Database

A database is an organized collection of data, generally stored and

accessed electronically from a computer system. Where databases are
more complex they are often developed using formal design and
modeling techniques.

The database management system (DBMS) is the software that

interacts with end users, applications, and the database itself to capture
and analyze the data. The DBMS software additionally encompasses
the core facilities provided to administer the database. The sum total
of the database, the DBMS and the associated applications can be
referred to as a "database system". Often the term "database" is also
used to loosely refer to any of the DBMS, the database system or an An SQL select statement and its
application associated with the database. result.

Computer scientists may classify database-management systems

according to the database models that they support. Relational databases became dominant in the 1980s. These
model data as rows and columns in a series of tables, and the vast majority use SQL for writing and querying
data. In the 2000s, non-relational databases became popular, referred to as NoSQL because they use different
query languages.

Contents
Terminology and overview
History
1960s, navigational DBMS
1970s, relational DBMS
Integrated approach
Late 1970s, SQL DBMS
1980s, on the desktop
1990s, object-oriented
2000s, NoSQL and NewSQL
Use cases
Classification
Database interaction
Database management system
Application
Application program interface
Database languages
Storage
Materialized views
Replication
Security
Transactions and concurrency
Migration
Building, maintaining, and tuning
Backup and restore
Static analysis
Miscellaneous features
Design and modeling
Models
External, conceptual, and internal views
Research
See also
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links

Terminology and overview

Formally, a "database" refers to a set of related data and the way it is organized. Access to this data is usually
provided by a "database management system" (DBMS) consisting of an integrated set of computer software
that allows users to interact with one or more databases and provides access to all of the data contained in the
database (although restrictions may exist that limit access to particular data). The DBMS provides various
functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information and provides ways to manage
how that information is organized.

Because of the close relationship between them, the term "database" is often used casually to refer to both a
database and the DBMS used to manipulate it.

Outside the world of professional information technology, the term database is often used to refer to any
collection of related data (such as a spreadsheet or a card index) as size and usage requirements typically
necessitate use of a database management system.[1]

Existing DBMSs provide various functions that allow management of a database and its data which can be
classified into four main functional groups:

Data definition – Creation, modification and removal of definitions that define the organization
of the data.
Update – Insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data.[2]
Retrieval – Providing information in a form directly usable or for further processing by other
applications. The retrieved data may be made available in a form basically the same as it is
stored in the database or in a new form obtained by altering or combining existing data from the
database.[3]
Administration – Registering and monitoring users, enforcing data security, monitoring
performance, maintaining data integrity, dealing with concurrency control, and recovering
information that has been corrupted by some event such as an unexpected system failure.[4]
Both a database and its DBMS conform to the principles of a particular database model.[5] "Database system"
refers collectively to the database model, database management system, and database.[6]

Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS
and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and
RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. Hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers
via a high-speed channel, are also used in large volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are
found at the heart of most database applications. DBMSs may be built around a custom multitasking kernel
with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide
these functions.

Since DBMSs comprise a significant market, computer and storage vendors often take into account DBMS
requirements in their own development plans.[7]

Databases and DBMSs can be categorized according to the database model(s) that they support (such as
relational or XML), the type(s) of computer they run on (from a server cluster to a mobile phone), the query
language(s) used to access the database (such as SQL or XQuery), and their internal engineering, which
affects performance, scalability, resilience, and security.

History
The sizes, capabilities, and performance of databases and their respective DBMSs have grown in orders of
magnitude. These performance increases were enabled by the technology progress in the areas of processors,
computer memory, computer storage, and computer networks. The concept of a database was made possible
by the emergence of direct access storage media such as magnetic disks, which became widely available in the
mid 1960s; earlier systems relied on sequential storage of data on magnetic tape. The subsequent development
of database technology can be divided into three eras based on data model or structure: navigational,[8]
SQL/relational, and post-relational.

The two main early navigational data models were the hierarchical model and the CODASYL model (network
model). These were characterized by the use of pointers (often physical disk addresses) to follow relationships
from one record to another.

The relational model, first proposed in 1970 by Edgar F. Codd, departed from this tradition by insisting that
applications should search for data by content, rather than by following links. The relational model employs
sets of ledger-style tables, each used for a different type of entity. Only in the mid-1980s did computing
hardware become powerful enough to allow the wide deployment of relational systems (DBMSs plus
applications). By the early 1990s, however, relational systems dominated in all large-scale data processing
applications, and as of 2018 they remain dominant: IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft SQL Server
are the most searched DBMS.[9] The dominant database language, standardised SQL for the relational model,
has influenced database languages for other data models.

Object databases were developed in the 1980s to overcome the inconvenience of object-relational impedance
mismatch, which led to the coining of the term "post-relational" and also the development of hybrid object-
relational databases.

