Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

3.3 DESIGN OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

3.3.1 General Requirements of Foundations

For a satisfactory performance, a foundation must satisfy the following three basic
criteria:

1. Location and depth criterion

2. Shear failure criterion or bearing capacity
3. Settlement

Location and Depth Criterion:

As a general rule, any foundation should be placed at a depth where the soil stratum
is adequate from the point of view of bearing capacity and settlement criteria.

Minimum Requirements:

 A foundation should be located at a minimum depth of 50cm below natural

ground surface.
 The foundation must be placed below the zone of volume change, where volume
change is expected. For example, in areas where there is expansive soil the
foundation should be taken below the active zone.
 Foundations for structures in a river have to be protected from the scouring
action of the flowing-stream. The depth of foundation for a bridge pier or any
similar structure must be sufficiently below the deepest scour level.

Foundations Near Existing Structures:

When footings are to be placed adjacent to existing structure, as indicated in Figure

3.1.1, the line from the base of the new footing to the bottom edge of the existing
footing should be 450 or less with the horizontal plane. The distance m should be
greater than Zf (Fig.3.1.1(a)).

Conversely, Fig. 3.1.1 (b) indicates that if the new footing is lower than the existing
footing, there is a possibility that the soil may flow laterally from beneath the
existing footing.

This may increase the amount of excavation somewhat but, more importantly, may
result in settlement cracks in the existing building. This problem is difficult to
analyze; however, an approximation of the safe depth Zf may be made for C-ф soil.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Note:

 The vertical pressure σ1 would include the pressure from the existing
footing.
 The K in these equations is a lateral pressure coefficient of Ka ≤ K≤ Kp.
 If the soil is sand (does not have cohesion) one cannot excavate to a depth
greater than that of the existing foundation.

Figure 3.1.2 illustrates how a problem can develop if the excavation for the
foundation of the new structure is too close to the existing building. In this case, the
qNq term of the bearing capacity equation is lost, for most foundations below the
ground surface this is a major component of the bearing capacity.

Fig. 3.1.1(a) Fig.3.1.1(b)

Fig.3.1.2

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

3.3.2. Foundation Classifications:

Foundations may be classified based on where the load is carried by the ground,
according to Terzaghi: Shallow foundations: termed bases, footings, spread footings,
or mats. The depth is generally D B  1 but may be somewhat more (Fig. 3.1.3a)

Deep foundations: piles, drilled piers, or drilled caissons. L p B  4 With a pile

illustrated in Fig. 3.1.3b.

As the column type, members transferring the superstructure load to the foundation
soil, have higher strength than the soil the foundation will spread the load in a
manner such that the soil limiting strength is not exceeded and the resulting
deformations are tolerable.

Figure 3.1.3 Definition of select terms used in foundation

The choice of the appropriate type of foundation is affected by:
engineering

 Type of superstructure to be supported: function and load that it transfers

to the foundation
 Subsurface condition and/or type of soil
 Cost of foundation

A safe foundation design provides for a suitable factor against,

 Shear failure of the soil: by not exceeding the bearing capacity of the soil.
 Excessive settlement (both uniform and differential settlement)

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

3.3.3. Shear in Footings:

 Design of footings for shear shall be in accordance with provisions for slabs.
 The location of the critical section for shear shall be measured from face of
column, pedestal or wall for footings supporting a column, pedestal, or wall.
 For footings supporting a column or pedestal with steel base plates, the critical
section shall be measured from halfway between face of column and edge of
steel base.

3.3.4. Moment in Footings:

The critical section for moment shall be taken as follows:

(a) At the face of column, pedestal, or wall, for footings supporting a concrete
column pedestal or wall.
(b) Halfway between middle and edge of wall, for footing supporting a
masonry wall.
(c) Halfway between face of column and edge of steel base for footings
supporting a column with steel base plates.

Figure 3.1.4 Critical footing

sections for moment, and shear

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

3.3.5. Elements of Reinforced Concrete Design

General:

The design of a structure for a specific function is usually a two-stage process,

involving first the selection of an appropriate type or form of structure and secondly
the detailed design of the various parts of the chosen structure. In selecting the type
or form of structure the question of the relative costs of different types of structures
and of different methods of construction of the same structure will be of great
importance. In this selection the designer must rely to a large extent on his
experience judgment and intuition. A preliminary study of several types of structure
may be necessary.

