
Goudge, M.F. (1935): Limestones of Canada. Part III Quebec, Canada Department of Mines, No. 755, 274
pages.
Goudge, M.F. (1938): Limestones of Canada. Part IV Ontario, Canada Department of Mines, No. 781, 362
pages.
Goudge, M.F. (1944): Limestones of Canada, Part V Western Canada, Canada Department of Mines,
No.811, 233 pages.
Hopkins, D.A. (1985): Refractory Dolomite Production in a Geologically Complex Area, in Glaser, J.D. and
Edwards, J., Editors, Proceedings, Twentieth Forum on the Geology of Industrial Minerals,
Maryland Geological Survey, Special Publication No.2, pages 117-124.
Machel, H.G. (1987): Saddle Dolomite as a By-Product of Chemical Compaction and Thermochemical
Sulfate Reduction, Geology, Volume 15, pages 936-940.
Machel, H.G. (2005): Investigations of Burial Diagenesis in Carbonate Hydrocarbon Reservoir Rocks,
Geoscience Canada, Volume 32, pages 103-128.
Morrow, D. (1982): Diagenesis 1. Dolomite – Part 1: The Chemistry of Dolomitization and Dolomite
Precipitation, Geoscience Canada, Volume 9, Number 1, pages 5-13.
Morrow, D. (1982): Diagenesis 2. Dolomite – Part 2 Dolomitization Models and Ancient Dolostones,
Geoscience Canada, Volume 9, Number 2, pages 95-107.
Morrow, D. (1998): Regional Subsurface Dolomitization: Models and Constraints, Geoscience Canada,
Volume 25, Number 2, pages 57-70.
Nelson, J.A., Paradis, S., Christensen, J. and Gabites, J. (2002): Canadian Cordilleran Mississippi Valley-
Type Deposits: A Case for Devonian-Mississippian Back-Arc Hydrothermal Origin, Economic
Geology, Volume 97, pages 1013-1036.
Nesbitt, B.E. and Muehlenbachs, K. (1994): Paleohydrogeology of the Canadian Rockies and Origins of
Brines, Pb-Zn deposits and Dolomitization in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin, Geology,
Volume 22, pages 243-246.
O`Driscoll, M. (1988): Dolomite - More than Crushed Stone, Industrial Minerals, Number 252, pages 37-
63.
Qing, H. and Mountjoy, E. (1992): Large-scale Fluid Flow in the Middle Devonian Presqu`ile Barrier,
Western Canada Sedimentary Basin, Geology, Volume 20, pages 903-906.
Simandl, G.J., Paradis, S. and Irvine, M. (2007): Brucite – Industrial Mineral With a Future, Geoscience
Canada, Volume 34, Number 2, pages 57-64.
Smith, A. (1983): Dolomite – Steel Upturn Casts Ray of Hope, Industrial Minerals, Number 190, pages 21-
40.
Weitz, J.H. (1942): High-Grade Dolomite Deposits of the United States, U.S. Bureau of Mines, IC 7226, 86
pages.
R11 - Volcanic Ash/Cinder and Pumice

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Volcanic scoria, volcanic ejecta, agglomerate, pyroclastics, lapilli, tuff.

Commodities (byproducts): Lightweight aggregate, landscaping aggregate, anti-skid sand, stonewashing

pumice, "lava (barbecue) rock", pozzolan, abrasive powders, absorbents, insulation fill, filler,
filtration media.

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): PUMICE - Mt. Meager (092JW040),

Salal Creek (092JW039), Mt. Meager, Bridge River ash, Nazco (093G1/4), Wells Grey Park; Bend
(Oregon), Mono Crater, San Bernardino (California), Flagstaff (Arizona), Grant, Albuquerque
(New Mexico), Lipari (Italy), Thyra (Greece), Haparangi, Waitahanaui, Mihi (New Zealand).
CINDER – Nazco (093G/4), Wells Grey Park, Flagstaff (Arizona),Grant, Albuquerque (New
Mexico), San Bernardino (California).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Unconsolidated pumice, cinder and other pyroclastic deposits are usually found
near a volcanic vent or edifice. It is typically the vesicular pyroclastic material that is exploited
because of its appearance or attractive strength to weight ratio. Pumice occurs in felsic
pyroclastic flows, air-fall blankets and flow domes; cinder usually forms basaltic pyroclastic
tephra cones and blankets.

Tectonic settings: Volcanic arcs and rift zone belts.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Pumice in calderas, lava flow dome complexes and
Plinian-type central eruptions. Blanket deposits are found in the vicinity of stratovolcanoes.

Age of rock formation: Any age, although preserved deposits are commonly Tertiary to recent. In
Canada, older deposits are commonly eroded by glaciation.

Host/Associated rock types: Ash, lapilli and agglomerate pyroclastic deposits. Associated with lava flows,
high-level dikes, ash flows and flow domes. All these rock types can vary in composition from
rhyolite to basalt.

Deposit form: Cinder cones can be elliptical or circular in plan view, or elongated in the case of a fissure
vent. Individual cones can be up to hundreds of metres high and more than a kilometre in
diameter. The largest cinder cone in USA and Canada, located near Flagstaff, Arizona, is 1
kilometre in diameter and 200 metres in height. Larger cinder cones may be seen in active
volcanic regions. Airfall ejecta form blankets composed of multiple units that can be 5 to 13
metres thick (Bend, Oregon). The Mazama ash covers area of 5 200 square kilometres with
thicknesses of 1 to 3 metres.
Texture/Structure: Clinker-like, rough, irregular fragments of lava thrown out by explosive eruption.
Pumice and cinder are composed of vesicular, volcanic glass that may contain minor
phenocrysts of feldspar, various forms of quartz, mica and/or a number of ferromagnesian
minerals. Pyroclastic flows, flow domes and sometimes cinder cones consist of unsorted particle
sizes. Air-fall blankets are usually sorted with particle size decreasing with distance from the
eruption centre and intensity of the eruption.

Ore: Pumice, cinder, volcanic ash, bombs, blocks.

Gangue (Principal and subordinate): Waste consists of altered, fractured and unsound rock; stone
containing inhomogenities, like blacks knots and aggregates of mafic minerals; and any minerals
that upon weathering could produce stains, e.g. pyrite, chalcopyrite.

Alteration mineralogy: Clay minerals, alunite, zeolites, hematite, limonite.

Weathering: Weathered pyroclastics may deteriorate physically into smaller, dust-sized particles and
chemically into palagonite, clay minerals, limonite, jarosite and alunite. In both cases, this can
reduce the value of the material significantly.

Ore controls: Pumice, a product of highly viscous rhyolite magma, commonly forms an ash-fall blanket
surrounding the source vent. Its thickness depends on intensity and longevity of eruption. Large
volumes of pumice and pumiceous rhyolite also accumulate in the upper parts of rhyolite and
obsidian flow domes, as well in ash-flow tuffs in calderas. Volcanic cinder, because of low
viscosity and higher density of the mafic magma, is more concentrated in proximity to the vent
as cone-shaped deposits.