The next generation of post-relational databases in the late 2000s became known as NoSQL databases,
introducing fast key-value stores and document-oriented databases. A competing "next generation" known as
NewSQL databases attempted new implementations that retained the relational/SQL model while aiming to
match the high performance of NoSQL compared to commercially available relational DBMSs.
1960s, navigational DBMS

The introduction of the term database coincided with the

availability of direct-access storage (disks and drums) from
the mid-1960s onwards. The term represented a contrast
with the tape-based systems of the past, allowing shared
interactive use rather than daily batch processing. The
Oxford English Dictionary cites a 1962 report by the System
Development Corporation of California as the first to use the
term "data-base" in a specific technical sense.[10]

As computers grew in speed and capability, a number of

general-purpose database systems emerged; by the mid-
1960s a number of such systems had come into commercial
use. Interest in a standard began to grow, and Charles
Bachman, author of one such product, the Integrated Data
Store (IDS), founded the Database Task Group within
CODASYL, the group responsible for the creation and
standardization of COBOL. In 1971, the Database Task
Group delivered their standard, which generally became
known as the CODASYL approach, and soon a number of
commercial products based on this approach entered the
market.

The CODASYL approach offered applications the ability to

navigate around a linked data set which was formed into a
large network. Applications could find records by one of
Basic structure of navigational CODASYL
three methods:
database model

1. Use of a primary key (known as a CALC key,

typically implemented by hashing)
2. Navigating relationships (called sets) from one record to another
3. Scanning all the records in a sequential order

Later systems added B-trees to provide alternate access paths. Many CODASYL databases also added a
declarative query language for end users (as distinct from the navigational API). However CODASYL
databases were complex and required significant training and effort to produce useful applications.

IBM also had their own DBMS in 1966, known as Information Management System (IMS). IMS was a
development of software written for the Apollo program on the System/360. IMS was generally similar in
concept to CODASYL, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation instead of CODASYL's
network model. Both concepts later became known as navigational databases due to the way data was
accessed: the term was popularized by Bachman's 1973 Turing Award presentation The Programmer as
Navigator. IMS is classified by IBM as a hierarchical database. IDMS and Cincom Systems' TOTAL database
are classified as network databases. IMS remains in use as of 2014.[11]

1970s, relational DBMS

Edgar F. Codd worked at IBM in San Jose, California, in one of their offshoot offices that was primarily
involved in the development of hard disk systems. He was unhappy with the navigational model of the
CODASYL approach, notably the lack of a "search" facility. In 1970, he wrote a number of papers that
outlined a new approach to database construction that eventually culminated in the groundbreaking A
Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks.[12]

In this paper, he described a new system for storing and working with large databases. Instead of records being
stored in some sort of linked list of free-form records as in CODASYL, Codd's idea was to organise the data
as a number of "tables", each table being used for a different type of entity. Each table would contain a fixed
number of columns containing the attributes of the entity. One or more columns of each table were designated
as a primary key by which the rows of the table could be uniquely identified; cross-references between tables
always used these primary keys, rather than disk addresses, and queries would join tables based on these key
relationships, using a set of operations based on the mathematical system of relational calculus (from which the
model takes its name). Splitting the data into a set of normalized tables (or relations) aimed to ensure that each
"fact" was only stored once, thus simplifying update operations. Virtual tables called views could present the
data in different ways for different users, but views could not be directly updated.

Codd used mathematical terms to define the model: relations, tuples, and domains rather than tables, rows, and
columns. The terminology that is now familiar came from early implementations. Codd would later criticize
the tendency for practical implementations to depart from the mathematical foundations on which the model
was based.

The use of primary keys (user-oriented identifiers) to represent

cross-table relationships, rather than disk addresses, had two
primary motivations. From an engineering perspective, it
enabled tables to be relocated and resized without expensive
database reorganization. But Codd was more interested in the
difference in semantics: the use of explicit identifiers made it
easier to define update operations with clean mathematical
definitions, and it also enabled query operations to be defined in
terms of the established discipline of first-order predicate
calculus; because these operations have clean mathematical
properties, it becomes possible to rewrite queries in provably
correct ways, which is the basis of query optimization. There is
no loss of expressiveness compared with the hierarchic or In the relational model, records are "linked"
network models, though the connections between tables are no using virtual keys not stored in the
longer so explicit. database but defined as needed between
the data contained in the records.
In the hierarchic and network models, records were allowed to
have a complex internal structure. For example, the salary
history of an employee might be represented as a "repeating group" within the employee record. In the
relational model, the process of normalization led to such internal structures being replaced by data held in
multiple tables, connected only by logical keys.

For instance, a common use of a database system is to track information about users, their name, login
information, various addresses and phone numbers. In the navigational approach, all of this data would be
placed in a single variable-length record. In the relational approach, the data would be normalized into a user
table, an address table and a phone number table (for instance). Records would be created in these optional
tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided.

As well as identifying rows/records using logical identifiers rather than disk addresses, Codd changed the way
in which applications assembled data from multiple records. Rather than requiring applications to gather data
one record at a time by navigating the links, they would use a declarative query language that expressed what
data was required, rather than the access path by which it should be found. Finding an efficient access path to
the data became the responsibility of the database management system, rather than the application programmer.
This process, called query optimization, depended on the fact that queries were expressed in terms of
mathematical logic.