Having selected the type of structure the designer then has to proceed with the
detailed design of the chosen one, always bearing in mind the factors of safety
considerations and cost. In most cases the aesthetic requirements will have been
substantially met in the selection of the type of structure and will now be completely
satisfied by the specification of surface finishes, colour, etc. Fundamentally, then,
the design process consists of finding and detailing the most economical structure
consistent with the safety and serviceability requirements.

In design the following points have to be taken into consideration:

(i) variations in materials in the structure and in test specimens

(ii) variations in loading
(iii) constructional inaccuracies
(iv) accuracy of design calculations
(v) safety and serviceability

For (i) we know that the cube test is a reliable guide as regards quality of concrete
from the mixer but does not guarantee that the concrete in the structure is the same.
This is why we took a higher proportion of the cube strength as a permissible stress
when we have quality control, i.e. a design mix. The same applies to reinforcement,
as tests are carried out on small samples which may or may not be truly
representative of the whole. For (ii) we must enquire how true the loading is.
Constructional inaccuracies (iii) are probably accidental. For (iv) designers can and
do make mistakes in calculations but very often in analysis they assume a structure
will behave in a certain way or that certain conditions exist. Item (v) is dealt with
quite arbitrarily in previous codes -if the structure does not collapse it is deemed to
be satisfactory.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Design Methods:

Based on design load determination and the corresponding design strength of

materials, different methods of design have been introduced.

 Permissible stress method: The ultimate strength of the material is divided by a

factor of safety to give safe design stresses, which are usually within the elastic
range. Stresses caused by the working loads must not exceed the permissible
stresses.
 Load factor method: The working loads are multiplied by a factor of safety to
obtain design loads. Stresses caused by the design load must not exceed the
ultimate strength of the material.
 Limit state method: The working loads are multiplied by partial factors of
safety to obtain design loads and ultimate strengths of materials are divided by
further partial factors of safety to obtain design strengths. Stresses caused by the
design loads must not exceed the design strength of the material.

The permissible stress method has proved to be a simple and useful method.
However, there are certain shortcomings: Because it is based on an elastic stress
distribution, it is not entirely applicable to concrete which is a semi-plastic material.
Neither is it suitable when deformations are not proportional to the load, as in the
case of slender columns.

In the load factor method, the ultimate strengths of the materials are used in the
calculations. Because this method does not apply factors of safety to the materials,
the variability of the materials cannot directly be taken into account. Furthermore, it
cannot be used to calculate deflections and cracking under working loads.

The limit state method overcomes most of the shortcomings of the previous two
methods. This is achieved by applying partial factors of safety to both the material
strengths and the working loads, and also by varying the magnitude of the factors,
depending on whether plastic conditions at the ultimate limit state are being
considered, or whether elastic conditions under working loads are being considered.

3.3.6 Limit State Principles:

When dealing with the most economical structure associated with safety and
serviceability requirements, the variability exists between construction materials and
the construction process itself. We should be able to state a design philosophy to
cope with the various criteria required to define the serviceability or usefulness of
any structure in a rational manner.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

The various criteria required to define the serviceability or usefulness of any

structure can be described under the following headlines. The effects listed may lead
to the structure being considered 'unfit for use'.

(i). Collapse: failure of one or more critical sections; overturning or buckling.

(ii). Deflection: the deflection of the structure or any part of the structure adversely
affects the appearance or efficiency of the structure.
(iii).Cracking: cracking of the concrete which may adversely affect the appearance
or efficiency of the structure.
(iv).Vibration: vibration from forces due to wind or machinery may cause
discomfort or alarm, damage the structure or interfere with its proper
function.
(v). Durability: porosity of concrete.
(vi).Fatigue: where loading is predominantly cyclic in character the effects have to
be considered.
(vii). Fire resistance: insufficient resistance to fire leading to 1, 2 and 3 above.

When any structure is rendered unfit for use for its designed function by one or
more of the above causes, it is said to have entered a limit state. The Code defines the
limit states as:

(i). Ultimate limit state: the ultimate limit state is preferred to collapse.
(ii). Serviceability limit states: deflection, cracking, vibration, durability, fatigue, fire
resistance and lightning.

The purpose of design then is to ensure that the structure being designed will not
become unfit for the use for which it is required, i.e. that it will not reach a limit
state. The essential basis for the design method, therefore, is to consider each limit
state and to provide a suitable margin of safety. To obtain values for this margin of
safety it was proposed that probability considerations should be used and the design
process should aim at providing acceptable probabilities so that the structure would
not become unfit for use throughout its specified life.

