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Outline
• Getting Started
o Downloading this tutorial
o Setting up the environment
o Preamble
o Making hello world
• Creating Classes
o @interface
o @implementation
o Piecing it together
• The Details...
o Multiple Parameters
o Constructors
o Access Privledges
o Class level access
o Exceptions
• Inheritance, Polymorphism, and other OOP features
o The id type
o Inheritance
o Dynamic types
o Categories
o Posing
o Protocols
• Memory Management
o Retain and Release
o Dealloc
o Autorelease Pool
• Foundation Framework Classes
o NSArray
o NSDictionary
• Pros and Cons
• More Information

• Getting Started
o Downloading this tutorial
 All the source code for this beginners guide including
makefiles is available by downloading objc.tar.gz. Many of the
examples in this tutorial were written by Steve Kochan in the
book Programming in Objective-C. If you want more detailed
information and examples, feel free to check out his book. The
examples on this site were used with his permission, so please
don't copy them.
o Setting up the environment
 Linux/FreeBSD: Install GNUStep
 In order to build GNUstep applications one must
first execute the GNUstep.sh file in
/usr/GNUstep/System/Makefiles/GNUstep.sh. This path
depends on your system. Some put it in /usr, some
/usr/lib, some /usr/local. If your shell is a csh/tcsh based
shell, you'll want to execute GNUStep.csh instead. It's
recommended that you put this script in your .bashrc
or .cshrc.
 Mac OS X: Install XCode
 Windows NT 5.X: Install cygwin or mingw and then
install GNUStep
o Preamble
 This tutorial assumes you have some basic C
knowledge, including C data types, what a function is, what a
return value is, knowledge of pointers and basic memory
management in C. If you haven't gotten this far, I highly
suggest you pick up K and R's book, The C Programming
Language. This is the book on C written by the writers of C.
 Objective-C, being a C derivative, inherits all of C's
features. There are a few exceptions but they don't really
deviate from what C offers as a language.
 nil: In C/C++ you're probably used to NULL. In
Objective-C it is nil. The difference is you can pass messages to
nil (such as [nil message];) and this is perfectly legal. You
cannot however do this with NULL.
 BOOL: C doesn't have an official boolean type, and in
reality neither does Objective-C. It's however built into the
Foundation classes (Namely from importing NSObject.h). nil is
also included in this header file. BOOL in Objective-C has two
modes, YES and NO rather than TRUE and FALSE.
 #import vs #include: As you will notice in the hello
world example, #import was used. #import is supported by the
gcc compiler, however it is deprecated in favor of #include.
#import is basically the same thing as #ifndef #define #endif at
the top and bottom of every .h file you make. I find this to be
retarded, as many other programmers will most likely agree.
For all purposes, just use #import. It's less hassle, and if gcc
ever does remove it chances are enough Objective-C
developers exist to either keep it from getting removed or
getting added back in. As an aside, Apple officially uses
#import in all their code so if this ever did happen, you can be
certain that Apple would conviently ship a forked version of
gcc to add this back in.
 The word method and message are used interchangably
in Objective-C, although messages have special properties. A
message can be dynamically forwarded to another object.
Calling a message on an object in Objective-C doesn't mean
 that the object implements that message, just that it knows how
to respond to it somehow via directly implementing it or
forwarding the message to an object that does know how to.
o Making hello world
 hello.m
 #import <stdio.h>

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 printf( "hello world\n" );
 return 0;
}

 output

hello world

 You use #import instead of #include in Objective-C

 The default file extention for Objective-C is .m

• Creating classes
o @interface
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 Fraction.h
 #import <Foundation/NSObject.h>

 @interface Fraction: NSObject {
 int numerator;
 int denominator;
 }

 -(void) print;
 -(void) setNumerator: (int) n;
 -(void) setDenominator: (int) d;
 -(int) numerator;
 -(int) denominator;
 @end
 NSObject: Short for NeXTStep Object. Although this is
less meaningful today since it's really OpenStep.
 Inheritance is specified as Class: Parent, as seen with
Fraction: NSObject.
 Instance variables go between @interface Class: Parent
{ .... }
 No access is set (protected, public, private). Default is
protected. Setting the access will be shown later
 Instance methods follow after the member variables.
The format is: scope (returnType) methodName:
(parameter1Type) parameter1Name;
  scope refers to class or instance. instance
methods begin with - class level methods begin with +
 Interface ends with @end
o @implementation
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 Fraction.m
 #import "Fraction.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 @implementation Fraction
 -(void) print {
 printf( "%i/%i", numerator, denominator );
 }

 -(void) setNumerator: (int) n {
 numerator = n;
 }

 -(void) setDenominator: (int) d {
 denominator = d;
 }

 -(int) denominator {
 return denominator;
 }

 -(int) numerator {
 return numerator;
 }
@end

 @implementation ClassName starts the implementation

@end ends it
 All the defined methods are implemented very simlar to
how they are declared in the interface
o Piecing it together
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 main.m
 #import <stdio.h>
 #import "Fraction.h"

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 // create a new instance
 Fraction *frac = [[Fraction alloc] init];

 // set the values
 [frac setNumerator: 1];
 [frac setDenominator: 3];
 
 // print it
 printf( "The fraction is: " );
 [frac print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // free memory
 [frac release];

 return 0;
}

 output

The fraction is: 1/3

 Fraction *frac = [[Fraction alloc] init];

 There are several important things in this one
line.
 The way methods in Objective-C are called is
[object method], which is similar to object->method() in
C++
 Objective-C doesn't have value types, so there is
nothing similar to C++'s: Fraction frac; frac.print();.
You always deal with objects as pointers in Objective-
C.
 What this line is really doing is two things:
[Fraction alloc] is calling the alloc method on the
Fraction class. This is similar to mallocing memory,
because that is all that is done in this operation.
 [object init] is the constructor call, which
initializes any variables in the object. This method is
called on the instance returned from [Fraction alloc].
This operation is so common it's usually just done in
one line as Object *var = [[Object alloc] init];
 [frac setNumerator: 1] is quite simple. It's calling the
setNumerator method on frac, and passing it the parameter 1.
 Like every c variant, there's a construct for freeing
memory. This is done via release, which is inherited from
NSObject. This method will be explainted in greater detail
later.

• The details...
o Multiple Parameters
 Up until this point I haven't showed any way to specify
multiple parameters. It's not as intuitive at first, but it's syntax is
a welcome addition from Smalltalk
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 Fraction.h
 ...
 -(void) setNumerator: (int) n andDenominator:
(int) d;
...