Codd's paper was picked up by two people at Berkeley, Eugene Wong and Michael Stonebraker. They started
a project known as INGRES using funding that had already been allocated for a geographical database project
and student programmers to produce code. Beginning in 1973, INGRES delivered its first test products which
were generally ready for widespread use in 1979. INGRES was similar to System R in a number of ways,
including the use of a "language" for data access, known as QUEL. Over time, INGRES moved to the
emerging SQL standard.

IBM itself did one test implementation of the relational model, PRTV, and a production one, Business System
12, both now discontinued. Honeywell wrote MRDS for Multics, and now there are two new
implementations: Alphora Dataphor and Rel. Most other DBMS implementations usually called relational are
actually SQL DBMSs.

In 1970, the University of Michigan began development of the MICRO Information Management System[13]
based on D.L. Childs' Set-Theoretic Data model.[14][15][16] MICRO was used to manage very large data sets
by the US Department of Labor, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and researchers from the
University of Alberta, the University of Michigan, and Wayne State University. It ran on IBM mainframe
computers using the Michigan Terminal System.[17] The system remained in production until 1998.

Integrated approach

In the 1970s and 1980s, attempts were made to build database systems with integrated hardware and software.
The underlying philosophy was that such integration would provide higher performance at a lower cost.
Examples were IBM System/38, the early offering of Teradata, and the Britton Lee, Inc. database machine.

Another approach to hardware support for database management was ICL's CAFS accelerator, a hardware
disk controller with programmable search capabilities. In the long term, these efforts were generally
unsuccessful because specialized database machines could not keep pace with the rapid development and
progress of general-purpose computers. Thus most database systems nowadays are software systems running
on general-purpose hardware, using general-purpose computer data storage. However, this idea is still pursued
for certain applications by some companies like Netezza and Oracle (Exadata).

Late 1970s, SQL DBMS

IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd's concepts as System R in the early 1970s.
The first version was ready in 1974/5, and work then started on multi-table systems in which the data could be
split so that all of the data for a record (some of which is optional) did not have to be stored in a single large
"chunk". Subsequent multi-user versions were tested by customers in 1978 and 1979, by which time a
standardized query language – SQL – had been added. Codd's ideas were establishing themselves as both
workable and superior to CODASYL, pushing IBM to develop a true production version of System R, known
as SQL/DS, and, later, Database 2 (DB2).

Larry Ellison's Oracle Database (or more simply, Oracle) started from a different chain, based on IBM's papers
on System R. Though Oracle V1 implementations were completed in 1978, it wasn't until Oracle Version 2
when Ellison beat IBM to market in 1979.[18]
Stonebraker went on to apply the lessons from INGRES to develop a new database, Postgres, which is now
known as PostgreSQL. PostgreSQL is often used for global mission-critical applications (the .org and .info
domain name registries use it as their primary data store, as do many large companies and financial
institutions).

In Sweden, Codd's paper was also read and Mimer SQL was developed from the mid-1970s at Uppsala
University. In 1984, this project was consolidated into an independent enterprise.

Another data model, the entity–relationship model, emerged in 1976 and gained popularity for database design
as it emphasized a more familiar description than the earlier relational model. Later on, entity–relationship
constructs were retrofitted as a data modeling construct for the relational model, and the difference between the
two have become irrelevant.

1980s, on the desktop

The 1980s ushered in the age of desktop computing. The new computers empowered their users with
spreadsheets like Lotus 1-2-3 and database software like dBASE. The dBASE product was lightweight and
easy for any computer user to understand out of the box. C. Wayne Ratliff, the creator of dBASE, stated:
"dBASE was different from programs like BASIC, C, FORTRAN, and COBOL in that a lot of the dirty work
had already been done. The data manipulation is done by dBASE instead of by the user, so the user can
concentrate on what he is doing, rather than having to mess with the dirty details of opening, reading, and
closing files, and managing space allocation."[19] dBASE was one of the top selling software titles in the
1980s and early 1990s.

1990s, object-oriented

The 1990s, along with a rise in object-oriented programming, saw a growth in how data in various databases
were handled. Programmers and designers began to treat the data in their databases as objects. That is to say
that if a person's data were in a database, that person's attributes, such as their address, phone number, and age,
were now considered to belong to that person instead of being extraneous data. This allows for relations
between data to be relations to objects and their attributes and not to individual fields.[20] The term "object-
relational impedance mismatch" described the inconvenience of translating between programmed objects and
database tables. Object databases and object-relational databases attempt to solve this problem by providing an
object-oriented language (sometimes as extensions to SQL) that programmers can use as alternative to purely
relational SQL. On the programming side, libraries known as object-relational mappings (ORMs) attempt to
solve the same problem.

2000s, NoSQL and NewSQL

XML databases are a type of structured document-oriented database that allows querying based on XML
document attributes. XML databases are mostly used in applications where the data is conveniently viewed as
a collection of documents, with a structure that can vary from the very flexible to the highly rigid: examples
include scientific articles, patents, tax filings, and personnel records.

NoSQL databases are often very fast, do not require fixed table schemas, avoid join operations by storing
denormalized data, and are designed to scale horizontally.

