SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

http://www.tutorialspoint.com/software_engineering/software_development_life_cycle.htm
Copyright © tutorialspoint.com

Software Development Life Cycle, SDLC for short, is a well-defined, structured sequence of stages
in software engineering to develop the intended software product.

SDLC Activities
SDLC provides a series of steps to be followed to design and develop a software product efficiently.
SDLC framework includes the following steps:

Communication
This is the first step where the user initiates the request for a desired software product. He contacts
the service provider and tries to negotiate the terms. He submits his request to the service
providing organization in writing.

Requirement Gathering
This step onwards the software development team works to carry on the project. The team holds
discussions with various stakeholders from problem domain and tries to bring out as much
information as possible on their requirements. The requirements are contemplated and
segregated into user requirements, system requirements and functional requirements. The
requirements are collected using a number of practices as given -

studying the existing or obsolete system and software,

conducting interviews of users and developers,
referring to the database or
collecting answers from the questionnaires.
Feasibility Study
After requirement gathering, the team comes up with a rough plan of software process. At this step
the team analyzes if a software can be made to fulfill all requirements of the user and if there is
any possibility of software being no more useful. It is found out, if the project is financially,
practically and technologically feasible for the organization to take up. There are many algorithms
available, which help the developers to conclude the feasibility of a software project.

System Analysis
At this step the developers decide a roadmap of their plan and try to bring up the best software
model suitable for the project. System analysis includes Understanding of software product
limitations, learning system related problems or changes to be done in existing systems
beforehand, identifying and addressing the impact of project on organization and personnel etc.
The project team analyzes the scope of the project and plans the schedule and resources
accordingly.

Software Design
Next step is to bring down whole knowledge of requirements and analysis on the desk and design
the software product. The inputs from users and information gathered in requirement gathering
phase are the inputs of this step. The output of this step comes in the form of two designs; logical
design and physical design. Engineers produce meta-data and data dictionaries, logical diagrams,
data-flow diagrams and in some cases pseudo codes.

Coding
This step is also known as programming phase. The implementation of software design starts in
terms of writing program code in the suitable programming language and developing error-free
executable programs efficiently.

Testing
An estimate says that 50% of whole software development process should be tested. Errors may
ruin the software from critical level to its own removal. Software testing is done while coding by the
developers and thorough testing is conducted by testing experts at various levels of code such as
module testing, program testing, product testing, in-house testing and testing the product at user’s
end. Early discovery of errors and their remedy is the key to reliable software.

Integration
Software may need to be integrated with the libraries, databases and other programs. This stage of
SDLC is involved in the integration of software with outer world entities.

Implementation
This means installing the software on user machines. At times, software needs post-installation
configurations at user end. Software is tested for portability and adaptability and integration
related issues are solved during implementation.

Operation and Maintenance

This phase confirms the software operation in terms of more efficiency and less errors. If required,
the users are trained on, or aided with the documentation on how to operate the software and how
to keep the software operational. The software is maintained timely by updating the code
according to the changes taking place in user end environment or technology. This phase may
face challenges from hidden bugs and real-world unidentified problems.

Disposition
As time elapses, the software may decline on the performance front. It may go completely
obsolete or may need intense upgradation. Hence a pressing need to eliminate a major portion of
the system arises. This phase includes archiving data and required software components, closing
down the system, planning disposition activity and terminating system at appropriate end-of-
system time.

Software Development Paradigm

The software development paradigm helps developer to select a strategy to develop the software.
A software development paradigm has its own set of tools, methods and procedures, which are
expressed clearly and defines software development life cycle. A few of software development
paradigms or process models are defined as follows:

Waterfall Model
Waterfall model is the simplest model of software development paradigm. It says the all the
phases of SDLC will function one after another in linear manner. That is, when the first phase is
finished then only the second phase will start and so on.

This model assumes that everything is carried out and taken place perfectly as planned in the
previous stage and there is no need to think about the past issues that may arise in the next phase.
This model does not work smoothly if there are some issues left at the previous step. The
sequential nature of model does not allow us go back and undo or redo our actions.

This model is best suited when developers already have designed and developed similar software
in the past and are aware of all its domains.

