Unit 1

Binary Systems

Introduction
We are in “Information age” since digital systems have such a prominent and growing role in
modern society. They are involved in our business transactions, communications, transportation,
medical treatment and entertainment. In industrial world they are heavily employed in design,
manufacturing, distribution and sales.

Analog System
Analog systems process analog signals (continuous time signals) which can take any value within
a range, for example the output from a speaker or a microphone.

An analog meter can display any value within the range available on its scale. However, the
precision of readings is limited by our ability to read them.E.g. Meter on the right shows 1.25V
because the pointer is estimated to be half way between 1.2 and 1.3. The analogue meter can show
any value between 1.2 and

Digital System
 Digital systems process digital signals which can take only a limited number of values (discrete
steps), usually just two values are used: the positive supply voltage (+Vs) and zero volts (0V).
 Digital systems contain devices such as logic gates, flip-flops, shift registers and counters.

A digital meter can display many values, but not every value within its range. For example the
display on the right can show 6.25 and 6.26 but not a value between them. This is not a problem
because digital meters normally have sufficient digits to show values more precisely than it is
possible to read an analogue display.
The general purpose digital computer is a best known example of digital system.

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Working principle of generic digital computer: Memory stores programs as well as input,
output and intermediate data. The data path performs arithmetic and other data-processing
operations as specified by the program. The control unit supervises the flow of information
between the various units. A data path, when combined with the control unit, forms a component
referred to as a central processing unit, or CPU. The program and data prepared by the user are
transferred into memory by means of an input device such as a keyboard. An output device, such
as a CRT (cathode-ray tube) monitor, displays the results of the computations and presents them
to the user.
Advantages of digital system:
 Have made possible many scientific, industrial, and commercial advances that would
have been unattainable otherwise.
 Less expensive
 More reliable
 Easy to manipulate
 Flexibility and Compatibility
 Information storage can be easier in digital computer systems than in analog ones. New
features can often be added to a digital system more easily too.

Disadvantages of digital system:

 Use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the same tasks, thus producing more
heat as well.
 Digital circuits are often fragile, in that if a single piece of digital data is lost or
misinterpreted, the meaning of large blocks of related data can completely change.
 Digital computer manipulates discrete elements of information by means of a binary
code.
 Quantization error during analog signal sampling.

Information Representation
Signals
 Information variables represented by physical quantities.
 For digital systems, the variables take on discrete values.
 Two level or binary values are the most prevalent values in digital systems.
 Binary values are represented abstractly by:
• Digits 0 and 1
• Words (symbols) False (F) and True (T)
• Words (symbols) Low (L) and High (H)
• and words On and Off.
 Binary values are represented by values or ranges of values of physical quantities

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Signal Examples over time

Here is an example waveform of a quantized signal. Notice how the magnitude of the wave can
only take certain values, and that creates a step-like appearance. This image is discrete in
magnitude, but is continuous in time (asynchronous):

What are other physical quantities representing 0 and 1?

1. CPU: Voltage
• Disk: Magnetic Field Direction
2. CD: Surface Pits/Light
• Dynamic RAM: Electrical Charge

Number Systems
Here we discuss positional number systems with Positive radix (or base) r. A number with radix
r is represented by a string of digits as below i.e. wherever you guys see numbers of whatever

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bases, all numbers can be written in general as:

in which 0 ≤ Ai < r (since each being a symbol for particular base system viz. for r = 10 (decimal
number system) Ai will be one of 0,1,2,…,8,9). Subscript i gives the position of the coefficient and,
hence, the weight ri by which the coefficient must be multiplied.

HEY! Confused? Don’t worry! I will describe specific number systems (r=2, 8, 10 and 16) used in
digital computers later one by one, then the concept will be quite clear.

In general, a number in base r contains r digits, 0, l, 2... r- 1, and is expressed as a power series
in r with the general form:
(Number)r =𝐴𝑛−1 +𝑟 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝐴1 𝑟1 + 𝐴0 𝑟 0 +𝐴−1 𝑟 −1 + ⋯ + 𝐴−𝑚+1 +𝑟 −𝑚=+1 + 𝐴−𝑚 𝑟 −𝑚

𝑖=𝑛−1 𝑖=−1

(𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟)𝑟 = ( ∑ 𝐴𝑖 𝑟 ) + ( ∑ 𝐴𝑖 𝑟 𝑖 )
𝑖

𝑖=0 𝑖=−𝑚

Decimal Number System (Base-10 system)

Radix (r) = 10
Symbols = 0 through r-1 = 0 through 10-1 = {0, 1, 2... 8, 9}

I am starting from base-10 system since it is used vastly in everyday arithmetic besides computers
to represent numbers by strings of digits or symbols defined above, possibly with a decimal point.
Depending on its position in the string, each digit has an associated value of an integer raised to
the power of 10.

Example: decimal number 724.5 is interpreted to represent 7 hundreds plus 2 tens plus 4 units
plus 5 tenths.
724.5 = 7 X 102 + 2 X 101 + 4 X 100 + 5 X 10−1

Binary Number System (Base-2 system)

Radix (r) = 2
Symbols = 0 through r-1 = 0 through 2-1 = {0, 1}
A binary numbers are expressed with a string of 1'sand 0's and, possibly, a binary point within it.
The decimal equivalent of a binary number can be found by expanding the number into a power
series with a base of 2.
Example: (11010.01)2 can be interpreted using power series as:
(11010.01)2 = 1 X 24 + 1 X 23 + 0 X 22 + 1 X 21 + 0 X 20 + 0 X 2−1 + 1 X 2−2 = (26.25)10

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Digits in a binary number are called bits (Binary digits). When a bit is equal to 0, it does not
contribute to the sum during the conversion. Therefore, the conversion to decimal can be obtained
by adding the numbers with powers of 2 corresponding to the bits that are equal to 1. Looking at
above example,
(11010.01)2 = 16 + 8 + 2 + 0.25 = (26.25)10

Octal Number System (Base-8 system)

Radix (r) = 8
Symbols = 0 through r-1 = 0 through 8-1 = {0, 1, 2…6, 7}
An octal numbers are expressed with a strings of symbols defined above, possibly, an octal point
within it. The decimal equivalent of a octal number can be found by expanding the number into a
power series with a base of 8.
Example: (40712.56)8 can be interpreted using power series as:
(40712.56)8 = 4 X 84 + 0 X 83 + 7 X 8^2 + 1 X 81 + 2 X 80 + 5 X 8−1 + 6 X 8−2 = (16842.1)10

Hexadecimal Number System (Base-16 system)

Radix (r) = 16
Symbols = 0 through r-1 = 0 through 16-1 = {0, 1, 2…9, A, B, C, D, E, F}
A hexadecimal numbers are expressed with a strings of symbols defined above, possibly, a
hexadecimal point with in it. The decimal equivalent of a hexadecimal number can be found by
expanding the number into a power series with a base of 16.