Accepting the fact that the strengths of construction materials vary, as do also the
loads on the structure, two partial safety factors will now be used. One will be for
materials and is designated m; the other, for loading, is termed f. These factors will
vary for the various limit states and different materials. As new knowledge on either
materials or loading becomes available the factors can be amended quit easily
without the complicated procedures to amend one overall factor used in previous
Codes.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

The normal procedure is to design for a critical limit state and then to check for the
other limit states are satisfied. The critical state for reinforced concrete structures is
usually the ultimate limit state. However, water-retaining structures and prestressed
concrete is usually designed at the serviceability limit state with checks on the
ultimate limit state.

The limit states failure criteria can be summarized as follows:

(Design load effects Qd)  (Deisgn resistance Rd)

fk
 f Qn 
m

Where Qd = design load effects = f Qn

Qn = nominal load
f = partial safety factor for loads
Rd = design resistance = fk/m
fk = characteristic material strength
m = partial safety factor for materials

Each of these terms are discussed in the following sections.

N.B. Limit state is adopted throughout the design of reinforced concrete foundations.

Grades of Concrete

Table 1: Concrete Grades

Grades of
C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
concrete
fck 12 16 20 24 32 40 48

Grade
f ck 
1.25
Where: fck = Characteristic cylinder compressive strength of concrete.

Safety Factors

Table 2: Partial Safety Factors for Materials at ULS

Concrete, c Reinforcing Steel, s

Design Situations
Class I Class II Class I Class II
Persistent and Transient 1.50 1.65 1.15 1.20
Accidental 1.30 1.45 1.00 1.10

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Table 4: Partial Safety Factors for Actions in Building Structures at ULS

Design
Action Factor,  Favorable Unfavorable
Situation
Persistent and Permanent G 1.00 1.30
Transient Variable Q 0.00 1.60
Accidental Permanent G 1.00 1.00

Table 5: Design values for actions for use in combination with other actions at ULS

Variable actions
Permanent Accidental
Design Situation Principal All other
actions actions
action actions
Favorable 1.0Gk - 0 0
Fundamental
Unfavorable 1.3Gk - 1.6Qk 1.60Qk
Accidental 1.0Gk Ad 1.01Qk 1.02Qk
Combination values: Qr = 0Qk
Frequent values: Qr = 1Qk
Qausi-permanent values: Qr = 2Qk
Where, Qr = representative value
Qk = characteristic value

Table 6: Representative load factors, 0, 1, 2

Action 0 1 2
Imposed Category A, B 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category C, D 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E 1.0 0.9 0.8
Wind 0.6* 0.5* 0*
Snow 0.6* 0.2* 0*

* Values may have to be modified for specific locations.

Category A – Domestic, Residential.

Category B – Offices
Category C – Congregation areas
Category D – Shopping areas.
Category E – Storage areas

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Design Strength for Concrete

0.85 f ck
(a) In compression: f cd 
c
f ctk
(b) In tension: f ctd 
c ,
Design Strength for Steel
f yk
In tension and compression: f yd 
s

Stress-Strain Relationships in RC Flexural Elements

 The maximum compressive strain in the concrete is taken to be:

 0.0035 in bending (simple or compound)
 0.002 in axial compression
 The maximum tensile strain in the reinforcement is taken to be 0.01.
 The strain diagram (Fig. 3.1.5) shall be assumed to pass through one of the three
points A, B or C.

Figure 3.1.5 Strain diagram in the Ultimate Limit State

 The parabolic-rectangular stress distribution may be used for calculation of

section capacity.

Figure 3.1.6 Parabolic-rectangular stress-strain diagram for concrete in compression

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

 For sections which are partly in tension (beams or columns with large
eccentricity), the simplified rectangular stress block shown in Fig. 3.1.7 may be
used.

Figure 3.1.7 Rectangular stress diagram

 The elasto-plastic diagram shown in Fig. 3.1.8 may be used for ordinary steel.