Iterative Model
This model leads the software development process in iterations. It projects the process of
development in cyclic manner repeating every step after every cycle of SDLC process.
The software is first developed on very small scale and all the steps are followed which are taken
into consideration. Then, on every next iteration, more features and modules are designed, coded,
tested and added to the software. Every cycle produces a software, which is complete in itself and
has more features and capabilities than that of the previous one.

After each iteration, the management team can do work on risk management and prepare for the
next iteration. Because a cycle includes small portion of whole software process, it is easier to
manage the development process but it consumes more resources.

Spiral Model
Spiral model is a combination of both, iterative model and one of the SDLC model. It can be seen
as if you choose one SDLC model and combine it with cyclic process iterativemodel.

This model considers risk, which often goes un-noticed by most other models. The model starts
with determining objectives and constraints of the software at the start of one iteration. Next phase
is of prototyping the software. This includes risk analysis. Then one standard SDLC model is used to
build the software. In the fourth phase of the plan of next iteration is prepared.

V – model
The major drawback of waterfall model is we move to the next stage only when the previous one is
finished and there was no chance to go back if something is found wrong in later stages. V-Model
provides means of testing of software at each stage in reverse manner.
At every stage, test plans and test cases are created to verify and validate the product according
to the requirement of that stage. For example, in requirement gathering stage the test team
prepares all the test cases in correspondence to the requirements. Later, when the product is
developed and is ready for testing, test cases of this stage verify the software against its validity
towards requirements at this stage.

This makes both verification and validation go in parallel. This model is also known as verification
and validation model.

Big Bang Model

This model is the simplest model in its form. It requires little planning, lots of programming and lots
of funds. This model is conceptualized around the big bang of universe. As scientists say that after
big bang lots of galaxies, planets and stars evolved just as an event. Likewise, if we put together
lots of programming and funds, you may achieve the best software product.

For this model, very small amount of planning is required. It does not follow any process, or at
times the customer is not sure about the requirements and future needs. So the input
requirements are arbitrary.

This model is not suitable for large software projects but good one for learning and experimenting.

For an in-depth reading on SDLC and its various models, click here.
Loading [MathJax]/jax/output/HTML-CSS/jax.js
 SDLC - WATERFALL MODEL
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/sdlc/sdlc_waterfall_model.htm Copyright © tutorialspoint.com

The Waterfall Model was first Process Model to be introduced. It is also referred to as a linear-
sequential life cycle model. It is very simple to understand and use. In a waterfall model, each
phase must be completed before the next phase can begin and there is no overlapping in the
phases.

Waterfall model is the earliest SDLC approach that was used for software development .

The waterfall Model illustrates the software development process in a linear sequential flow; hence
it is also referred to as a linear-sequential life cycle model. This means that any phase in the
development process begins only if the previous phase is complete. In waterfall model phases do
not overlap.

Waterfall Model design

Waterfall approach was first SDLC Model to be used widely in Software Engineering to ensure
success of the project. In "The Waterfall" approach, the whole process of software development is
divided into separate phases. In Waterfall model, typically, the outcome of one phase acts as the
input for the next phase sequentially.

Following is a diagrammatic representation of different phases of waterfall model.

The sequential phases in Waterfall model are:

Requirement Gathering and analysis: All possible requirements of the system to be

developed are captured in this phase and documented in a requirement specification doc.

System Design: The requirement specifications from first phase are studied in this phase
and system design is prepared. System Design helps in specifying hardware and system
requirements and also helps in defining overall system architecture.

Implementation: With inputs from system design, the system is first developed in small
programs called units, which are integrated in the next phase. Each unit is developed and
tested for its functionality which is referred to as Unit Testing.

Integration and Testing: All the units developed in the implementation phase are
integrated into a system after testing of each unit. Post integration the entire system is tested
 for any faults and failures.

Deployment of system: Once the functional and non functional testing is done, the product
is deployed in the customer environment or released into the market.

Maintenance: There are some issues which come up in the client environment. To fix those
issues patches are released. Also to enhance the product some better versions are released.
Maintenance is done to deliver these changes in the customer environment.

All these phases are cascaded to each other in which progress is seen as flowing steadily
downwards likeawaterfall through the phases. The next phase is started only after the defined set of
goals are achieved for previous phase and it is signed off, so the name "Waterfall Model". In this
model phases do not overlap.

Waterfall Model Application

Every software developed is different and requires a suitable SDLC approach to be followed based
on the internal and external factors. Some situations where the use of Waterfall model is most
appropriate are:

Requirements are very well documented, clear and fixed.