Example: (4D71B.C6)16 can be interpreted using power series as:

(4D71B.C6)16 = 4 X 164 + D X 163 + 7 X 162 + 1 X 161 + B X 160 + C X 16-1 + 6 X 16-2
= 4 X 164 + 13 X 163 + 7 X 162 + 1 X 161 + 11 X 160 + 12 X 16-1 + 6 X 16-2
= (317211.7734375)10

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Number Base Conversions

Case I: Base-r system to Decimal: Base-r system can be binary (r=2), octal (r=8), hexadecimal
(r=16), base-60 system or any other. For decimal system as destination of conversion, we just use
power series explained above with varying r and sum the result according to the arithmetic rules
of base-10 system. I have already done examples for binary to decimal, octal to decimal and
hexadecimal to decimal.

For refreshment let’s assume base-1000 number (458HQY) 1000. Where n = 6 and m = 0.
(458HQY) 1000 = An-1 rn-1 + An-2 rn-2 + … + A1 r1 + A0 r0 + A-1 r-1 + A-2 r-2 + … + A-m+1 r-m+1 + A-m r-m
= 4 X 10005 + 5 X 10004 + 8 X 10003 + H X 10002 + Q X 10001 + Y X 10000
=Resulting number will be in decimal. Here I have supposed various symbols for base-
1000 system. Don’t worry, if someone gives you base-1000 number for conversion, he should
also define all 1000 symbols (0-999).

Case II: Decimal to Base-r system: Conversion follows following algorithm.

1. Separate the number into integer and fraction parts if radix point is given.
2. Divide “Decimal Integer part” by base r repeatedly until quotient becomes zero and
storing remainders at each step.
3. Multiply “Decimal Fraction part” successively by r and accumulate the integer digits so
obtained.
4. Combine both accumulated results and parenthesize the whole result with subscript r.

Example I: Decimal to binary

 (41.6875)10 = (?)2
Here Integer part = 41 and fractional part = 0.6875

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Example II: Decimal to octal

Case III: Binary to octal & hexadecimal and vice-versa: Conversion from and to binary, octal and
hexadecimal representation plays an important part in digital computers.
Since,
 23 = 8, octal digit can be represented by at least 3 binary digits. (We have discussed this
much better in class). So to convert given binary number into its equivalent octal, we
divide it into groups of 3 bits, give each group an octal symbol and combine the result.
 Integer part: Group bits from right to left of an octal point. 0’s can be added to
make it multiple of 3 (not compulsory).
 Fractional part: Group bits from left to right of an octal point. 0’s must be added
to if bits are not multiple of 3 (Note it).

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  24 = 16, each hex digit corresponds to 4 bits. So to convert given binary number into its
equivalent hex, we divide it into groups of 4 bits, give each group a hex digit and combine
the result. If hex point is given, then process is similar as of octal.
 15 numbers in 4 systems summarized below for easy reference.

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Complements
Complements are used in digital computers for simplifying the subtraction operation and for
logical manipulation. There are two types of complements for each base-r system: r's complement
and the second as the (r - 1)'s complement. When the value of the base r is substituted, the two
types are referred to as the 2's complement and 1's complement for binary numbers, the 10's
complement and 9's complement for decimal numbers etc.

Subtraction with complements

The direct method of subtraction taught in elementary schools uses the borrow concept. When
subtraction is implemented with digital hardware, this method is found to be less efficient than
the method that uses complements.
The subtraction of two n-digit unsigned numbers M - N in base-r can be done as follows:
1. Add the minuend M to the r's complement of the subtrahend N. This performs
M + (rn –N) = M -N + r".
2. If M >= N, the sum will produce an end carry, r", which is discarded; what is left is
the result M - N.
3. If M < N, the sum does not produce an end carry and is equal to rn - (N - M), which is
the r's complement of (N - M). To obtain the answer in a familiar form, take the r's
complement of the sum and place a negative sign in front.

Example I:

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Binary Codes
Electronic digital systems use signals that have two distinct values and circuit elements that have
two stable states. There is a direct analogy among binary signals, binary circuit elements, and
binary digits. A binary number of n digits, for example, may be represented by n binary circuit
elements, each having an output signal equivalent to a 0 or a 1. Digital systems represent and
manipulate not only binary numbers, but also many other discrete elements of information. Any
discrete element of information distinct among a group of quantities can be represented by a
binary code. Binary codes play an important role in digital computers. The codes must be in binary
because computers can only hold 1's and 0's.

1. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

The binary number system is the most natural system for a computer, but people are accustomed
to the decimal system. So, to resolve this difference, computer uses decimals in coded form which
the hardware understands. A binary code that distinguishes among 10 elements of decimal digits
must contain at least four bits. Numerous different binary codes can be obtained by arranging
four bits into 10 distinct combinations. The code most commonly used for the decimal digits is
the straightforward binary assignment listed in the table below. This is called binary-coded
decimal and is commonly referred to as BCD.

2. Error-Detection codes
Binary information can be transmitted from one location to another by electric wires or other
communication medium. Any external noise introduced into the physical communication
medium may change some of the bits from 0 to 1 or vice versa.

The purpose of an error-detection code is to detect such bit-reversal errors. One of the most
common ways to achieve error detection is by means of a parity bit. A parity bit is the extra bit
included to make the total number of 1's in the resulting code word either even or odd. A message
of 4-bits and a parity bit P are shown in the table below:

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 A number with n decimal digits will require 4n bits in BCD. E.g. decimal 396 is represented in
BCD with 12 bits as 0011 1001 0110.

3. Gray code (Reflected code)

It is a binary coding scheme used to represent digits generated from a mechanical sensor that may
be prone to error. Used in telegraphy in the late 1800s, and also known as "reflected binary code”.
Gray code was patented by Bell Labs researcher Frank Gray in 1947. In Gray code, there is only
one bit location different between two successive values, which makes mechanical transitions
from one digit to the next less error prone. The following chart shows normal binary
Representations from 0 to 15 and the corresponding Gray code.
Decimal digit Binary code Gray code

0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0011
3 0011 0010
4 0100 0110
5 0101 0111
6 0110 0101
7 0111 0100
8 1000 1100
9 1001 1101
10 1010 1111
11 1011 1110
12 1100 1010
13 1101 1011
14 1110 1001
15 1111 1000
The Gray code is used in applications where the normal sequence of binary numbers may
produce an error or ambiguity during the transition from one number to the next. If

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 binary numbers are used, a change from 0111 to 1000 may produce an intermediate
erroneous number 1001 if the rightmost bit takes more time to change than the other
three bits. The Gray code eliminates this problem since only one bit changes in value
during any transition between two numbers.

