AICRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-II

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF

FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted By

A.MAHALAKSHMI 211315101004

S.THYAGARAJAN 211315101013

K.VINITHA 211315101014

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

AERONAUTICAL ENGNEERING

P.B. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

OCTOBETR 2019

1
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the material contained in this report entitled

“ FIGHTER AIRCRAFT” is the bonafide work of

A.MAHALAKSHMI 211315101004

S.THYAGARAJAN 211315101013

K.VINITHA 211315101014

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Mr. K Sathish kumar. M.E., Mr.V.Magesh. M.E.,

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Assistant professor,

Department of Aeronautical Department of Aeronautical

P.B.College of Engineering, P.B. College of Engineering,

Submitted for the Anna University project held on

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere thanks to the chairman of our college,

Mr.G.VENKATARAMAN for giving us the inspiration and providing all
facilities for the exection of our project.

We wish to convey, our heartiest thanks to principle of our college,

Dr.C.B.LAKSHMIKANTHA.M.Tech.,Ph.D for having provided the necessary
infrastructure for successful completion of our project.

I would like to extend my heart full thanks to ASST Prof. K.SATHISH

KUMAR. M.E. (Head of Aeronautical Department) for giving me his able to
support and encouragement. At this juncture I must emphasis the point that this
DESIGN PROJECT would not have been possible without the highly
informative and valuable guidance by ASST Prof. V.MAGESH. M.E., whose
knowledge and experience must us go this project with great ease. We have great
pleasure in expressing our sincere & whole hearted gratitude to them.

It is worth mentioning about my team mates, friends and colleagues of the

Aeronautical Department, for extending their kind help whenever the necessity
arose. I thank one and all who have directly or indirectly helped me in making
this design project a great success.

3
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

NO

ABSTRACT i

LIST OF SYMBOLS ii

LIST OF FIGURES iv

LIST OF GRAPHS v

LIST OF TABLES vi

1 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT WING- 1

SHRENCK’SCURVE, STRUCTURALLOAD

DISTRIBUTION, SHEAR FORCE, BENDING MOMENT

AND TORQUE DIAGRAMS.

SCHRENK’S CURVE 1

LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION 1

LIFT AT ROOT 1

LIFT AT TIP 2

ELLIPTICAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION 3

EQUATION OF ELLIPTIC LIFT 4

DISTRIBUTION

CONSTRUCTION OF SCHRENK’S CURVE 5

LOAD ESTIMATION ON WING 6

DESCRIPTION 6

LOADS ACTING ON WING 6

SELF-WEIGHT OF THE WING (Y3) 6

POWER PLANT WEIGHT 7

FUEL WEIGHT 8

REACTION FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 10

4
 SHEAR FORCE 11

BENDING MOMENT 12

2 DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT WING-DESIGN 14

OF SPARS AND STRINGERS, BENDING STRESS AND

SHEAR FLOW CALCULATIONS-BUCKLING

ANALYSIS OF WING PANELS.

2.1 WING DESIGN 14

2.1.1FUNCTION OF THE STRUCTURE 14

2.1.2 WING STRUCTURAL LAYOUT 14

2.1.3 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF WING 16

STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

2.2 SPAR SELECTION 18

2.2.1 MAXIMUM BENDING 18

2.2.2 LOAD FACTOR 18

2.2.3 BENDING STRESS 18

2.3 SHEAR FLOW CALCULATION 19

3 PRELIMINARYDESIGN OF ANAIRCRAFT 22

FUSELAGE-LOAD DISTRIBUTION ON AN AIRCRAFT

FUSELAGE.

3.1 LOADS AND ITS DISTRIBUTION 22

3.1.1 INTRODUCTION 22

3.1.2 LOADS IN FUSELAGE 23

3.1.3 COG CALCULATION 23

3.2 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 24

5
4 DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE- 26

DESIGN OF BULKHEADS AND LONGERONS-

BENDING STRESS AND SHEAR FLOW

CALCULATIONS-BUCKLING ANALYSIS OF

FUSELAGE PANELS.

FUSELAGE STRUCTURE 26

FUSELAGE LAYOUT CONCEPTS 27

MASS BOOM & LONGERON LAYOUT 27

SEMI-MONOCOQUE LAYOUT 28

FUSELAGE STRESS ANALYSIS 30

FUSELAGE SHEAR FLOW 31

OPEN SECTION 32

CLOSED SECTION 35

5 DESIGN OF CONTROL SURFACES-BALANCING AND 39

MANEUVERING LOADS ON THE TAIL PLANE AND

AILERON, RUDDER LOADS.

MANEUVERINGLOADSONAIRCRAFT 39

CONTROL SURFACES

MANEUVER LOADS 41

STABILIZER 43

STABILITY 46

6 DESIGN OF WING-ROOT ATTATCHEMENT. 51

GEOMETRY OF THE WING 51

DETERMINATION OF THE MAC 53

7 LANDING GEAR DESIGN. 54

INTRODUCTION 54

TRICYCLE-TYPE LANDING GEAR 54

6
 7.1.2 NOSE LANDING GEAR 54

7.1.3 MAIN LANDING GEAR 55

7.1.4 FUEL TANK 56

7.2 TIRE SELECTION 56

7.2.1 TIRE SIZING 56

7.2.2 NOSE WHEEL CALCULATION 57

7.2.3 MAIN WHEEL 58

8 PREPARATION OD DETAILED REPORT WITH CAD 61

DRAWINGS.

8.1 INTRODUCTION 61

8.1.1 DESIGN CONSTRAINTS 61

DESIGN ASPECTS 63

DESIGN PROCESS AND SIMULATION 65

PRELIMINARY DESIGN PHASE 66

DETAIL DESIGN PHASE 66

9 CONCLUSION 67

10 REFERENCE 68

7
 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this Aircraft Design Project-II is to design the structural part of
the fighter aircraft. The design has been carried out for schrenk’s curve,
detailed design of aircraft wing and fuselage with shear flow diagrams of an
aircraft. Then the design of wing-root attachment, control surfaces and landing
gear and then the detailed design report with CAD drawing is prepared for a
supersonic fighter aircraft.

8
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

W Weight of aircraft

W0 Overall weight

Wf Weight of fuel

We Empty weight

L Lift of aircraft

D Drag of the aircraft

CL Coefficient of lift

CD Coefficient of drag

S Wing area

B Wingspan

T Thrust

T/W Thrust loading

W/S Wing loading

9
A.R Aspect ratio

Cr,Ct Chord length of root,tip

Tr,tt Thickness of root, tip

Sπ Wetted surface area

Coefficient of drag of wetted surface

CDπ
area
ΛL.E Sweep angle of the leading edge

ß Dihedral angle

10
 INTRODUCTION

Aircraft Design Project-II is a continuation of Aircraft Design Project-I. As

mentioned in our earlier project, military aviation is of prime importance for
every country and with this in mind we have designed a supersonic fighter
aircraft. In our Aircraft Design Project-I, we have performed a preliminary and
conceptual analysis. We have carried out a weight estimation, engine selection,
weapon loading and aerodynamic parameter selection and analysis. Apart from
these, we have also determined performance parameters such lift, drag, range,
endurance, thrust and power requirements.

