Introduction

Most of the electronic devices require a DC source for their operation. Batteries
prove to be much expensive and not-so-eco-friendly. The most convenient and eco-
nomical power source is the conventional AC power supply. DC power supplies turn
out to be advantageous in converting this alternating voltage to DC voltage which
can be used in electronic circuits and devices.
This process of converting AC voltage into DC voltage is termed as rectification.

A DC power supply can be broken down into three major components:

1. Rectifier

2. Filter

3. Voltage Regulator

Unregulated Power Supply

An unregulated power supply is one whose dc terminal voltage is affected signif-
icantly by the amount of load. As the load draws more current, the dc terminal
voltage becomes less.

Regulated Power Supply

It is that dc power supply whose terminal voltage remains almost constant regardless
of the amount of current drawn from it. An unregulated supply can be converted

1
into a regulated power supply by adding a voltage regulating circuit to it.
A typical dc power supply consists of five stages as shown in figure below:

Objective
1. To study half wave rectification.

2. To study full wave rectification.

3. To study measurement of ripple and ripple reduction methods using the fol-
lowing:

3.1. Capacitor filter.

3.2. Inductor filter.
3.3. Choke input or LC filter.
3.4. CLC or π-filter.

4. To study Zener-diode voltage regulator circuit.

5. To study series voltage regulator.

6. To study series regulator with current limiting.

7. To study error feed-back type series voltage regulator.

8. To study the use of Darlington transistor pair for increasing the current capabil-
ity of series voltage regulator.

9. To study a shunt voltage regulator with current limiting.

10. To study a shunt voltage regulator with adjustable current limiting.

11. To study a 0 − 9V DC continuously variable voltage regulated power supply

and measure the following:

11.1. Line regulation.

11.2. Load regulation.
11.3. Ripple factor.

2
Apparatus required
1. OMEGA TYPE ETB-29 Experimental Training Board

2. 0 − 200m A DC Milliammeter

3. 0 − 15V DC Voltmeter

4. Variac 0-270 Volts at 2A

5. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20M H z

1. To study half wave rectification

The half-wave rectifying circuit is as shown in FIG.1.

Procedure
• Using patch cords assemble the circuit of FIG.1(A) and observe the waveforms
at anode and cathode on CRO.

• Connect the capacitor as per FIG.1(B).

• Again observe the waveform on CRO and note the effect of connecting the
capacitor.

Working During the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, the diode D1 is ON
and acts as a short-circuit so that circuit current flows and hence, positive half-cycle
of the input ac voltage is dropped across RL . During the negative input half-cycle,
the diode is reverse-biased or OFF and so, does not conduct i.e. there is no current
flow. Thus as is evident from the waveform shown at cathode of diode D1 in FIG.1(A)
only positive half cycles appear across the load. This is the half wave rectifier voltage
waveform.
The output waveform is shown in FIG.2(A).

3
Effect of a Capacitor across the load As shown in FIG.1(B) an electrolytic capacitor
of a large value is added at the output of the diode.
During the positive half input cycle when the diode conducts the capacitor charges
up to the peak value of the input voltage quickly. During negative half input cycles
the capacitor discharges through the load resistor RL until the positive half cycle
appears again. The discharging time constant (= C RL ) is usually 100 times more than
the charging time. Hence, C does not have sufficient time to discharge appreciably.
The shape of output voltage waveform due to this capacitor is as shown in the
FIG.2(B). The change in voltage ∆V depends upon the value of RL , as RL decreases
the discharge of the capacitor will be greater in lesser time intervals, resulting in
more ripple, a lower DC output voltage.
The output DC voltage in a half-wave circuit is given by:
In circuit of FIG.1(A) i.e. without capacitor

V0 = 0.45 × VAC (approx.)

In circuit of FIG.1(B) i.e. with capacitor

V0 = 1.4 × VAC (approx.)

2. To Study Full Wave Rectification

A full wave rectification circuit is shown in FIG.3(A). By full wave rectification we
mean both the positive and negative half cycles are rectified.
The procedure for performing this objective is similar as mentioned above.
The half wave rectification as discussed earlier has many shortcomings such as:
1. Too much ripple (AC content)
2. Low output voltage
3. DC saturation of transformer secondary due to flow of current in one direction
only.

