DC to AC converters (Switch Mode

Inverters)

1 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 DC to AC converters (switch mode inverters)

• With an SCR converter it was possible to convert DC to AC but at the line frequency
(applications: DC motors, HVDC transmission)
• Numerous applications require variable voltage at variable frequency (has to be derived from
fixed voltage-fixed frequency converted to fixed dc by rectification) (applications: AC motor
drives)
2f
s   m   s (1  s )
p

• By changing supply frequency the synchronous speed is changed. However V=4.44Nf

(Faraday’s law) tells us that V/f ratio must be maintained constant when changing frequency.
This will ensure that the flux level is maintained at the prescribed design level (for 230V, 50Hz
this ratio is 230/50). With constant voltage if frequency is lowered to reduce speed the machine
iron will saturate.
• UPSs supplying critical loads produce fixed frequency, fixed voltage. Again this is generated
using a DC supply obtained as above and/or set of batteries.
• For this type of DC to AC conversion switches must be fully controllable

2 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Single phase inverter

Resistive load Fig11

Ga
1.20
1.00

Gate Signal (V)

0.80
0.60
S1 S3 0.40
Resistive 0.20
Ga Load Gb 0.00
-0.20
Vload
600
400VDC 100.0 400
Source
Vload

200
1.0e-006

Vload (V)
0
S4 S2 -200
-400
Gb Ga -600
Time ... 0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025

• Switches s1/s2 and s3/s4 are turned ON and OFF alternately

• Each switch pair is ON or OFF for equal period of time (T/2) using control signals
• It is vital that 2 switches connected in any of the inverter legs are never turned on at the same
time (this is called shoot through and is prevented by providing a small blanking time in
transferring the conduction from one set to the other)

3 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Single phase inverter

• By controlling T the frequency is varied but the output voltage cannot be changed unless the
DC link voltage is changed
• In the square wave load voltage waveform there will be significant harmonics

4  Vdc 2
v load ( t )   sin t 
 n1 n T
4  1 1 
 v dc sin t  sin 3t  sin t.......
  3 5 
• If sinusoidal output voltage is required some low pass filtering should be carried out

4 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Single phase inverter

Fig 1 2
Inductive load 1 .2 0
Ga

Gate Signal
• When the load is inductive (in all practical cases)
anti-parallel (feedback) diodes have to be - 0 .2 0
V lo a d
connected across the fully controllable switches 600

Vload (V)
so that when a pair of switches is turned off the
current continues to flow (e.g. if s1/s2 were -600
Ilo a d
conducting, at turn off the d4 and d3 will take 3 .0

Iload (A)
over) until s3/s4 are ready to take over.
- 3 .0
is 1
3 .0
2 .0

Isw1 (A)
1 .0
0 .0
- 1 .0
S1 d1 S3 d3
Inductive 3 .0
is 2

Ga load Gb 2 .0

Isw2 (A)
1 .0
Iload 0 .0
- 1 .0
100.0 0.1 3 .0
id 3
Vload

2 .0
1.0e-006

Id3 (A)
1 .0
400V DC
S4 d4 S2 d2
0 .0
Source - 1 .0
id 4
Gb Ga 3 .0
2 .0
Id4 (A)

1 .0
0 .0
- 1 .0
Time ... 0 .1 0 0 0 0 .1 0 1 0 0 .1 0 2 0 0 .1 0 3 0 0 .1 0 4 0 0 .1 0 5 0 0 .1 0 6 0

5 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Three phase inverter

• Contains 6 fully controllable switches together with their anti-parallel diodes

• The control of switches is done in an orderly manner to generate 3 phase voltage
waveforms with a 120 degree separation
Idc

Vdclink

5 5 3 3 1 1

gt1 gt3 gt5

Ia

Eab 0.2 1000.0

star point of
load
Ebc 0.2 1000.0

0.2 1000.0
1.0e-005

600Vdc
source
2 2 6 6 4 4 Ec Eb Ea
gt4 gt6 gt2

6 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Three phase inverter

Fig13
• Switching pattern: Ea
600
S1-S6-S5 400
200

Voutput (V)
S1-S6-S2 0
-200
S1-S3-S2 -400
-600
S4-S3-S2 600
Eb
400
S4-S3-S5 200

Voutput (V)
0
S4-S6-S5 -200
-400
S1-S6-S5 (repeating) -600
Ec
• Each switch is kept closed 600
400
for a period of 180 degrees 200
Voutput (V)

and commutation of 0
switches takes place every -200
-400
60 degrees -600
Time ... 0.0000 0.0050 0.0100 0.0150 0.0200 0.0250 0.0300 0.0350

7 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Three phase inverter
Fig13
• With an inductive load the current
Ea
waveforms show the smoothing 600
400
action provided by the inductance 200

Voutput (V)
0
• The waveforms of L-L and L-N -200
voltages are obviously as before -400
-600
• Fundamental L-L output voltage is Ia
(from Fourier analysis): 0.40
4 Vdc  0.20