In recent years, there has been a strong demand for massively distributed databases with high partition
tolerance, but according to the CAP theorem it is impossible for a distributed system to simultaneously provide
consistency, availability, and partition tolerance guarantees. A distributed system can satisfy any two of these
guarantees at the same time, but not all three. For that reason, many NoSQL databases are using what is called
eventual consistency to provide both availability and partition tolerance guarantees with a reduced level of data
consistency.

NewSQL is a class of modern relational databases that aims to provide the same scalable performance of
NoSQL systems for online transaction processing (read-write) workloads while still using SQL and
maintaining the ACID guarantees of a traditional database system.

Use cases
Databases are used to support internal operations of organizations and to underpin online interactions with
customers and suppliers (see Enterprise software).

Databases are used to hold administrative information and more specialized data, such as engineering data or
economic models. Examples include computerized library systems, flight reservation systems, computerized
parts inventory systems, and many content management systems that store websites as collections of webpages
in a database.

Classification
One way to classify databases involves the type of their contents, for example: bibliographic, document-text,
statistical, or multimedia objects. Another way is by their application area, for example: accounting, music
compositions, movies, banking, manufacturing, or insurance. A third way is by some technical aspect, such as
the database structure or interface type. This section lists a few of the adjectives used to characterize different
kinds of databases.

An in-memory database is a database that primarily resides in main memory, but is typically
backed-up by non-volatile computer data storage. Main memory databases are faster than disk
databases, and so are often used where response time is critical, such as in
telecommunications network equipment.
An active database includes an event-driven architecture which can respond to conditions both
inside and outside the database. Possible uses include security monitoring, alerting, statistics
gathering and authorization. Many databases provide active database features in the form of
database triggers.
A cloud database relies on cloud technology. Both the database and most of its DBMS reside
remotely, "in the cloud", while its applications are both developed by programmers and later
maintained and used by end-users through a web browser and Open APIs.
Data warehouses archive data from operational databases and often from external sources
such as market research firms. The warehouse becomes the central source of data for use by
managers and other end-users who may not have access to operational data. For example,
sales data might be aggregated to weekly totals and converted from internal product codes to
use UPCs so that they can be compared with ACNielsen data. Some basic and essential
components of data warehousing include extracting, analyzing, and mining data, transforming,
loading, and managing data so as to make them available for further use.
A deductive database combines logic programming with a relational database.
A distributed database is one in which both the data and the DBMS span multiple computers.
A document-oriented database is designed for storing, retrieving, and managing document-
oriented, or semi structured, information. Document-oriented databases are one of the main
categories of NoSQL databases.
An embedded database system is a DBMS which is tightly integrated with an application
software that requires access to stored data in such a way that the DBMS is hidden from the
application's end-users and requires little or no ongoing maintenance.[21]
End-user databases consist of data developed by individual end-users. Examples of these are
collections of documents, spreadsheets, presentations, multimedia, and other files. Several
products exist to support such databases. Some of them are much simpler than full-fledged
DBMSs, with more elementary DBMS functionality.
A federated database system comprises several distinct databases, each with its own DBMS. It
is handled as a single database by a federated database management system (FDBMS),
which transparently integrates multiple autonomous DBMSs, possibly of different types (in
which case it would also be a heterogeneous database system), and provides them with an
integrated conceptual view.
Sometimes the term multi-database is used as a synonym to federated database, though it may
refer to a less integrated (e.g., without an FDBMS and a managed integrated schema) group of
databases that cooperate in a single application. In this case, typically middleware is used for
distribution, which typically includes an atomic commit protocol (ACP), e.g., the two-phase
commit protocol, to allow distributed (global) transactions across the participating databases.
A graph database is a kind of NoSQL database that uses graph structures with nodes, edges,
and properties to represent and store information. General graph databases that can store any
graph are distinct from specialized graph databases such as triplestores and network
databases.
An array DBMS is a kind of NoSQL DBMS that allows modeling, storage, and retrieval of
(usually large) multi-dimensional arrays such as satellite images and climate simulation output.
In a hypertext or hypermedia database, any word or a piece of text representing an object, e.g.,
another piece of text, an article, a picture, or a film, can be hyperlinked to that object. Hypertext
databases are particularly useful for organizing large amounts of disparate information. For
example, they are useful for organizing online encyclopedias, where users can conveniently
jump around the text. The World Wide Web is thus a large distributed hypertext database.
A knowledge base (abbreviated KB, kb or Δ[22][23]) is a special kind of database for knowledge
management, providing the means for the computerized collection, organization, and retrieval
of knowledge. Also a collection of data representing problems with their solutions and related
experiences.

A mobile database can be carried on or synchronized from a mobile computing device.

Operational databases store detailed data about the operations of an organization. They
typically process relatively high volumes of updates using transactions. Examples include
customer databases that record contact, credit, and demographic information about a
business's customers, personnel databases that hold information such as salary, benefits, skills
data about employees, enterprise resource planning systems that record details about product
components, parts inventory, and financial databases that keep track of the organization's
money, accounting and financial dealings.
A parallel database seeks to improve performance through parallelization for tasks such as
loading data, building indexes and evaluating queries.