The purpose of ADP-II is to enhance the knowledge in continuation of the

design project given in ADP–I. Also, Aircraft Design Project-II deals with a more
in-depth study and analysis of aircraft performance and structural characteristics.
In the following pages we have carried out structural analysis of fuselage and
wings and the appropriate materials have been chosen to give our aircraft
adequate structural integrity. The determination the landing gear position,
retraction and other accompanying systems and mechanisms have also been
done.

Thus, by imposing all the performance parameters in our ADP-I, structural

analysis of our bomber is done in this project. The two major members that need
to be considered for the structural design of an airplane are the wings and the
fuselage. As far as the wing design is concerned, the most significant load is the
bending load. So, the primary load bearing component in the wing structure is
the spar (the front and the rear spars) whose cross section is an I- section. Apart
from the spar to take the bending loads, suitable stringers need to be provided to
take the shear loads acting on the wing.

11
 Unlike the wing, which is subjected mainly to unsymmetrical bending
load, the fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis due to its symmetrical
cross section as well as symmetrical loading. The main load in the case of
fuselage is only shear because the load acting on the wing is transferred to the
fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of both the wing
and the fuselage begin with shear force and the bending moment diagrams for
the respective members. The maximum bending stress produced in each of them
is checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen for the respective
member.

REQUIRED DATAS FROM ADP-1:

An airplane is a hybrid of various aspects of airplane design viz., airplane

dynamics, propulsion, structures, stability and control. The airplane emerges as
a compromise of several conditions directed by the specifications for which it is
being designed. The project deals with the design of supersonic fighter aircraft.
This aircraft design project-2 is basically a continuation of aircraft design
project-1.

In design project-1 the following were done

Mission specifications
Literature survey
Weight estimation
Engine selection
Airfoil selection
Landing gear selection
Drag estimation

12
 In aircraft design project-2 taking the values obtained in design project-1
as input, the load distribution on the wing and the fuselage is found and the shear
force diagram and the bending moment diagram for the wing and the fuselage
are drawn and the internal structure design is also done.

The following values are taken from the aircraft design project-1 and are
used in the aircraft design project-2

Retrieved datas from aircraft design project-1

MISSION REQUIREMENTS :
Results from aircraft Design Project I

PARAMETERS VALUES
CREW 1 (ONE)
ROLE Air Superiority, Bomber
ENDURANCE 5 hrs
PAYLOAD 10,000 kg
TYPE OF PAYLOAD Missiles, Bombs &
Rockets
COMBAT TIME 2 hrs

13
CONFIGURATION :

Results from aircraft Design Project I

PARAMETERS SHAPES
FUSELAGE Conventional
WING Delta Wing, Mid Wing
TAIL V- Tail
LANDING GEAR Conventional
ENGINE Turbo Fan Engine

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS:

Results from aircraft Design Project I

PARAMETERS VALUES
MAXIMUM SPEED 2.1 mach
CRUISE SPEED 2300 ft/s
SERVICE CEILING 60000 ft
RATE OF CLIMB 1000 ft/s

14
SPECIFICATION OF DESIGNED AIRCRAFT

Results from aircraft Design Project I

DESIGN POINT PARAMETERS VALUES
Overall Weight 65037.79 lbs
Empty Weight 32518.95 lbs
Fuel Weight 22322.92 lbs
Weight
Payload Weight 10000 lbs
Cruise speed 1916.67 ft/s

Performance Maximum Speed 2300 ft/s

Range 12000000 ft
Thrust Required 84549.127 lbs
Area 416.79ft
Span 37.45 ft
Root Chord 16.67 ft
Tip Chord 1.67 ft
Wing
Aerofoil Joukowsky 15.6 % and

Joukowsky 18.2 %

15
 CHAPTER-1

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT WING

AIM:

To estimate the shrenck’s curve, structural load distribution, shear force,

bending moment and torque graph for the wing.

WING LOAD DISTRIBUTION

While performing a structural analysis of the aircraft, it is necessary to

investigate all the various loads acting on the aircraft that will help us in
determining the shear force and bending moment distribution.

Wing load distribution is an important phase in the structural design of the

aircraft. This is because, wing is the component that enables the aircraft to fly
and any damages to the wing during flight due to over stressing can drastically
reduce the lift by sections of wing or the entire wing being ripped off and the
aircraft plummets into the ground or sea.

So, this structural analysis is important during design. In this section we

will see the shear force and bending moment distribution along the wingspan.

The major loads acting on the aircraft’s wing are lift, weight of the wing,
weight of fuel, engines, landing gear etc.,

LOADS ACTING ON WING:

As both the wings are symmetric, let us consider the starboard wing at
first. There are three primary loads acting on a wing structure in transverse
direction which can cause considerable shear forces and bending moments on it.

16
They are as follows:
Lift force (given by Schrenk’s curve)
Self-weight of the wing
Weight of the power plant
Weight of the fuel in the wing

SCHRENK’S CURVE:
Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation in chord length, angle
of attack and sweep along the span. Schrenk’s curve defines this lift distribution
over the wing span of an aircraft, also called simply as Lift Distribution Curve.
Schrenk’s curve is an approximation for the lift distribution along the span for
the wing. The equation of the curve is obtained by taking the average of the
trapezoidal and elliptic lift distributions.
Schrenk’s Curve is given by

Where
y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span also named as L1
y2 is Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span also named as L2

LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION:

Density, = 1.225 kg/m3

Root chord of the wing, Cr = 8.054 m
Tip chord of the wing, Ct = 2.013 m
Area of the wing planform, S = 126.66 m2
Wing span, b = 25.16 m

17
Lift at root

Lift at tip

By representing this lift at sections of root and tip we can get the equation for
the wing.