4. Alphanumeric codes
Alphanumeric character set is a set of elements that includes the 10 decimal digits, 26
letters of the alphabet and special characters such as $, %, + etc. It is necessary to
formulate a binary code for this set to handle different data types. If only capital letters are
included, we need a binary code of at least six bits, and if both uppercase letters and
lowercase letters are included, we need a binary code of at least seven bits.
 ASCII character code
The standard binary code for the alphanumeric characters is called ASCII
(American
Standard Code for Information Interchange). It uses seven bits to code 128
characters as
shown in the table below. The seven bits of the code are designated by B1 through
B7 with B7 being the most significant bit.

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  EBCDIC character code
EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) is another alphanumeric code
used in IBM equipment. It uses eight bits for each character. EBCDIC has the same character
symbols as ASCII, but the bit assignment for characters is different. As the name implies, the
binary code for the letters and numerals is an extension of the binary-coded decimal (BCD)
code. This means that the last four bits of the code range from 0000 through 1001 as in BCD.

Integrated Circuits (ICs)

An Integrated circuit is an association (or connection) of various electronic devices such as
resistors, capacitors and transistors etched (or fabricated) to a semiconductor material such
as silicon or germanium. It is also called as a chip or microchip. An IC can function as an
amplifier, rectifier, oscillator, counter, timer and memory. Sometime ICs are connected to
various other systems to perform complex functions.

Types of ICs
ICs can be categorized into two types
 Analog or Linear ICs
 Digital or logic ICs

Further there are certain ICs which can perform as a combination of both analog and digital
functions.
Analog or Linear ICs: They produce continuous output depending on the input signal. From
the name of the IC we can deduce that the output is a linear function of the input signal. Op-amp
(operational amplifier) is one of the types of linear ICs which are used in amplifiers, timers and
counters, oscillators etc.

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Digital or Logic ICs: Unlike Analog ICs, Digital ICs never give a continuous output signal.
Instead it operates only during defined states. Digital ICs are used mostly in microprocessor and
various memory applications. Logic gates are the building blocks of Digital ICs which operate
either at 0 or 1.
Advantages of ICs
 In consumer electronics, ICs have made possible the development of many new products,
including personal calculators and computers, digital watches, and video games.
 They have also been used to improve or lower the cost of many existing products, such as
appliances, televisions, radios, and high-fidelity equipment. The logic and arithmetic functions
of a small computer can now be performed on a single VLSI chip called a microprocessor.
 Complete logic, arithmetic, and memory functions of a small computer can be packaged on
a single printed circuit board, or even on a single chip.

Levels of Integration
During 1959 two different scientists invented IC’s. Jack Kilby from Texas Instruments made his
first germanium IC during 1959 and Robert Noyce made his first silicon IC during the same year.
But ICs were not the same since the day of their invention; they have evolved a long way.
Integrated circuits are often classified by the number of transistors and other electronic
components they contain:

 SSI (small-scale integration): Up to 100 electronic components per chip

 MSI (medium-scale integration): From 100 to 3,000 electronic components per chip
 LSI (large-scale integration): From 3,000 to 100,000 electronic components per chip
 VLSI (very large-scale integration): From 100,000 to 1,000,000 electronic components
per chip
 ULSI (ultra large-scale integration): More than 1 million electronic components per
chip

SIP (Single In-line Package) and DIP (Dual In-line Package)

SIP
A single in-line package is an electronic device package which has one row of connecting pins. It
is not as popular as the dual in-line package (DIP) which contains two rows of pins, but has been
used for packaging RAM chips and multiple resistors with a common pin. SIPs group RAM chips
together on a small board. The board itself has a single row of pin-leads that resembles a comb
extending from its bottom edge, which plug into a special socket on a system or system-expansion
board. SIPs are commonly found in memory modules. SIP is not to be confused with SIPP which
is an archaic term referring to Single In-line Pin Package which was a memory used in early
computers.

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DIP
Dual in-line package (DIP) is a type of semiconductor component packaging. DIPs can be installed
either in sockets or permanently soldered into holes extending into the surface of the printed
circuit board. DIP is relatively broadly defined as any rectangular package with two uniformly
spaced parallel rows of pins pointing downward, whether it contains an IC chip or some other
device(s), and whether the pins emerge from the sides of the package and bend downwards. A DIP
is usually referred to as a DIP n, where n is the total number of pins.
For example, a microcircuit package with two rows of seven vertical leads would be a DIP14. The
photograph below shows three DIP14 ICs.

Several DIP variants for ICs exist, mostly distinguished by packaging material:
 Ceramic Dual In-line Package (CERDIP or CDIP)
 Plastic Dual In-line Package (PDIP)
 Shrink Plastic Dual In-line Package (SPDIP) -A denser version of the PDIP with a 0.07
in. (1.778 mm) lead pitch.
 Skinny Dual In-line Package (SDIP) – Sometimes used to refer to a 0.3 in. wide DIP,
normally when clarification is needed e.g. for a 24 or 28 pin DIP.

Fig: Several PDIPs and CERDIPs. The large CERDIP in the foreground is an Intel 8080
microprocessor.

SIMM (Single In-line Memory Module) and DIMM (Dual In-line Memory
Module)

Theses two terms (SIMM and DIMM) refer to a way series of dynamic random access memory
integrated circuits modules are mounted on a printed circuit board and designed for use in
personal computers, workstations and servers.

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SIMM
Short for Single In-line Memory Module, SIMM is a circuit board that holds six to nine memory
chips per board, the ninth chip usually an error checking chip (parity/non parity) and were
commonly used with Intel Pentium or Pentium compatible motherboards. SIMMs are rarely used
today and have been widely replaced by DIMMs. SIMMs are available in two flavors: 30 pin and
72 pin. 30-pin SIMMs are the older standard, and were popular on third and fourth generation
motherboards. 72-pin SIMMs are used on fourth, fifth and sixth generation PCs.

DIMM
Short for Dual In-line Memory Module, DIMM is a circuit board that holds memory chips. DIMMs
have a 64-bit path because of the Pentium Processor requirements. Because of the new bit path,
DIMMs can be installed one at a time, unlike SIMMs on a Pentium that would require two to be
added. Below is an example image of a 512MB DIMM memory stick.