The major parallel DBMS architectures which are induced by the underlying hardware
architecture are:
Shared memory architecture, where multiple processors share the main memory
space, as well as other data storage.
Shared disk architecture, where each processing unit (typically consisting of
multiple processors) has its own main memory, but all units share the other storage.
Shared nothing architecture, where each processing unit has its own main
memory and other storage.

Probabilistic databases employ fuzzy logic to draw inferences from imprecise data.
 Real-time databases process transactions fast enough for the result to come back and be acted
on right away.
A spatial database can store the data with multidimensional features. The queries on such data
include location-based queries, like "Where is the closest hotel in my area?".
A temporal database has built-in time aspects, for example a temporal data model and a
temporal version of SQL. More specifically the temporal aspects usually include valid-time and
transaction-time.
A terminology-oriented database builds upon an object-oriented database, often customized for
a specific field.
An unstructured data database is intended to store in a manageable and protected way diverse
objects that do not fit naturally and conveniently in common databases. It may include email
messages, documents, journals, multimedia objects, etc. The name may be misleading since
some objects can be highly structured. However, the entire possible object collection does not
fit into a predefined structured framework. Most established DBMSs now support unstructured
data in various ways, and new dedicated DBMSs are emerging.

Database interaction

Database management system

Connolly and Begg define database management system (DBMS) as a "software system that enables users to
define, create, maintain and control access to the database".[24] Examples of DBMS's include MySQL,
PostgreSQL, MSSQL, Oracle Database, and Microsoft Access.

The DBMS acronym is sometimes extended to indicate the underlying database model, with RDBMS for the
relational, OODBMS for the object (oriented) and ORDBMS for the object-relational model. Other extensions
can indicate some other characteristic, such as DDBMS for a distributed database management systems.

The functionality provided by a DBMS can vary enormously. The core functionality is the storage, retrieval
and update of data. Codd proposed the following functions and services a fully-fledged general purpose
DBMS should provide:[25]

Data storage, retrieval and update

User accessible catalog or data dictionary describing the metadata
Support for transactions and concurrency
Facilities for recovering the database should it become damaged
Support for authorization of access and update of data
Access support from remote locations
Enforcing constraints to ensure data in the database abides by certain rules

It is also generally to be expected the DBMS will provide a set of utilities for such purposes as may be
necessary to administer the database effectively, including import, export, monitoring, defragmentation and
analysis utilities.[26] The core part of the DBMS interacting between the database and the application interface
sometimes referred to as the database engine.

Often DBMSs will have configuration parameters that can be statically and dynamically tuned, for example
the maximum amount of main memory on a server the database can use. The trend is to minimise the amount
of manual configuration, and for cases such as embedded databases the need to target zero-administration is
paramount.
The large major enterprise DBMSs have tended to increase in size and functionality and can have involved
thousands of human years of development effort through their lifetime.[a]

Early multi-user DBMS typically only allowed for the application to reside on the same computer with access
via terminals or terminal emulation software. The client–server architecture was a development where the
application resided on a client desktop and the database on a server allowing the processing to be distributed.
This evolved into a multitier architecture incorporating application servers and web servers with the end user
interface via a web browser with the database only directly connected to the adjacent tier.[27]

A general-purpose DBMS will provide public application programming interfaces (API) and optionally a
processor for database languages such as SQL to allow applications to be written to interact with the database.
A special purpose DBMS may use a private API and be specifically customised and linked to a single
application. For example, an email system performing many of the functions of a general-purpose DBMS such
as message insertion, message deletion, attachment handling, blocklist lookup, associating messages an email
address and so forth however these functions are limited to what is required to handle email.

Application

External interaction with the database will be via an application program that interfaces with the DBMS.[28]
This can range from a database tool that allows users to execute SQL queries textually or graphically, to a web
site that happens to use a database to store and search information.

Application program interface

A programmer will code interactions to the database (sometimes referred to as a datasource) via an application
program interface (API) or via a database language. The particular API or language chosen will need to be
supported by DBMS, possible indirectly via a pre-processor or a bridging API. Some API's aim to be database
independent, ODBC being a commonly known example. Other common API's include JDBC and
ADO.NET.

Database languages

Database languages are special-purpose languages, which allow one or more of the following tasks, sometimes
distinguished as sublanguages:

Data control language (DCL) – controls access to data;

Data definition language (DDL) – defines data types such as creating, altering, or dropping
tables and the relationships among them;
Data manipulation language (DML) – performs tasks such as inserting, updating, or deleting
data occurrences;
Data query language (DQL) – allows searching for information and computing derived
information.