Genetic model: The formation of highly vesicular rocks involves the interplay of temperature, viscosity,
gas pressure and gas diffusion rates within the erupting magma, and external conditions, such as
wallrock permeability, water influx and vent blockage. Conditions that reduce gas escape may
lead to violent eruptions, during which the suddenly released pressure results in the expansion
of volatiles in frothy masses of expelled lava. These cool quickly in the atmosphere to form glass
fragments with innumerable bubble cavities. Basaltic magmas tend to be relatively fluid,
allowing more gases to escape and producing less vesicular ejecta (cinder). Silicic magmas are
more viscous and offer less opportunity for gas to escape. Therefore, pumice can be extremely
vesicular and can float in water. In rhyolite flow domes, pumiceous rhyolite flow breccias are
associated with perlite or obsidian flows and felsic dikes.

Associated deposit types: Perlite (R12), open and closed system zeolites (D01, D02), andesite dimension
stone (R05). Secondary deposits are produced by erosion of primary deposits and subsequent
deposition in stream and river beds, for example, in Kansas and Oklahoma, USA, or along the
Waikato and Wanganui Rivers in New Zealand.

Comments: Free silica is a potential health hazard in rhyolite pumice, and dusty material must be
handled accordingly. Natural clinker, rocks heated by burning underground coal seams, can be
used as an alternative to volcanic cinder.

3. Exploration Guides
Geochemical signature: For pumice, look for rhyolite compositions.

Geophysical signature: Ground penetrating radar can delineate structure and thickness of a pyroclastic
deposit. Shallow seismic surveys can help to outline the presence of lave flows or dikes in cinder
cones, as well as the boundary between pumiceous rhyolite and non-porous rock facies.

Other Exploration Guides: Proximity to volcanic vents, particularly on the downwind side; areas with
remnant volcanic edifices. Remote sensing and air photo interpretation are useful to map the
limits of cinder and pumice blanket areas.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Deposits range in size from 10 000 to 10 million tonnes, although
occasionally, deposits may reach 400 million tonnes in size. The average production from a
single deposit in western USA is approximately 35 000 tonnes per year for cinder and 10 000
tonnes per year for pumice. Use of a lightweight aggregate has several ASTM specifications for
particle sizing and unit weight. So do some specific end uses, like stone washing, for example.

Economic limitations: Lightweight aggregate transportation costs ultimately determine the geographic
extent of the market as it can be substituted by expanded shales and similar products. Only
specialty products, like ‘barbecue lava rock’, stone washing pumice, absorbents, landscaping
cinder and filter media can reach more distant markets. The demand for these specialty
products is only a fraction of total production.

Uses: The main use for pumice is as lightweight aggregate in concrete and masonry, with smaller
quantities consumed for in horticulture, stone washing, abrasives and filter media, and
pozzolan. Volcanic cinder is also used as lightweight aggregate, in landscaping, as road and
highway aggregate and for skid control on icy highways.

Importance: Regionally important as a specialty aggregate, but represents only a small portion of the
overall aggregate market in North America (0.1% in the year 2000).

5. Selected bibliography

Bolen, W.P. (2001): Pumice and Pumicite; in Mineral Industry Surveys, U.S. Geological Survey, pages
60.1–60.7.
Bryan, D. (1987): Natural Lightweight Aggregates of the Southwest; in Proceedings of the 21st Forum on
the Geology of Industrial Minerals, Pierce, H.W., Editor, Arizona Bureau of Geology and Mineral
Technology, Special Paper 4, pages 55-63.
Geitgey, R.P. (1994): Pumice and Volcanic Cinder; in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Carr, D.D., Senior
Editor, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., Littleton, Colorado, pages 803-813.
Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals. Geology and World Deposits, Metal Bulletin Plc,
London, U.K., 312 pages.
Harben, P.W. and Kuzvart, M. (1996): Industrial Minerals. A Global Geology, Metal Bulletin Plc, London,
U.K., 46 pages.
Hora, Z.D. and Hancock, K.D. (1995): Nazco Cinder Cone and a New Perlite Occurrence, BC Ministry of
Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1995-1, pages 405-410.
Osburn, J-A.C. (1982): Scoria Exploration and Utilization in New Mexico; in Austin, G.S., Editor, Industrial
Rocks and Minerals of the Southwest, New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources,
Circular 182, pages 57-59.
Read, P.B. (1990): Mount Meager Complex, Garibaldi Belt, Southwestern British Columbia. Geoscience
Canada, Volume 17, pages 167-170.
Sutherland Brown, A. (1969): Aiyansh Lava Flow, British Columbia, Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences,
Volume 6, Number 6, pages 1460– 1468.
Thompson, B., Brathwaite, B. and Christie, T. (1995): Pumice; in Mineral Wealth of New Zealand;
Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences Limited, Information Series 33, pages 135-136.
Wilkerson, G. and Hoffer, J. (1995): Pumice for Stone-washed and Acid-washed Textiles: Benton Pumice
Beds, Mono County, California; in Tabilio M. and Dupras D.L., Editors, 29th Forum on the
Geology of Industrial Minerals: Proceedings, California Department of Conservation, Special
Publication 110, pages 119–122.
R12 - Perlite

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Onion skin rhyolitic glass, pitchstone, obsidian.

Commodities (byproducts): Expanding perlite (pumice, foundry flux, synthetic zeolite feedstock)

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE) - Canada/International): Frenier (092O 072), Francois Lake (093K
001), Uncha Lake (093F 026), Mount Tuzo (Quebec), No Agua, Grants, Socorro (New Mexico,
USA), Caliente (Nevada, USA), Malad City (Idaho, USA), Greece, Italy, Turkey.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Hydrated volcanic glass, usually of rhyolite composition, formed through secondary
alteration by the incorporation of water into the glass/silica structure. It is often distinguished
by vitreous, pearly luster and concentric (onion skin) fractures. When heated, it will expand up
to ten to forty times its original volume.

Tectonic settings: Orogenic rift belts and volcanic arcs.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Rapidly cooled volcanic rocks of rhyolite composition

occurring as the glassy parts of domes and flows, vitric tephra, chill margins of dikes and sills,
and welded ash-flow tuffs.

Age of mineralization: Normally Tertiary through middle Quaternary, occasionally older.

Host/Associated rock types: Perlite is hosted by flow domes and lava flows of rhyolite composition. Most
obsidian contains less than 1% of total water (water left after heating to 105°C), the hydration of
perlite increases the water content level to 2 to 5%, but may reach as much as 10%. It is
associated with vitric tephra, ash-flow tuffs, pumiceous rhyolite and pumicite.