SO-DIMM is short for Small Outline DIMM and is available as a 72-pin and 144-pin
configuration. SODIMMs are commonly utilized in laptop computers. Some of the advantages
DIMMs have over SIMMs:  DIMMs have separate contacts on each side of the board, thereby
providing twice as much data as a single SIMM.  The command address and control signals are
buffered on the DIMMs. With heavy memory requirements this will reduce the loading effort of
the memory. Description of a few types of chips (Just for Knowledge, not in syllabus)
CMOS: in computer science, acronym for complementary metal-oxide semiconductor. A
semiconductor

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device that consists of two metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs), one N-
type and one P-type, integrated on a single silicon chip. Generally used for RAM and switching
applications, these devices have very high speed and extremely low power consumption. They are,
however, easily damaged by static electricity. Digital Signal Processor (DSP): An integrated circuit
designed for high-speed data manipulations, used in audio, communications, image
manipulation, and other data-acquisition and data-control applications.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM): In computer science, a form of semiconductor random access

memory (RAM). Dynamic RAMs store information in integrated circuits that contain capacitors.
Because capacitors lose their charge over time, dynamic RAM boards must include logic to
"refresh" (recharge) the RAM chips continuously. While a dynamic RAM is being refreshed, it
cannot be read by the processor; if the processor must read the RAM while it is being refreshed,
one or more wait states occur. Because their internal circuitry is simple, dynamic RAMs are more
commonly used than static RAMs, even though they are slower. A dynamic RAM can hold
approximately four times as much data as a static RAM chip of the same complexity.

EPROM: In computer science, acronym for erasable programmable read-only memory, also
called reprogrammable read-only memory (RPROM). EPROMs are nonvolatile memory chips
that are programmed after they are manufactured. EPROMs are a good way for hardware vendors
to put variable or constantly changing code into a prototype system when the cost of producing
many PROM chips would be prohibitive. EPROMs differ from PROMs in that they can be erased,
generally by removing a protective cover from the top of the chip package and exposing the
semiconductor material to ultraviolet light, and can be reprogrammed after having been erased.
Although EPROMs are more expensive than PROMs, they can be more cost-effective in the long
run if many changes are needed.

PROM: Acronym for programmable read-only memory. In computer science, a type of read-
only memory (ROM) that allows data to be written into the device with hardware called a PROM
programmer. After a PROM has been programmed, it is dedicated to that data, and it cannot be
reprogrammed. Because ROMs are cost-effective only when produced in large volumes, PROMs
are used during the prototyping stage of the design. New PROMs can be created and discarded as
needed until the design is perfected. Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC): Type of
microprocessor that focuses on rapid and efficient processing of a relatively small set of
instructions. RISC design is based on the premise that most of the instructions a computer
decodes and executes are simple. As a result, RISC architecture limits the number of instructions
that are built into the microprocessor but optimizes each so it can be carried out very rapidly-
usually within a single clock cycle. RISC chips thus execute simple instructions faster than
microprocessors designed to handle a much wider array of instructions.

ROM: Acronym for read-only memory. In computer science, semiconductor-based memory that
contains instructions or data that can be read but not modified. To create a ROM chip, the
designer supplies a semiconductor manufacturer with the instructions or data to be stored; the
manufacturer then produces one or more chips containing those instructions or data. Because
creating ROM chips involves a manufacturing process, it is economically viable only if the ROM
chips are produced in large quantities; experimental designs or small volumes are best handled
using PROM or EPROM. In general usage, the term ROM often means any read-only device,
including PROM and EPROM.

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Static RAM (SRAM): In computer science, a form of semiconductor memory (RAM). Static
RAM storage is based on the logic circuit known as a flip-flop, which retains the information
stored in it as long as there is enough power to run the device. A static RAM chip can store only
about one-fourth as much data as a dynamic RAM chip of the same complexity, but static RAM
does not require refreshing and is usually much faster than dynamic RAM. It is also more
expensive. Static RAMs are usually reserved for use in caches.

Unit 2
Boolean algebra and Logic Gates
Before starting the discussion of Boolean algebra and complex logic gates (NAND, XOR etc), let
me describe bit about the binary logic (which you guys have studied in discrete structure course)
and how this logic is implemented in hardware using basic gates?

Binary logic
Binary logic consists of binary variables and logical operations. The variables are designated by
letters of the alphabet such as A, B, C, x, y, Z, etc., with each variable having two and only two
distinct possible values: 1 and 0. There are three basic logical operations: AND, OR, and NOT.

1. AND: This operation is represented by a dot or by the absence of an operator. For

example, x.y = z or xy = z is read "x AND y is equal to z." The logical operation AND is
interpreted to mean that z = 1 if and only if x = 1 and y = 1; otherwise z = 0. (Remember
that x, y, and z are binary variables and can be equal either to 1 or 0, and nothing else.)
2. OR: This operation is represented by a plus sign. For example, x + y = z is read "x OR
y is equal to z," meaning that z = 0 if x = 0 or if y = 0 otherwise z = 1.
3. NOT: This operation is represented by a prime (sometimes by a bar). For example, x'
= z is read "not x is equal to z," meaning that z is what x is not. In other words, if x = 1,
then z = 0; but if x = 0, then z = 1.

These definitions may be listed in a compact form using truth tables. A truth table is a table of all
possible combinations of the variables showing the relation between the values that the variables
may take and the result of the operation.

HEY! Binary logic should not be confused with binary arithmetic (However we use same symbols
here). You should realize that an arithmetic variable designates a number that may consist of
many digits. A logic variable is always either 1 or 0. For example, in binary arithmetic, 1 + 1 = 10
(read: "one plus one is equal to 2"), whereas in binary logic, we have 1 + 1 = 1 (read: "one OR one
is equal to one").