 Fraction.m
 ...
 -(void) setNumerator: (int) n andDenominator:
(int) d {
 numerator = n;
 denominator = d;
 }
...

 main.m
 #import <stdio.h>
 #import "Fraction.h"

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 // create a new instance
 Fraction *frac = [[Fraction alloc] init];
 Fraction *frac2 = [[Fraction alloc] init];

 // set the values
 [frac setNumerator: 1];
 [frac setDenominator: 3];

 // combined set
 [frac2 setNumerator: 1 andDenominator: 5];

 // print it
 printf( "The fraction is: " );
 [frac print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // print it
 printf( "Fraction 2 is: " );
 [frac2 print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // free memory
 [frac release];
 [frac2 release];

 return 0;
}

 output
 The fraction is: 1/3
 Fraction 2 is: 1/5

 The method is actually called

setNumerator:andDenominator:
 Additional parameters are added the same was as the
2nd, such that you'd have method:label1:label2:label3: and
you'd call it with [obj method: param1 label1: param2 label2:
param3 label3: param4]
 Labels are optional. It's possible to have a method
named method:::. This is done by simply not specifing label
names, but just a : to separate the parameters. This is however
not advised.
o Constructors
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 Fraction.h
 ...
 -(Fraction*) initWithNumerator: (int) n
denominator: (int) d;
...

 Fraction.m
 ...
 -(Fraction*) initWithNumerator: (int) n
denominator: (int) d {
 self = [super init];

 if ( self ) {
 [self setNumerator: n andDenominator:
d];
 }

 return self;
 }
...

 main.m
 #import <stdio.h>
 #import "Fraction.h"

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 // create a new instance
 Fraction *frac = [[Fraction alloc] init];
 Fraction *frac2 = [[Fraction alloc] init];
 Fraction *frac3 = [[Fraction alloc]
initWithNumerator: 3 denominator: 10];

 // set the values
 [frac setNumerator: 1];
 [frac setDenominator: 3];

 // combined set
 [frac2 setNumerator: 1 andDenominator: 5];

 // print it
 printf( "The fraction is: " );
 [frac print];
 printf( "\n" );

 printf( "Fraction 2 is: " );
 [frac2 print];
 printf( "\n" );

 printf( "Fraction 3 is: " );
 [frac3 print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // free memory
 [frac release];
 [frac2 release];
 [frac3 release];

 return 0;
}

 output
 The fraction is: 1/3
 Fraction 2 is: 1/5
Fraction 3 is: 3/10

 @interface declaration is identical to a regular function

 @implementation shows a new keyword: super
 Similar to Java, Objective-C only has one parent
class.
 Accessing it's super constructor is done through
[super init] and this is required for proper inheritance.
 This returns an instance which you assign to
another new keyword, self. Self is similar to this in Java
and C++.
 if ( self ) is the same as if ( self != nil ) to make sure that
the super constructor successfully returned a new object. nil is
Objective-C's form of NULL from C/C++. This is gotten from
including NSObject.
 After you've initialized the varialbes, you return
yourself with return self;
 The deafult constructor is -(id) init;
 Constructors in Objective-C are technically just "init"
methods, they aren't a special construct like they are in C++
and Java.
o Access Privledges
 The default access is @protected
 Java implements this with public/private/protected
modifiers infront of methods and variables. Objective-C's
approach is much more similar to C++'s for instance variables
 Access.h
 #import <Foundation/NSObject.h>

 @interface Access: NSObject {
 @public
 int publicVar;
 @private
 int privateVar;
 int privateVar2;
 @protected
 int protectedVar;
 }
@end

 Access.m
 #import "Access.h"

 @implementation Access
@end

 main.m
 #import "Access.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 Access *a = [[Access alloc] init];

 // works
 a->publicVar = 5;
 printf( "public var: %i\n", a-
>publicVar );

 // doesn't compile
 //a->privateVar = 10;
 //printf( "private var: %i\n", a-
>privateVar );

 [a release];
 return 0;
}

 output

public var: 5
  As you an see, instead of private: [list of vars] public:
[list of vars] like in C++, it's just @private, @protected, etc.
o Class level access
 Often it's nice to have class level variables and
functions, for instance when keeping track of the # of times an
object has been instanciated.
 ClassA.h
 #import <Foundation/NSObject.h>

 static int count;

 @interface ClassA: NSObject
 +(int) initCount;
 +(void) initialize;
@end

 ClassA.m
 #import "ClassA.h"

 @implementation ClassA
 -(id) init {
 self = [super init];
 count++;
 return self;
 }

 +(int) initCount {
 return count;
 }

 +(void) initialize {
 count = 0;
 }
@end

 main.m
 #import "ClassA.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 ClassA *c1 = [[ClassA alloc] init];
 ClassA *c2 = [[ClassA alloc] init];

 // print count
 printf( "ClassA count: %i\n", [ClassA
initCount] );

 ClassA *c3 = [[ClassA alloc] init];

 // print count again
  printf( "ClassA count: %i\n", [ClassA
initCount] );

 [c1 release];
 [c2 release];
 [c3 release];

 return 0;
}

 output
 ClassA count: 2
ClassA count: 3

 static int count = 0; This is how the class variable is

declared. This is not the ideal place for such a variable. A nicer
solution would have been like Java's implementation of static
class variables. However this works
 +(int) initCount; This is the actual method that returns
the count. Notice the subtle difference. Instead of using a -
infront of the type, a + is used. The + denotes a class level
function.
 Accessing the variable is no different than member
variables, as seen by count++ in the constructor of ClassA.
 The +(void) initialize method is called when Objective-
C starts your program, and it's called for every class. This is a
good place to initialize class level variables like our count.
o Exceptions
 NOTE: Exception handling is only supported in Mac
OS X 10.3
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 CupWarningException.h
 #import <Foundation/NSException.h>

 @interface CupWarningException: NSException
@end

 CupWarningException.m
 #import "CupWarningException.h"

 @implementation CupWarningException
@end

 CupOverflowException.h
 #import <Foundation/NSException.h>

 @interface CupOverflowException: NSException
@end

 CupOverflowException.m
 #import "CupOverflowException.h"