Product definition is stable.

Technology is understood and is not dynamic.

There are no ambiguous requirements.

Ample resources with required expertise are available to support the product.

The project is short.

Waterfall Model Pros & Cons

Advantage
The advantage of waterfall development is that it allows for departmentalization and control. A
schedule can be set with deadlines for each stage of development and a product can proceed
through the development process model phases one by one.

Development moves from concept, through design, implementation, testing, installation,

troubleshooting, and ends up at operation and maintenance. Each phase of development
proceeds in strict order.

Disadvantage
The disadvantage of waterfall development is that it does not allow for much reflection or revision.
Once an application is in the testing stage, it is very difficult to go back and change something that
was not well-documented or thought upon in the concept stage.

The following table lists out the pros and cons of Waterfall model:

Pros Cons

Simple and easy to understand and use No working software is produced until
late during the life cycle.
Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the
model . each phase has specific High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
deliverables and a review process.
Not a good model for complex and
Phases are processed and completed object-oriented projects.
one at a time.
Poor model for long and ongoing
Works well for smaller projects where projects.
 requirements are very well understood.
Not suitable for the projects where
Clearly defined stages. requirements are at a moderate to high
risk of changing. So risk and uncertainty
Well understood milestones. is high with this process model.
Easy to arrange tasks. It is difficult to measure progress within
stages.
Process and results are well documented.
Cannot accommodate changing
requirements.

No working software is produced until

late in the life cycle.

Adjusting scope during the life cycle can

end a project.

Integration is done as a "big-bang. at the

very end, which doesn't allow identifying
any technological or business bottleneck
or challenges early.

Loading [MathJax]/jax/output/HTML-CSS/jax.js
 SDLC - V-MODEL
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/sdlc/sdlc_v_model.htm Copyright © tutorialspoint.com

The V - model is SDLC model where execution of processes happens in a sequential manner in V-
shape. It is also known as Verification and Validation model.

V - Model is an extension of the waterfall model and is based on association of a testing phase for
each corresponding development stage. This means that for every single phase in the
development cycle there is a directly associated testing phase. This is a highly disciplined model
and next phase starts only after completion of the previous phase.

V- Model design
Under V-Model, the corresponding testing phase of the development phase is planned in parallel.
So there are Verification phases on one side of the .V. and Validation phases on the other side.
Coding phase joins the two sides of the V-Model.

The below figure illustrates the different phases in V-Model of SDLC.

Verification Phases
Following are the Verification phases in V-Model:

Business Requirement Analysis: This is the first phase in the development cycle where
the product requirements are understood from the customer perspective. This phase
involves detailed communication with the customer to understand his expectations and
exact requirement. This is a very important activity and need to be managed well, as most of
the customers are not sure about what exactly they need. The acceptance test design
planning is done at this stage as business requirements can be used as an input for
acceptance testing.

System Design: Once you have the clear and detailed product requirements, it.s time to
design the complete system. System design would comprise of understanding and detailing
the complete hardware and communication setup for the product under development.
System test plan is developed based on the system design. Doing this at an earlier stage
leaves more time for actual test execution later.

Architectural Design: Architectural specifications are understood and designed in this

phase. Usually more than one technical approach is proposed and based on the technical
 and financial feasibility the final decision is taken. System design is broken down further into
modules taking up different functionality. This is also referred to as High Level Design HLD.

The data transfer and communication between the internal modules and with the outside
world othersystems is clearly understood and defined in this stage. With this information,
integration tests can be designed and documented during this stage.

Module Design:In this phase the detailed internal design for all the system modules is
specified, referred to as Low Level Design LLD. It is important that the design is compatible
with the other modules in the system architecture and the other external systems. Unit tests
are an essential part of any development process and helps eliminate the maximum faults
and errors at a very early stage. Unit tests can be designed at this stage based on the
internal module designs.

Coding Phase
The actual coding of the system modules designed in the design phase is taken up in the Coding
phase. The best suitable programming language is decided based on the system and architectural
requirements. The coding is performed based on the coding guidelines and standards. The code
goes through numerous code reviews and is optimized for best performance before the final build
is checked into the repository.