Ioutput (A)
VL L(rms )  sin 0.00
 2 3 -0.20
-0.40
 0.78 Vdc
Eab
800
• L-L voltage does not contain
400
triplens but contains 5th, 7th, 11th
Voutput (V)

etc. 0

-400
• Output is fixed unless Vdc is
-800
controlled (constant V/f control Time ... 0.0000 0.0050 0.0100 0.0150 0.0200 0.0250 0.0300 0.0350
required to maintain flux level)

8 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Three phase inverter

• When an induction motor is supplied with a six step inverter the resulting low order harmonics of
current lead to torque pulsations especially at low speeds
• The voltage and current harmonics also cause additional losses in the machine and hence it has to
be de-rated
• For wide speed range operation down to near zero speed another form of controlling the inverter
known as pulse width modulation (PWM) is used. These inverters can be controlled to give variable
voltage at variable frequency with a constant DC link voltage. Hence PWM inverters are suitable for
driving induction motors.
• PWM inverters also have the advantage that they do not produce low order harmonics.

9 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Principles of a PWM waveform

PWM output pulses

Required sine wave

• Output pulse widths and their spacing's are such that their weighted average approaches the
instantaneous heights of the required sine wave
• For a selected output frequency by controlling the pulse widths the rms output voltage can be
controlled (to increase the voltage widen the pulses and vice versa)
• The large number of pulses used per cycle help push the unwanted harmonics to the high end of the
spectrum

10 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Principles of a PWM waveform

• In PWM generation one technique Fig14

commonly used is called sinusoidal Vcntl Vtri
1.50
PWM which uses the comparison of a 1.00
sinusoid (called the modulating wave) 0.50

Control
and a high frequency triangular (called 0.00
-0.50
the carrier) wave to generate the -1.00
control signals for the devices -1.50
Ga
• To the right shown are the control 1.50
signals and the corresponding load
1.00

Gate Signal
voltage of a single phase inverter
0.50
• Note that in the load voltage waveform
the pulses in the middle of the sinusoid 0.00
are wider compared to those towards 600
Vload
the zero crossings 400
200
Vload (V)

0
-200
-400
-600
Time ... 0.0000 0.0050 0.0100 0.0150 0.0200 0.0250 0.0300

11 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Single-phase PWM inverter

Fig14
• As the amplitude of the Vcntl Vtri
modulating wave is 6.0
4.0
increased the output voltage 2.0

Control
increases as there will be 0.0
-2.0
less intersections of the -4.0
carrier wave with the -6.0

modulating wave 1.50

Ga

• The output voltage waveform 1.00

Gate Signal
approaches a square wave in
0.50
the extreme case as evident
from the plot shown to the 0.00

right. 600
Vload

400
200
Vload (V)

0
-200
-400
-600
Time ... 0.0050 0.0100 0.0150 0.0200 0.0250 0.0300 0.0350 0.0400

12 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 PWM Basics

• Let us define the following:

• Peak amplitude and frequency of the triangular carrier wave: Vtri, fs
• Peak amplitude and frequency of sinusoidal modulating wave: Vcntl, f1
• f1 is selected to be the required output frequency
• Normally Vtri and fs are kept constant and Vcntl are varied
• Amplitude modulation ratio (ma) = Vcntl/Vtri
• Frequency modulation ratio (mf) = fs/f1
• By varying ma, the pulse widths can be changed, i.e. increase/decrease in
fundamental (V1) output (load) voltage
• By varying mf the switching frequency of inverter or output frequency can be varied
(normally the latter)
• Linear modulation: ma ≤ 1.0, V1  ma
• Over modulation: ma > 1.0, V1 is not proportional to ma and for large ma the
inverter output voltage saturates and the waveform approaches a square waveform

13 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Single-phase PWM inverter

• Linear modulation: V1 (rms)= ma (Vdc)/  2

• For very large ma: V1 (rms)= (4/) x (Vdc/  2)

V1/ Vdc

0.9
0.707
For a single-phase bridge
inverter with a dc link voltage
of Vdc
V1 is the rms value of the
load voltage

ma
1.0

14 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Three-phase PWM inverter

Fig15
triangle Sine1 Sine2 Sine3
• Control signals are derived 1.50
using three modulating 1.00
0.50
waves (they are low level

Control
0.00
three-phase signals) -0.50
compared with a carrier -1.00
wave -1.50
Gt1
1.50
• The gate signals for 2
switches in a single leg are 1.00

Gate Signal
shown to the right
0.50

0.00
Gt4
1.50

1.00
Gate Signal

0.50

0.00
Time ... 0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050

15 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Three-phase PWM inverter

Fig15
• The line to star point 600
Ea
voltages and L-L voltages 400

Voutput (V)
200
are shown to the right 0
-200
• Note the wider pulses of -400
-600
the output voltage Eb
600
waveform 400