 @implementation CupOverflowException
@end

 Cup.h
 #import <Foundation/NSObject.h>

 @interface Cup: NSObject {
 int level;
 }

 -(int) level;
 -(void) setLevel: (int) l;
 -(void) fill;
 -(void) empty;
 -(void) print;
@end

 Cup.m
 #import "Cup.h"
 #import "CupOverflowException.h"
 #import "CupWarningException.h"
 #import <Foundation/NSException.h>
 #import <Foundation/NSString.h>

 @implementation Cup
 -(id) init {
 self = [super init];

 if ( self ) {
 [self setLevel: 0];
 }

 return self;
 }

 -(int) level {
 return level;
 }

 -(void) setLevel: (int) l {
 level = l;

 if ( level > 100 ) {
 // throw overflow
 NSException *e = [CupOverflowException
 exceptionWithName:
@"CupOverflowException"
 reason: @"The level is above 100"
 userInfo: nil];
 @throw e;
 } else if ( level >= 50 ) {
 // throw warning
 NSException *e = [CupWarningException
 exceptionWithName:
@"CupWarningException"
 reason: @"The level is above or at
50"
 userInfo: nil];
 @throw e;
 } else if ( level < 0 ) {
 // throw exception
 NSException *e = [NSException
 exceptionWithName:
@"CupUnderflowException"
 reason: @"The level is below 0"
 userInfo: nil];
 @throw e;
 }
 }

 -(void) fill {
 [self setLevel: level + 10];
 }

 -(void) empty {
 [self setLevel: level - 10];
 }

 -(void) print {
 printf( "Cup level is: %i\n", level );
 }
@end

 main.m
 #import "Cup.h"
 #import "CupOverflowException.h"
 #import "CupWarningException.h"
 #import <Foundation/NSString.h>
 #import <Foundation/NSException.h>
 #import <Foundation/NSAutoreleasePool.h>
 #import <stdio.h>

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 NSAutoreleasePool *pool =
[[NSAutoreleasePool alloc] init];
 Cup *cup = [[Cup alloc] init];
 int i;

 // this will work
 for ( i = 0; i < 4; i++ ) {
 [cup fill];
 [cup print];
 }

 // this will throw exceptions
 for ( i = 0; i < 7; i++ ) {
 @try {
 [cup fill];
 } @catch ( CupWarningException *e ) {
 printf( "%s: ", [[e name] cString]
);
 } @catch ( CupOverflowException *e ) {
 printf( "%s: ", [[e name] cString]
);
 } @finally {
 [cup print];
 }
 }

 // throw a generic exception
 @try {
 [cup setLevel: -1];
 } @catch ( NSException *e ) {
 printf( "%s: %s\n", [[e name]
cString], [[e reason] cString] );
 }

 // free memory
 [cup release];
 [pool release];
}

 output
 Cup level is: 10
 Cup level is: 20
 Cup level is: 30
 Cup level is: 40
 CupWarningException: Cup level is: 50
 CupWarningException: Cup level is: 60
 CupWarningException: Cup level is: 70
 CupWarningException: Cup level is: 80
 CupWarningException: Cup level is: 90
 CupWarningException: Cup level is: 100
 CupOverflowException: Cup level is: 110
CupUnderflowException: The level is below 0

 NSAutoreleasePool is a memory management class.

Don't worry about what this does right now.
  Exceptions that are thrown don't have to extend
NSException. You can just as easily use an id as well: @catch (
id e ) { ... }
 There is also a finally block, which behaves just like
Java's. The contents of a finally block are guaranteed to be
called.
 The string as show in Cup.m,
@"CupOverflowException", is a constant NSString object. The
@ sign is used often in Objective-C to denote extentions to the
language. A C string is just like C and C++, "String constant",
and is of type char *.

• Inheritance, Polymorphism, and

other OOP features
o The id type
 Objective-C has a type called id, that acts in some ways
like a void*, though it's meant strictly for objects. Objective-C
differs from Java and C++ in that when you call a method on an
object, it doesn't need to know the type. That method simply
just has to exist. This is refered to as message pasing in
Objective-C.
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 Fraction.h
 #import <Foundation/NSObject.h>

 @interface Fraction: NSObject {
 int numerator;
 int denominator;
 }

 -(Fraction*) initWithNumerator: (int) n
denominator: (int) d;
 -(void) print;
 -(void) setNumerator: (int) d;
 -(void) setDenominator: (int) d;
 -(void) setNumerator: (int) n andDenominator:
(int) d;
 -(int) numerator;
 -(int) denominator;
@end

 Fraction.m
 #import "Fraction.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 @implementation Fraction
 -(Fraction*) initWithNumerator: (int) n
denominator: (int) d {
 self = [super init];

 if ( self ) {
 [self setNumerator: n andDenominator:
d];
 }

 return self;
 }

 -(void) print {
 printf( "%i / %i", numerator,
denominator );
 }

 -(void) setNumerator: (int) n {
 numerator = n;
 }

 -(void) setDenominator: (int) d {
 denominator = d;
 }

 -(void) setNumerator: (int) n andDenominator:
(int) d {
 numerator = n;
 denominator = d;
 }

 -(int) denominator {
 return denominator;
 }

 -(int) numerator {
 return numerator;
 }
@end

 Complex.h
 #import <Foundation/NSObject.h>

 @interface Complex: NSObject {
 double real;
 double imaginary;
 }

 -(Complex*) initWithReal: (double) r
andImaginary: (double) i;
 -(void) setReal: (double) r;
 -(void) setImaginary: (double) i;
 -(void) setReal: (double) r andImaginary:
(double) i;
 -(double) real;
 -(double) imaginary;
 -(void) print;

@end

 Complex.m
 #import "Complex.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 @implementation Complex
 -(Complex*) initWithReal: (double) r
andImaginary: (double) i {
 self = [super init];

 if ( self ) {
 [self setReal: r andImaginary: i];
 }

 return self;
 }

 -(void) setReal: (double) r {
 real = r;
 }

 -(void) setImaginary: (double) i {
 imaginary = i;
 }

 -(void) setReal: (double) r andImaginary:
(double) i {
 real = r;
 imaginary = i;
 }

 -(double) real {
 return real;
 }

 -(double) imaginary {
 return imaginary;
 }

 -(void) print {
 printf( "%_f + %_fi", real, imaginary );
 }

@end

 main.m
  #import <stdio.h>
 #import "Fraction.h"
 #import "Complex.h"