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These shortcomings are abstracted in full wave rectification. The configuration in
which the diodes D1 to D4 are connected is called a bridge Rectifier.

Working During the positive half cycle of secondary voltage diodes D1 and D4
conduct, developing the output voltage across the loads, diodes D2 and D3 are
reverse-biased. During the negative half cycles diodes D1 and D4 are open and
diodes D2 and D3 conduct, resulting in full wave rectified output.
The voltage waveform across the load is shown in FIG.4(A). The effect of capacitor is
quite clear, i.e. raising the value output DC voltage.

The output DC voltage in a half-wave circuit is given by:

In circuit of FIG.3(A) i.e. without capacitor

V0 = 0.9 × VAC (approx.)

In circuit of FIG.3(B) i.e. with capacitor

V0 = 1.4 × VAC (approx.)

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3. To study Measurment of ripple and ripple reduction methods
using following:
3.1 Capacitor Filter
3.2 Inductor Filter
3.3 Choke Input or LC Filter
3.4 CLC or π Filter
It is easy to observe that the rectified output voltages from half and full wave rectifiers
are not pure DC levels but these are voltage waveforms as shown in FIG.2 and FIG.4.
The alternating part on the DC output voltage is called ripple. There is about 121%
ripple on the output of a half wave rectifier circuit and about 48% ripple on the
output of a full wave rectifier circuit.

Ripple Factor
Vr (r.m.s.)
Ripple Factor = γ =
VDC
Where, Vr (r.m.s.) = r.m.s. value of the ripple voltage on the output.
VDC = DC output voltage as measured with a DC voltmeter.
And, %Ripple = Ripple Factor × 100%

Procedure

• Using patch cords assemble the circuit of FIG.5(A)

• Connect the CRO probe across the load and observe the waveform.

• Measure the DC output voltage (VDC ) across the load using external DC volt-
meter.

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3.1 Capacitor Filter
A capacitor filter is formed by just connecting a large value capacitor across the
output of an unfiltered supply, as shown in FIG.5(A). It is suitable only for high
values of load resistance.
The capacitor charges up to the peak value of the input voltage and tries to maintain
this value thereby reducing the AC component.

Vr (r.m.s.) 1 2890
Ripple Factor = γ = = √ = [if f = 50H z]
VDC 4 3 f C RL C RL

3.2 Inductor Filter

An inductor filter consists of an Inductor(Choke) in series with the output of an
unfiltered supply.
Since the characteristic of an inductor is to oppose any change in current it will have
a smoothing effect on the ripple. Larger the inductive value of the ripple, lower will
be the ripple. An inductor is suitable for lower resistive value of load, for high loads
the effect is negligible.

Vr (r.m.s.) RL
Ripple Factor = γ = = √
VDC 3 2ωL

3.3 Choke Input or LC Filter

A choke (Inductor) is series with the output of unfiltered supply followed by a
capacitor across the load forms this type of filter.
As we can infer from the previous observations, the combination of capacitor and
inductor into LC filter should make the ripple independent of load resistance. For an
LC filter to be effective the value of L should be selected keeping in mind the load
value. √
Vr (r.m.s.) 2 1.19
Ripple Factor = γ = = 2
= [if f = 50H z]
VDC 12ω LC LC

3.4 CLC or π filter

This filter basically consists of a capacitor filter followed by an LC filter. This type of
filter is not very good. It gives poor regulation and also the ripple is dependent on
the load value.
√
Vr (r.m.s.) 2 5700
Ripple Factor = γ = = = [if f = 50H z]
VDC 12ω3C1C2 LRL LC1C2 RL

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Voltage Regulator Circuits
4. To Study Zener-Diode Voltage Regulator Circuit
Zener-Diodes The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting
of a silicon PN junction. When biased in the forward direction it behaves just like
a normal signal diode passing the rated current, but as soon as a reverse voltage
applied across the Zener-Diode exceeds the rated voltage of the device, the diodes
breakdown voltage is reached at which point a process called Avalanche Breakdown
occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the
diode to limit this increase in voltage.
The Zener diode is the simplest types of voltage regulator and the point at which a
zener diode breaks down or conducts is called the “Zener Voltage” ( Vz ).