Deposit form: Perlite deposits are very irregular in shape, reflecting the original extent of the glassy
volcanic rock and the zones that have experienced significant hydration. The boundaries are
usually gradational from perlite to obsidian to devitrified volcanic glass to a crystalline felsite
core. Perlite deposits are usually measured in hundreds of metres in horizontal dimensions and
metres to tens of metres in the vertical dimension. Big Pine deposit in California has a perlite
thickness of 27 metres; Picketpost Mountain in Arizona is 2 to 17 metres thick. The No Agua
Peaks deposit in New Mexico is considered the largest in North America and is 50 metres thick,
covering 10 square kilometres. The Socorro perlite deposit in New Mexico is 200 metres thick
and covers an area of 0.7 square kilometres.

Texture/Structure: Many flows and domes are texturally zoned, reflecting the rapid cooling of exterior
surfaces and slower crystallization within the interior. The glass mantle can occur at the base,
margin, and/or near the top of the flow. Hydration and resulting perlitic cracks due to expansion
 by the incorporation of water are superimposed on primary textures of flow. Perlite can have
classical, concentric, and arcuate onion skin-like fractures with remnant obsidian kernels; a
granular texture with obsidian remnants absent; or a pumiceous and vesicular character.

Ore: Expandable hydrated siliceous volcanic glass. Most commercial perlites are ‘high silica rhyolites’
with 75 to 77.5% of SiO2. In a few countries, obsidian and pitchstone are also expanded.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Non-hydrated obsidian, devitrified glass, microlites or
small phenocrysts of feldspar, mica and quartz; sometimes with chalcedony and clay fracture
filling.

Alteration mineralogy: Since volcanic glass is unstable, devitrification changes Tertiary age or older
volcanic glass into a microcrystalline equivalent (there may be some rare exceptions of older
volcanic glass being preserved). Hydrothermal alteration can introduce clay minerals and/or
chalcedony and can produce deposits of halloysite.

Weathering: Because of high fracture density, exposed perlite is highly susceptible to both physical and
chemical weathering. Chemical weathering can be very fast in humid and temperate climate
conditions. Weathering products such as palagonite, clay minerals and calcium carbonate are
commonly present as infilling of cracks and fissures. Excessive fines and clay presence may
render the perlite deposit uneconomic.

Ore controls: Perlite forms carapaces that partially or fully comprise extrusive domes and flows, tephra
and tuff beds, where percolating meteoric water had access to hydrate the glassy volcanic
material. Since felsic flows are viscous, most perlite deposits from proximal to the volcanic vent.

Genetic model: Glassy component of rhyolite volcanic rocks wherever accessible to percolating meteoric
water, mostly on top, but sometimes also at the bottom of the dome flow. Hydration of obsidian
and the formation of perlite is a gradual process, coincident with the inward migration of
meteoric water into glass selvages and its incorporation into glass structure as molecular water.
Hydration rate slows with decreasing temperature and with increasing calcium and magnesium
content in the glass. The rate increases with increasing silica content.

Associated deposit types: Pumice, pumiceous rhyolite (R11).

Comments: Petrological definition of perlite covers all glass with perlitic texture, including the non-
expanding varieties. The presence of crystalline silica is considered as a potential health hazard,
and the product has to be controlled and handled accordingly. Some perlites are sensitive to
decrepitation. This can be controlled by preheating and by adjusting the temperature regime
during the expansion process.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Felsic volcanics with more than 65% silica, preferably greater, up to 75%; water
contents of 2 to 10%.

Geophysical signature: Hydrated glass can be distinguished from non-hydrated obsidian by electrical
properties.
Other Exploration Guides: A small portable blow torch is the most effective field test. A potential perlite
either expands or decrepitates; non-expanding rock just glows red. Detailed mapping must
delineate rock types, perlite textures and the abundance of contaminants, such as clay, felsite,
phenocrysts and obsidian. A great variability of textures and zonation require careful deposit
modeling. For drilling the potential deposit, the core diameter must be large enough to ensure
high and representative core recovery.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Average perlite has an expanded density between 20 and 40 kg per cubic
metre. Some deposits can contain up to 15% non-perlite material. The quality of perlite
products is controlled by performance standards developed by the Perlite Institute, as well as
ASTM specifications. Deposits range in size from less than 5 Mt to more than 100 Mt. The
Frenier deposit produced 6000 tonnes over 3 years from an inferred reserve of 3.8 Mt. In New
Zealand, the Maungaiti dome, and at Awana, on Great Barrier Island, there are 20 Mt and 100
Mt of inferred resources respectively. Annual production in North America is reported between
500 000 and 600 000 tonnes annually. It comes from 10 production centres in western USA.

Economic limitations: Perlite is usually mined from open pits (the Caliente deposit in Nevada is
underground) and processed in expanding plants located in market areas. Raw perlite is shipped
by truck, or by rail and boat to more distant processing plants. The average capacity of an
expanding plant is about 10 000 tonnes per year. As a relatively large volume product, perlite
products are sensitive to transportation costs.

Uses: Crushed perlite is heated to between 900 and 1200°C to create steam in the molten rock that
produces gas bubbles. The product is cooled to form globules of artificial pumice. The light,
fluffy globules are known commercially as ‘perlite’ and marketed with different brand names.
They have a porous texture with low density and thermal conductivity and high sound
absorption and chemical stability. Construction uses, such as insulation products and acoustic
tile, accounted for 66% of North American consumption in the late 1990s. Horticulture and a
variety of fillers accounted for 19%, and filter aid products make up the remaining 15%.

Importance: Important for horticulture and for construction products. Expanded perlite has a very
limited number of substitutes; therefore, it can be shipped considerable distances. For example,
Greece has exported perlite to the eastern seaboard of North America, while New Mexico
supplies Canada and numerous eastern US locations.