Figure 3.1.8 Stress-strain diagram for reinforcing steel

Reinforcement Required to Resist Moment:

Formula for As required in a rectangular section:

 It is assumed that the reinforcement has yielded. Steps are taken to ensure that
the beam is under-reinforced.
 For a singly reinforced rectangular section (referring to the stress block diagram
(Fig. 3.1.7))

 f 
Fc   ck 0.8 xb
 c 

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

 Summing moment about the reinforcement level

 M s  0  Fc d  0.4 x   Fc Z ( Z  Lever arm)

dz
x
0.4
 f   f  dz
 M ult   ck 0.8 xbz   ck 0.8 bZ
 c   c   0.4 

M ult 2  Z  Z 
Rearranging:  1   
2
bd f ck  c  d  d 

Let’s define a non-dimensional constant, K, as:

M ult
K 
bd 2 f ck

Then, taking  = 0.85 and c = 1.5 gives:

 
2
Z Z K
    0  Z  d 0.5  0.25  0.88K
d  d  1.133

Hence area of reinforcement:

 fy  M ult
M ult  Fs Z  As   Z  As 
s  f y  s Z

Minimum Cover for RC footing

 Concrete cover in non-aggressive soil = 25mm

 Concrete cover in aggressive soil = 50mm

Resistance of Footings without Punching Shear Reinforcement

The punching resistance, VRd1

VRd 1  0.25 f ctd k1 k 2 ud

f ctd  0.21 f ck3  c

2
Where:

k1  1  50 e  2.0

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

k 2  1.6  d av  1.0 (d in meter). For members where more than

50% of the bottom reinforcement is curtailed, k2 = 1.0

d av  d x  d y  2

 e   ex   ey   0.015
1
2

ex and ey correspond to the geometric ratios of longitudinal

reinforcement parallel to x and y, respectively.

u = periphery of critical section

dav = the average effective depth in x and y directions.

The shear stresses usually govern the thickness of reinforced footings. Flexure may
control the thickness of plain footings. Punching shear dominates in reinforced
square footings subjected to concentric loads; this is frequently true for combined
footings as well. Wide beam shear must also be checked in these footings. As a
matter of fact, wide beam shear may govern the footing thickness for long footings,
generally when the length to width ratio exceeds about 2:1. The provision in EBCS-2
has been included in Fig 3.1.9 for the critical section of punching shear. Wide beam
can be taken conservatively at d distance from the face of the column.

(a) Critical section remote from a free edge

(b) Critical sections near free edges

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Figure 3.1.9 Critical sections for punching
shear
Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Equation of Punching Shear

Observing Figure 3.1.9:

Pu  vc du  A p qu
u  2x  y  1.5d  ; A p  xy  2(1.5dx)  2(1.5dy)   (1.5d ) 2
Pu  BLq u  from equilibrium of entire footing.

Expanding and rearranging terms, it becomes.

3 vc  0.75qu d 2  2vc  3qu x  y d  BL  xyqu  0

vc  0.25 f ctd k1 k 2

Equation for wide beam shear

qu l1
vc db  qu l1b  d 
vc

Where, l1 is the distance from d distance to the periphery of footing.

For vc determination e is replaced by x and dav replaced by dx.

Hence, one proceeds to solve for d using either of the above shear equations, then
check for the other shear stress, and subsequently to complete the design.

Flexural Reinforcement Distribution

 In one-way footings and two way square footings reinforcement shall be

distributed uniformly across the entire width of footing.
 In two-way rectangular footings, reinforcement shall be distributed as follows:
 Reinforcement in longer direction shall be distributed uniformly across the
entire width of footing.
 For reinforcement in the short direction, a portion of the total reinforcement
given by equation below shall be distributed uniformly over a band width
(centered on center line of column or pedestal) equal to the length of the short
side of footing. The remainder of the reinforcement required in the short
direction shall be distributed uniformly outside the center band width of the
footing.
Reinforcement in band width 2

Total reinforcement in short direction  1
Where:  is the ratio of long side to short side of the footing.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Flexural Reinforcement Anchorage

 If the projection of the footing from the critical section for moment does not
exceed the effective depth d at that section, the bottom reinforcement shall be
provided with full anchorage length measured from the end of the straight
portion of the bars.
 If the projection exceeds d, the anchorage length may be measured from a
section situated at a distance d from the defined critical section for moment.

 f yd
Basic anchorage length: lb 
4 f bd ,

As ,cal
Required anchorage length: lb,net  alb  lb,min
As ,ef

Where, fyd and fbd are design yield strength and bond strength respectively.

a = 1.0 for straight bar anchorage in tension or compression.