Validation Phases
Following are the Validation phases in V-Model:

Unit Testing: Unit tests designed in the module design phase are executed on the code
during this validation phase. Unit testing is the testing at code level and helps eliminate bugs
at an early stage, though all defects cannot be uncovered by unit testing.

Integration Testing: Integration testing is associated with the architectural design phase.
Integration tests are performed to test the coexistence and communication of the internal
modules within the system.

System Testing: System testing is directly associated with the System design phase.
System tests check the entire system functionality and the communication of the system
under development with external systems. Most of the software and hardware compatibility
issues can be uncovered during system test execution.

Acceptance Testing: Acceptance testing is associated with the business requirement

analysis phase and involves testing the product in user environment. Acceptance tests
uncover the compatibility issues with the other systems available in the user environment. It
also discovers the non functional issues such as load and performance defects in the actual
user environment.

V- Model Application
V- Model application is almost same as waterfall model, as both the models are of sequential type.
Requirements have to be very clear before the project starts, because it is usually expensive to go
back and make changes. This model is used in the medical development field, as it is strictly
disciplined domain. Following are the suitable scenarios to use V-Model:

Requirements are well defined, clearly documented and fixed.

Product definition is stable.

Technology is not dynamic and is well understood by the project team.

There are no ambiguous or undefined requirements.

The project is short.

V- Model Pros and Cons

The advantage of V-Model is that it.s very easy to understand and apply. The simplicity of this
model also makes it easier to manage. The disadvantage is that the model is not flexible to
changes and just in case there is a requirement change, which is very common in today.s dynamic
world, it becomes very expensive to make the change.

The following table lists out the pros and cons of V-Model:

Pros Cons

This is a highly disciplined model and High risk and uncertainty.

Phases are completed one at a time.
Not a good model for complex and
Works well for smaller projects where object-oriented projects.
requirements are very well understood.
Poor model for long and ongoing
Simple and easy to understand and use. projects.

Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the Not suitable for the projects where
model . each phase has specific requirements are at a moderate to high
deliverables and a review process. risk of changing.

Once an application is in the testing

stage, it is difficult to go back and
change a functionality

No working software is produced until

late during the life cycle.

Loading [MathJax]/jax/output/HTML-CSS/jax.js
 SDLC - SPIRAL MODEL
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/sdlc/sdlc_spiral_model.htm Copyright © tutorialspoint.com

The spiral model combines the idea of iterative development with the systematic, controlled
aspects of the waterfall model.

Spiral model is a combination of iterative development process model and sequential linear
development model i.e. waterfall model with very high emphasis on risk analysis.

It allows for incremental releases of the product, or incremental refinement through each iteration
around the spiral.

Spiral Model design

The spiral model has four phases. A software project repeatedly passes through these phases in
iterations called Spirals.

Identification:This phase starts with gathering the business requirements in the baseline
spiral. In the subsequent spirals as the product matures, identification of system
requirements, subsystem requirements and unit requirements are all done in this phase.

This also includes understanding the system requirements by continuous communication

between the customer and the system analyst. At the end of the spiral the product is
deployed in the identified market.

Design:Design phase starts with the conceptual design in the baseline spiral and involves
architectural design, logical design of modules, physical product design and final design in
the subsequent spirals.

Construct or Build:Construct phase refers to production of the actual software product at

every spiral. In the baseline spiral when the product is just thought of and the design is being
developed a POC ProofofConcept is developed in this phase to get customer feedback.

Then in the subsequent spirals with higher clarity on requirements and design details a
working model of the software called build is produced with a version number. These builds
are sent to customer for feedback.

Evaluation and Risk Analysis:Risk Analysis includes identifying, estimating, and

monitoring technical feasibility and management risks, such as schedule slippage and cost
overrun. After testing the build, at the end of first iteration, the customer evaluates the
software and provides feedback.

Following is a diagrammatic representation of spiral model listing the activities in each phase:
Based on the customer evaluation, software development process enters into the next iteration
and subsequently follows the linear approach to implement the feedback suggested by the
customer. The process of iterations along the spiral continues throughout the life of the software.

Spiral Model Application

Spiral Model is very widely used in the software industry as it is in synch with the natural
development process of any product i.e. learning with maturity and also involves minimum risk for
the customer as well as the development firms. Following are the typical uses of Spiral model:

When costs there is a budget constraint and risk evaluation is important.

For medium to high-risk projects.