5. Selected bibliography

Austin, G.S. and Barker, J.M. (1994): Production and Marketing of Perlite in the Western United States;
in Tabilio. M. and Dupras, D.L., Editors, 29th Forum on the Geology of Industrial Minerals:
Proceedings, California Department of Conservation, Special Publication 110, pages 39-68.
Barker, J.M., Chamberlin, R.M., Austin, G.S. and Jenkins, D.A. (1996): Economic Geology of Perlite in New
Mexico; in Hoffman, G. K., Barker, J. M., Zidek, J., and Gilson, N. [Editors], Proceedings of the
31st Forum on the Geology of Industrial Minerals-The Borderland Forum, New Mexico Institute
of Mining and Technology, Bulletin 154, pages 165–170.
Barker, J.M. and Bodycomb, F. (1996): Perlite Markets: Expanding … Or Not?; in notes for Industrial
Minerals '96, conference in Toronto organized by Blendon Information Services, October,19
pages.
Bolen, W.P. (2001): Perlite; in Mineral Industry Surveys, U.S. Geological Survey, pages 56.1–56.7.
Chamberlin, R.M. and Barker, J.M. (1996): Genetic Aspects of Commercial Perlite Deposits in New
Mexico; in Austin G.S., Hoffman, G.K., Barker, J.M., Zidek J. and Gilson, N., [Editors], Proceedings
of the 31st Forum on the Geology of Industrial Minerals – The Borderland Forum, New Mexico
Institute of Mining and Technology, Bulletin 154, pages 171–186.
Gunning, D.F. and McNeal & Associates Consultants Ltd. (1994): Perlite Market Study; BC Ministry of
Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1994-21, 44 pages.
Friedman, I., Smith, R.L. and Long, W.D. (1966): Hydration of Natural Glass and Formation of Perlite,
Geological Society of America, Bulletin, Volume 77, pages 323–328.
Harben, P.W. and Kuzvart, M. (1996): Industrial Minerals. A Global Geology, Metal Bulletin PLC, London,
UK, 462 pages.
Rotella, M. and Simandl, G.J. (2003): Marilla Perlite – Volcanic Glass Occurrence, British Columbia; in
Geological Fieldwork 2002, B.C. Ministry of Energy and Mines, Paper 2003-1, pages 165–174.
Thompson, B., Brathwaite, B. and Christie, T. (1995): Pumice; in Mineral Wealth of New Zealand;
Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences Limited, Information Series 33, page 133.
White, G.V. (2001): Perlite in British Columbia; in Dunlop, S. and Simandl, G., Editors, Industrial Minerals
in Canada, Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, Special Volume 53, pages
59–65.
Whitson, D.N. (1982): Geology of the Perlite Deposit at No Agua Peaks, New Mexico; in Austin, G.S.,
Editor, Industrial Rocks and Minerals of the Southwest, New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral
Resources, Circular 182, pages 89–96.
R13 - Nepheline Syenite

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Undersaturated granitoids.

Commodities (byproducts): Nepheline syenite (magnetite, apatite).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International):

· Sodium Feldspar-rich: Trident Mountain (082M173), Mount Copeland (082M002);
Blue Mountain, (Ontario), Fourche Mountain, Arkansas, Wind Mountain, New Mexico, Stjernoy
Island, Norway, Khibina Massif, Russia.
· Potassium Feldspar-rich: No producers yet. Kruger Mountain (082ESW106), Barriere (092P 159).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Sodium Feldspar Rich: Small alkalic intrusive bodies of white, granular feldspathic
rocks composed essentially of soda and potash feldspars and nepheline, with accessory biotite,
hornblende, magnetite, apatite, sodalite and cancrinite.

Tectonic settings: Nepheline syenites are found in continental settings and at convergent plate
boundaries.
· Sodium Feldspar-rich: Continental environment generally associated with extensional faulting and
major rift zones and grabens that can control extensive alkaline igneous provinces. Economic
deposits of nepheline and apatite are associated with this setting.
· Potassium Feldspar-rich: In orogenic belts, commonly oceanic volcanic island arcs overlying oceanic
crust. Magmatism with alkalic composition varies from gabbro to nepheline syenite. The
magmas are introduced inboard parallel to the axis of the arc that coincides with deep-seated
faults.

Depositional environment/Geological setting:

· Sodium Feldspar-rich: Intrusive bodies and plugs, differentiated ring complexes frequently
associated with carbonatites; sills, dikes and layered intrusives that intrude Precambrian to
Mesozoic continental clastic and carbonate rocks. Many known ages predate major regional
unconformities and may be manifestations of crustal upwelling and extension.
· Potassium Feldspar-rich: High level stock emplacement levels in magmatic arcs. The high level stocks
and related dikes intrude their coeval and cogenetic volcanic equivalents.

Age of mineralization:
· Sodium Feldspar-rich: Mid-Proterozoic to Eocene. Recent volcanoes along the Kenya Rift.
· Potassium Feldspar-rich: Archean to Cretaceous, in Canadian Cordillera mostly Late Triassic to Early
Jurassic.

Host/Associated rock types:

· Sodium Feldspar-rich: A broad spectrum of sedimentary rocks and their metamorphic equivalents /
carbonatite complexes with a variety of nepheline containing intrusive rocks, fenites.
· Potassium Feldspar-rich: Multiple emplacement of successive intrusive phases with composition
from alkalic gabbro to syenite. The most undersaturated nepheline normative rocks commonly
contain pseudoleucite. Volcanic equivalents are mostly basic in composition and only rarely
phonolite.

Deposit form: Sodium Feldspar-rich: Intrusive bodies in a variety of shapes, including dikes, sills, stocks
and small plutons and layered complexes. Two production centres in Ontario are mining 200 to
300 metre wide zones of biotite/magnetite/muscovite facies of a nepheline syenite intrusion.
The intrusion is 1 by 4 kilometres at surface; with a 400 metre wide apophysis extending 6
kilometres to the southwest. In Norway, an underground mine is exploiting a
hornblende/pyroxene facies of nepheline syenite, which forms about 80% of lenticular body
1800 metres long and up to 300 metres wide.

Texture/Structure: A typical nepheline syenite ore deposit is a relatively uniform rock consisting of
albite, microcline, nepheline and a few percent of mafic minerals, namely magnetite, biotite and
hornblende. The rock is typically white, medium grained, with an open granitic texture. The rock
mined in Norway is well foliated. For commercial use in glass and ceramics the mafic minerals
must be coarse grained enough to allow for separation at about 20 mesh. Under the
microscope, the texture may suggest a metasomatic process had a role in the rock`s
composition.

Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate):

· Sodium Feldspar-rich: Albite, microcline and nepheline, often apatite, magnetite; cancrinite,
sodalite, calcite. In some nepheline syenites, apatite with zirconium and titanium minerals can
attain rock-forming proportions.
· Potassium Feldspar-rich: Magnetite and apatite may form high grade accumulations of economic
interest.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate):

· Sodium Feldspar–rich: Magnetite, biotite, hornblende; zircon, corundum, pyroxene, sphene, apatite.
· Potassium Feldspar-rich: Pyrite in apatite/magnetite deposits.

Weathering: The weathered surface varies from a dove-grey to distinctly bluish colour. This and the
pitted surface are the most distinctive characteristics for recognition in the field. Intense lateritic
weathering of nepheline syenite may produce economic deposits of bauxite (for example, Pocos
de Caldas, Brazil).

Ore controls: Nepheline syenite occurs as alkalic intrusions with strong structural control. Specific
phases in albite-rich nepheline syenites can be ore if they are easy to process into a low iron
commercial product free of detrimental minerals like corundum.

Genetic models: Nepheline syenite occurs as undersaturated, alkali – rich leucocratic magma intrusive
bodies with a metasomatic alkali overprint. They are generally small, discordant intrusions, with
few signs of forceful emplacement. Simple stoping and emplacement along ring fractures and as
a consequence of cauldron subsidence have all been proposed as intrusion mechanisms.
Common mafic minerals are mica, amphibole and pyroxene. The contacts between intrusive
 phases is transitional in both Blue Mountain and Stjernoy Island deposits. In the Khibina massif
complex intrusion, the sequence of rock units from oldest to youngest developed from
peridotite to pyroxenite to potassium-rich nepheline syenite to nephelinite to carbonatite. An
apatite-rich unit is part of the potassium-rich nepheline syenite phase. Syenite gneiss complexes
are likely the metamorphosed and deformed equivalents of original nepheline syenites
intrusions. Some have been interpreted as possible products of fenitization and metasomatism.