Database languages are specific to a particular data model. Notable examples include:

SQL combines the roles of data definition, data manipulation, and query in a single language. It
was one of the first commercial languages for the relational model, although it departs in some
respects from the relational model as described by Codd (for example, the rows and columns of
a table can be ordered). SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) in 1986, and of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987. The
 standards have been regularly enhanced since and is supported (with varying degrees of
conformance) by all mainstream commercial relational DBMSs.[29][30]
OQL is an object model language standard (from the Object Data Management Group). It has
influenced the design of some of the newer query languages like JDOQL and EJB QL.
XQuery is a standard XML query language implemented by XML database systems such as
MarkLogic and eXist, by relational databases with XML capability such as Oracle and DB2,
and also by in-memory XML processors such as Saxon.
SQL/XML combines XQuery with SQL.[31]

A database language may also incorporate features like:

DBMS-specific configuration and storage engine management

Computations to modify query results, like counting, summing, averaging, sorting, grouping,
and cross-referencing
Constraint enforcement (e.g. in an automotive database, only allowing one engine type per car)
Application programming interface version of the query language, for programmer convenience

Storage
Database storage is the container of the physical materialization of a database. It comprises the internal
(physical) level in the database architecture. It also contains all the information needed (e.g., metadata, "data
about the data", and internal data structures) to reconstruct the conceptual level and external level from the
internal level when needed. Putting data into permanent storage is generally the responsibility of the database
engine a.k.a. "storage engine". Though typically accessed by a DBMS through the underlying operating
system (and often using the operating systems' file systems as intermediates for storage layout), storage
properties and configuration setting are extremely important for the efficient operation of the DBMS, and thus
are closely maintained by database administrators. A DBMS, while in operation, always has its database
residing in several types of storage (e.g., memory and external storage). The database data and the additional
needed information, possibly in very large amounts, are coded into bits. Data typically reside in the storage in
structures that look completely different from the way the data look in the conceptual and external levels, but
in ways that attempt to optimize (the best possible) these levels' reconstruction when needed by users and
programs, as well as for computing additional types of needed information from the data (e.g., when querying
the database).

Some DBMSs support specifying which character encoding was used to store data, so multiple encodings can
be used in the same database.

Various low-level database storage structures are used by the storage engine to serialize the data model so it
can be written to the medium of choice. Techniques such as indexing may be used to improve performance.
Conventional storage is row-oriented, but there are also column-oriented and correlation databases.

Materialized views

Often storage redundancy is employed to increase performance. A common example is storing materialized
views, which consist of frequently needed external views or query results. Storing such views saves the
expensive computing of them each time they are needed. The downsides of materialized views are the
overhead incurred when updating them to keep them synchronized with their original updated database data,
and the cost of storage redundancy.
Replication

Occasionally a database employs storage redundancy by database objects replication (with one or more copies)
to increase data availability (both to improve performance of simultaneous multiple end-user accesses to a
same database object, and to provide resiliency in a case of partial failure of a distributed database). Updates of
a replicated object need to be synchronized across the object copies. In many cases, the entire database is
replicated.

Security
Database security deals with all various aspects of protecting the database content, its owners, and its users. It
ranges from protection from intentional unauthorized database uses to unintentional database accesses by
unauthorized entities (e.g., a person or a computer program).

Database access control deals with controlling who (a person or a certain computer program) is allowed to
access what information in the database. The information may comprise specific database objects (e.g., record
types, specific records, data structures), certain computations over certain objects (e.g., query types, or specific
queries), or using specific access paths to the former (e.g., using specific indexes or other data structures to
access information). Database access controls are set by special authorized (by the database owner) personnel
that uses dedicated protected security DBMS interfaces.

This may be managed directly on an individual basis, or by the assignment of individuals and privileges to
groups, or (in the most elaborate models) through the assignment of individuals and groups to roles which are
then granted entitlements. Data security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database.
Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database or subsets of it called "subschemas". For
example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users
may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical
data. If the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database, as well as interrogate it, this
capability allows for managing personal databases.

Data security in general deals with protecting specific chunks of data, both physically (i.e., from corruption, or
destruction, or removal; e.g., see physical security), or the interpretation of them, or parts of them to
meaningful information (e.g., by looking at the strings of bits that they comprise, concluding specific valid
credit-card numbers; e.g., see data encryption).

Change and access logging records who accessed which attributes, what was changed, and when it was
changed. Logging services allow for a forensic database audit later by keeping a record of access occurrences
and changes. Sometimes application-level code is used to record changes rather than leaving this to the
database. Monitoring can be set up to attempt to detect security breaches.

Transactions and concurrency

Database transactions can be used to introduce some level of fault tolerance and data integrity after recovery
from a crash. A database transaction is a unit of work, typically encapsulating a number of operations over a
database (e.g., reading a database object, writing, acquiring lock, etc.), an abstraction supported in database
and also other systems. Each transaction has well defined boundaries in terms of which program/code
executions are included in that transaction (determined by the transaction's programmer via special transaction
commands).

The acronym ACID describes some ideal properties of a database transaction: atomicity, consistency, isolation,
and durability.
Migration
A database built with one DBMS is not portable to another DBMS (i.e., the other DBMS cannot run it).
However, in some situations, it is desirable to migrate a database from one DBMS to another. The reasons are
primarily economical (different DBMSs may have different total costs of ownership or TCOs), functional, and
operational (different DBMSs may have different capabilities). The migration involves the database's
transformation from one DBMS type to another. The transformation should maintain (if possible) the database
related application (i.e., all related application programs) intact. Thus, the database's conceptual and external
architectural levels should be maintained in the transformation. It may be desired that also some aspects of the
architecture internal level are maintained. A complex or large database migration may be a complicated and
costly (one-time) project by itself, which should be factored into the decision to migrate. This in spite of the
fact that tools may exist to help migration between specific DBMSs. Typically, a DBMS vendor provides tools
to help importing databases from other popular DBMSs.