Linear lift distribution

y1 = Lroot – * x
y1 = 37952.46532 – * x
y1 = 35517.42964 – 5983.653 x

18
SEMI SPAN LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION
WING
0 37952.4
0.28536 36244.9
0.57073 34537.4
0.85609 32829.8
1.14146 31122.3
1.42682 29414.8
1.71219 27707.3
1.99755 25999.7
2.28292 24292.2
2.56828 22584.7
2.85365 20877.2
3.13901 19169.6
3.42438 17462.1
3.70974 15754.6
3.99511 14047.1
4.28047 12339.5
4.56584 10632.0
4.85120 8924.53
5.13657 7217.01
5.42193 5509.48
5.7073 3801.96

19
 Linear Variation of Lift along Wing Semi Span
40000

35000
Lin
30000
ea
r 25000
lift
(N 20000
/ 15000 Linear Lift distribution Curve

10000

5000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Wing Semi Span (m)

Lift distribution (linear)

ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION:

Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be
required to overcome weight.
Considering an elliptic lift distribution we get

Where,
b1= Actual lift at root
a = wing semi span
W = Gross Weight in kg

20
 Elliptic lift distribution

EQUATION OF ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION:

21
WING SPAN ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION
WING
0 6581.28
0.28536 6573.05
0.57073 6548.3
0.85609 6506.82
1.14146 6448.32
1.42682 6372.30
1.71219 6278.15
1.99755 6165.02
2.28292 6031.85
2.56828 5877.27
2.85365 5699.56
3.13901 5496.46
3.42438 5265.03
3.70974 5001.34
3.99511 4699.98
4.28047 4353.11

22
 EllipticalVariation of Lift along Wing Semi Span
Ell
ipt
7000
ica
l
6000
Lif
t 5000
Di
str 4000
ib
uti3000 Elliptical lift Distribution curve
on
2000
(N
/
1000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Wing Semi Span (m)

Lift distribution (elliptic)

CONSTRUCTION OF SCHRENK’S CURVE:

Schrenk’s Curve is given by

Y=

23
WING SPAN Y2 Y2 Y
0 37952.4 6581.28 22266.8
0.28536 36244.9 6573.05 21409
0.57073 34537.4 6548.3 20542.8
0.85609 32829.8 6506.82 19668.3
1.14146 31122.3 6448.32 18785.3
1.42682 29414.8 6372.30 17893.5
1.71219 27707.3 6278.15 16992.7
1.99755 25999.7 6165.02 16082.4
2.28292 24292.2 6031.85 15162.0
2.56828 22584.7 5877.27 14231.0
2.85365 20877.2 5699.56 13288.3
3.13901 19169.6 5496.46 12333.0
3.42438 17462.1 5265.03 11363.6
3.70974 15754.6 5001.34 10377.9
3.99511 14047.1 4699.98 9373.54
4.28047 12339.5 4353.11 8346.35
4.56584 10632.0 3948.77 7290.41
4.85120 8924.53 3466.90 6195.72
5.13657 7217.01 2868.21 5042.86
5.42193 5509.48 2055.00 3782.24
5.7073 3801.96 0 1900.98

24
 Schrenk's Curve
40000

35000
lift
Dis30000
tri
bu 25000
tio
n 20000 LINEAR CURVE
(N ELLIPTICAL CURVE
/m15000
SCHRENK CURVE
10000

5000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Wing Semi Span (m)

Load distribution on wing

SELF-WEIGHT OF WING (Y3):

For this preliminary analysis, the structural weight of the wing is assumed
to vary parabolically along the span, with zero weight per unit span at the
wingtips.
Again, the area enclosed between the weight distribution curve and the
semi span axis should be equal to wing structural weight.Self-weight of the wing,

25
 W(wing) = 0.0759 x 29500.64726 x 9.81

W(wing) = 21965.56244N

W(Portwing)= - 10982.78122 N (Acting Downwards)

W(Starboard)= - 10982.78122 N (Acting Downwards)

Assuming parabolic weight distribution

Where,

K = -177.23173

Y3= -177.23173(x-5.7073)²

26
SEMI SPAN WEIGHT OF EMPTY WING

0 -5060.532949
0.8386 -4408.33654
1.6772 -3801.115496
2.5158 -3238.869815
3.3544 -2721.599498
4.193 -2249.304545
5.0316 -1821.984956
5.8702 -1439.64073
6.7088 -1102.271869
7.5474 -809.8783721
8.386 -562.4602388
9.2246 -360.0174696
10.0632 -202.5500642
10.9018 -90.05802286
11.7404 -22.54134544
12.579 -3.19768E-05

27
 Self Weight
0
W 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Eig -1000
ht
of
-2000
em
pt
y -3000
wi
ng -4000
(N
/m
-5000

-6000

-7000
Span wise location (m)

Self weight of wing

FUEL WEIGHT:
This design has fuel in the wing so we have to consider the weight
of the fuel in one the wing.

28
 Shows slope of the Fuel Weight

Again by using general formula for straight line

y= mx + c
we get,
dy = 1.426825 x
m
Dy= (5210.148434-dy)

Where,

m=
Solving these equation,

29
SEMI SPAN LOAD ACTING ON WING

0 -11937.2032
0.8386 -10611.30214
1.6772 -9285.401078
2.5158 -7959.500017
3.3544 -6633.598956
4.193 -5307.697895
5.0316 -3981.796834
5.8702 -2655.895773
6.7088 -1329.994712
7.5474 -4.093651259
8.386 1321.80741
9.2246 2647.708471
10.0632 3973.609532
10.9018 5299.510593
11.7404 6625.411654
12.579 7951.312715

30
 Fuel distribution
0
Lo 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
ad -500
act-1000
ing
on -1500
wi -2000
ng -2500
(N
/m-3000
) -3500
-4000
-4500
-5000
Span wise location (m)

Fuel Distribution

Load distribution
45000
40000
35000
Lo
30000
ad
act 25000
ing 20000
on
15000
wi
ng 10000
(N 5000
/m 0
)
-5000 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

-10000
Span wise location (m)

linear elliptical self weight of wing fuel weight

31
Loads simplified as point loads

Curve / component Area enclosed / Centroid (from wing

structural weight (N) root)
y1/2 119152.5073 3.631640234 m
y2/2 14750.32319 2.422253351 m
Wing 10982.78122 1.426825 m
Fuel 49665.61261 1.71219 m

REACTION FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT CALCULATIONS:

The wing is fixed at one end and free at other end.

Fighter Aircraft Wing as Cantilever beam

32
Σ v,

Then,

VA-119152.5073-14750.32319+10982.78122+49665.61261=0

VA= 73254.43666 N

ΣM ,

Then,

MA-(119152.5073x3.631640234)-(14750.32319x2.422253351)+
(10982.78122x1.426825) + (49665.61261x1.71219) = 0

MA = 367740.5881N/m

Now we know VA and MA, using this we can find out shear force and Bending
moment.
SHEAR FORCE:

By using the corresponding values of x in appropriate equations we get the plot

of shear force.

33
 Shear Force Acting on wing

BENDING MOMENT:

By using the corresponding values of x in appropriate equations we get the plot

of bending moment.