Associated deposit types: Apatite-rich phase in ultramafic complexes, carbonatite hosted deposits (N01).

Comments: The former USSR developed an aluminum industry based on processing originally wasted
nepheline produced in large volumes from apatite mining that has operated since 1941. This
industry was developed for strategic reasons because of the lack of domestic bauxite deposits.
Phonolite is a fine grained volcanic equivalent of nepheline syenite. Leucocratic varieties of
phonolite are used in some countries in place of nepheline syenite for making coloured types of
container glass.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Sodium Feldspar-Rich type is more sodium rich, while the Potassium Feldspar-
Rich type is more potassic.

Geophysical signature: Magnetic and IP surveys can distinguish between nepheline syenite intrusions
and many types of surrounding rocks.

Other Exploration Guides: Explore for nepheline syenite intrusions that are generally small and elongate
in shape. In complex intrustions the later phases seem to be more likely to have lower iron
contents and be more nepheline-rich. Detailed geological mapping and petrographical study can
assist with identifying attractive intrusive phases. Uniformity, grain size which will allow to
separate mafic minerals from a commercial product, absence of refractory minerals. White
colour is desirable for filler applications.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Deposits can be volumetrically very large, although often only a portion can
be mined at a profit. Typical nepheline syenite produced from the Blue Mountain deposit in
Ontario has 60.2% SiO2, 23.5% Al2O3, 0.08% Fe2O3, 10.6% Na2O and 5.1% K2O. The higher the
nepheline content the better. The annual output in Canada is between 500,000 and 600,000
tonnes from two production centers in Ontario. Only sodium feldspar-rich are of economic
interest.

Economic limitations: As a typical bulk and low cost product, nepheline syenite is not usually shipped
very far. Canadian deposits are mined as open pits while the deposit in Norway is mined by
underground methods because it has suitable morphology and it minimizes the impact of severe
winters. For nepheline syenite to be an economic resource it must be reasonably uniform, light
coloured, medium to coarse grained with minimal mafic mineral intergrowths. The rock should
be, rather massive or only moderately gneissic. The absence of refractory minerals, like
corundum or zircon, is a must for glass grade product.
Importance: Nepheline syenite is the preferred source of alumina and alkalies for glass manufacturing.
In some countries with phonolite resources, the nepheline syenite volcanic equivalent is used
for coloured glass in spite of a much higher iron content. In markets more distant from
nepheline syenite sources, a feldspar resource (alaskite, aplite, leucocratic granitoids,
feldspathic sands) is used instead. Glass recycling is increasingly important secondary source of a
raw material for new glass products. Blast furnace slag and “calumite” (artificial slag prepared as
glass raw material) are also used in some types of glass products.

5. References
Andrews, P. (1992): Nepheline Syenite; in Canadian Minerals Yearbook, Minerals and metals
Sector, Natural Resources Canada, pages 34.1 – 34.5.
Bolger, R.B. (1995): Feldspar and Nepheline Syenite; Industrial Minerals, Number 332, May, pages 25-45.
Currie, K.L. (1976): The Alkaline Rocks of Canada,Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 239, 228 pages.
Duke, N.A. and Edgar, A.D. (1977): Petrology of the Blue Mountain and Bigwood Felsic Alkaline
Complexes of the Grenville Province of Ontario; Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, volume14,
Number 4, pages 515-538.
Geis, H.P. (1979): Nepheline Syenite on Stjernoy, Northern Norway; Economic Geology, Volume 74,
pages 1286 – 1295.
Guillet, G.R. (1994): Nepheline Syenite; in Carr, D.D., Senior editor, Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Society
for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado, pages 711-730.
Harben, P.W. and Kuzvart, M. (1996): Industrial Minerals. A Global Geology; Metal Bulletin PLC., London,
UK, 462 pages.
McLemore, V.T. (2006): Nepheline Syenite; in Kogel, J.E., Trivedi, N.C., Barket, J.M. and Krukowski, S.T.,
editors, Industrial Minerals and Rocks,Commodities, Markets and Uses,Society for Mining,
Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc.,Lttleton, Colorado, pages 653 – 670.
McVey, Hal (1988): A Study of Markets for British Columbia`s Nepheline Syenite and Feldspathic
Minerals; Unpublished report, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, 91
pages.
Mitchell, R.H., Editor (1996): Undersaturated Alkaline Rocks: Mineralogy, Petrogenesis, and Economic
Potential; Mineralogical Association of Canada, Short Course Volume 24, 312 pages.
Pell, J. (1994): Carbonatites, Nepheline Syenites, Kimberlites and Related Rocks in British Columbia;B.C.
Ministry of Energy,Mines and Petroleum Resources,Bulletin 88, 135 pages.
Potter, M.J. (2001): Feldspar and Nepheline Syenite; in Mineral Industry Surveys, U.S. Geological Survey,
pages 26.1-26.7.
Turek, V. and MacGregor, D. (1984): Blue Mountain Nepheline Syenite Deposit, Nephton,
Ontario; in Guillet, G.R. and Martin,W., The Geology of Industrial Minerals in Canada, Canadian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 29, pages 125 – 128.
R14 - Feldspar-rich Rocks (Alaskite)

by Z.D. Hora
Retired, British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada

1. Identification

Synonyms: Feldspar, sodaspar, feldspar ore, feldspar rock, leucosyenite.

Commodities (byproducts/coproducts): Feldspar (silica, mica).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Boundary Creek (082ESE224), Sumas

Mountain (092GSE037), Spruce Pine, North Carolina, Monticello, Georgia, Montpelier, Virginia,
Middletown, Connecticut.

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Feldspathic igneous rocks are the source, like alaskite, porphyritic leucogranites,
aplite and rhyolite. Leucocratic facies of medium to coarse grained granitic intrusive bodies with
only very minor or absent coarser grained mafic minerals (generally less than 5%). The mafic
minerals must be in larger grains or aggregates for easy separation by a simple, preferably dry
method. Such granitic rocks should have feldspar as the main constituent and silica subordinate
or absent.

Tectonic settings: In orogenic belts, probably related to subduction related magmatism. High level, well
differeniated bodies that crystallized slowly.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: High level magma emplacement in volcano-plutonic arcs,

frequently in association with fields of pegmatite dikes.

Age of mineralization: Early Paleozoic for the classical deposit, but can be part of any orogenic granitic
complex.

Host/Associated rock types: Pegmatite and granodiorite-granite-syenite intrusive rocks, commonly

porphyritic / sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

Deposit form: Intrusive bodies of irregular shape, in the classical area of North Carolina up to 1600
meters wide and 3200 metres long.