= 0.7 for anchorage in tension with the standard hook

For bars in tension: lb,min  0.3l b  10 (or  200mm)

For bars in compression: lb,min  0.6l b  10 (or  200mm)

Hooking is at 900 or 1500 and in both cases hook length  5 .

Figure 3.1.20: sample picture of placement of reinforcement.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

3.3.7 The General Procedure for the Design of Concentrically Loaded Isolated
Footing

Given: Column dimensions and reinforcement; column loads (LL, DL); fck for footing
and column; fyk for footing and column; allowable bearing capacity, qa.

Figure 3.1.21: Concentrically loaded footing

Solution:

a) Find Pu = 1.3DL + 1.6LL (Self wt. and backfill usually absent).

b) Determine B and L of footing; A 
DL  LL  . For a unique solution, B or L is
qa
fixed.
P
c) Find qu  u (Ultimate bearing pressure beneath footing).
BL
d) Assume trial effective depth, d, of footing for determination of flexural
reinforcement.
e) Check d for punching shear and wide beam shear.
f) If step (e) is not fulfilled increase d and repeat starting from step (e).
g) Calculate the anchorage length and reinforcement distribution.
h) Select the appropriate dowels based on the anchorage length and lap length.
i) Complete a design drawing showing all details (footing dimensions,
reinforcement size, spacing cover, etc.)

Figure 3.1.22: Example of a loading

condition that may induce eccentric
loading in two directions.
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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

3.3.8. Eccentrically Loaded Spread Footings

The ensuing “load” on the column, and subsequently on the footing, due to
supported beams from several spans, can be a combination of a vertical load and
moments as shown in Figure 3.1.22.

The source for the effects of eccentricity on the footing may be either a concentric
vertical load and moment combination (Fig. 3.1.23a) or a column located
eccentrically to the centroid of the footing (Fig. 3.1.23b). In order not to overstress
the soil under some points of the footing, and to eliminate tilting of column and
footing, a footing is proportioned in such a way that a uniform soil pressure
distribution is attained.

The difficulty in establishing a fixed location of the load centerline relative to the
footing centroid lies on the change of magnitude and direction of the variable loads
(such as the live and wind load). Hence, if the column is not centrally located for the
sake of having uniform bearing pressure (Fig. 3.1.23c), our design is perhaps
somewhat hypothetical in a strict sense.

Figure 3.1.23: Soil pressures resulting from eccentric loading

Superimposing the pressures resulting from the direct vertical load to those from
moment:

P M x c1 M y c2
q  
A Ix Iy

M x  Pe y and M y  Pe x
LB 3 BL3
Ix  and Iy 
12 12

P  6e x 6e y 
 q 1   
BL  B L 

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

When qmax > qu the process of load redistribution (similar to concrete beam analysis
in ultimate limit state) continues until equilibrium (or failure) is obtained. As a result
the assumed rectangular bearing pressure block is being produced (Fig. 3.1.24).

Figure 3.1.24: Soil yielding under P/A + Mc/I toe stresses to produce an
approximate rectangular pressure zone to resist P and to satisfy statics. For
overturning stability always take a  M check about point 1 at toe.
After careful consideration it appears that the base should be deigned consistent
with the procedure for obtaining the bearing capacity. That is use dimensions B’, L’
for the design also.

L'  L  2e x ; B'  B  2e y
My Mx
ex  ; ey 
P P

This procedure ensures four items of considerable concern:

(i) The resultant soil pressure R (Fig 3.1.24) is never out of the middle one-third of
the base so that the overturning stability is always satisfied. This R always
gives:
M resist PL
SF  
M overturn 2M
(ii) The toe pressure will always be such that qtoe  q a .
(iii) The design is more easily done when a uniform soil pressure is used to
compute design moments.
(iv) Approximately the same amount of steel is required as in the design using the
triangular stress distribution.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

The amount of steel computed for a unit width is used across the full base
dimensions of B and L. For the punching shear and wide beam shear compute an
P
“average” qu ,av  u and use this qu,av value.
BL

Combined Footings

When a footing supports a line of two or more columns, it is called a combined

footing. A combined footing may have either rectangular or trapezoidal shape or be
a series of pads connected by narrow rigid beams called a strap footing.