34
 Bending moment diagram
4500000
Be 4000000
ndi
ng 3500000
mo 3000000
me
nt 2500000
(N 2000000
m)
1500000

1000000

500000
0
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Location in wing m

Bending moment acting on wing

TORQUE:

In the aircraft wing, at any section, the net aerodynamic force always acts
at the center of pressure. For convenience, we assume the aerodynamic force to
act through the aerodynamic center since this point is fixed for a given airfoil
section and does not depend on factors like angle of attack. Along with the force,
we also have a moment about the aerodynamic center M ac which has a constant
value. Since the center of pressure is always located behind the aerodynamic
center, Mac is always a nose-down moment.
In this section, we analyse the torque or twist distribution along the wing
semi-span. It is known that when a force acts through the shear center of a section
no rotation is produced in the section. Applying this concept, we shift

the aerodynamic forces to the shear center. In performing this shift, in addition
to the existing Mac, an additional moment due to the shifting is also to considered.

35
The variation of net moment per unit span about the section wise shear center is
investigated in this section.
We resolve the aerodynamic forces acting on each section of the wing into
components normal and parallel to the chord. Since the parallel component
passes through the shear center, it does not contribute to any torque. Only the
normal force component contributes to section torque. For the preliminary
analysis, we assume the shear center to lie at 0.35c from the leading edge. Since
this location is very close to the C.G location, and because weight is a relieving
force as far as section twist is concerned, we neglect the contribution of weight
towards torque distribution.

Torque due to normal force:

T’ = Cn
T’ = 0.017
Co-efficient of force along the normal direction,

= 0.0648 cos(50) + 0.011 sin(50)

=0.065512129
T’ = 0.017*0.065512129*1.2256*333.332 c2
T’ = 151.6590026 c2

For the wing, we have the variation of chord is given by

C = 2.013 + 0.640222575 x
Therefore torque
T’ = 151.6590026
T’ = 151.6590026
T’ = 151.6590026
T’ = 20.72091474 x3 + 195.4532761 x2 + 614.5479089 x

36
 Torque due to normal forces

RESULT:
Thus the structural load distribution are estimated, shrenck’s curve, shear
force, bending moment and torque graph for the wing are plotted.

37
 CHAPTER-2
DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT WING
AIM:
To design a spar and stringer, bending stress and shear flow calculation,
buckling analysis for a wing panel.
AIRCRAFT WING:
The aircraft wings are the primary lift producing device for an aircraft. The
aircraft wings are designed aerodynamically to generate lift force which is
required in order for an aircraft to fly. Besides generating the necessary lift force,
the aircraft wings are used to carry the fuel required for the mission by the
aircraft, can have mounted engines or can carry extra fuel tanks or other
armaments. The basic goal of the wing is to generate lift and minimize drag as
far as possible. When the airflow passes the wing at any suitable angle of attack,
a pressure differential is created. A region of lower pressure is created over the
top surface of the wing while, a region of higher pressure is created below the
surface of the wing. This difference in pressure creates a differential force which
acts upward which is called lift. For most aircrafts, where, the wings are the
primary structures to generate lift, the aircrafts wings must generate sufficient
lift to carry the entire weight of an aircraft. In modern commercial, fighter and
jet aircrafts, the aircraft wings are not only designed to provide the necessary lift
during the different phases of flight, but also have a variety of other roles and
functions. In fighter aircrafts, weapon systems, missiles and extra fuel tanks or
other armament is normally mounted below the wing surface using weapon-pods.
These pods are normally attached to the wing spars running through the wing
span. During the flight, the aircraft wing has to deal with aerodynamic, gust, wind
and turbulence loads. Also, the aircraft wings have to deal with aero-elastic and
structural loads as well.

38
DESIGN OF WING COMPONENT – SPAR:
The wing spars are the main load carrying structural member of the aircraft
wing. The wing spars are used to carry the loads that occur during the flight
(flight loads) as well as carry the weight of the aircraft wing while on the ground
(ground loads). The wing spars run throughout the root to the tip and can be
placed perpendicularly or at an angle. Commercial aircrafts sometimes have less
number of wing spars than fighter aircrafts, this is due to the fact that, the fighter
aircrafts have to deal with much higher flight loads. Therefore, the analysis has
to be very accurate. The structural analysis of the wing by defining the primary
load carrying member Spars is done below.
Spars are members which are basically used to carry the bending and
shear loads acting on the wing during flight. There are two spars, one located at
15-20% of the chord known as the front spar, the other located at 60-70% of the
chord known as the rear spar. Some of the functions of the spar include:

39
 The spar flange takes up the bending loads whereas the web
carries the shear loads.
The rear spar provides a means of attaching the control surfaces on
the wing.

The loads taken by the wing spars include bending loads mainly, as well
as part of the shear force. The spar is responsible for resisting nearly 90% of the
bending. The common section for the spar is the I-section, in which the flanges
resist bending moments while the webs resist shear forces. For the front and rear
spars in the wings, the material used is Al2024 alloy. This material is selected
for its high strength, relatively high strength to weight ratio, as well as smooth
elastic properties.

For this Al 2024 alloy, the properties are listed below:

Ultimate tensile strength : 530.896 MPa

Yield tensile strength : 455.05 MPa
Yield compressive strength : 525.1 MPa
Ultimate shear strength : 206.84 MPa
Young’s modulus : 73.1 GPa
Shear modulus : 21.48 GPa
Density : 2800 kg/m3

Considering these functions, the locations of the front and rear spar are
fixed at 0.20c and 0.65c from the leading edge respectively.
This location satisfies the condition of locating the front spar close to the
maximum thickness position in the wing as well as the fuel space requirement.

40
 In this section, we design the spars for the critical bending moment
developed at the wing root. Hence, we take a section close to the wing root and
design the spar based on it.
The airfoil selected for the aircraft is the NACA 63210. The section
selected for this analysis has a chord of 5.032 m, and the critical bending moment
developed at this section is approximately N-m.
At the spar locations, the distance between the top and bottom surfaces of
the wing are:
Height of front spar, h1 = 0.20c = (0.20*5.032) = 1.0064 m
Height of rear spar, h2 = 0.65c = (0.65*5.032) = 3.2708 m

The bending moment is assumed to be shared between the front and rear
spar in the ratio
M1/M2=h12/h22

M1/M2=1.00642/3.27082

M1+M2=Mmax

From the above two equations,

Mf = 165713.5568 Nm
Mr = 1750349.443 Nm

We use the Euler bending theory to find the areas of the spar caps. The
design is carried out assuming that when this moment is resisted, the stress in the
material reaches the yield stress value
Also, we use the lumped mass analysis with the assumption that the areas
of the top and bottom caps are the same. With this assumption, the location of
the neutral surface of each spar lies midway between the top and bottom surfaces.