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Switching circuits and Binary Signals The use of binary variables and the application of
binary logic are demonstrated by the simple switching circuits shown below:

Let the manual switches A and B represent two binary variables with values equal to 0 when the
switch is open and 1 when the switch is closed. Similarly, let the lamp L represent a third binary
variable equal to 1 when the light is on and 0 when off. Electronic digital circuits are sometimes
called switching circuits because they behave like a switch, with the active element such as a
transistor either conducting (switch closed) or not conducting (switch open). Instead of changing
the switch manually, an electronic switching circuit uses binary signals to control the conduction
or non-conduction state of the transistor.
Basic Logic Gates (Digital logic gates will be covered in detail later)
Logic gates are electronic circuits that operate on one or more input signals to produce an output
signal. Electrical signals such as voltages or currents exist throughout a digital system in either
one of two recognizable values (bi-state 0 or 1). Voltage-operated circuits respond to two separate
voltage ranges (Example of voltage ranges is discussed in unit 1) that represent a binary variable
equal to logic 1 or logic 0. The graphics symbols used to designate the three types of gates AND,
OR, and NOT are shown in Figure below:

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Boolean algebra
In 1854 George Boole introduced a systematic treatment of logic and developed for this purpose
an algebraic system now called Boolean algebra. In 1938 C. E. Shannon introduced a two-valued
Boolean algebra called switching algebra, in which he demonstrated that the properties of bistable
electrical switching circuits can be represented by this algebra.
Thus, the mathematical system of binary logic is known as Boolean or switching algebra. This
algebra is conveniently used to describe the operation of complex networks of digital circuits.
Designers of digital systems use Boolean algebra to transform circuit diagrams to algebraic
expressions and vice versa. For any given algebra system, there are some initial assumptions, or
postulates, that the system follows. We can deduce additional rules, theorems, and other
properties of the system from this basic set of postulates. Boolean algebra systems often employ
the postulates formulated by E. V. Huntington in 1904.

Postulates
Boolean algebra is an algebraic structure defined on a set of elements B (Boolean system) together
with two binary operators + (OR) and • (AND) and unary operator ' (NOT), provided the following
postulates are satisfied:
P1 Closure: Boolean algebra is closed under the AND, OR, and NOT operations.
P2 Commutativity: The • and + operators are commutative i.e. x + y = y + x and x • y = y • x,
for all x, y ∈ B.
P3 Distribution: • and + are distributive with respect to one another
i.e. X • (y + z) = (x • y) + (x • z).
x + (y • z) = (x + y) • (x + z), for all x, y, z ∈ B.
P4 Identity: The identity element with respect to • is 1 and + is 0 i.e. x + 0 = 0 + x = x and x •
1=1• x = x. There is no identity element with respect to logical NOT.
P5 Inverse: For every value x there exists a value x' such that x • x' = 0 and x + x' = 1. This
value is the logical complement (or NOT) of x.
P6 There exists at least two elements x, y ∈ B such that x ≠ y.
One can formulate many Boolean algebras (viz. set theory, n-bit vectors algebra), depending on
the choice of elements of B and the rules of operation. Here, we deal only with a two-valued
Boolean algebra, i.e., B = {0, 1}. Two-valued Boolean algebra has applications in set theory and in
propositional logic. Our interest here is with the application of Boolean algebra to gate-type
circuits.
Basic theorems and Properties of Boolean algebra
Duality
Postulates of Boolean algebra are found in pairs; one part may be obtained from the other if the
binary operators and the identity elements are interchanged. This important property of Boolean
algebra is called the duality principle. It states that “Every algebraic expression deducible from
the postulates of Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and identity elements are
interchanged”. In a two valued Boolean algebra, the identity elements and the elements of the set
B are the same: 1 and 0. If the dual of an algebraic expression is desired, we simply interchange
OR and AND operators and replace 1's by 0's and 0's by 1's.

Basic theorems
The theorems, like the postulates, are listed in pairs; each relation is the dual of the one paired
with it. The postulates are basic axioms of the algebraic structure and need no proof. The theorems
must be proven from the postulates. Six theorems of Boolean algebra are given below:

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THEOREM 3: (x ')' = x. From P5, we have x + x' = 1 and x.x' = 0, which defines the complement
of x. The complement of x' is x and is also (x')'. Therefore, since the complement is unique, we
have that (x')' = x.
(b) The theorems involving two or three variables may be proven algebraically from the postulates
and
the theorems that have already been proven. For example, lets prove Demorgan’s theorem:

THEOREM 5(a): (x + y)' = x'y'

From postulate P5 (Existence of inverse), for every x in a Boolean algebra there is a
unique x' such that
x + x' = 1 and x • x' = 0

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So it is sufficient to show that x'y' is the complement of x + y. We'll do this by showing that (x + y)
+ (x'y') = 1 and (x + y) • (x'y') = 0.

THEOREM 5(a): (xy)' = x' + y'  can be proved similarly as in Theorem 5(a). Each step in the
proof of 5(b) is the dual of its 5(a) counterparts.

Hey! Theorems above can also be proved using truth tables (alternative to algebraic
simplification). Viz. theorem 6(a) can be proved as:

Operator Precedence
The operator precedence for evaluating Boolean expressions is
1. Parentheses ()
2. NOT'
3. AND.
4. OR+

In other words, the expression inside the parentheses must be evaluated before all other
operations. The next operation that holds precedence is the complement, then follows the AND,
and finally the OR.
Example: (a+b.c).d'  here we first evaluate ‘b.c’ and OR it with ‘a’ followed by ANDing with
Complement of‘d’.

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Boolean Functions
A Boolean function is an expression formed with binary variables (variables that takes the value
of 0 or
1), the two binary operators OR and AND, and unary operator NOT, parentheses, and an equal
sign. For given value of the variables, the function can be either 0 or 1.

 Boolean function represented as an algebraic expression: Consider Boolean function

F1 = xyz'. Function F is equal to 1 if x=1, y=1 and z=0; otherwise F1 =0. Other examples are: F2 =
x + y'z, F3 = x'y'z + x'yz + xy', F4 = xy' + x'z etc.
 Boolean function represented in a truth table:
The number of rows in the truth table is 2n, where n is the number of binary variables in the
function, The 1's and 0's combinations for each row is easily obtained from the binary numbers
by counting from 0 to 2n – 1.

Million Dollar question: Is it possible to find two algebraic expressions that specify the same
function? Answer is: yes. Being straightforward, the manipulation of Boolean algebra is applied
mostly to the problem of finding simpler expressions for the same function.
Example: Functions F3 and F4 are same although they have different combinations of binary
variables with in them.

A Boolean function may be transformed from an algebraic expression into a logic diagram
composed of AND, OR, and NOT gates. The implementation of the four functions introduced in
the previous discussion is shown below:

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Algebraic manipulation and simplification of Boolean function
 A literal is a primed or unprimed (i.e. complemented or un-complemented) variable. When a
Boolean function is implemented with logic gates, each literal in the function designates an input
to a gate, and each term is implemented with a gate.
 The minimization of the number of literals and the number of terms results in a circuit with less
equipment. It is not always possible to minimize both simultaneously; usually, further criteria
must be available. At the moment, we shall narrow the minimization criterion to literal
minimization. We shall discuss other criteria in unit 3.