Long-term project commitment because of potential changes to economic priorities as the

requirements change with time.

Customer is not sure of their requirements which is usually the case.

Requirements are complex and need evaluation to get clarity.

New product line which should be released in phases to get enough customer feedback.

Significant changes are expected in the product during the development cycle.

Spiral Model Pros and Cons

The advantage of spiral lifecycle model is that it allows for elements of the product to be added in
when they become available or known. This assures that there is no conflict with previous
requirements and design.

This method is consistent with approaches that have multiple software builds and releases and
allows for making an orderly transition to a maintenance activity. Another positive aspect is that
the spiral model forces early user involvement in the system development effort.

On the other side, it takes very strict management to complete such products and there is a risk of
running the spiral in indefinite loop. So the discipline of change and the extent of taking change
requests is very important to develop and deploy the product successfully.

The following table lists out the pros and cons of Spiral SDLC Model:

Pros Cons

Changing requirements can be Management is more complex.

accommodated.
End of project may not be known early.
Allows for extensive use of prototypes
Not suitable for small or low risk projects
Requirements can be captured more and could be expensive for small
accurately. projects.

Users see the system early. Process is complex

Development can be divided into smaller Spiral may go indefinitely.

parts and more risky parts can be
developed earlier which helps better risk Large number of intermediate stages
management. requires excessive documentation.
Loading [MathJax]/jax/output/HTML-CSS/fonts/TeX/fontdata.js
 SDLC - RAD MODEL
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/sdlc/sdlc_rad_model.htm Copyright © tutorialspoint.com

The RAD RapidApplicationDevelopment model is based on prototyping and iterative development with
no specific planning involved. The process of writing the software itself involves the planning
required for developing the product.

Rapid Application development focuses on gathering customer requirements through workshops

or focus groups, early testing of the prototypes by the customer using iterative concept, reuse of
the existing prototypes components, continuous integration and rapid delivery.

What is RAD?
Rapid application development RAD is a software development methodology that uses minimal
planning in favor of rapid prototyping. A prototype is a working model that is functionally
equivalent to a component of the product.

In RAD model the functional modules are developed in parallel as prototypes and are integrated to
make the complete product for faster product delivery.

Since there is no detailed preplanning, it makes it easier to incorporate the changes within the
development process. RAD projects follow iterative and incremental model and have small teams
comprising of developers, domain experts, customer representatives and other IT resources
working progressively on their component or prototype.

The most important aspect for this model to be successful is to make sure that the prototypes
developed are reusable.

RAD Model Design

RAD model distributes the analysis, design, build, and test phases into a series of short, iterative
development cycles. Following are the phases of RAD Model:

Business Modeling: The business model for the product under development is designed in
terms of flow of information and the distribution of information between various business
channels. A complete business analysis is performed to find the vital information for
business, how it can be obtained, how and when is the information processed and what are
the factors driving successful flow of information.

Data Modeling: The information gathered in the Business Modeling phase is reviewed and
analyzed to form sets of data objects vital for the business. The attributes of all data sets is
identified and defined. The relation between these data objects are established and defined
in detail in relevance to the business model.

Process Modeling: The data object sets defined in the Data Modeling phase are converted
to establish the business information flow needed to achieve specific business objectives as
per the business model. The process model for any changes or enhancements to the data
object sets is defined in this phase. Process descriptions for adding , deleting, retrieving or
modifying a data object are given.

Application Generation: The actual system is built and coding is done by using automation
tools to convert process and data models into actual prototypes.

Testing and Turnover:The overall testing time is reduced in RAD model as the prototypes
are independently tested during every iteration. However the data flow and the interfaces
between all the components need to be thoroughly tested with complete test coverage.
Since most of the programming components have already been tested, it reduces the risk of
any major issues.

Following image illustrates the RAD Model:

RAD Model Vs Traditional SDLC
The traditional SDLC follows a rigid process models with high emphasis on requirement analysis
and gathering before the coding starts. It puts a pressure on the customer to sign off the
requirements before the project starts and the customer doesn.t get the feel of the product as
there is no working build available for a long time.

The customer may need some changes after he actually gets to see the software, however the
change process is quite rigid and it may not be feasible to incorporate major changes in the
product in traditional SDLC.