41
Using the above assumptions, we have the following formulae:
σy=m/az
Where M – bending moment taken by each spar
A – flange area of each spar
Z – centroid distance

Front spar:
Using Euler bending theory,
σy=m1/a1 z1

M1=bending moment @front spar

A1=Area of the spar

Z1=centroid

Z1=h1/2

Z1 = 0.5032 m
Area of front spar, Af = 0.00072369 m2
Thickness of front spar tf = 14% of Ct
tf = 0.28182 m
Length of front angle section, lf = 6t = (6*0.28182)
lf = 1.69092 m
Height of the front angle section, hf = 5t = (5*0.28182) = 1.4091 m

Rear spar:
Using Euler bending theory,
σy=m2/a2 z2

42
 M2=bending moment@ rear spar

A2= area of rear spar

Z2=centroid

Z2=h2/2

Z2 = 1.6354 m
Area of rear spar, Ar = 0.0023519 m2
Thickness of rear spar tr = 14% of Cr
tr = 0.12756 m
Length of rear angle section, lr = 8t = (8*0.12756)
lr = 1.02048 m
Height of the rear angle section, hr = 3.5t = (3.5*0.12759)
hr = 0.44646 m
Now to determine the thickness of the web portion, the ultimate shear
stress of Al 2024 alloy is 206.84 MPa. The shear force at the spar supports are
found to be
Vf = 13649682.3 N
Vr = 3830940.904 N

We know that,
Where V – shear force at the spar
t – thickness of the web
Q = A*Z
I = A*Z2
Thus,

Where factor of safety, FOS = 1.5

Thus the thicknesses of the web portion are,

43
 For front spar,
tf = 0.19671 m
For rear spar,
tr = 0.016987 m

1.69092
1.02048

1.4091 0.4464

0.19671 0.016987

0.28182
0.12756
Front spar Rear spar
All dimensions are in m.
SHEAR FLOW:
The shear flow can be considered for the two cells in the airfoil cross
section. The shear flow will be due to the torque as well as due to the bending
moments. These are computed separately and summed up to obtain the net shear
flow pattern for the wing cross section.
The shear flow due to bending is calculated using the formula,
q=(vxIXX-VYIXY/IXY2-IXXIYY)ΣAX+( vyIyy-VxIXY/IXY2-IXXIYY)ΣAY

Vx = 186287.512 N
Vy = 1588540.96 N
Ixx = 2.499*10-3 m4
Iyy = 9.998*10-3 m4
Ixy = 3.749*10-3 m4

44
 With these values, we have the equation for open section shear flow
through the sections as
q = 1.104*109 + 1.340958*1010
The above equation is modified by adding a constant term while closing
the cuts.
The shear flow due to torque,
T = 2*A*Q
Where, A = area of each cell
Q = shear flow due to the torque

The shear flow from the two cases is superimposed, using which the net
shear flow through the wing section is computed. Using this distribution, we have
the maximum value of shear flow in the skin without any stringers to be in the
segment between the front and rear spar on the top surface of the wing.
qmax = 3259165.159 N/m
With this value of shear flow, we obtain the skin thickness required from
the strength as well as buckling aspects. For strength requirements, we have the
relation
Using the above relation, we have t = 0.0158 m
For the buckling analysis, we consider the wing panel with the maximum
shear flow. The relation used to determine the thickness required is
Where Kb – constant based on the panel supports and aspect ratio
ν – poisson’s ratio
b – shorter edge of the panel
for the panel considered,
Kb = 32
Using the above relation, we have t = 3.0848 m

45
 Selecting the higher of the two values computed we have the required
thickness of the wing skin without stiffening stringers as 3.0848 m.
DESIGN OF STRINGER:
The thickness of the skin determined above is too high for the skin of an
aircraft. Therefore in order to reduce skin thickness and redistribute the shear
flow in the wing skin, stringers are added. The number of stringers can be
determined by evaluating the amount by which the skin thickness should be
reduced.

The section selected for the stringers is the Z‐section with end tabs. This
section is selected as it gives the maximum area moment of inertia for the
minimum cross section area. The properties of the stringer section selected are
given below:

h=0.2406m

t=0.01m

A = 0.004812 m2

For the wing root chord of 5.032 m, we select the number of stringers to
be 12. There are no stringers in cell 3 as the region has other components like
control surfaces, and the space restriction makes it difficult to insert stringers in
this portion.

Ixx=(h3t/3)= (0.24063)*(0.01)/3=4.642*10-5m4

Iyy=( h3t/12)=( 0.24063)*(0.01)/12=1.160*10-5m4

Ixy=( h3t/8)=( .24063)*(0.01)/8=1.741*10-5m4

q=(vxIXX-VYIXY/IXY2-IXXIYY)ΣAX+( vyIyy-VxIXY/IXY2-IXXIYY) ΣAy

q = -2.50135*1010 - 6.45117*1010

46
 Once again superimposing the shear flows due to bending and torsion, we
evaluate the shear flow and identify the wing skin panel with the maximum value
of shear flow. This panel is located between the rear spar and the adjacent
stringer on the top surface, and is of size 0.2376 m x 0.6 m. The shear flow in
this panel is calculated as

qmax = 3259165.159 N/m

From the strength point of analysis, we have

Τutl=qmax/t

Using the above relation, we have

t = 0.1666 m
For the buckling analysis, using the relation
q/t=(πkbE)/(12[1-v2])*[t/b]2

Using the above relation, we have

t = 0.07 m
It is seen that there is a 60.4% reduction in skin thickness due to the
addition of stiffening stringers. The values of stringer number and dimensions
are arrived at after several iterations, changing the area and section of each
stringer. An important factor to be considered simultaneously while designing
the stringers is whether the stringers will buckle due to the compressive stress
which is exerted on them as a result of wing bending.

BENDING STRESS FOR WING:

An important factor to be considered simultaneously while designing the

stringers is whether the stringers will buckle due to the compressive stress

which is exerted on them as a result of wing bending. To calculate the bending

stress exerted at different locations on the wing section, we use the relation

47
 σb=(MX IYY-MY IXY/IXY2-IXXIYY)Y+( My IXX-Mx IXY/IXY2-IXXIYY) X

Mx = 2846175.788 N/m

My = 985047.2371 N/m

Using the above relation,

σb=6.741*1010y+1.628*1010x

The stringer subjected to maximum stress is identified as the stringer one

away from the top flange of the rear spar. The stress value acting on this
stringer is calculated as

σexerted=1.755*1010Pa

Since the stringer is assumed to be simply supported between ribs, the

buckling stress for each stringer segment is calculated using the formula

σcr=π2EI/AL2

Using the data for stringer dimensions and the above equation, we have

σcr=7.260*1010 Pa.

RESULT:

Thus the spar and stringer was designed, bending stress and shear flow
calculation, buckling analysis for a wing panel are estimated.

48
 CHAPTER-3

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE

AIM:

To estimate the various loads on fuselage and plot the shear force and
bending moment diagram.

FUSELAGE DESIGN:

The fuselage is the main structure or body of the fixed-wing aircraft. It

provides space for cargo, controls, accessories, passengers, and other equipment.
In single-engine aircraft, the fuselage houses the power plant. In multiengine
aircraft, the engines may be either in the fuselage, attached to the fuselage, or
suspended from the wing structure. There are two general types of fuselage
construction: truss and monocoque.