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 // create a new instance
 Fraction *frac = [[Fraction alloc]
initWithNumerator: 1 denominator: 10];
 Complex *comp = [[Complex alloc]
initWithReal: 10 andImaginary: 15];
 id number;

 // print fraction
 number = frac;
 printf( "The fraction is: " );
 [number print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // print complex
 number = comp;
 printf( "The complex number is: " );
 [number print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // free memory
 [frac release];
 [comp release];

 return 0;
}

 output
 The fraction is: 1 / 10
The complex number is: 10.000000 + 15.000000i

 There are obvious benefits to this type of dynamic

binding. You don't have to know the type of something to call a
method on it. If the object responds to a message, it will invoke
that method. Lots of nasty casting isn't involved in this either,
such as in Java to call .intValue() on an integer object would
involve casting first, then calling the method.
o Inheritance
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 Rectangle.h
 #import <Foundation/NSObject.h>

 @interface Rectangle: NSObject {
 int width;
 int height;
 }

 -(Rectangle*) initWithWidth: (int) w height:
(int) h;
 -(void) setWidth: (int) w;
 -(void) setHeight: (int) h;
 -(void) setWidth: (int) w height: (int) h;
 -(int) width;
 -(int) height;
 -(void) print;
@end

 Rectangle.m
 #import "Rectangle.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 @implementation Rectangle
 -(Rectangle*) initWithWidth: (int) w height:
(int) h {
 self = [super init];

 if ( self ) {
 [self setWidth: w height: h];
 }

 return self;
 }

 -(void) setWidth: (int) w {
 width = w;
 }

 -(void) setHeight: (int) h {
 height = h;
 }

 -(void) setWidth: (int) w height: (int) h {
 width = w;
 height = h;
 }

 -(int) width {
 return width;
 }

 -(int) height {
 return height;
 }

 -(void) print {
 printf( "width = %i, height = %i", width,
height );
 }
@end

 Square.h
 #import "Rectangle.h"

 @interface Square: Rectangle
 -(Square*) initWithSize: (int) s;
 -(void) setSize: (int) s;
 -(int) size;
@end

 Square.m
 #import "Square.h"

 @implementation Square
 -(Square*) initWithSize: (int) s {
 self = [super init];

 if ( self ) {
 [self setSize: s];
 }

 return self;
 }

 -(void) setSize: (int) s {
 width = s;
 height = s;
 }

 -(int) size {
 return width;
 }

 -(void) setWidth: (int) w {
 [self setSize: w];
 }

 -(void) setHeight: (int) h {
 [self setSize: h];
 }
@end

 main.m
 #import "Square.h"
 #import "Rectangle.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
  Rectangle *rec = [[Rectangle alloc]
initWithWidth: 10 height: 20];
 Square *sq = [[Square alloc] initWithSize:
15];

 // print em
 printf( "Rectangle: " );
 [rec print];
 printf( "\n" );

 printf( "Square: " );
 [sq print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // update square
 [sq setWidth: 20];
 printf( "Square after change: " );
 [sq print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // free memory
 [rec release];
 [sq release];

 return 0;
}

 output
 Rectangle: width = 10, height = 20
 Square: width = 15, height = 15
Square after change: width = 20, height = 20

 Inheritance in Objective-C is similar to Java. When you

extend your super class (of which you can only have one
parent) you can override the methods of your super class by
simply putting the new implementations in the child classes
implementation. No fooling with virtual tables like C++.
 One thing left out here that is worth nothing is what
would happen if you attempted to call the constructor for
rectangle like: Square *sq = [[Square alloc] initWithWidth: 10
height: 15]. The answer is it will throw a compile error. Since
the return type of the rectangle constructor is Rectangle*, not
Square* this would not work. In such a case if you want this to
occur, that's what the id variable is good for. Just change the
Rectangle* return type to id if you wish to use your parent's
constructors in a subclass.
o Dynamic types
 There are several methods for working with dynamic
types in Objective-C
-(BOOL) isKindOfClass: classObj is object a
 descendent
or member
of classObj
is object a
-(BOOL) isMemberOfClass: classObj member of
classObj
does the
object have
a method
-(BOOL) respondsToSelector: selector
named
specifiec by
the selector
does an
object
created by
this class
+(BOOL) instancesRespondToSelector: have the
selector ability to
respond to
the
specified
selector
invoke the
specified
-(id) performSelector: selector
selector on
the object
 Every object inherited from NSObject has a class
method that returns a class object. This is very similar to Java's
getClass() method. This class object is used in the methods
above.
 Selectors are used to represent a message in Objective-
C. The syntax for creating a selector is shown in the next
example
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 main.m
 #import "Square.h"
 #import "Rectangle.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 Rectangle *rec = [[Rectangle alloc]
initWithWidth: 10 height: 20];
 Square *sq = [[Square alloc] initWithSize:
15];

 // isMemberOfClass

 // true
 if ( [sq isMemberOfClass: [Square class]]
== YES ) {
 printf( "square is a member of square
class\n" );
 }

 // false
 if ( [sq isMemberOfClass: [Rectangle
class]] == YES ) {
 printf( "square is a member of
rectangle class\n" );
 }

 // false
 if ( [sq isMemberOfClass: [NSObject
class]] == YES ) {
 printf( "square is a member of object
class\n" );
 }

 // isKindOfClass

 // true
 if ( [sq isKindOfClass: [Square class]] ==
YES ) {
 printf( "square is a kind of square
class\n" );
 }

 // true
 if ( [sq isKindOfClass: [Rectangle class]]
== YES ) {
 printf( "square is a kind of rectangle
class\n" );
 }

 // true
 if ( [sq isKindOfClass: [NSObject class]]
== YES ) {
 printf( "square is a kind of object
class\n" );
 }

 // respondsToSelector

 // true
 if ( [sq respondsToSelector:
@selector( setSize: )] == YES ) {
 printf( "square responds to setSize:
method\n" );
 }

 // false
  if ( [sq respondsToSelector:
@selector( nonExistant )] == YES ) {
 printf( "square responds to
nonExistant method\n" );
 }

 // true
 if ( [Square respondsToSelector:
@selector( alloc )] == YES ) {
 printf( "square class responds to
alloc method\n" );
 }

 // instancesRespondToSelector

 // false
 if ( [Rectangle
instancesRespondToSelector: @selector( setSize: )]
== YES ) {
 printf( "rectangle instance responds
to setSize: method\n" );
 }

 // true
 if ( [Square instancesRespondToSelector:
@selector( setSize: )] == YES ) {
 printf( "square instance responds to
setSize: method\n" );
 }