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 The number of literals in a Boolean function can be minimized by algebraic manipulations.
Unfortunately, there are no specific rules to follow that will guarantee the final answer. The only
method available is a cut-and-try procedure employing the postulates, the basic theorems, and
any other manipulation method that becomes familiar with use. The following examples illustrate
this procedure.

Simplify the following Boolean functions to a minimum number of literals.

1. x + x 'y = (x + x ')(x + y) = 1.(x + y) = x + y
2. x(x' + y) = xx' + xy = 0 + xy = xy
3. x'y'z + x'yz + xy' = x'z(y' + y) + xy = x'z + xy
4. xy + x' z + yz = xy + x' z + yz (x + x')
= xy + x'z + xyz + x'yz
= xy(1 + z) + x'z(1 + y)
= xy + x'z
5. (x + y)(x' + z)(y + z) = (x + y)(x' + z) by duality from function 4.
Complement of a function
The complement of a function F is F' and is obtained from an interchange of 0's for 1's and 1's for
0's in the value of F. The complement of a function may be derived algebraically through
DeMorgan's theorem. DeMorgan's theorems can be extended to three or more variables. The
three-variable form of the first DeMorgan's theorem is derived below.
(A + B + C)' = (A + X)' let B + C = X
= A'X' (DeMorgan)
= A'· (B + C)' substitute B + C = X
= A'.(B'C') (DeMorgan)
= A'B'C' (associative)

DeMorgan's theorems for any number of variables resemble in form the two variable case and can
be derived by successive substitutions similar to the method used in the above derivation. These
theorems can be generalized as follows:
(A + B + C + D + ... + F)' = A'B'C'D'… F'
(ABCD ... F)' = A' + B' + C' + D' + ... + F'

The generalized form of De Morgan's theorem states that the complement of a function is obtained
by interchanging AND and OR operators and complementing each literal. Two ways of getting
complement of a Boolean function:
1. Applying DeMorgan’s theorem:
Question: Find the complement of the functions F1 = x'yz' + x'y'z and F2 = x(y'z' + yz).
By applying DeMorgan's theorem as many times as necessary, the complements are
obtained as follows:
F1' = (x'yz' + x'y'z)' = (x'yz')'(x'y'z)' = (x + y' + z)(x + y + z')
F2' = [x(y'z' + yz)]' = x' + (y'z' + yz)' = x' + (y'z')'· (yz)' = x' + (y + z)(y' + z')

2. First finding dual of the algebraic expression and complementing each literal
Question: Find the complement of the functions F1 and F2 of example above by taking
their duals and complementing each literal.
 F1 = x'yz' + x'y'z.
The dual of F1 is (x' + y + z')(x' + y' + z).

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 Complement each literal: (x + y' + z)(x + y + z ') = F1' .
 F2 = x(y'z' + yz).
The dual of F1 is x + (y' + z')(y + z).
Complement each literal: x' + (y + z)(y' + z ') = F2' .
Other logic operations
When the binary operators AND and OR are placed between two variables, x and y, they
form two Boolean functions, x.y and x + y, respectively. There are 22 functions for n binary
variables. For two variables, n2, and the number of possible Boolean functions is 16.
Therefore, the AND and OR functions are only two of a total of 16 possible functions. It
would be instructive to find the other 14 functions and investigate their properties.

The 16 functions listed in truth table form above can be expressed algebraically by means of
Boolean expressions as in following table. Each of the functions is listed with an accompanying
name and a comment that explains the function in some way. The 16 functions listed can be
subdivided into three categories:
1. Two functions that produce a constant 0 or 1.
2. Four functions with unary operations: complement and transfer.
3. Ten functions with binary operators that define eight different operations: AND, OR,
NAND. NOR, exclusive OR, equivalence, inhibition, and implication.

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Digital Logic gates (In detail)
Boolean functions are expressed in terms of AND, OR, and NOT logic operations, and hence are
easier to implement with these types of gates. The possibility of constructing gates for the other
logic operations is of practical interest. Factors to be weighed when considering the construction
of other types of logic gates are:
 The feasibility and economy of producing the gate with physical components
 The possibility of extending the gate to more than two inputs.
 The basic properties of the binary operator such as commutatively and associativity, and
 The ability of the gate to implement Boolean functions alone or in conjunction with other
gates.
Of the 16 functions defined in Table above, two are equal to a constant and four others are
repeated twice. There are only ten functions left to be considered as candidates for logic gates.
Two, inhibition and implication, are not commutative or associative and thus are impractical to
use as standard logic gates. The other eight: complement, transfer, AND, OR, NAND, NOR,
exclusive-OR, and equivalence, are used as standard gates in digital design.
The graphic symbols and truth tables of the eight gates are shown below:

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Universal gates
A universal gate is a gate which can implement any Boolean function without need to use any
other gate type. The NAND and NOR gates are universal gates. In practice, this is advantageous
since NAND and NOR gates are economical and easier to fabricate and are the basic gates used
in all IC digital logic families.
1. NAND Gate is a Universal Gate
To prove that any Boolean function can be implemented using only NAND gates, we will
show that the AND, OR, and NOT operations can be performed using only these gates.

2. NOR Gate is a Universal Gate:

To prove that any Boolean function cannot be implemented using only NOR gates, we
will show that the AND, OR, and NOT operations can be performed using only these
gates.

 Implementing AND Using only NOR Gates: The AND gate is replaced by a NOR
gate with all its inputs complemented by NOR gate inverters.

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 Thus, the NOR gate is a universal gate since it can implement the AND, OR and NOT
functions.
Extending gates to multiple inputs
The gates shown in Fig above, except for the inverter and buffer, can be extended to have
more than two inputs. A gate can be extended to have multiple inputs if the binary
operation it represents is commutative and associative.