Building, maintaining, and tuning

After designing a database for an application, the next stage is building the database. Typically, an appropriate
general-purpose DBMS can be selected to be used for this purpose. A DBMS provides the needed user
interfaces to be used by database administrators to define the needed application's data structures within the
DBMS's respective data model. Other user interfaces are used to select needed DBMS parameters (like
security related, storage allocation parameters, etc.).

When the database is ready (all its data structures and other needed components are defined), it is typically
populated with initial application's data (database initialization, which is typically a distinct project; in many
cases using specialized DBMS interfaces that support bulk insertion) before making it operational. In some
cases, the database becomes operational while empty of application data, and data are accumulated during its
operation.

After the database is created, initialised and populated it needs to be maintained. Various database parameters
may need changing and the database may need to be tuned (tuning) for better performance; application's data
structures may be changed or added, new related application programs may be written to add to the
application's functionality, etc.

Backup and restore

Sometimes it is desired to bring a database back to a previous state (for many reasons, e.g., cases when the
database is found corrupted due to a software error, or if it has been updated with erroneous data). To achieve
this, a backup operation is done occasionally or continuously, where each desired database state (i.e., the
values of its data and their embedding in database's data structures) is kept within dedicated backup files (many
techniques exist to do this effectively). When it is decided by a database administrator to bring the database
back to this state (e.g., by specifying this state by a desired point in time when the database was in this state),
these files are used to restore that state.

Static analysis
Static analysis techniques for software verification can be applied also in the scenario of query languages. In
particular, the *Abstract interpretation framework has been extended to the field of query languages for
relational databases as a way to support sound approximation techniques.[32] The semantics of query
languages can be tuned according to suitable abstractions of the concrete domain of data. The abstraction of
relational database system has many interesting applications, in particular, for security purposes, such as fine
grained access control, watermarking, etc.

Miscellaneous features
Other DBMS features might include:

Database logs – This helps in keeping a history of the executed functions.

Graphics component for producing graphs and charts, especially in a data warehouse system.
Query optimizer – Performs query optimization on every query to choose an efficient query plan
(a partial order (tree) of operations) to be executed to compute the query result. May be specific
to a particular storage engine.
Tools or hooks for database design, application programming, application program
maintenance, database performance analysis and monitoring, database configuration
monitoring, DBMS hardware configuration (a DBMS and related database may span
computers, networks, and storage units) and related database mapping (especially for a
distributed DBMS), storage allocation and database layout monitoring, storage migration, etc.

Increasingly, there are calls for a single system that incorporates all of these core functionalities into the same
build, test, and deployment framework for database management and source control. Borrowing from other
developments in the software industry, some market such offerings as "DevOps for database".[33]

Design and modeling

The first task of a database
designer is to produce a
conceptual data model that
reflects the structure of the
information to be held in the
database. A common
approach to this is to
develop an entity-
relationship model, often
with the aid of drawing
tools. Another popular
approach is the Unified
Modeling Language. A
successful data model will
accurately reflect the
possible state of the external
world being modeled: for
example, if people can have
more than one phone
number, it will allow this information to be captured. Designing a good conceptual data model requires a good
understanding of the application domain; it typically involves asking deep questions about the things of interest
to an organization, like "can a customer also be a supplier?", or "if a product is sold with two different forms
of packaging, are those the same product or different products?", or "if a plane flies from New York to Dubai
via Frankfurt, is that one flight or two (or maybe even three)?". The answers to these questions establish
definitions of the terminology used for entities (customers, products, flights, flight segments) and their
relationships and attributes.
Producing the conceptual data model sometimes involves input from business processes, or the analysis of
workflow in the organization. This can help to establish what information is needed in the database, and what
can be left out. For example, it can help when deciding whether the database needs to hold historic data as
well as current data.

Having produced a conceptual data model that users are happy with, the next stage is to translate this into a
schema that implements the relevant data structures within the database. This process is often called logical
database design, and the output is a logical data model expressed in the form of a schema. Whereas the
conceptual data model is (in theory at least) independent of the choice of database technology, the logical data
model will be expressed in terms of a particular database model supported by the chosen DBMS. (The terms
data model and database model are often used interchangeably, but in this article we use data model for the
design of a specific database, and database model for the modeling notation used to express that design).

The most popular database model for general-purpose databases is the relational model, or more precisely, the
relational model as represented by the SQL language. The process of creating a logical database design using
this model uses a methodical approach known as normalization. The goal of normalization is to ensure that
each elementary "fact" is only recorded in one place, so that insertions, updates, and deletions automatically
maintain consistency.

The final stage of database design is to make the decisions that affect performance, scalability, recovery,
security, and the like, which depend on the particular DBMS. This is often called physical database design,
and the output is the physical data model. A key goal during this stage is data independence, meaning that the
decisions made for performance optimization purposes should be invisible to end-users and applications. There
are two types of data independence: Physical data independence and logical data independence. Physical
design is driven mainly by performance requirements, and requires a good knowledge of the expected
workload and access patterns, and a deep understanding of the features offered by the chosen DBMS.