The Voltage Regulator Circuit A basic Zener diode voltage regulating circuit is
as shown in FIG.6. The Zener diode provided on the panel has a maximum power
dissipation of 400mW . Therefore the maximum current that can pass through this
diode at 5V 1 is given by:

400 × 10−3
Iz (max) = = 78m A (approx.)
5.1
In the absence of load all this current will pass through the Zener diode. So the
current through Zener diode is to be limited below this value so that the diode does

8
not become too hot.
The series 180E resistance limits the maximum current to load and Zener diode.

Procedure

• Using patch cords assemble the circuit of FIG.6. Keep the knob of electronic
load towards anticlockwise position.

• Switch ON the mains supply. Slowly adjust the output current to 20m A. Ob-
serve that the output voltage remains almost same from no load to full load.

5. To Study Series Voltage Regulator

A series voltage regulator is shown in FIG.7. Here a transistor is used as a series
element whose base is biased by a voltage regulating diode. The circuit is basically
a emitter follower. The emitter of this transistor is maintained at about 0.6V (VBE )
less than the voltage at base, regardless of voltage at collector. The voltage at base is
held constant due to a Zener diode, the transistor varies its impedance and hence the
voltage drop across it in order to maintain a constant voltage across the load.

Procedure

• Using patch cords assemble the circuit of FIG.7. Keep the knob of electronic
load towards anticlockwise position.

• Switch ON the mains supply. Slowly adjust the output current to 20m A. Ob-
serve that the output voltage remains almost same from no load to full load.

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6. To Study Series Regulator with Current Limiting
In a series regulator, flow of excessive current due to short circuits can damage the
series transistor. Therefore in a series voltage regulator circuit some sort of current is
a must. Circuit os FIG.8(A) is a usual way of current limiting. The additional SL 100

transistor switches ON due to sufficient voltage drop across 15E resistor when short
circuit occurs. The 47E resistor limits the base current to this transistor.
Once this transistor turns ON the voltage at he base of series transistor falls to almost
ground level and thus output current is limited.
The circuit of FIG.8(B) has a slight variation although it is basically the same as the
previous circuit.

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 Voltage at Junction of emitter & 1E resistor + 06
Current limiting =
22E

Procedure
• Using patch cords assemble the circuit of FIG.8. Keep the knob of electronic
load towards anticlockwise position.
• Switch ON the mains supply. Slowly increase the output current by adjusting
electronic load, till the limiting point is reached.

Note: The output voltage in circuits of FIG.8(A) and FIG.8(B) is:

(Voltage across Zener Diode) − (VBE drop of series transistor)

7. To Study Error Feed Back Type Series Voltage Regulator

One method of further improving the performance of series voltage regulator is the
error feedback (FIG.9). Here a fraction of the output voltage is fed back through a
potential divider to the base of transistor (SL 100).

Procedure
• Using patch cords assemble the circuit of FIG.9. Keep the knob of electronic
load towards anticlockwise position.
• Switch ON the mains supply. Slowly adjust the output current to a value within
30mA by rotating the knob of the electronic load. Observe that the output does
not vary much.

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8. To study the use of Darlington transistor pair for increasing the
current capability of series voltage regulator.
Working The circuit of FIG.10 is a series voltage regulator similar to the one already
studied, except that the series device consists of two transistors connected in a special
configuration. Transistors connected in this fashion are called Darlington pairs. In a

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Darlington pair the overall current gain is the product of individual current gains.
Thus this configuration gives a very high input impedance.

Procedure

• Using patch cords assemble the circuit of FIG.10. Keep the knob of electronic
load towards anticlockwise position.

• Switch ON the mains supply. Keep observing the output voltage and slowly
increase the output current by adjusting the electronic load. Keep the maximum
output current within 200m A

Note: The exact output voltage is given by:

(Voltage across Zener Diode) − (VBE drop of SL 100 + VBE drop of 2N 3055)

9. To study a shunt voltage regulator with current limiting.

The basic Zener diode regulator arrangement can be improved by adding a transistor
as shown in FIG.11. Here the transistor forms a shunt around the load.
The Zener current variation range is reduced substantially because of high current
gain of a transistor.
For a power supply the output should be capable of being short-circuited without
damaging any components. The shunt regulator does just this - a shorted output
simply connects the emitter of the transistor to its collector, thereby reducing the
voltage applied to the device.