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IC digital logic Families
Continuing the introduction of integrated Circuits (Chips) in unit 1, I will introduce u guys
different logic families along with their characteristics.
Digital logic families
Digital logic family refers to the specific circuit technology to which digital integrated circuits
belong. Family has its own basic electronic circuit upon which more complex digital circuits and
components are developed. The basic circuit in each technology is a NAND, NOR, or an inverter
gate. The electronic components used in the construction of the basic circuit are usually used as
the name of the technology. Different logic families have been introduced commercially. Some of
most popular are:

 TTL (transistor-transistor logic): The TTL family evolved from a previous technology
that used diodes and transistors for the basic NAND gate. This technology was called DTL
for diode transistor logic. Later the diodes were replaced by transistors to improve the
circuit operation and the name of the logic family was changed to TTL.
 ECL (emitter-coupled logic): Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) circuits provide the highest
speed among the integrated digital logic families. ECL is used in systems such as
supercomputers and signal processors, where high speed is essential. The transistors in
ECL gates operate in a no saturated state, a condition that allows the achievement of
propagation delays of 1 to 2 nanoseconds.
 MOS (metal-oxide semiconductor): The metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) is a unipolar
transistor that depends upon the flow of only one type of carrier, which may be electrons
(n-channel) or holes (p-channel), this is in contrast to the bipolar transistor used in TTL
and ECL gates, where both carriers exist during normal operation. A p-channel MOS is
referred to as PMOS and an n-channel as NMOS. NMOS is the one that is commonly used
in circuits with only one type of MOS transistor.
 CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor): Complementary MOS (CMOS)
technology uses one PMOS and one NMOS transistor connected in a complementary
fashion in all circuits. The most important advantages of MOS over bipolar transistors are
the high packing density of circuits, a simpler processing technique during fabrication,
and a more economical operation because of the low power consumption.
 IIL (Integrated Injection Logic): Integrated injection logic (IIL, I2L, or I2L) is a class of
digital circuit technology built with multiple collector bipolar junction transistors (BJT).
When introduced it had speed comparable to TTL yet was almost as low power as CMOS,
making it ideal for use in VLSI (and larger) integrated circuits. Although the logic voltage
levels are very close (High: 0.7V, Low: 0.2V), I 2L has high noise immunity because it
operates by current instead of voltage. Sometimes also known as Merged Transistor Logic.

Currently, silicon-based Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) technology

dominates due to its high circuit density, high performance, and low power consumption.
Alternative technologies based on Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) and Silicon Germanium (SiGe) are
used selectively for very high speed circuits.

Characteristics of digital logic families (Technology Parameters)

For each specific implementation technology, there are details that differ in their electronic circuit
design and circuit parameters. The most important parameters used to characterize an
implementation technology are:

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 1. Fan-in
For high-speed technologies, fan-in, the number of inputs to a gate, is often restricted on
gate primitives to no more than four or five. This is primarily due to electronic
considerations related to gate speed. To build gates with larger fan-in, interconnected
gates with lower fan-in are used during technology mapping. A mapping for a 7-input
NAND gate is made up of two 4- input NANOs and an inverter as shown in figure.

Fig: Implementation of a 7-input NAND Gate using NAND Gates with 4 or Fewer Inputs.

2. Propagation delay
The signals through a gate take a certain amount of time to propagate from the inputs to
the output. This interval of time is defined as the propagation delay of the gate.
Propagation delay is measured in nanoseconds (ns). 1 ns is equal to 10-9 of a second. The
signals that travel from the inputs of a digital circuit to its outputs pass through a series of
gates. The sum of the propagation delays through the gates is the total delay of the circuit.
The average propagation delay time of a gate is calculated from the input and output
waveforms as:

 Delay is usually measured at the 50% point with respect to the H and L output voltage
levels.
 High-to-low (tPHL) and low-to-high (tPLH) output signal changes may have different
propagation delays.
 High-to-low (HL) and low-to-high (LH) transitions are defined with respect to the
output, not the input.
 An HL input transition causes:
an LH output transition if the gate inverts and
An HL output transition if the gate does not invert.
3. Fan-out
Fan-out specifies the number of standard loads driven by a gate output i.e. Fan-out is a measure
of the ability of a logic gate output to drive a number of inputs of other logic gates of the same
type. Maximum Fan-out for an output specifies the fan-out that the output can drive with out

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exceeding its specified maximum transition time. Standard loads may be defined in a variety of
ways depending upon the technology. For example: the input to a specific inverter can have load
equal to
1.0 Standard load. If a gate drives six such inverters, then the By fan-out is equal to 6.0 standard
loads.

Fig: AND gate above is attached to the inputs of four other components so has a fan out of 4.
4. Power Dissipation

Every electronic circuit requires a certain amount of power to operate. The power dissipation is a
parameter expressed in millwatts (mW) and represents the amount of power needed by the gate.
The number that represents this parameter does not include the power delivered from another
gate; rather, it represents the power delivered to the gate from the power supply. An IC with four
gates will require, from its power supply, four times the power dissipated in each gate.

The amount of power that is dissipated in a gate is calculated as:

PD (Power Dissipation) = VCC * ICC Where Vcc = supply voltage and
I cc = current drawn by the circuit

The current drain from the power supply depends on the logic state of the gate. The current
drawn from the power supply when the output of the gate is in the high-voltage level is termed
ICCH. When the output is in the low-voltage level, the current is lCCL. The average current is

Example: A standard TTL NAND gate uses a supply voltage Vcc of 5V and has current drains ICCH
=1
mA and ICCL = 3 mA. The average current is (3 + 1)/2 = 2 mA. The average power dissipation is
5 x 2 = 10 mW. An IC that has four NAND gates dissipates a total of 10 x 4 = 40 mW. In a typical
digital system there will be many ICs, and the power required by each IC must be considered. The
total power dissipation in the system is the sum total of the power dissipated in all ICs.
5. Noise Margin
Undesirable or unwanted signals (e.g. voltages, currents etc) on the connecting wires between
logic circuits are referred to as noise. There are two types of noise to be considered:

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  DC noise is caused by a drift in the voltage levels of a signal.
 AC noise is a random pulse that may be created by other switching signals.

Thus, noise is a term used to denote an undesirable signal that is superimposed upon the normal
operating signal. Noise margin is the maximum noise voltage added to an input signal of a digital
circuit that does not cause an undesirable change in the circuit output. The ability of circuits to
operate reliably in a noise environment is important in many applications. Noise margin is
expressed in volts and represents the maximum noise signal that can be tolerated by the gate.

In fig, VOL is the maximum voltage that the output can be when in the low-level state. The circuit
can tolerate any noise signal that is less than the noise margin (VIL - VOL) because the input will
recognize the signal as being in the low-level state. Any signal greater than VOL plus the noise-
margin figure will send the input voltage into the indeterminate range, which may cause an error
in the output of the gate. In a similar fashion, a negative-voltage noise greater than VOH - VIH will
send the input voltage into the indeterminate range.

The parameters for the noise margin in a standard TTL NAND gate are VOH = 2.4 V, VOL = 0.4 V,
VlH = 2 V, and VlL = 0.8 V. The high-state noise margin is 2.4 - 2 = 0.4 V, and the low-state noise
margin is 0.8 - 0.4 = 0.4 V. In this case, both values are the same.