Texture/Structure: Massive, may have foliated appearance close to contacts, with inclusions of country
rock. The grain size may vary, in the average about 1.25 centimetres in diameter , locally coarser
near the intrusive`s center, but less then 0.5 centimetre near the contact. In the Spruce Pine
district the post-magmatic recrystallization produced a “mortar-like” structure where relatively
large grains of feldspar, quartz and muscovite 5 to 10 mm in diameter are enclosed in a fine-
grained recrystallized matrix of feldspar, quartz and muscovite with epidote. (resulting from
removal of Fe from muscovite).
Ore Mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): The classical deposit has 40% oligoclase, 20% quartz, 20%
microcline and 15% muscovite.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Biotite, garnet; apatite, allanite, epidote, thulite, pyrite
and pyrrhotite. In general do not exceed in total some 5%. Reported Fe2O3 content of rock is
0.33%.

Alteration mineralogy: Secondary albitization, sericite, epidote.

Weathering: Kaolinization of feldspar.

Ore controls: Uniformity of rock composition, particularly in feldspar/quartz relationship and quantity of
iron containing minerals. Grain size and form of distribution of mafics and other accessories.
Grain sizes are important to separate feldspar and quartz from mafic minerals within
commercial sized particles (glass 20 – 100 mesh).

Genetic model: Late stage intrusion of alkali rich leucocratic magma into slowly cooling environment,
sometimes in more than one stage. In case of Spruce Pine district the oligoclas/microcline
composition of feldspars may suggest either very slow cooling or recrystallization. The rock
structure of larger isometric grains in fine-grained matrix support the recrystallization idea. Also,
the silica in Spruce Pine alaskite is almost free of fluid inclusions. The age of associated
pegmatite field of 380 Ma is coincident with waning regional metamorphism. Postmagmatic
recrystallization is also suspected for removal of many impurities (including fluid inclusions)
from quartz grains.

Associated deposit types: Pegmatite deposits of feldspar, mica, beryl, lithium, REE.

Comments: Feldspathic sands and gravels are an alternative source of Na, K, and Al in many regions
worldwide. In British Columbia Scuzzy Creek (092HNW052) is an example of a feldspathic sand
occurrence. Partially kaolinitized granites can successfully replace feldspar in some ceramic
products.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Feldspar and silica, no mafic minerals – High K, Na, Al, Si; low Fe, Mg, Ca.

Geophysical signature: Depends on local geology. In some circumstances the feldspar-rich rock may
have contrasting properties from the host rock – electric, magnetic, density, gamma – which
could be used in geophysics to prospect for or explore an feldspathic target. Presence of Fe
minerals may be contrasting in using the magnetic or IP methods.

Other Exploration Guides: Resistance to weathering can be good prospecting tool in areas of weak host
rocks.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Uniformity of the rock is more important than relative content of Na, K, Al
and Si. Important is the Fe2O3, which should be below 0.1%, and absence of refractory minerals
 like zircon, corundum or spinel. Also, the end use can make a difference – some industries
prefer more potassic than sodium feldspar. In 2001, North America produced some 800,000
tonnes of feldspar, of which about half came from three alaskite production centers in North
Carolina. Another 12%, of a potassic feldspar used for more special end uses came from the
producer of leucogranite in Georgia. The bulk of the rest came from feldspathic sands and a
small fraction as a co-product from pegmatites.

Economic limitations: Feldspar Corporation of Middletown, Connecticut shut down in 1991 its aplite
processing plant, when its production capacity of 90,000 tonnes per year suffered the market
reduction to 37% as a result of competition with nepheline syenite from Ontario sources.
Feldspar, as all low priced bulk commodities is transportation sensitive, and feldspar resource in
a variety of deposit types is distributed through many parts of North America.

Uses: Main uses for feldspar is in glass (~60%) and ceramics (~35%) manufacturing. The remaining 5% is
used as a specialty fillers, abrasives and some other minor uses. Very high purity silica (in the
order of 10 to 100 ppm impurities) is very important co-product from Spruce Pine district, North
Carolina, and is exported for high-tech product manufacturing globally (QUINTAs and IOTA
grades).

Importance: Production of glass and ceramics requires feldspar (or nepheline syenite). Alaskite and
other feldspar-rich rocks is a very important resource, since the bodies are suitable for large
scale, inexpensive mining and processing techniques. The deposits location is convenient for
economic transportation to glass and ceramic plants in southeast USA. The high purity silica
from Spruce Pine is the only major producer worldwide.

5. References

Bolger, R.B. (1995): Feldspar and Nepheline Syenite, Industrial Minerals, No. 332, May, page 25-45.
Brobst, D.A. (1991): Other Selected Industrial Minerals; in Gluskoter, H. J., Rice, D.D., and Taylor, R.G.,
Editors, Economic Geology, The Geology of North America, volume P-2, Geological Society of
America, page 189-211.
Brobst, D.A. (1962): Geology of the Spruce Pine District Avery, Mitchell, and Yancey Counties North
Carolina, U.S.Geological Survey, Bulletin 1122-A, 26 pages.
Feiss, P.G. and Slack, J.F. (1989): Mineral Deposits of the U.S. Appalachians; in Hatcher, R.D.,Jr., Thomas,
W.A. and Viele, G.W. Editors, The Geology of North America, Volume F-2, Geological Society of
America, page 471 –494.
Feitler, S.A. (1967): Feldspar Resources and Marketing in Eastern United States, U.S. Bureau of Mines, IC
8310, 41 pages.
Glover, A. (2006): The Spruce Mining District – A brief review of history, geology, and modern uses of
the minerals mined in the Spruce Pine Mining District, Mitchell, Avery and Yancey Counties,
North Carolina, in Reid, J.C., editor, Proceedings of the 42nd Forum on the Geology of Industrial
Minerals: Information Circular 34, North Carolina Geological

Survey, Page 269 – 272.

Harben, P.W. and Kuzvart, M. (1996): Industrial Minerals. A Global Geology. Metal Bulletin PLC, London,
UK, 462 pages.
Kaufman, R.A. and Van Dyk, D. (1994): Feldspars; in Carr, D.D., Senior Editor, Industrial Minerals and
Rocks, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado, page 473-481.
MacLean, M.E. and White, G.V. (1991): Feldspatic Mineral Occurrences in British Columbia, B.C. Ministry
of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Open File 1991-10, 88 pages.
Marmo, V. (1971): Granite Petrology and Granite Problem. Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
London, New York, 244 pages.
Potter, M.J. (2001): Feldspar and Nepheline Syenite; in Mineral Industry Surveys, U.S. Geological Survey,
page 26.1-26.7
Potter, M.J. (2006): Feldspars; in Kogel, J.E.,Trivedi, N.C., Barker, J. M. and Krukowski, S.T., Editors,
Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Commodities, Markets and Uses, Society for Mining, Metallurgy
and Exploration,Inc., Littleton, Colorado, page 451 – 460.
Swanson, S.E. and Veal, W.B. (2006): Texture: Its what makes Spruce Pine Granite Special, in Reid, J.C.,
editor, Proceedings of the 42nd Forum on the Geology of Industrial Minerals; Information
Circular 34, North Carolina Geological Survey, pages 537 – 538.
Examples of Industrial Rock Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