Isolated and wall footings are usually economical and practical, but are generally
limited to relatively light to moderate loads, and for building sites of good soil
bearing. Special considerations and design features or schemes are sometimes
adopted to overcome or accommodate imposed limitation by perhaps space, soil
formations, loads or functional concerns. Combined footings are adopted where
there is:

(i) Property line restriction.

(ii) Closed spacing of isolated footings.

Rectangular Combined Footing

An isolated footing is likely to result in an uneven soil-pressure distribution for a

column very close to a property line. In order to achieve uniform soil pressure, one
alternative may be a rectangular-shaped, combined footing. The footing near the
property line is connected with an adjacent one.

Generally, it is assumed that the rectangular footing is a rigid member, thus, the
pressure is linear. The approach yields a rather conservative design; the moments
are somewhat larger than those obtained by treating the footing as a beam on an
elastic foundation.

The following is a summary of the procedure:

Given: Typically included in the given part of the problem are column data (loads,
sizes, reinforcement, location, and spacing), soil bearing, concrete strength (fck), and
grade of reinforcement (fyk).

Objective: The goal is to determine footing dimensions (width, length, thickness),

steel reinforcement (bar sizes, spacing, placement, details, dowels), and relevant
details for construction.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Figure 3.1.25: Rectangular

shaped combined footing. For
uniform q, the resultant of the
applied load is collinear with
that of the soil pressure q.

Procedure: The design is predicated on the assumption that the footing is rigid and
that the soil pressure is uniform. The following explanation may illustrate the
procedure:

Step 1: Convert the column loads to ULS loads via Pu = 1.3(D.L.) + 1.6(L.L.). Then
convert the allowable soil pressure to ULS pressure via qu = (Plu + P2u) qa / (P1 + P2).

Step 2: Determine the footing length (L) and width (B). First determine the location
of the load resultant distance ( x ). This point coincides with the midpoint of L, thus
yielding the value for L. B is then determined from B  P u Lq u .

Step 3: Draw shear and moment diagrams. The footing is treated as a beam, loaded
with a uniform soil pressure (upward) and column loads (downward), which are
treated as concentrated loads.

Step 4: Determine the flexural reinforcing steel based on reasonable assumption of

footing depth. The longitudinal (flexural) steel is designed using the critical
moments (negative and positive) from the moment diagram. Thus, typically,
combined footings will have longitudinal steel at both top and bottom of the footing.

Step 5: Check footing depth based on shear. Critical sections are at 1.5d for diagonal
tension (or punching shear) and at the d for a wide beam, the same as for spread
footings. The critical section for wide-beam shear is investigated only at one point

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

(max. shear). For punching shear, however, an investigation of a three- or four-sided

zone for each column may have to be done.

Step 6: Determine the steel in the short direction. The steel in the transverse direction
is-determined based on an equivalent soil pressure q' and subsequent moment, for
each column. Even for stiff footings, it is widely accepted that the soil pressure in the
proximity of the columns is larger than that in the zone between columns. Thus, for
design, we account for this phenomenon by assuming an empirical effective column
zone width of s. The soil pressure in this zone, q', is calculated as q' = Pu/ Bs, where
Pu is the ULS column load, B the footing width and s an equivalent width of footer
strip for the column in question. Commonly, the value of s is taken as the width of
the column (in the longitudinal direction) plus about 0.75d on each side of that
column.

Step 7: Evaluate dowel steel. The requirements are the same as for spread footings.

Step 8: Provide a drawing showing final design. This drawing is to show sufficient
detail from which one may construct.

Trapezoid-shaped Footings

A combined footing will be trapezoid-shaped if the column that has too limited a
space for a spread footing carries the larger load. In such a case, the resultant of the
column loads (including moments) will be closer to the larger column load, and
doubling the centroid distance as done for the rectangular footing will not provide
sufficient length to reach the interior column. Correspondingly, the soil pressure
would not be uniform (recall that our typical objective is uniform soil pressure). For
very large column spacings (e.g., say greater than 7m), a strap (cantilever) footing
may be a somewhat more economical (i.e., less material) solution to such a problem
For smaller column spacings, a trapezoid-shaped footing, as shown in Fig 3.1.26 for
a two-column arrangement, is usually deemed suitable.

Figure 3.1.26: Trapezoid-shaped footing

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Referring to Fig 3.1.26, the area, A, is

A  a  bL 2

From x   Ax  A , we get

x
aLL 2  b  a L 22 L 3
aL  b  a L 2
x  L 3a  2b  a  b 

For the pressure to be uniform, the resultant of the column loads coincides (is
collinear) with the resultant of pressure at the centroid (C) as shown Fig 3.1.26.