RAD model focuses on iterative and incremental delivery of working models to the customer. This
results in rapid delivery to the customer and customer involvement during the complete
development cycle of product reducing the risk of non conformance with the actual user
requirements.

RAD Model Application

RAD model can be applied successfully to the projects in which clear modularization is possible. If
the project cannot be broken into modules, RAD may fail. Following are the typical scenarios
where RAD can be used:

RAD should be used only when a system can be modularized to be delivered in incremental
manner.

It should be used if there.s high availability of designers for modeling.

It should be used only if the budget permits use of automated code generating tools.

RAD SDLC model should be chosen only if domain experts are available with relevant
business knowledge.

Should be used where the requirements change during the course of the project and working
prototypes are to be presented to customer in small iterations of 2-3 months.
RAD Model Pros and Cons
RAD model enables rapid delivery as it reduces the overall development time due to reusability of
the components and parallel development.

RAD works well only if high skilled engineers are available and the customer is also committed to
achieve the targeted prototype in the given time frame. If there is commitment lacking on either
side the model may fail.

Following table lists out the pros and cons of RAD Model:

Pros Cons

Changing requirements can be Dependency on technically strong team

accommodated. members for identifying business
requirements.
Progress can be measured.
Only system that can be modularized can
Iteration time can be short with use of be built using RAD.
powerful RAD tools.
Requires highly skilled
Productivity with fewer people in short developers/designers.
time.
High dependency on modeling skills.
Reduced development time.
Inapplicable to cheaper projects as cost
Increases reusability of components of modeling and automated code
generation is very high.
Quick initial reviews occur
Management complexity is more.
Encourages customer feedback
Suitable for systems that are component
Integration from very beginning solves a based and scalable.
lot of integration issues.
Requires user involvement throughout
the life cycle.

Suitable for project requiring shorter

development times.

Loading [MathJax]/jax/output/HTML-CSS/jax.js
 SDLC - ITERATIVE MODEL
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/sdlc/sdlc_iterative_model.htm Copyright © tutorialspoint.com

In Iterative model, iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a small set of the
software requirements and iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the complete system is
implemented and ready to be deployed.

An iterative life cycle model does not attempt to start with a full specification of requirements.
Instead, development begins by specifying and implementing just part of the software, which is
then reviewed in order to identify further requirements. This process is then repeated, producing a
new version of the software at the end of each iteration of the model.

Iterative Model design

Iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a subset of the software requirements and
iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the full system is implemented. At each iteration,
design modifications are made and new functional capabilities are added. The basic idea behind
this method is to develop a system through repeated cycles iterative and in smaller portions at a
time incremental.

Following is the pictorial representation of Iterative and Incremental model:

Iterative and Incremental development is a combination of both iterative design or iterative

method and incremental build model for development. "During software development, more than
one iteration of the software development cycle may be in progress at the same time." and "This
process may be described as an "evolutionary acquisition" or "incremental build" approach."

In incremental model the whole requirement is divided into various builds. During each iteration,
the development module goes through the requirements, design, implementation and testing
phases. Each subsequent release of the module adds function to the previous release. The process
continues till the complete system is ready as per the requirement.

The key to successful use of an iterative software development lifecycle is rigorous validation of
requirements, and verification & testing of each version of the software against those
requirements within each cycle of the model. As the software evolves through successive cycles,
tests have to be repeated and extended to verify each version of the software.

Iterative Model Application

Like other SDLC models, Iterative and incremental development has some specific applications in
the software industry. This model is most often used in the following scenarios:

Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood.

Major requirements must be defined; however, some functionalities or requested

enhancements may evolve with time.

There is a time to the market constraint.

 A new technology is being used and is being learnt by the development team while working
on the project.

Resources with needed skill set are not available and are planned to be used on contract
basis for specific iterations.

There are some high risk features and goals which may change in the future.

Iterative Model Pros and Cons

The advantage of this model is that there is a working model of the system at a very early stage of
development which makes it easier to find functional or design flaws. Finding issues at an early
stage of development enables to take corrective measures in a limited budget.

The disadvantage with this SDLC model is that it is applicable only to large and bulky software
development projects. This is because it is hard to break a small software system into further small
serviceable increments/modules.