Voutput (V)
200
• As for the single phase 0
-200
inverter linear modulation -400
-600
region and overmodulation Ec
600
mode are separated by ma 400
= 1.0
Voutput (V)

200
0
-200
-400
-600
Eab
800
400
Voutput (V)

0
-400
-800
0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050

16 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Three-phase PWM inverter

Fig15
• When a three-phase Ea
600
inverter is overmodulated 400

Voutput (V)
200
the L-L output voltages 0
-200
approximate to those of a 6 -400
step inverter as shown to -600
Eb
the right. 600
400

Voutput (V)
200
0
-200
-400
-600
Ec
600
400
Voutput (V)
200
0
-200
-400
-600
Eab
800
400
Voutput (V)

0
-400
-800
0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050

17 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Three-phase PWM inverter

• Linear modulation: V1 (L-L rms)= 0.612maVdc (no proof is essential at this stage)
• For very large ma: V1 (L-L rms)= (4/ ) *sin(60) (Vdc/ 2) = 0.78Vdc

V1/ Vdc

0.78
0.612
For a three-phase bridge
inverter with a dc link voltage
of Vdc
V1 is the L-L rms value of the
load voltage

ma
1.0

18 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Three-phase PWM inverter
Fig15
Ea
600
• With an inductive load such as 400

Voutput (V)
200
an induction motor the load 0
-200
current waveform tends to -400
-600
approximate a sine wave as 600
Eb

expected (there are only high 400

Voutput (V)
200
frequencies around carrier 0
-200
-400
frequency and above – refer to -600

modulation theory in 600

Ec
400
communication systems or

Voutput (V)
200
0
details covered in later -200
-400
electives) -600
Eab
800
Voutput (V) 400

Waveforms with a 0
-400
carrier frequency of -800

750Hz and ma = 0.5 0.40

Ia

0.20
Ioutput (A)

0.00
-0.20
-0.40
Time ... 0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050

19 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Some practical details on inverters and inverter driven
induction motors

• As fs is increased the switching losses will increase in the devices but the
unwanted frequencies will be pushed to higher and higher frequencies
• Inverter switching frequencies above 20kHz will give no audible noise (need
faster switches)
• Higher frequencies generated by inverters can lead to conducted and radiated
noise which can cause interference with sensitive equipment unless due care is
taken in design and installation
• Inverter driven motors tend to exhibit higher losses than those fed by a sinusoidal
source
• As the inverter fundamental frequency is lowered the number of PWM pulses per
half cycle must be increased to push the unwanted harmonics to higher
frequencies, i.e. carrier frequency must be changed (this is sometimes called
electronic gear changing)

20 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Speed control of induction motor using inverters

• From the induction motor theory studied previously we have:

3V 2 1 r2' Pg
T ( )
s r2' 2 2 s s
(r1  )  ( x1  x '2 )
s

r2'
sT max 
(r12  ( x1  x '2 )2

3V 2 1
Tmax 
2s [r  r 2  ( x  x ' )2 ]
1 1 1 2

These equations were derived for a constant frequency (f) ac supply with a line-
neutral voltage of V. Hence all reactance's are given at that frequency.

21 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Speed control of induction motor using inverters

Assume r1 << (x1 + x2)

This is assumption becomes more applicable at higher frequencies, i.e. at higher
inverter frequencies (at higher speeds)
Hence

r2'
s Tmax 
(x1  x 2 )

and hence

3V 2 1
Tmax 
2s ( x1  x 2 )

From this expression it is seen that if a constant V/f ratio is maintained Tmax will be
the same for all frequencies realising that (x1+x2) is directly proportional to
frequency.

22 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Speed control of induction motor using inverters

Assume r1 << (x1 + x2)

This is assumption becomes more applicable at higher frequencies, i.e. at higher
inverter frequencies (at higher speeds)
Hence

r2'
s Tmax 
(x1  x 2 )

and hence

3V 2 1
Tmax 
2s ( x1  x 2 )

From this expression it is seen that if a constant V/f ratio is maintained Tmax will be
the same for all frequencies realising that (x1+x2) is directly proportional to
frequency.

23 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017

 Speed control of induction motor using inverters

Torque-speed curves of an induction motor with constant V/f control

T

f4 f3 f2 f1

speed
s4 s3 s2 s1

At low frequencies the assumption r1 << (x1 + x2) is not strictly valid and as result
the maximum torque will be less than what is expected through the simplification.
Hence the voltage has to be boosted more than the frequency if the maximum
torque has to be maintained constant as the frequency is reduced.
24 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017
 Exercise

A six step inverter supplied from a variable voltage dc source connected to a

three-phase, 50Hz, 400V induction motor. The dc source voltage has an
upper limit of 550V. What should be the dc voltage to operate the motor at a
fundamental voltage of 400V at 50Hz? If the above dc voltage is maintained
constant what fraction of the nominal flux would be established at an inverter
output frequency of 90Hz?

25 Introduction to Power Electronics Spring 2017