The following is a summary of the procedure for the design of trapezoid-shaped footings:

Given: Included in the given data are column information (loads, sizes, location, and
spacing), length of footing (L), soil bearing values (qa), concrete strength (fck), and
grade of reinforcement (fyk)

Objective: The goal is to determine footing dimensions (width, thickness), steel

reinforcement (bar sizes, spacing, placement, details, dowels), and relevant details
for construction.

Procedure: The design is predicated on the assumption that the footing is rigid and
that the soil pressure is uniform. The basic steps are:

Step 1: Convert the column loads to ultimate loads via Pu = 1.3(DL) + 1.6(LL); then
convert the allowable soil pressure to ultimate; that is, qu = (Pul + Pu2) qa/(PI + P2).

Step 2: Determine dimensions a and b via simultaneous solutions of two

independent equations.

A  a  b L 2
x  L 3a  2b  a  b 

Thus, we solve for a and b.

Step 3: Draw the shear and moment diagrams. The footing is treated as a beam,
loaded with a uniform soil pressure (upward) and column loads (downward), which
are treated as concentrated loads. Note that while the pressure is uniform, the
pressure force for-unit length varies with the width [e.g., at the narrow end, the load
is a(qu); and b(qu) at the wide end, etc.].

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Step 4: Determine footing depth based on shear (Use min and e = 0.015 for k1 in wide
beam shear and punching shear respectively). Critical sections are usually checked
for wide-beam shear at the narrow end and punching shear at the wide end.

Step 5: Determine the flexural reinforcing steel. Because the width varies, it is
advisable to determine -As at several points; the same is now required for + As since
it is typically governed by min.

Step 6: Determine the steel in the short direction. Assume an average length for the
cantilever length; determine the equivalent lengths as for rectangular footings.

Step 7: Determine dowel steel, as for rectangular combined or spread footings.

Step 8: Provide a drawing with details for construction. Here some judgment is
necessary to accommodate the steel arrangement in view of the variable width along
the footing.

Strap Footings

A strap footing (cantilever footing) is a composite of two spread (isolated) footings

connected by a rigid beam or strap, as shown in Fig 3.1.27. The strap connects an
eccentrically loaded footing (e.g., footing 1) with an interior footing, subsequently
resulting in a uniform soil pressure and minimum differential settlement.

Figure 3.1.27 Typical configuration of a strap footing

A strap footing may be somewhat more economical than a combined footing if
distances between columns are large (say greater than 7m). It may also serve a
special need of bridging over areas that cannot be loaded, such as pits, shallow
culverts, tunnels, and the like.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

The strap is designed as a rigid beam connected to the footings such that it
overcomes rotational effects on eccentrically loaded footings; it is assumed to
experience no soil pressure. This is accomplished by either forming the strap above
the ground or by pouring the strap over a compressible formation, such as loose or
spaded soil or semi-rigid Styrofoam. Hence, the shear is a constant between the
footings; the moment varies linearly.

The footings are treated as isolated footings. The interior footing (e.g., footing 2) is
generally square-shaped and is designed as a spread footing, with appropriate
negative (top) longitudinal steel provided to resist the negative moment transmitted
via the strap. While this spread-footing approach also applies to footing 1, one
carefully scrutinizes the zone near column 1 for some additional transverse steel
requirements, as typically included for rectangular or trapezoid-shaped footings
discussed in the preceding sections. .

The following procedural summary to illustrate the recommended approach for a strap
footing design:

Given: Typically, included in the given part of the problem are column data (loads,
sizes, reinforcement, location, and spacing), allowable soil bearing, q., concrete
strength (fc), and grade of reinforcement (fy).

Objective: The goal is to (a) determine the footing dimensions (length, width, and
thickness) proportioned such that the soil pressure is reasonably uniform and
differential settlement is minimal, (b) design the strap, (c) design the footings, and
(d) show a drawing with pertinent details for construction purposes.

Procedure: The design assumes no soil pressure under the strap (other than that
necessary to support the weight of the strap; hence, the weight of the strap is
negated). The footings are designed as isolated footings subjected to column loads
and strap reactions.