R01 -- Dunsmuir shale, Sumas Mountain
R02 Wabamun shales (Alberta) Nanaimo shale, Saturna Island
R03 Riviére á Pierre (Québec), Black Hills (South Nelson Island
Dakota)
R04 Vermont, Alabama, Georgia Marblehead, Anderson Bay (Texada
Island)
R05 (covered -- Haddington Island
in R03)
R06 -- Saturna Island, Newcastle Island
R07 -- Moberley, Nicholson
R08 Southowram (England) Salmo, Revelstoke
R09 -- Texada Island, Quatsino Belt
R10 -- Crawford Bay, Rock Creek
R11 -- Meagher Mountain, Buse Lake
R12 -- Frenier, Francois Lake
R13 Blue Mountain (Ontario) Trident Mountain
R14 Spruce Pine alaskite (North Carolina) --
R15* -- McAbbee, Gissome

* Note: All BC deposit profile(s) with an asterisk have no completed deposit profile. USGS deposit
model(s) with an asterisk had no published model in the late 1990s.
S - Other

BC Profile # Deposit Type Approximate Synonyms USGS Model

#
S01 Broken Hill type Pb-Zn- Shuswap-type, Ammeburg-type Pb- --
Ag±Cu Zn
S01 - BROKEN HILL-TYPE Pb-Zn-Ag+/-Cu

by Trygve Höy
British Columbia Geological Survey

Höy, T. (1996): Broken Hill-type Pb-Zn-Ag+/-Cu, in Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 2 - Metallic Deposits, Lefebure, D.V. and Höy, T., Editors, British Columbia Ministry of
Employment and Investment, Open File 1996-13, pages 117-120.

1. Identification

Synonyms: Shuswap-type, Ammeburg-type Zn-Pb, Jervois-type.

Commodities (byproducts): Pb, Zn, Ag, (Cu, Au, barite).

Examples (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Cottonbelt (082M 086), River Jordan
(082M 001), Ruddock Creek (082M 082, 082M 083, 082M 004), Big Ledge? (082LSE012), Colby 1
(082ESW062); Broken Hill and Pinnacles (New South Wales, Australia); Broken Hill and Black
Mountain, Aggeneys district and Gammsberg area (South Africa), Knalla and Nygruvan,
Bergslaggen district (Sweden).

2. Geological characteristics

Capsule description: Deposits comprise massive to semimassive galena, sphalerite, pyrrhotite and pyrite
and/or magnetite layers or stacked lenses hosted by thin- bedded, commonly calcareous
paragneiss successions. A complex gangue mineralogy includes a variety of calcsilicate minerals.
These stratabound deposits are typically thin, but laterally extensive and were deformed and
metamorphosed together with their hostrocks.

Tectonic setting: In strongly deformed and metamorphosed supracrustal rocks commonly referred to as
‘mobile belts’ which probably originated in an intracratonic rift or possibly continental margin
setting.

Depositional environment/Geological setting: Marine sediments and associated minor bimodal (?)
volcanics (often felsic, possibly alkalic) reflect active extensional tectonics. Host successions
include inferred evaporites and are generally interpreted as shallow marine. Underlying gneissic
successions suggest some deposits formed on or along margins of tectonic highs. However,
intense deformation and metamorphism have commonly masked relationships.

Age of mineralization: Commonly Lower and Middle Proterozoic; some British Columbia deposits may be
hosted by Late Proterozoic to Cambrian rocks.

Host/Associated rock types: Hosted by thin-bedded calcareous schists, impure marble, quartzites and,
less commonly, graphitic schists. A common and important host rock is garnet quartzite which
occurs as envelopes to the sulphide bodies; associated with well layered and heterogenous
successions of quartzite, crystalline marble, quartzo-feldspathic gneiss, hornblende gneiss, and
abundant pelitic and calcareous schist and gneiss; locally associated carbonatite and
amphibolite. Banded iron formations, chert, gahnite quartzites and tourmalinites are common in
 the host stratigraphic succession as distal facies or in the footwall successions. Scapolite-rich
units and sulphur isotopes suggest associated evaporites. Metamorphic grades vary from
amphibolite to granulite.

Deposit form: Stacked sulphide or sulphide/magnetite lenses are common; they are thin, irregular,
discontinuous, strongly deformed massive sulphide bodies. Thickening in fold hinges is often
critical to make economic thicknesses. Individual lenses vary from less than a metre to tens of
metres and may extend hundreds of metres often grading laterally into quartzite, quartz
gahnite, garnet quartzite or pyrite/pyrrhotite disseminated units that may persist for tens of
kilometres.

Texture/Structure: Mineralization occurs as discontinuous massive to semimassive sulphide lenses or as

disseminated stratabound sulphides. Sulphides are massive to irregular banded, with locally
coarse “skarn” textures; locally well layered or laminated sulphides and silicates occur. They are
commonly medium to coarse grained and intimately intergrown with gangue calcsilicate
minerals, quartz or magnetite; as well, there are occasional thin monominerallic sulphide layers.
Disseminated sulphides are common in granular marble. Pegmatitic zones are present in some
ore zones.

Ore mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Galena, sphalerite, magnetite, pyrrhotite, pyrite;
chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, molybdenite, arsenopyrite, löllingite. In some deposits magnetite
makes up more than 40% of the ore. Some deposits display zoning from siliceous Zn-rich to
distal carbonate-silicate Pb-Ag rich ore.

Gangue mineralogy (Principal and subordinate): Quartz, garnet, calcite, rhodonite, magnetite, siderite,
pyroxenes and amphiboles, commonly manganiferous, fluorite; Mn olivine, apatite, gahnite,
plagioclase, biotite, chlorite, ankerite, epidote, graphite, barite, hematite, wollastonite,
sillimanite, staurolite, vesuvianite. The complex gangue mineralogy is a characteristic of Broken
Hill-type deposits.

Alteration mineralogy: Original alteration assemblages are replaced by a complex variety of

metamorphic minerals. Alteration envelopes and deposit zoning are common in larger deposits,
but are generally not recognized in smaller ones. Footwall alteration pipes are generally not
recognized, except for some of the Cu-rich deposits, which complicates their interpretation.
Typically the alteration reflects enrichment of Fe, Si, Mn, Ca, P, F, K and CO3 and includes
metamorphic silicates including amphiboles, olivine, biotite, phlogopite, sillimanite, orthoclase
and clinozoisite as well as carbonates, fluorite and a variety of other minerals. Spessartine-
quartz halos surround many deposits, with more regional silicification (quartz) and K (sillimanite)
enrichment. In the Broken Hill area, Australia, with increasing intensity of mineralization, Fe-Si-
Mn systems (typical of metamorphosed iron formations) are overprinted by extreme Ca-Mn-F
enrichment with calcsilicate assemblages.