A truss is a rigid framework made up of members, such as beams, struts,

and bars to resist deformation by applied loads. The truss-framed fuselage is
generally covered with fabric. The truss-type fuselage frame is usually
constructed of steel tubing welded together in such a manner that all members of
the truss can carry both tension and compression loads. In some aircraft,
principally the light, single engine, truss fuselage frames may be constructed of
aluminum alloy and may be riveted or bolted into one piece, with cross-bracing
achieved by using solid rods or tubes Monocoque Type

The monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on the strength of the
skin or covering to carry the primary loads. The design may be divided into two
classes:

Monocoque
Semi monocoque

49
 Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to either of the two
classes, but most modern aircraft are considered to be of semi monocoque type
construction. The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies,
and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage. The heaviest of these structural
members are located at intervals to carry concentrated loads and at points where
fittings are used to attach other units such as wings, power plants, and stabilizers.
Thus, the biggest problem involved in monocoque construction is maintaining
enough strength while keeping the weight within allowable limits.

Semi-monocoque Type:

To overcome the strength/weight problem of monocoque construction, a

modification called semi monocoque construction was developed. It also consists
of frame assemblies, bulkheads, and formers as used in the monocoque design
but, additionally, the skin is reinforced by longitudinal members called
longerons. Longerons usually extend across several frame members and help the
skin support primary bending loads. They are typically made of aluminium alloy
either of a single piece or a built-up construction.

50
 Stringers are also used in the semi-monocoque fuselage. This is
accomplished with gussets, rivets, nuts and bolts, screws, and even friction
stir welding. A gusset is a type of connection bracket that adds strengthen
of the skin. Stringers and longerons together prevent tension and
compression from bending the fuselages summarize, in semi-monocoque
fuselages, the strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers, and
these, in turn, hold the stringers, braces, web members, etc.

Description:

Fuselage contributes very little to lift and produces more drag but it
is an important structural member/component. It is the connecting member
to all load producing components such as wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail,
landing gear etc. and thus redistributes the load. It also serves the purpose
of housing or accommodating practically all equipment, accessories and
systems in addition to carrying the payload. Because of large amount of
equipment inside the fuselage, it is necessary to provide sufficient number
of cutouts and discontinuities result in the fuselage for access and
inspection purposes. These cutouts and discontinuities result in fuselage
design being more complicated, less precise and often less efficient in
design. As a common member to which other components are attached,
thereby transmitting the loads, fuselage can be considered as a long hollow
beam. The reactions produced by the wing, tail or landing gear may be
considered as concentrated loads at the respective attachment points. The
balancing reactions are provided by the inertia force contributed by the
weight of the fuselage structure and the various components inside the
fuselage.

51
 This is much simpler for structural analysis due to its symmetrical
cross-section and symmetrical bending. The main load in the case of
fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on the wing is transferred
to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of both
wing and fuselage begin with shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the respective members. The maximum bending stress produced in
each of them is checked to be less than the yield stress of the material
chosen for the respective member.

Loads and its distribution:

To find out the loads and their distribution, consider the different
cases. The main components of the fuselage loading diagram are:

Weight of the fuselage

Engine weight
Weight of the horizontal and vertical stabilizers
Tail lift
Weight of crew, payload and landing gear
Systems, equipment, accessories

Values for the different components weights are obtained from

aerodynamic design calculations.

52
Loads acting on fuselage:

s.no Components Distance load

from
reference
line (m)
1 Crew 3.04 7.22 KN/m
2 nose landing gear 6.8 122.176 KN
3 Pay load 12.17 158.82 KN
4 Fuselage mass 15.88 109 KN
5 Main landing gear 18.52 1099.9 KN
6 Horizontal 21.32 20.356KN/m
Stabilizer
7 Vertical stabilizer 24.82 24.435KN/m

SHEAR FORCE FOR FUSELAGE

Shear force at I = RB

Therefore, Shear force at I = 1489.21 KN

Shear force at H = RB – 303.238

Shear force at H = 1185.972 KN

Shear force at G = RB – 303.238 - 216.994

Shear force at G = 969.978 KN

Shear force at F = RB – 303.238 – 216.994 – 1099.9

Shear force at F = -130.922 KN

Shear force at E = RB - 303.238 – 216.994 – 1099.9 – 109

53
Shear force at E = -239.922 KN

Shear force at D = RB – 303.238 – 216.994 – 1099.9 – 109 – 158.82

Shear force at D = -398.742 KN

Shear force at C = RB – 303.238 – 216.994 – 1099.9 – 109 – 158.82 –

122.176

Shear force at C = -520.918 KN

Shear force at A = RB–303.238–216.994–1099.9 – 109 – 158.82 – 122.176

– 10.9744

Shear force at A = -561.8924 KN

BENDING MOMENT FOR FUSELAGE

Moment at B = 0

Bending moment at I = (RB * 24.82)

Bending moment at I = 36962.1922 N-m

Bending moment at H = (RB * 24.82) – (303.238*21.32)

Bending moment at H = 30497.15804 N-m

Bending moment at G = (RB * 24.82) – (303.238*21.32) – (216.994*18.52)

Bending moment at G = 26478.42916 N-m

Bending moment at F = (RB*24.82) – (303.238*21.32) – (216.994*18.52)

– (1099.9*15.88)

Bending moment at F = -9012.01716 N-m

Bending moment at E = (RB*24.82) – (303.238*21.32) – (216.994*18.52)

– (1099.9*15.88) – (109*12.17)

54
Bending moment at E = -7685.48716 N-m

Bending moment at D = (RB*24.82) – (303.238*21.32) – (216.994*18.52)

– (1099.9*15.88) – (109*12.17) – (158.82*6.8)

Bending moment at D = -6605.5116 N-m

Bending moment at C = (RB*24.82) – (303.238*21.32) – (216.994*18.52)

– (1099.9*15.88) – (109*12.17) – (158.82*6.8) – (122.176*6.8)

Bending moment at C = -5774.71436

Bending moment at A = (RB*24.82) – (303.238*21.32) – (216.994*18.52)

– (1099.9*15.88) – (109*12.17) – (158.82*6.8) – (122.176*6.8) –
(10.9744*3.04)

Bending moment at A = -5741.352184 N-m

55
RESULT:

Thus the various loads on fuselage is estimated and the shear

force and bending moment diagram are plotted.

56
 CHAPTER-4

DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE

AIM:

To design bulkheads and longerons, bending stress and shear flow

calculations of an aircraft fuselage.