 // free memory
 [rec release];
 [sq release];

 return 0;
}

 output
 square is a member of square class
 square is a kind of square class
 square is a kind of rectangle class
 square is a kind of object class
 square responds to setSize: method
 square class responds to alloc method
square instance responds to setSize: method

o Categories
 When you want to add methods to a class, you typically
extend it. However this solution isn't always perfect, especially
if you want to rewrite the functionality of a class that you don't
have the source code to. Categories allow you to add
functionality to already existing classes without extending
them. Ruby also has similar functionality to this.
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 FractionMath.h
 #import "Fraction.h"

 @interface Fraction (Math)
 -(Fraction*) add: (Fraction*) f;
 -(Fraction*) mul: (Fraction*) f;
 -(Fraction*) div: (Fraction*) f;
 -(Fraction*) sub: (Fraction*) f;
@end

 FractionMath.m
 #import "FractionMath.h"

 @implementation Fraction (Math)
 -(Fraction*) add: (Fraction*) f {
 return [[Fraction alloc]
initWithNumerator: numerator * [f denominator] +

denominator * [f numerator]
 denominator:
denominator * [f denominator]];
 }

 -(Fraction*) mul: (Fraction*) f {
 return [[Fraction alloc]
initWithNumerator: numerator * [f numerator]
 denominator:
denominator * [f denominator]];

 }

 -(Fraction*) div: (Fraction*) f {
 return [[Fraction alloc]
initWithNumerator: numerator * [f denominator]
 denominator:
denominator * [f numerator]];
 }

 -(Fraction*) sub: (Fraction*) f {
 return [[Fraction alloc]
initWithNumerator: numerator * [f denominator] -

denominator * [f numerator]
 denominator:
denominator * [f denominator]];
 }
@end

 main.m
 #import <stdio.h>
 #import "Fraction.h"
 #import "FractionMath.h"

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 // create a new instance
 Fraction *frac1 = [[Fraction alloc]
initWithNumerator: 1 denominator: 3];
 Fraction *frac2 = [[Fraction alloc]
initWithNumerator: 2 denominator: 5];
 Fraction *frac3 = [frac1 mul: frac2];

 // print it
 [frac1 print];
 printf( " * " );
 [frac2 print];
 printf( " = " );
 [frac3 print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // free memory
 [frac1 release];
 [frac2 release];
 [frac3 release];

 return 0;
}

 output

1/3 * 2/5 = 2/15

 The magic here is the two @implementation and

@interface lines: @interface Fraction (Math) and
@implementation Fraction (Math).
 There can only be one category with the same name.
Additional cateogies may be added on with different but unqiue
names.
 Categories can't add instance variables.
 Categories are useful for creating private methods.
Since Objective-C has no notion of private/protected/public
methods like java does, one has to create categories that hide
such functionality. The way this is done is by moving the
private methods from your class's header (.h) file to the
implementation file (.m). The following is a very brief example
of what I mean.
 MyClass.h
 #import <Foundation/NSObject.h>

 @interface MyClass: NSObject
  -(void) publicMethod;
@end

 MyClass.m
 #import "MyClass.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 @implementation MyClass
 -(void) publicMethod {
 printf( "public method\n" );
 }
 @end

 // private methods
 @interface MyClass (Private)
 -(void) privateMethod;
 @end

 @implementation MyClass (Private)
 -(void) privateMethod {
 printf( "private method\n" );
 }
@end

 main.m
 #import "MyClass.h"

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 MyClass *obj = [[MyClass alloc] init];

 // this compiles
 [obj publicMethod];

 // this throws errors when compiling
 //[obj privateMethod];

 // free memory
 [obj release];

 return 0;
}

 output

public method

o Posing
 Posing is similar to categories, but with a twist. It
allows you to extend a class, and make your subclass pose (in
place of) the super class globally. For instance: Say you have
NSArrayChild that extends NSArray. If you made
NSArrayChild pose for NSArray all your code would begin
using the NSArrayChild instead of NSArray automatically.
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 FractionB.h
 #import "Fraction.h"

 @interface FractionB: Fraction
 -(void) print;
 @end
 FractionB.m
 #import "FractionB.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 @implementation FractionB
 -(void) print {
 printf( "(%i/%i)", numerator,
denominator );
 }
@end

 main.m
 #import <stdio.h>
 #import "Fraction.h"
 #import "FractionB.h"

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 Fraction *frac = [[Fraction alloc]
initWithNumerator: 3 denominator: 10];

 // print it
 printf( "The fraction is: " );
 [frac print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // make FractionB pose as Fraction
 [FractionB poseAsClass: [Fraction class]];

 Fraction *frac2 = [[Fraction alloc]
initWithNumerator: 3 denominator: 10];

 // print it
 printf( "The fraction is: " );
 [frac2 print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // free memory
 [frac release];
 [frac2 release];
 
 return 0;
}

 output
 The fraction is: 3/10
The fraction is: (3/10)

 The output from this program would print the first

fraction s 3/10. The second would output (3/10), which is
implemented by FractionB.
 The method poseAsClass is part of NSObject. This
allows a subclass to pose as a superclass.
o Protocols
 A Protocol in Objective-C is identical in functionality to
an interface in Java, or a purely virtual class in C++.
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 Printing.h
 @protocol Printing
 -(void) print;
@end

 Fraction.h
 #import <Foundation/NSObject.h>
 #import "Printing.h"

 @interface Fraction: NSObject <Printing,
NSCopying> {
 int numerator;
 int denominator;
 }

 -(Fraction*) initWithNumerator: (int) n
denominator: (int) d;
 -(void) setNumerator: (int) d;
 -(void) setDenominator: (int) d;
 -(void) setNumerator: (int) n andDenominator:
(int) d;
 -(int) numerator;
 -(int) denominator;
@end

 Fraction.m
 #import "Fraction.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 @implementation Fraction
 -(Fraction*) initWithNumerator: (int) n
denominator: (int) d {
 self = [super init];

 if ( self ) {
 [self setNumerator: n andDenominator:
d];
 }

 return self;
 }

 -(void) print {
 printf( "%i/%i", numerator, denominator );
 }

 -(void) setNumerator: (int) n {
 numerator = n;
 }

 -(void) setDenominator: (int) d {
 denominator = d;
 }

 -(void) setNumerator: (int) n andDenominator:
(int) d {
 numerator = n;
 denominator = d;
 }