The following table lists out the pros and cons of Iterative and Incremental SDLC Model:

Pros Cons

Some working functionality can be More resources may be required.

developed quickly and early in the life
cycle. Although cost of change is lesser but it is
not very suitable for changing
Results are obtained early and requirements.
periodically.
More management attention is required.
Parallel development can be planned.
System architecture or design issues
Progress can be measured. may arise because not all requirements
are gathered in the beginning of the
Less costly to change the entire life cycle.
scope/requirements.
Defining increments may require
Testing and debugging during smaller definition of the complete system.
iteration is easy.
Not suitable for smaller projects.
Risks are identified and resolved during
iteration; and each iteration is an easily Management complexity is more.
managed milestone.
End of project may not be known which is
Easier to manage risk - High risk part is a risk.
done first.
Highly skilled resources are required for
With every increment operational risk analysis.
product is delivered.
Project.s progress is highly dependent
Issues, challenges & risks identified from upon the risk analysis phase.
each increment can be utilized/applied
to the next increment.

Risk analysis is better.

It supports changing requirements.

Initial Operating time is less.

Better suited for large and mission-

critical projects.

During life cycle software is produced

early which facilitates customer
evaluation and feedback.
Loading [MathJax]/jax/output/HTML-CSS/jax.js
 SDLC - BIG BANG MODEL
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/sdlc/sdlc_bigbang_model.htm Copyright © tutorialspoint.com

The Big Bang model is SDLC model where we do not follow any specific process. The development
just starts with the required money and efforts as the input, and the output is the software
developed which may or may not be as per customer requirement.

B ig Bang Model is SDLC model where there is no formal development followed and very little
planning is required. Even the customer is not sure about what exactly he wants and the
requirements are implemented on the fly without much analysis.

Usually this model is followed for small projects where the development teams are very small.

Big Bang Model design and Application

Big bang model comprises of focusing all the possible resources in software development and
coding, with very little or no planning. The requirements are understood and implemented as they
come. Any changes required may or may not need to revamp the complete software.

This model is ideal for small projects with one or two developers working together and is also
useful for academic or practice projects. It.s an ideal model for the product where requirements
are not well understood and the final release date is not given.

Big Bang Model Pros and Cons

The advantage of Big Bang is that its very simple and requires very little or no planning. Easy to
mange and no formal procedure are required.

However the Big Bang model is a very high risk model and changes in the requirements or
misunderstood requirements may even lead to complete reversal or scraping of the project. It is
ideal for repetitive or small projects with minimum risks.

Following table lists out the pros and cons of Big Bang Model:

Pros Cons

This is a very simple model Very High risk and uncertainty.

Little or no planning required Not a good model for complex and

object-oriented projects.
Easy to manage
Poor model for long and ongoing
Very few resources required projects.
Gives flexibility to developers Can turn out to be very expensive if
requirements are misunderstood
Is a good learning aid for new comers or
students
 SDLC - AGILE MODEL
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/sdlc/sdlc_agile_model.htm Copyright © tutorialspoint.com

Agile SDLC model is a combination of iterative and incremental process models with focus on
process adaptability and customer satisfaction by rapid delivery of working software product.

Agile Methods break the product into small incremental builds. These builds are provided in
iterations. Each iteration typically lasts from about one to three weeks. Every iteration involves
cross functional teams working simultaneously on various areas like planning, requirements
analysis, design, coding, unit testing, and acceptance testing.

At the end of the iteration a working product is displayed to the customer and important
stakeholders.

What is Agile?
Agile model believes that every project needs to be handled differently and the existing methods
need to be tailored to best suit the project requirements. In agile the tasks are divided to time
boxes smalltimeframes to deliver specific features for a release.

Iterative approach is taken and working software build is delivered after each iteration. Each build
is incremental in terms of features; the final build holds all the features required by the customer.

Here is a graphical illustration of the Agile Model:

Agile thought process had started early in the software development and started becoming
popular with time due to its flexibility and adaptability.

The most popular agile methods include Rational Unified Process 1994, Scrum 1995, Crystal Clear,
Extreme Programming 1996, Adaptive Software Development, Feature Driven Development, and
Dynamic Systems Development Method DSDM 1995. These are now collectively referred to as agile
methodologies, after the Agile Manifesto was published in 2001.

Following are the Agile Manifesto principles

Individuals and interactions - in agile development, self-organization and motivation are

important, as are interactions like co-location and pair programming.
 Working software - Demo working software is considered the best means of
communication with the customer to understand their requirement, instead of just
depending on documentation.