Step 1: (a) Convert to Pu and qu, as previously described. (b) Try a value for e. This
establishes the position of R1; subsequently, this influences the ratio of Ll and ~. An
adjustment in e may be warranted if Ll/ Bl appear unreasonable. (c) From equilibrium
(i.e., ∑M = 0 and ∑Fy = 0), determine the values for Rl and R2.

Step 2: Determine footing dimensions, L and B. Note that q will be uniform when R
coincides with the centroid of that footing. Also, for minimum differential
settlement, q should be the same for both footings.

Step 3: Draw the shear (V) and moment (M) diagrams.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Step 4: Design the strap as a beam. Use maximum, M in the section between
footings. Affix the strap to the footings to effectively prevent footing rotation.

Step 5: Design the footings as spread (isolated) footings with reinforcement in both
directions including -As steel to accommodate the negative moment. Some special
assessment for the transverse steel near column 1 is recommended.

Step 6: Provide the final drawing showing details for construction.

Example 1:

Using the data given below, design a rectangular footing with side a/b=2 for the
loading condition in the figure below.

Allowable soil pressure=100KN/m2

Use concrete C-25 and steel S-300.

Figure E1: Plan and section of footing.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Assignment- 2

A Building is to be constructed over a site that has the soil stratification shown in
figure below.

A. Determine the area of a square footing that can safely transfer the load
from the superstructure without shear failure, i.e. bearing capacity
failure.
B. Determine the corresponding total settlement for the footing area
proportioned above. Check if the load can be transferred without
excessive settlement. Is an isolated footing the right choice for this
condition? Why?
C. If the load from a superstructure transferred through a column are to be
supported by an isolated footing, Determine the depth of the footing and
provide the necessary reinforcements and show the reinforcement
details/sketches. Assume Mx=My=0.

Use the following data:-

 The load from the superstructure; P=2645KN.

 The footing is to be placed at a depth of 2.0m below the ground
surface.
 The allowable total settlement is 75mm.
 Maximum center-to-center spacing between columns is 5.0m.
 Assume the foundation to be a rigid foundation.
 Assume also that the shear failure zone is limited within the sand
layer.
 Ground water table exists at a depth of 7.0m below the ground surface.
Assume that the ground water table does not have an effect on the
bearing capacity.
 Use concrete C-25 and steel S-300.
 Column size: 400mm by 400mm.
 Use Meyerhof’s Bearing Capacity equation. Use F.S=2.5.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

GL

SAND LAYER

7m C=0 KN/m2, =24o , =16.4 KN/m3

E=50Mpa, =0.30

3m Normally Consolidated Clay Layer

C=42KN/m2, =0o , sat=18.6 KN/m3,E=25Mpa,
=0.50,Cc=0.35,eo=0.75

Figure : Soil Profile

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Example 3:

The Loads from a superstructure transferred through a column are to be supported

by an isolated footing.

A. Proportion the area of the footing.

B. Determine the depth of the footing.

Figure E3: Isolated Footing

Use the following Data:

Loads: P=800KN, Mx=80KN-m, My=70KN-m

Soil Data: σall, soil =250Kpa
Column size: 400mm*400mm
Use concrete C-30 and steel S-300

Example 4:

Design a rectangular combined footing shown in the figure below using the
following data:

Column 1: 30cm X 30cm with 420

Column 2: 35cm X 35cm with 425

Soil Data: σall, soil =250Kpa

Use concrete C-30 and steel S-300

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Figure E4: Plan and section of rectangular combined footing.

Example 5:

Design a rectangular combined footing for the loading conditions shown below:
Use concrete C-30 and steel S-300
Soil Data: Allowable soil pressure, σall, soil =250KN/m2.

Figure E5: Plan and section of rectangular combined footing.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Example 6:

Design a strap foundation for the given loads in the figure below.

Given that:

Soil Data: σall, soil =50Kpa

Use concrete C-30 and steel S-300

Figure E6: Strap and cantilever footing.

Example 7:

A mat foundation is to be designed by the conventional method (Rigid Method) for

the loadings shown in the figure below. All columns are 40cm X 40cm.

Use concrete C-30 and steel S-300

Soil Data: Allowable soil pressure, σall, soil =50KN/cm2.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Figure E7: Design of a uniform mat foundation.

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Design of Shallow Foundations ASTU

Example 8:

Design a Ribbed mat foundation for the column loads given in the figure below.

Figure E8: Design of Ribbed mat foundation.

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