Another aspect of physical database design is security. It involves both defining access control to database
objects as well as defining security levels and methods for the data itself.

Models

A database model is a type of data model that determines the logical structure of a database and fundamentally
determines in which manner data can be stored, organized, and manipulated. The most popular example of a
database model is the relational model (or the SQL approximation of relational), which uses a table-based
format.

Common logical data models for databases include:

Navigational databases
Hierarchical database model
Network model
Graph database
Relational model
Entity–relationship model
Enhanced entity–relationship model
Object model
Document model
Entity–attribute–value model
Star schema
An object-relational
database combines the two
related structures.

Physical data models

include:

Inverted index
Flat file

Other models include:

Associative model
Multidimensional
model
Array model
Multivalue model

Specialized models are

optimized for particular Collage of five types of database models
types of data:

XML database
Semantic model
Content store
Event store
Time series model

External, conceptual, and internal views

A database management system provides three views

of the database data:

The external level defines how each group

of end-users sees the organization of data in
the database. A single database can have
any number of views at the external level.
The conceptual level unifies the various
external views into a compatible global
view.[35] It provides the synthesis of all the
external views. It is out of the scope of the
various database end-users, and is rather of
interest to database application developers
and database administrators. Traditional view of data[34]

The internal level (or physical level) is the

internal organization of data inside a DBMS.
It is concerned with cost, performance, scalability and other operational matters. It deals with
storage layout of the data, using storage structures such as indexes to enhance performance.
Occasionally it stores data of individual views (materialized views), computed from generic
data, if performance justification exists for such redundancy. It balances all the external views'
performance requirements, possibly conflicting, in an attempt to optimize overall performance
 across all activities.

While there is typically only one conceptual (or logical) and physical (or internal) view of the data, there can
be any number of different external views. This allows users to see database information in a more business-
related way rather than from a technical, processing viewpoint. For example, a financial department of a
company needs the payment details of all employees as part of the company's expenses, but does not need
details about employees that are the interest of the human resources department. Thus different departments
need different views of the company's database.

The three-level database architecture relates to the concept of data independence which was one of the major
initial driving forces of the relational model. The idea is that changes made at a certain level do not affect the
view at a higher level. For example, changes in the internal level do not affect application programs written
using conceptual level interfaces, which reduces the impact of making physical changes to improve
performance.

The conceptual view provides a level of indirection between internal and external. On one hand it provides a
common view of the database, independent of different external view structures, and on the other hand it
abstracts away details of how the data are stored or managed (internal level). In principle every level, and even
every external view, can be presented by a different data model. In practice usually a given DBMS uses the
same data model for both the external and the conceptual levels (e.g., relational model). The internal level,
which is hidden inside the DBMS and depends on its implementation, requires a different level of detail and
uses its own types of data structure types.

Separating the external, conceptual and internal levels was a major feature of the relational database model
implementations that dominate 21st century databases.[35]

Research
Database technology has been an active research topic since the 1960s, both in academia and in the research
and development groups of companies (for example IBM Research). Research activity includes theory and
development of prototypes. Notable research topics have included models, the atomic transaction concept, and
related concurrency control techniques, query languages and query optimization methods, RAID, and more.

The database research area has several dedicated academic journals (for example, ACM Transactions on
Database Systems-TODS, Data and Knowledge Engineering-DKE) and annual conferences (e.g., ACM
SIGMOD, ACM PODS, VLDB, IEEE ICDE).

See also
Comparison of database tools
Comparison of object database management systems
Comparison of object-relational database management systems
Comparison of relational database management systems
Data hierarchy
Data bank
Data store
Database theory
Database testing
Database-centric architecture
Journal of Database Management
 Question-focused dataset

Notes
a. This article quotes a development time of 5 years involving 750 people for DB2 release 9
alone.(Chong et al. 2007)

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Further reading
Ling Liu and Tamer M. Özsu (Eds.) (2009). "Encyclopedia of Database Systems (https://www.sp
ringer.com/computer/database+management+&+information+retrieval/book/978-0-387-49616-
0), 4100 p. 60 illus. ISBN 978-0-387-49616-0.
Gray, J. and Reuter, A. Transaction Processing: Concepts and Techniques, 1st edition, Morgan
Kaufmann Publishers, 1992.
Kroenke, David M. and David J. Auer. Database Concepts. 3rd ed. New York: Prentice, 2007.
Raghu Ramakrishnan and Johannes Gehrke, Database Management Systems (http://pages.cs.
wisc.edu/~dbbook/)
Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudarshan, Database System Concepts (http://www.
db-book.com/)
Lightstone, S.; Teorey, T.; Nadeau, T. (2007). Physical Database Design: the database
professional's guide to exploiting indexes, views, storage, and more. Morgan Kaufmann Press.
ISBN 978-0-12-369389-1.
Teorey, T.; Lightstone, S. and Nadeau, T. Database Modeling & Design: Logical Design, 4th
edition, Morgan Kaufmann Press, 2005. ISBN 0-12-685352-5

External links
DB File extension (http://www.fileextension.org/DB) – information about files with the DB
extension

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