 -(int) denominator {
 return denominator;
 }

 -(int) numerator {
 return numerator;
 }

 -(Fraction*) copyWithZone: (NSZone*) zone {
 return [[Fraction allocWithZone: zone]
initWithNumerator: numerator
 den
ominator: denominator];
 }
@end

 Complex.h
 #import <Foundation/NSObject.h>
 #import "Printing.h"

 @interface Complex: NSObject <Printing> {
 double real;
 double imaginary;
 }

 -(Complex*) initWithReal: (double) r
andImaginary: (double) i;
 -(void) setReal: (double) r;
 -(void) setImaginary: (double) i;
 -(void) setReal: (double) r andImaginary:
(double) i;
 -(double) real;
 -(double) imaginary;
@end

 Complex.m
 #import "Complex.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 @implementation Complex
 -(Complex*) initWithReal: (double) r
andImaginary: (double) i {
 self = [super init];

 if ( self ) {
 [self setReal: r andImaginary: i];
 }

 return self;
 }

 -(void) setReal: (double) r {
 real = r;
 }

 -(void) setImaginary: (double) i {
 imaginary = i;
 }

 -(void) setReal: (double) r andImaginary:
(double) i {
 real = r;
 imaginary = i;
 }

 -(double) real {
 return real;
 }

 -(double) imaginary {
 return imaginary;
 }

 -(void) print {
 printf( "%_f + %_fi", real, imaginary );
 }
@end

 main.m
 #import <stdio.h>
 #import "Fraction.h"
 #import "Complex.h"

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 // create a new instance
 Fraction *frac = [[Fraction alloc]
initWithNumerator: 3 denominator: 10];
 Complex *comp = [[Complex alloc]
initWithReal: 5 andImaginary: 15];
 id <Printing> printable;
 id <NSCopying, Printing> copyPrintable;

 // print it
 printable = frac;
 printf( "The fraction is: " );
 [printable print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // print complex
 printable = comp;
 printf( "The complex number is: " );
 [printable print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // this compiles because Fraction comforms
to both Printing and NSCopyable
 copyPrintable = frac;

 // this doesn't compile because Complex
only conforms to Printing
 //copyPrintable = comp;

 // test conformance

 // true
 if ( [frac conformsToProtocol:
@protocol( NSCopying )] == YES ) {
 printf( "Fraction conforms to
NSCopying\n" );
 }

 // false
 if ( [comp conformsToProtocol:
@protocol( NSCopying )] == YES ) {
 printf( "Complex conforms to
NSCopying\n" );
  }

 // free memory
 [frac release];
 [comp release];

 return 0;
}

 output
 The fraction is: 3/10
 The complex number is: 5.000000 + 15.000000i
Fraction conforms to NSCopying

 The protocol specification is quite simple. it is basically

@protocol ProtocolName (methods you must implement)
@end.
 To conform to a protocol, you put the protocols you're
conforming to in <>'s, and comma separate them. Example:
@interface SomeClass <Protocol1, Protocol2, Protocol3>
 The methods that the protocol requires to be
implemented are not required to be in the list of methods for the
header file. As you can see, Complex.h doesn't have a
definition for -(void) print, but it still implements it since it
conforms to the protocol.
 One unique aspect of Objective-C's interface system is
how you specify types. Rather than specifying it like Java or
C++ as: Printing *someVar = ( Printing * ) frac; for example,
you use the id type with a restricted protocol: id <Printing> var
= frac; This allows you to dynamically specify a type that
requires multiple protocols, all with one variable. Such as: id
<Printing, NSCopying> var = frac;
 Much like using @selector for testing an object's
inheritance, you can use @protocol to test for conformance of
interfaces. [object conformsToProtocol:
@protocol( SomeProtocol )] returns a BOOL if the object
conforms to that protocol. This works the same for classes as
well: [SomeClass conformsToProtocol:
@protocol( SomeProtocol )].

• Memory Management
o Up until now I've kind of dodged memory management in
Objective-C. Sure you can call dealloc on an object, but what happens
if the object contains pointers to other objects? One has to be
concerned about freeing the memory of those objects as well. Also
how does the Foundation framework manage memory when you create
classes from it? This will all be explained.
o Note: everything up until this point has been properly memory
managed, incase you're wondering.
o Retain and Release
 Retain and release are two methods inherited from any
object that has NSObject as a parent. Each object has an
internal counter that can be used to keep track of the number
references an object has. So if you have 3 referneces, you don't
want to dealloc yourself. However once you reach 0, you
should dealloc yourself. [object retain] increments the counter
by 1 (which starts at 1) and [object release] decrements it by 1.
If the [object release] invocation causes the count to reach 0,
dealloc is then called.
 Fraction.m
 ...
 -(void) dealloc {
 printf( "Deallocing fraction\n" );
 [super dealloc];
 }
...

 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"

Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 main.m
 #import "Fraction.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 Fraction *frac1 = [[Fraction alloc] init];
 Fraction *frac2 = [[Fraction alloc] init];

 // print current counts
 printf( "Fraction 1 retain count: %i\n",
[frac1 retainCount] );
 printf( "Fraction 2 retain count: %i\n",
[frac2 retainCount] );

 // increment them
 [frac1 retain]; // 2
 [frac1 retain]; // 3
 [frac2 retain]; // 2

 // print current counts
 printf( "Fraction 1 retain count: %i\n",
[frac1 retainCount] );
 printf( "Fraction 2 retain count: %i\n",
[frac2 retainCount] );

 // decrement
 [frac1 release]; // 2
 [frac2 release]; // 1

 // print current counts
  printf( "Fraction 1 retain count: %i\n",
[frac1 retainCount] );
 printf( "Fraction 2 retain count: %i\n",
[frac2 retainCount] );

 // release them until they dealloc
themselves
 [frac1 release]; // 1
 [frac1 release]; // 0
 [frac2 release]; // 0
}

 output
 Fraction 1 retain count: 1
 Fraction 2 retain count: 1
 Fraction 1 retain count: 3
 Fraction 2 retain count: 2
 Fraction 1 retain count: 2
 Fraction 2 retain count: 1
 Deallocing fraction
Deallocing fraction