Positive and Negative Logic

The binary signal at the inputs and outputs of any gate has one of two values, except during
transition. One signal value represents logic-1 and the other logic-0. So there is a possibility of
two different assignments of signal level to logic value, as shown in Fig.

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  Choosing the high-level H to represent logic-1 defines a positive logic system.
 Choosing the low-level L to represent logic-1 defines a negative logic system.
 The terms positive and negative are somewhat misleading since both signals may be
positive or both may be negative. It is not the actual signal values that determine the type
of logic, but rather the assignment of logic values to the relative amplitudes of the two
signal levels.

Unit 3
Simplification of Boolean functions
Canonical and standard forms
We can write Boolean expressions in many ways, but some ways are more useful than others.
We will look first at the “term” types, made up of “literals”.
Minterms
 A minterm is a special product (ANDing of terms) of literals, in which each input
variable appears exactly once.
 A function with n variables has 2n minterms (since each variable can appear
complemented or not)
 A three-variable function, such as f(x, y, z), has 23 = 8 minterms:
x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz’ x’yz
xy’z’ xy’z xyz’ xyz
 Each minterm is true for exactly one combination of inputs:
Maxterms
 A maxterm is a sum (or ORing of terms) of literals, in which each input variable appears
exactly once.
 A function with n variables has 2n maxterms.
 The maxterms for a three-variable function f(x, y, z):
x’ + y’ + z’ x’ + y’ + z x’ + y + z’ x’+ y + z
x + y’ + z’ x + y’ + z x + y + z’ x+y+z
 Each maxterm is false for exactly one combination of inputs:

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A Boolean function may be expressed algebraically (SOP or POS form) from a given truth table
by:
 Forming a minterm for each combination of the variables that produces a 1 in the
function, and then taking the OR of all those terms.
 Forming a maxterm for each combination of the variables that produces a 0 in the
function, and then taking the AND of all those maxterms.

Canonical forms
Boolean functions expressed as a sum of min terms or product of maxterms are said to be in
canonical form. These complementary techniques are describes below. Canonical form is not
efficient representation but sometimes useful in analysis and design. In an expression in
canonical form, every variable appears in every term.
Sum of Minterms (Sum of Products or SOP)
We have seen, one can obtain 2" distinct minterms form n binary input variables and that any
Boolean function can be expressed as a sum of minterms. The minterms whose sum defines the
Boolean function are those that give the 1's of the function in a truth table. It is sometimes
convenient to express the Boolean function in its sum of minterms form. If not in this form, it
can be made so by first expanding the expression into a sum of AND terms. Each term is then
inspected to see if it contains all the variables. If it misses one or more variables, it is ANDed
with an expression such as x + x', where x is one of the missing variables.

Question: Express the Boolean function in a sum of minterms.

Solution: The function has three variables A, B, and C.
 The first term A is missing two variables; therefore:
A = A (B + B ') = AB + AB' [B is missing variable]
This is still missing one variable C, so A = AB(C + C') + AB'(C + C') = ABC + ABC' + AB'C
AB'C'
 The second term B'C is missing one variable: B'C = B'C(A + A') = AB'C + A'B'C
 Combing all terms, we have F = A+B'C = ABC + ABC' + AB'C + AB'C' + AB'C + A'B'C
 But AB'C appears twice, and according to THEOREM 1 of Boolean algebra x + x = x, it

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 is possible to remove one of them. Rearranging the minterms in ascending order, we
finally obtain:
F = A'B'C + AB'C' + AB'C + ABC' + ABC
= m 1 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7
Shorthand notation,
F(A,B,C) = (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
The summation symbol stands for the ORing of terms: the numbers following it are the
minterms of the function.
An alternate procedure for deriving the minterms of a Boolean function is to obtain the
truth table of the function directly from the algebraic expression and then read the
minterms from the truth table.

Product of Maxterms (Product of Sums or POS)

Each of the 2 2 functions of n binary variables can be also expressed as a product of maxterms. To
express the Boolean function as a product of maxterms, it must first be brought into a form of OR
terms. This may be done by using the distributive law, x + yz = (x + y)(x + z). Then any missing
variable x in each OR term is ORed with xx'. This procedure is clarified by the following example:

Question: Express the Boolean function F = xy + x'z in a product of maxterm form.

Solution:
 First, con vert the function into OR terms using the distributive law:
F = xy + x' z = (xy + x ')(xy + z)
= (x + x')(y + x')(x + z)(y + z)
= (x' + y)(x + z)(y + z)
 The function has three variables: x, y, and z. Each OR term is missing one variable;
Therefore:
x' + y = x' + y + zz' = (x' + y + z)(x' + y + z ')
x + z = x + z + yy' = (x + y + z)(x + y' + z)
y + z = y + z + xx' = (x + y + z)(x' + y + z)
 Combing all maxterms and removing repeated terms:
F = (x + y + z)(x + y' + z)(x' + y + z)(x' + y + z ')
= M 0M 2M 4M 5
Shorthand notation:
F(x, y, z) =Π (0, 2, 4, 5)
The product symbol Π denotes the ANDing of maxterms; the numbers are the maxterms of the
function.
Conversion between canonical forms

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The complement of a function expressed as the sum of minterms equals the sum of minterms
missing from the original function.

General Procedure: To convert from one canonical form to another, interchange the symbols and
list those numbers missing from the original form. In order to find the missing terms, one must
realize that the total number of minterms or maxterms is 2n (numbered as 0 to 2n-1), where n is
the number of binary variables in the function.
Consider a function, F = xy + x'z. First, we derive the truth table of the function

Standard Forms
 This is another way to express Boolean functions. In this configuration, the terms that form the
function may contain one, two, or any number of literals. There are two types of standard
forms: the sum of products and product of sums.

 The sum of products is a Boolean expression containing AND terms, called product terms, of
one or more literals each. The sum denotes the ORing of these terms.
Example: F1 = y' + xy + x’yz’, the expression has three product terms of one, two, and three
literals each, respectively. Their sum is in effect an OR operation.
 A product of sums is a Boolean expression containing OR terms, called sum terms. Each term
may have any number of literals. The product denotes the ANDing of these terms. An example
of a function expressed in product of sums is F1 = x(y' + z)(x' + y + z' + w), this expression has
three sum terms of one, two, and four literals each, respectively. The product is an AND
operation.
 Function can also be in non-standard form: F3 = (AB + CD) (A'B' + CD') is neither in SOP nor
in POS forms. It can be changed to a standard form by using the distributive law as F3 = A'B'CD
+ABC'D'.

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