BULKHEAD:

From reference aircraft

Radius (R) = 2m

Fuselage section length = 32.84 m

Longeron height = 33mm

Longeron width = 20mm

Longeron thickness = 1mm

(top) no. followers = 8

(bottom) no.of.longerons = 8

Fineness ratio= (length of the body)/(max width

of body)

32.84
Fineness ratio=
41.16

=0.7978

57
Shear flow distribution

Bulkhead:

Boom area:

58
Shear flow distribution:

RESULT:

The design of bulkheads and lingering, bending stress and shear flow
calculations of an aircraft fuselage is done.

59
 CHAPTER-5
BALANCING AND MANOEUVRING LOADS
(TAIL PLANE, RUDDER AND AILERON)

BALANCING LOADS:
A horizontal surface balancing load is a load necessary to maintain
equilibrium in any specified flight condition with no pitching acceleration
horizontal balancing surface must be designed for the balancing loads
occurring at any point on the limit manoeuvring envelope and in the flap
Conditions it is not required to balance the rudder because it will not deflect
due to gravity aileron will defect in vice versa direction so it doesn’t require
balancing load.

Aircraft Body Axes and Positive Moment Directions

60
MANOEUVERING LOADS:
Each horizontal surface and its supporting structure, and the main wing of a
canard or tandem wing configuration, if that surface has pitch control, must be
designed for the manoeuvring loads imposed by the following conditions:
a) A sudden movement of the pitching control, at the speed VA, to the maximum
aft movement, and the maximum forward movement, as limited by the
control stops, or pilot effort, whichever is critical.
b) A sudden aft movement of the pitching control at speeds above V A,
followed by a forward movement of the pitching control resulting in the foll
owing combinations of normal and angular acceleration. At speeds up to VA,
the vertical surfaces must be designed to withstand the following conditions.
In computing the loads, the yawing velocity may be assumed to be zero.
c) With the airplane in unaccelerated flight at zero yaw, it is assumed that the
rudder control is suddenly displaced to the maximum deflection, as
limited by the control stops or by limit pilot forces.
d) With the rudder deflected, it is assumed that the airplane yaws to the over
swing sideslip angle. In lieu of a rational analysis, an over swing angle equal
to 1.5 times the static sideslip angle may be assumed.
e) A yaw angle of 15 degrees with the rudder control maintained in the
neutral position (except as limited by pilot strength)
The airplane must be yawed to the largest attainable steady state side slip
angle, with the rudder at maximum deflection caused by any one of the
following:
Control surface stops
Maximum available booster effort
Maximum pilot rudder force
The rudder must be suddenly displaced from the maximum
deflection to the neutral position

61
 The yaw angles may be reduced if the yaw angle chosen for a particular
speed cannot be exceeded in:
Steady slip conditions
Uncoordinated rolls from steep banks or
Sudden failure of the critical engine with delayed corrective
action.
The ailerons must be designed for the loads to which they are subjected:
In the neutral position during symmetrical flight conditions; and
By the following deflections (except as limited by pilot effort),
during unsymmetrical flight conditions
Sudden maximum displacement of the aileron control at VA.
Suitable allowance may be made for control system deflections.
Sufficient deflection at VC, where VC is more than VA, to produce
a rate of roll not less than obtained.
Sufficient deflection at VD, to produce a rate of roll not less than
one-third of that obtained.

(a) Symmetric manoeuvring conditions:

Where sudden displacement of a control is specified, the assumed rate of
control surface displacement may not be less than the rate that could be applied
by the pilot through the control system. In determining elevator angles and chord
wise load distribution in the manoeuvring conditions, the effect of
corresponding pitching velocities must be taken into account. The in-trim and
out-of-trim flight conditions must be considered.
(b) Manoeuvring balanced conditions:
Assuming the airplane to be in equilibrium with zero pitching acceleration,
the manoeuvring conditions on the manoeuvring envelope must be investigated.

62
 (c) Pitch manoeuvre conditions:
The movement of the pitch control surfaces may be adjusted to take into account
limitations imposed by the maximum pilot effort, control system stop and any
indirect effect imposed by limitations in the output side of the control

system (for example, stalling torque or maximum rate) obtainable by a power

control system.
Maximum pitch control displacement at VA:
The airplane is assumed to be flying in steady level flight and the cockpit
pitch control is suddenly moved to obtain extreme nose up pitching acceleration.
In defining the tail load, the response of the airplane must be taken into account.
Airplane loads that occur subsequent to the time when normal acceleration at the
c.g. exceeds the positive limit manoeuvring load or the resulting tail plane normal
load reaches its maximum, whichever occurs first, need not be considered.
Specified control displacement:
A checked manoeuver, based on a rational pitching control motion vs.
time profile, must be established in which the design limit load factor will not b
e exceeded. Unless lesser values cannot be exceeded, the airplane response must
result in pitching accelerations not less than the following:
a) A positive pitching acceleration (nose up) is assumed to be reached
concurrently with the airplane load factor of 1.0. The positive acceleration
must be equal to at least 39n(n-1)/v, (rad/sec).Where, “n” is the positive load
factor at the speed under consideration; and V is the airplane equivalent speed
in knots.
b) A negative pitching acceleration (nose down) is assumed to be reached on
currently with the positive manoeuvring load factor. This negative pitching
acceleration must be equal to at least -26n(n-1)/v, (rad/sec).

63
RESULT:
Thus the balancing and manoeuvring load in tail planes, aileron and
rudders was studied.

64
 CHAPTER-6
DESIGN OF WING ROOT ATTACHMENT

AIM:

To design the wing root attachment for the designed aircraft.

WING ROOT FAIRINGS:

Wing root fairings have substantially improved low speed and

high speed – load flying Characteristics. The design process and result
are described in hidden drag.

For us low and slow fliers, it is convenient to consider the total

drag of an airplane to be composed of parasite drag and induced drag.
Parasite drag is the resistance produced by irregular surfaces. The
airflow is disrupted by such surface and becomes turbulent. Bending of
smooth airflows creates induced drag.

It is easy to see the causes of parasite drag. For example, un faired gear
legs and external antennas are indicators. Induced drag is harder to identify. A
sleek-looking airplane may have lot of induced drag and thus may not fly fast.
This is a story about hidden drag.

The fairings solve the three problems mentioned at the beginning.

A small attitude change no longer causes sudden deterioration of

airspeed.
Power-off glide is stable and the sink rate is much reduced.
The plane no longer requires nose-up attitude in level flight when
heavily load.

65
There are additional benefits, such as improved climb rate, increased cruise
speed and reduced stall speed.

If the fuselage expands and contracts over the wings, as it does for the
601 HDS, then this increases drag and reduces lift, particularly for large
payloads or high angle of attack. The negative effects can be mitigated by a
fairing that simulates a constant width fuselage.

The fairings significantly improve climb rate, ceiling, stall speed, sink
rate at low speeds, optimum glide ratio, minimum power to stay aloft, and
stability of the plane when CG is close to the rear limit.