 The retain calls increment the counter. The release calls

decrement it. One can get the count as an int by calling [obj
retainCount]. Once the retainCount reaches 0, both objects
dealloc themselves and you can see this when both print out
"Deallocing fraction."
o Dealloc
 When your object contains other objects, you must free
them whenever you yourself dealloc. One of the nice
advantages to Objective-C is you can pass messages to nil, so
there isn't a lot of error checking to release an object.
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 AddressCard.h
 #import <Foundation/NSObject.h>
 #import <Foundation/NSString.h>

 @interface AddressCard: NSObject {
 NSString *first;
 NSString *last;
 NSString *email;
 }

 -(AddressCard*) initWithFirst: (NSString*) f
 last: (NSString*) l
 email: (NSString*) e;
 -(NSString*) first;
 -(NSString*) last;
 -(NSString*) email;
 -(void) setFirst: (NSString*) f;
 -(void) setLast: (NSString*) l;
 -(void) setEmail: (NSString*) e;
 -(void) setFirst: (NSString*) f
 last: (NSString*) l
 email: (NSString*) e;
 -(void) setFirst: (NSString*) f last:
(NSString*) l;
 -(void) print;
@end

 AddressCard.m
 #import "AddressCard.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 @implementation AddressCard
 -(AddressCard*) initWithFirst: (NSString*) f
 last: (NSString*) l
 email: (NSString*) e {
 self = [super init];

 if ( self ) {
 [self setFirst: f last: l email: e];
 }

 return self;
 }

 -(NSString*) first {
 return first;
 }

 -(NSString*) last {
 return last;
 }

 -(NSString*) email {
 return email;
 }

 -(void) setFirst: (NSString*) f {
 [f retain];
 [first release];
 first = f;
 }

 -(void) setLast: (NSString*) l {
 [l retain];
 [last release];
 last = l;
 }

 -(void) setEmail: (NSString*) e {
 [e retain];
 [email release];
 email = e;
 }

 -(void) setFirst: (NSString*) f
 last: (NSString*) l
 email: (NSString*) e {
 [self setFirst: f];
 [self setLast: l];
 [self setEmail: e];
 }

 -(void) setFirst: (NSString*) f last:
(NSString*) l {
 [self setFirst: f];
 [self setLast: l];
 }

 -(void) print {
 printf( "%s %s <%s>", [first cString],
 [last
cString],
 [email
cString] );
 }

 -(void) dealloc {
 [first release];
 [last release];
 [email release];

 [super dealloc];
 }
@end

 main.m
 #import "AddressCard.h"
 #import <Foundation/NSString.h>
 #import <stdio.h>

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 NSString *first =[[NSString alloc]
initWithCString: "Tom"];
 NSString *last = [[NSString alloc]
initWithCString: "Jones"];
 NSString *email = [[NSString alloc]
initWithCString: "[email protected]"];
 AddressCard *tom = [[AddressCard alloc]
initWithFirst: first
  la
st: last
 em
ail: email];

 // we're done with the strings, so we must
dealloc them
 [first release];
 [last release];
 [email release];

 // print to show the retain count
 printf( "Retain count: %i\n", [[tom first]
retainCount] );
 [tom print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // free memory
 [tom release];

 return 0;
}

 output
 Retain count: 1
Tom Jones <[email protected]>

 This example shows not only how to make a dealloc

method, as shown in AddressCard.m, but one way to do
member variables.
 The order of the 3 operations in each set method is very
important. Lets say you'return passing a parameter of yourself
to one of your methods (a bit of an odd example, but this can
happen). If you release first, THEN retain you will destruct
yourself! That's why you should always 1) retain 2) release 3)
set the value.
 Normally one wouldn't initialize variables with C
strings because they don't support unicode. The next example,
with NSAutoreleasePool shows the proper way to do strings
and initializing.
 This is just one way of handling member variable
memory management. One way to handle this is to create
copies inside your set methods.
o Autorelease Pool
 When you want to start doing more programming using
NSString and other Foundation framework classes you need a
more flexible system. This system is using Autorelease pools.
 When developing Mac Cocoa applications, the auto
release pool is setup automatically for you.
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 main.m
 #import <Foundation/NSString.h>
 #import <Foundation/NSAutoreleasePool.h>
 #import <stdio.h>

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 NSAutoreleasePool *pool =
[[NSAutoreleasePool alloc] init];
 NSString *str1 = @"constant string";
 NSString *str2 = [NSString
stringWithString: @"string managed by the pool"];
 NSString *str3 = [[NSString alloc]
initWithString: @"self managed string"];

 // print the strings
 printf( "%s retain count: %x\n", [str1
cString], [str1 retainCount] );
 printf( "%s retain count: %x\n", [str2
cString], [str2 retainCount] );
 printf( "%s retain count: %x\n", [str3
cString], [str3 retainCount] );

 // free memory
 [str3 release];

 // free pool
 [pool release];
 return 0;
}

 output
 constant string retain count: ffffffff
 string managed by the pool retain count: 1
self managed string retain count: 1

 If you run this you'll notice a few things. One is that the
retainCount of str1 is ffffffff.
 The other is, I only release str3, yet this program is
memory management perfect. The reason is the first constant
string is added to the autorelease pool automatically. The other
string is made using stringWithString. This method creates a
string that is owned by NSString class, which also puts it in the
auto release pool.
 It's important to remember, for proper memory
management, that convience methods like [NSString
stringWithString: @"String"] use autorelease pools, but alloc
methods like [[NSString alloc] initWithString: @"String"] do
not use autorelease pools for managing memory.
 There are two ways to manage memory in Objective-C:
1) retain and release or 2) retain and release/autorelease.
 For each retain, there must be one release OR one
autorelease.
 The following example shows what I mean by this
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 Fraction.h
 ...
 +(Fraction*) fractionWithNumerator: (int) n
denominator: (int) d;
 ...
 Fraction.m
 ...
 +(Fraction*) fractionWithNumerator: (int) n
denominator: (int) d {
 Fraction *ret = [[Fraction alloc]
initWithNumerator: n denominator: d];
 [ret autorelease];

 return ret;
 }
...

 main.m
 #import <Foundation/NSAutoreleasePool.h>
 #import "Fraction.h"
 #import <stdio.h>

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 NSAutoreleasePool *pool =
[[NSAutoreleasePool alloc] init];
 Fraction *frac1 = [Fraction
fractionWithNumerator: 2 denominator: 5];
 Fraction *frac2 = [Fraction
fractionWithNumerator: 1 denominator: 3];

 // print frac 1
 printf( "Fraction 1: " );
 [frac1 print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // print frac 2
 printf( "Fraction 2: " );
 [frac2 print];
 printf( "\n" );

 // this causes a segmentation fault
 //[frac1 release];

 // release the pool and all objects in it
  [pool release];
 return 0;
}

 output
 Fraction 1: 2/5
Fraction 2: 1/3

 In this example, the method is a class level method.