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Procedure

• Using patch cords assemble the circuit of FIG.11. Keep the knob of electronic
load to fully anticlockwise position.

• Switch ON the mains supply. Slowly adjust the output current to 20m A. Ob-
serve that the output voltage remains almost same from no load to full load of
20m A.

Note: The exact output voltage is given by:

(Voltage across Zener Diode) + VBE drop of SK 100)

10. To study a shunt voltage regulator with adjustable current limit-

ing.
The circuit of FIG.12 is again a shunt voltage regulator as discussed above. The only
difference is the adjustable feature of limiting current that the circuit can supply. This
is accomplished by adding a potentiometer of 1K in series with 220E resistor.

Procedure

• Using patch cords assemble the circuit of FIG.12. Keep the knob of electronic
load to fully anticlockwise position.

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 • Switch ON the mains supply. Set 1K potentiometer at any position. Slowly
increase the output current by adjusting the electronic load. Note that the
current limiting point beyond which the output current cannot be increased.

• Again bring back the knob of electronic load to fully anticlockwise position.
Change the setting of 1K potentiometer and increase the output current by
adjusting the electronic load. Note the current limiting point.
Thus the current limiting point can be adjusted.

11. To study a 0 − 9V DC continuously variable voltage regulated

power supply and measure the following:
11.1 Line regulation.
11.2 Load regulation.
11.3 Ripple factor.

FIG.13 shows the circuit of a variable voltage supply. This circuit is basically the
same as the circuit of FIG.10, with some variation. In this circuit, the voltage given
to the base of SL 100 transistor, is adjustable from 0 to about 10V , (Zener Voltage)
with the 10K potentiometer. The 100µF capacitor smooths any slight fluctuations in
the base voltage. Thus by adjusting the 10K potentiometer the output voltage can be

adjusted from 0 Volts to around 9 Volts (10V − VBE drop of both transistors).

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11.1 Line Regulation
Line Regulation means the output voltage variations of a power supply due to
changes in the line voltage i.e. the input voltage
V0 (High)−V0 (Low)
V0 (nominal)
% LINE REG = Vin (High)−Vin (Low)
× 100
Vin (nominal)

11.2 Load Regulation

By Load regulation is meant the variations in output voltage of a power supply due
to variations of load current.
V0 (N .L.) − V0 (F.L.)
% LOAD REG = × 100
V0 (F.L.)
Where, V0 (N .L.) = No load output voltage
V0 (F.L.) = Full load output voltage

11.3 Ripple Factor

Vr (r.m.s.)
Ripple Factor = γ =
VDC
Where, Vr (r.m.s.) = r.m.s. value of ripple voltage.

Procedure
Line Regulation
• Using patch cords assemble the circuit of FIG.13. Keep the knob of electronic
load to fully anticlockwise position.

• Switch ON the mains supply and adjust the variac to set the mains voltage at
230V AC. Adjust the 10K potentiometer to set the output voltage at 6V. Now
slowly increase the output current to 50mA. So, V0 (Nominal) = 6V.

• Now set the variac so that input voltage is 253V AC and note down the V0
(High) voltage.
Now set the variac so that the input voltage is 207V AC and note down the V0
(Low) voltage.

• Calculate Line regulation.

V0 (High)−V0 (Low)
6V
% LINE REG = 253−207
× 100
230

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Load Regulation
• In the above set up set the variac so that input is 230V AC.
Keep the knob of electronic load to fully anticlockwise position. Set the output
voltage at 6V. So, V0 (N .L.)= 6V

• Now adjust the electronic load so that the output current is 200mA. Note down
the V0 (F.L.)

• Calculate the load regulation by the formula given above.

Ripple Factor
• In the above set up keep the input voltage at 230V AC. Set the output voltage
at 6V at 200mA load.

• Connect the CRO(set to AC range) across the load, measure the peak to peak
value of ripple voltage and convert it to r.m.s. value.

• Calculate the ripple factor;

Vr (r.m.s.)
Ripple Factor = γ =
VDC

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