Generally the required angle of attack in level flight is significantly

reduced at or below cruise power settings. This manifests itself by a much lower
nose, particularly at gross weight.

The design of the fairings is not difficult. One draws on the fuselage the
points of attachment of the fairing in a reasonable curve. On the wing, ne draws
a straight line that is at 90 deg with the spar and that just touches the fuselage at
its widest point. Now ne connects the line on the wing with the curve on the
fuselage, thus getting a surface. The fairings must have that surface.

For creation of the fairings, one protects the wing and the fuselage
with masking tape, then establishing the fairing surface using plaster.
Once the plaster is cured and dried, one lays the fibreglass. When the resin
has set, the fairing is removed, trimmed, and the fairing surface is finished
using lightweight filler. Of course, the plaster and masking tape are
removed as well.

The finishing fairing is riveted to sidewall and wing surface, and

then painted. Overall, one should aim for very light weight fairings that
together do not exceed 4lbs when painted.

66
RESULT:

Thus the design of wing root attachment is studied.

67
 CHAPTER-7
DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR

AIM:
To design the landing gear supports the aircraft when it is not flying,
allowing it to take off, land and usually to taxi without damage. Landing gear
placement is essential for ground stability and controllability. A good landing
gear position must provide superior handling characteristics and must not allow
over-balancing during takeoff or landing.

LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENT:

Landing gears normally come in two types: conventional or "taildragger"
landing gear, where there are two main wheels towards the front of the aircraft
and a single, much smaller, wheel or skid at the rear; or tricycle landing gear,
where there are two main wheels (or wheel assemblies) under the wings and a
third smaller wheel in the nose.
To decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract into the wings
and/or fuselage with wheels flush against the surface or concealed behind doors;
this is called retractable gear. With a tricycle landing gear, the c.g is ahead of the
main wheels, so the aircraft is stable on the ground. It improves forward visibility
on the ground and permits a flat cabin floor for passengers and cargo loading.
Thus retractable tricycle landing gear system is selected.

TYRE SIZING:
The “wheel” is the circular metal object upon which the rubber “tyre” is
mounted. The “brake” inside the wheel slows the aircraft by increasing the
rolling friction. However, the term “wheel” is frequently used to mean the entire
wheel/brake/tyre assembly.

68
 The tyres are sized to carry the weight of the aircraft. Typically the main
tyres carry about 90% of the total aircraft weight. Nose tyres carry only about
10% of the static load but experience higher dynamic loads during landing.
The nose gear is of double‐bogey type with two wheels. The main gear
consists of two sets of wheels (wing‐retracted) each of multi‐bogey type with 4
wheels each.

NOSE GEAR:
Load on nose gear = 0.1W0
= 0.1*65000
= 56500 kg

MAIN LANDING GEAR:

Load on main gear = 0.9W0
= 0.9*65000
= 58500kg

69
 Nose landing gear Main landing gear
No. of wheel 1 2
Total load 5700 51300
Load by each wheel 5700 25650
Pressure type (psi) 200 200
Pressure type (bar) 13.78 13.78

Tyre Selection – Nose Wheel

Nose wheel load WW = 56548 N
From reymer book,

For fighter aircraft Diameter Width

A 1.59 0.0989
B 0.302 0.467

Wheel diameter = A WWB

d = 1.59(56548)0.315
d = 51.19 inch = 1.30 m
Wheel Width = A WWB
w = 0.1043(56548)0.48
w = 19.92 inch = 0.506 m
Contact Area:
WW = Ap * P
AP = 0.04103 m2
Rt = 0.628 m

70
Tyre Selection – Main Wheel
Main wheel load = 254468.5 N
Wheel diameter = A WWB
d = 1.63(254468.5)0.315
d = 82.21 inch = 2.08 m
Wheel Width = A WWB
w = 0.1043(254468.5)0.48
w = 41.01 inch = 1.04 m
Contact Area:
WW = Ap * P
AP = 0.1846 m2
Rt = 0.985 m
RUNWAY LOADING:
For main wheel,
Runway loading = 1.37848 N/m2
For nose wheel,
Runway loading = 1.37821 N/m2

RESULT:
Thus the tyre is selected and the landing gear is designed.

71
 CHAPTER-8
DETAIL DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT
AIM:
To prepare a detailed design of an aircraft.

Front view:

Side view:

72
Top view:

RESULT:
Thus the detail design of an aircraft is prepared.

73
 CONCLUSION

Design is a fine blend of science, presence of mind and the application of

each one of them at the appropriate time.
Design of anything needs experience and an optimistic progress toward
the ideal system the scientific society always looks for the best product
design.
This involves a strong fundamental and their skill full application which
is a tough job endowed upon the designer, we had put enough had work
to best of our knowledge for this design.
A design never gets completed in a flutter sense but it is one further step
towards the ideal system. But during the design of this fighter aircraft we
learnt a lot about AERONAUTICS and its implication when applied to an
aircraft design.

74
 REFERENCES

1. www.airliners.net
2. www.google.com
3. www.rcgroups.com
4. 3dcadbrowser.com
5. Introduction to flight- J.D. Anderson
6. Design of Aircraft- Thomas NCorke
7. Roskam, J. (1985) Airplane Designs, Roskam Aviation and Engineering
Corp., Ottawa, Kansas
8. Daniel p. Raymer, “Aircraft conceptual design,” seventh edition.
9. L.M. Milne – Thomson, “Theoretical Aerodynamics”; second edition

10. J.D Anderson, “Aircraft Performance”

11. Ira h. Abbott, Albert e. Von Doenhoff, and Louis S. Stivers, Jr,”Summary
of Airfoil Data”, National advisory committee for aeronautics, 1947.
12. John T.Lowry., “Performance of Light Aircraft”, American institute of
aeronautics and astronautics, Washington.D.C, 1935.
13. Dr.lng.S.F.Hoerner, ”Fluid –Dynamic Drag”, Hoerner fluid dynamics.
1992.
14. J.B. Russell, “Performance and Stability of Aircraft”. ISBN 0-340-63170-8.
Arnold 1996.
15. Anderson, John D. Jr., (1999) Aircraft Performance and Design, McGraw-
Hill, New York .

16. Anderson, John D. Jr., (2001) Introduction to Flight, Mcgraw-Hill ,

New York.
17. Ref 3, C. And Hage, R. (1949) Airplane Performance, Stability and
Control, Wiley, New York .

75
18. Raymer, Daniel P. (1992) Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, AIAA
Education series, Washington, DC .

19. Roskam, J. (1985) Airplane Design, Roskam Aviation and Engineering

Corp., Ottawa, Kansas .
20. Engine specifications details -
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/rollsroyce/Snecma_Olympus_593

21. Airfoil data - airfoiltools.com

22. Goodyear tyre data book

76