Weathering: Large gossans are not common; however, pyrrhotite and pyrite in some deposits locally
produce rusted outcrops. Some Australian deposits have deep weathered zones: gossanous
quartz-garnet-gahnite rocks, with abundant Mn and Fe oxides at surface, and secondary Ag
enrichment at depths associated with oxides (goethite and coronadite) and carbonates
(dolomite, cerussite and smithsonite). Leached sulphides mark the transition into underlying
sulphide ore.
Ore controls: Not well understood; deposits appear to be restricted to Proterozoic “mobile belts”,
generally interpreted to be intracratonic rifts. Oxidized shallow-marine basins, possibly
developed due to extensional faulting above basement highs, and associated bimodal (?)
volcanism are local controls.

Genetic model: Difficult to interpret due to high metamorphic grades. A sedimentary exhalite origin,
with sulphide deposition in rapidly deepening rifts, is preferred because the deposits are
associated with iron formations, chert and Mn-rich iron oxide facies. This environment,
dominated by oxidized facies, contrasts with reduced, anoxic basins that commonly host sedex
deposits. However, associated bimodal volcanics, ore and gangue chemistry and sulphide
textures suggest similarities with volcanogenic massive sulphide deposition. Some workers have
supported replacement models for the mineralization.

Associated deposit types: Sedimentary exhalative Pb-Zn deposits (E14), carbonatites (N01), nepheline
syenites, polymetallic veins (I05) and W-Mo veins.

Comments: Broken Hill-type deposits are a difficult exploration target due to their setting in strongly
metamorphosed and deformed rocks.

3. Exploration Guides

Geochemical signature: Anomalous enrichments of Mn, Cu, Au, Bi, Sb, W, Co and As in the ore and some
proximal exhalative units; high Ag:Pb ratios, Mn and K enrichment (with muscovite, K-feldspars
and sillimanite) in alteration halos; elevated base metal values (particularly Zn) and Mn in more
regional iron formations. In silt samples expect anomalous Pb, Zn, Ag, Mn and Ba.

Geophysical signature: Deposits with associated magnetite produce strong magnetic anomalies.
Electromagnetic and induced polarization surveys may detect those deposits with pyrrhotite and
pyrite massive sulphides lenses. Associated graphite in some (e.g., Big Ledge) may provide local
targets.

Other Exploration Guides: Main exploration guide is appropriate sedimentary/tectonic environment -

thin-bedded succession of paragneisses with abundant carbonate. The mineralization may occur
at, or near, the transition from quartzo- feldspathic basement rocks to fine-grained clastic
metasediments. Rapid lithologic facies changes in the vicinity of deposits may indicate local
hydrothermal systems. Associated volcanism is indicative of extension or rifting. In closer
proximity to deposits, unusual mineral assemblages include garnet quartzites, gahnite quartzites
and Mn-rich calcsilicates with skarn textures.

4. Economic factors

Typical grade and tonnage: Deposits frequently occur in clusters with numerous small, uneconomic
deposits. Broken Hill-type targets average less than 5 to 20 Mt, but may be in excess of 100 Mt
(Broken Hill, Australia: 280 Mt containing 10.0% Pb, 8.5% Zn and 148 g/t Ag, including
approximately 150 Mt of more that 20% Pb+Zn). Grades are variable, commonly with 2 to 10 %
Pb, 2 to 8% Zn and 10 to 150 g/t Ag. Some deposits contain no byproduct copper, others have
0.1 to 1% Cu. In British Columbia, known deposits range in size from less than one million to 6.5
 Mt; geological reserves may be considerably larger. Grades range from approximately 2 to 5 %
Zn and 2.5 to 6.5 % Pb with up to 50 g/t Ag. Ruddock Creek contains 5 Mt with 7.5% Zn, 2.5% Pb
and Jordan River, 2.6 Mt with 5.6% Zn, 5.1% Pb and 35 g/t Ag.

Economic limitations: Structural thickening is often critical to the genesis of economic deposits. Broken
Hill-type deposits have not been mined in British Columbia, due mainly to their form - thin,
though laterally persistent layers - and their location in remote, mountainous terrains.

Importance: These deposits are an important source for lead, zinc and silver, and remain an attractive
exploration target in British Columbia.

5. References

Acknowledgements: This description has drawn from information written up by Stephen Walters of BHP
Exploration, Australia, and presented by Garry Davidson of CODES Key Centre, University of
Tasmania at the 1995 MDRU short course, Metallogeny of Proterozoic Basins, in Vancouver.

Beeson, R. (1990): Broken Hill-type Lead-Zinc Deposits - An Overview of their Occurrences and
Geological Setting; The Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, Transactions, Section B, Volume 99,
pages 163-175.
Höy, T. (1987): Geology of the Cottonbelt Lead-Zinc-Magnetite Layer, Carbonatites and Alkalic Rocks in
the Mount Grace Area, Frenchman Cap Dome, Southeastern British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of
Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Bulletin 80, 99 pages.
Fyles, J.T. (1970): The Jordan River Area near Revelstoke, British Columbia; B.C. Ministry of Energy,
Mines and Petroleum Resources, Bulletin 57, 64 pages.
Hedström, P., Simeonov, A. and Malmström, L. (1989): The Zinkgruvan Ore Deposit, South- central
Sweden: A Proterozoic, Proximal Zn-Pb-Ag Deposit in Distal Volcanic Facies; Economic Geology,
Volume 84, pages 1235-1261.
Mackenzie, D.H. and Davies, R.H. (1990): Broken Hill Lead-Silver-Zinc Deposit at Z.C. Mines; in Geology of
the Mineral Deposits of Australia and Papua New Guinea, Hughes, F.E., Editor, The Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, pages 1079-1084.
Parr, J.M. and Plimer, I.R. (1993): Models for Broken Hill-type Lead-Zinc-Silver Deposits; in Mineral
Deposit Modelling, Kirkham, R.V., Sinclair, W.D., Thorpe, R.I. and Duke, J.M., Editors, Geological
Association of Canada, Special Paper 40, pages 253-288.
Plimer, I.R. (1986): Sediment-hosted Exhalative Pb-Zn Deposits - Products of Contrasting Ensialic Rifting;
Geological Society of South Africa, Transactions, Volume 89, pages 57-73.
van der Heyden, A. and Edgecombe, D.R. (1990): Silver-Lead-Zinc Deposit at South Mine, Broken Hill; in
Geology of the Mineral Deposits of Australia and Papua New Guinea, Hughes, F.E., Editor, The
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, pages 1073-1078.
Walters, S. (1995): Broken Hill-type Pb-Zn-Ag Deposits - Characteristics and Exploration Models; Mineral
Deposits Research Unit, The University of British Columbia, Short Course notes, Metallogeny of
Proterozoic Basins, 56 pages.
Examples of Other Deposits

BC Profile # Global Examples B.C. Examples

S01 Broken Hill (Australia), Aggeneys district (South Cottonbelt, River Jordan, Ruddock
Africa) Creek