After the object is created, autorelease is called on it. Inside the
body of the main method, I never call release on the object.
 The reason this works is because: for every retain, one
release or autorelease must be called. The object's retain count
starts out as 1, and I called autorelease on it once. This means 1
- 1 = 0. Once the autorelease pool is released, it counts the
autorelease calls on all objects and decrements them with [obj
release] with the same number of times autorelease was called
per object.
 As the comment says, uncommenting that line causes a
segment fault. Since autorelease was already called on the
object, calling release on it, and then releasing the autorelease
pool would attempt to call dealloc on an object that is nil,
which is not valid. The end math is 1 (creation) - 1 (release) - 1
(autorelease) = -1.
 Auto release pools can be dynamically created for large
amounts of temporary objects. All one must do is create a pool,
perform any large chunk of code that creates lots of temporary
objects, then release the pool. As you may wonder, it this
means it is possible to have more than one auto release pool at
a time.

• Foundation framework classes

o The Foundation framework is similar to C++'s Standard
Template Library. Although since Objective-C has real dynamic types,
the horrible cludge that is C++'s templating is not necessary. This
framework contains collections, networking, threading, and much
more.
o NSArray
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 main.m
 #import <Foundation/NSArray.h>
 #import <Foundation/NSString.h>
 #import <Foundation/NSAutoreleasePool.h>
 #import <Foundation/NSEnumerator.h>
 #import <stdio.h>

 void print( NSArray *array ) {
 NSEnumerator *enumerator = [array
objectEnumerator];
 id obj;

 while ( obj = [enumerator nextObject] ) {
 printf( "%s\n", [[obj description]
cString] );
 }
 }

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 NSAutoreleasePool *pool =
[[NSAutoreleasePool alloc] init];
 NSArray *arr = [[NSArray alloc]
initWithObjects:
 @"Me", @"Myself", @"I",
nil];
 NSMutableArray *mutable = [[NSMutableArray
alloc] init];

 // enumerate over items
 printf( "----static array\n" );
 print( arr );

 // add stuff
 [mutable addObject: @"One"];
 [mutable addObject: @"Two"];
 [mutable addObjectsFromArray: arr];
 [mutable addObject: @"Three"];

 // print em
 printf( "----mutable array\n" );
 print( mutable );

 // sort then print
 printf( "----sorted mutable array\n" );
 [mutable sortUsingSelector:
@selector( caseInsensitiveCompare: )];
 print( mutable );

 // free memory
 [arr release];
 [mutable release];
 [pool release];

 return 0;
}

 output
 ----static array
 Me
 Myself
  I
 ----mutable array
 One
 Two
 Me
 Myself
 I
 Three
 ----sorted mutable array
 I
 Me
 Myself
 One
 Three
Two

 There are two kinds of arrays (and of usually most data

oriented Foundation classes) NSArray and NSMutableArray.
As the name suggests, Mutable is changable, NSArray then is
not. This means you can make an NSArray but once you have
you can't change the length.
 You initialize an array via the constructor using Obj,
Obj, Obj, ..., nil. The nil is an ending delimiter.
 The sorting shows how to sort an object using a
selector. The selector tells the array to sort using NSString's
case insensitive compare. If your object has several sort
methods, you can choose anyone you want using this selector.
 In the print method, I used the method description. This
is similar to Java's toString. It returns an NSString
representation of an object.
 NSEnumerator is similar to Java's enumerator system.
The reason why while ( obj = [array objectEnumerator] ) works
is because objectEnumerator returns nil on the last object. Since
in C nil is usually 0, this is the same as false. ( ( obj = [array
objectEnumerator] ) != nil ) might be preferable
o NSDictionary
 Based on an example in "Programming in Objective-C,"
Copyright © 2004 by Sams Publishing. Used with permission
 main.m
 #import <Foundation/NSString.h>
 #import <Foundation/NSAutoreleasePool.h>
 #import <Foundation/NSDictionary.h>
 #import <Foundation/NSEnumerator.h>
 #import <Foundation/Foundation.h<
 #import <stdio.h>

 void print( NSDictionary *map ) {
 NSEnumerator *enumerator = [map
keyEnumerator];
 id key;

 while ( key = [enumerator nextObject] ) {
 printf( "%s => %s\n",
 [[key description] cString],
 [[[map objectForKey: key]
description] cString] );
 }
 }

 int main( int argc, const char *argv[] ) {
 NSAutoreleasePool *pool =
[[NSAutoreleasePool alloc] init];
 NSDictionary *dictionary = [[NSDictionary
alloc] initWithObjectsAndKeys:
 @"one", [NSNumber numberWithInt: 1],
 @"two", [NSNumber numberWithInt: 2],
 @"three", [NSNumber numberWithInt: 3],
 nil];
 NSMutableDictionary *mutable =
[[NSMutableDictionary alloc] init];

 // print dictionary
 printf( "----static dictionary\n" );
 print( dictionary );

 // add objects
 [mutable setObject: @"Tom" forKey:
@"[email protected]"];
 [mutable setObject: @"Bob" forKey:
@"[email protected]" ];

 // print mutable dictionary
 printf( "----mutable dictionary\n" );
 print( mutable );

 // free memory
 [dictionary release];
 [mutable release];
 [pool release];

 return 0;
}

 output
 ----static dictionary
 1 => one
 2 => two
 3 => three
 ----mutable dictionary
 [email protected] => Bob
[email protected] => Tom
• Pros and Cons
o Pros
 Cateogies
 Posing
 Dynamic typing
 Pointer counting
 Flexible message passing
 Not an overly complex extention to C
 Can interface with C++ via Objective-C++
o Cons
 No namespaces
 No operator overloading (this is often considered a Pro
though, but operator overloading used properly can reduce
code clutter)
 Still some cruft in language, although no more than C+
+

• More Information
o Programming in Objective-C 2.0 (2nd Edition)
o Programming in Objective-C
o Learning Cocoa with Objective-C
o Cocoa Programming for Mac OS X
o Object-Oriented Programming and the Objective-C Language
o GNUstep mini tutorials

.Last modified: April 13, 2004