Customer collaboration - As the requirements cannot be gathered completely in the

beginning of the project due to various factors, continuous customer interaction is very
important to get proper product requirements.

Responding to change - agile development is focused on quick responses to change and

continuous development.

Agile Vs Traditional SDLC Models

Agile is based on the adaptive software development methods where as the traditional SDLC
models like waterfall model is based on predictive approach.

Predictive teams in the traditional SDLC models usually work with detailed planning and have a
complete forecast of the exact tasks and features to be delivered in the next few months or during
the product life cycle. Predictive methods entirely depend on the requirement analysis and
planning done in the beginning of cycle. Any changes to be incorporated go through a strict
change control management and prioritization.

Agile uses adaptive approach where there is no detailed planning and there is clarity on future
tasks only in respect of what features need to be developed. There is feature driven development
and the team adapts to the changing product requirements dynamically. The product is tested
very frequently, through the release iterations, minimizing the risk of any major failures in future.

Customer interaction is the backbone of Agile methodology, and open communication with
minimum documentation are the typical features of Agile development environment. The agile
teams work in close collaboration with each other and are most often located in the same
geographical location.

Agile Model Pros and Cons

Agile methods are being widely accepted in the software world recently, however, this method
may not always be suitable for all products. Here are some pros and cons of the agile model.

Following table lists out the pros and cons of Agile Model:

Pros Cons

Is a very realistic approach to software Not suitable for handling complex

development dependencies.

Promotes teamwork and cross training. More risk of sustainability,

maintainability and extensibility.
Functionality can be developed rapidly
and demonstrated. An overall plan, an agile leader and agile
PM practice is a must without which it will
Resource requirements are minimum. not work.
Suitable for fixed or changing Strict delivery management dictates the
requirements scope, functionality to be delivered, and
adjustments to meet the deadlines.
Delivers early partial working solutions.
Depends heavily on customer
Good model for environments that interaction, so if customer is not clear,
change steadily. team can be driven in the wrong
direction.
Minimal rules, documentation easily
employed. There is very high individual
dependency, since there is minimum
Enables concurrent development and documentation generated.
delivery within an overall planned
 context. Transfer of technology to new team
members may be quite challenging due
Little or no planning required to lack of documentation.
Easy to manage

Gives flexibility to developers

Loading [MathJax]/jax/output/HTML-CSS/jax.js
 SDLC - SOFTWARE PROTOTYPE MODEL
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/sdlc/sdlc_software_prototyping.htm Copyright © tutorialspoint.com

The Software Prototyping refers to building software application prototypes which display the
functionality of the product under development but may not actually hold the exact logic of the
original software.

Software prototyping is becoming very popular as a software development model, as it enables to

understand customer requirements at an early stage of development. It helps get valuable
feedback from the customer and helps software designers and developers understand about what
exactly is expected from the product under development.

What is Software Prototyping?

Prototype is a working model of software with some limited functionality.

The prototype does not always hold the exact logic used in the actual software application
and is an extra effort to be considered under effort estimation.

Prototyping is used to allow the users evaluate developer proposals and try them out before
implementation.

It also helps understand the requirements which are user specific and may not have been
considered by the developer during product design.

Following is the stepwise approach to design a software prototype:

Basic Requirement Identification: This step involves understanding the very basics
product requirements especially in terms of user interface. The more intricate details of the
internal design and external aspects like performance and security can be ignored at this
stage.

Developing the initial Prototype: The initial Prototype is developed in this stage, where
the very basic requirements are showcased and user interfaces are provided. These features
may not exactly work in the same manner internally in the actual software developed and
the workarounds are used to give the same look and feel to the customer in the prototype
developed.

Review of the Prototype:The prototype developed is then presented to the customer and
the other important stakeholders in the project. The feedback is collected in an organized
manner and used for further enhancements in the product under development.

Revise and enhance the Prototype: The feedback and the review comments are
discussed during this stage and some negotiations happen with the customer based on
factors like , time and budget constraints and technical feasibility of actual implementation.
The changes accepted are again incorporated in the new Prototype developed and the cycle
repeats until customer expectations are met.

Prototypes can have horizontal or vertical dimensions. Horizontal prototype displays the user
interface for the product and gives a broader view of the entire system, without concentrating on
internal functions. A vertical prototype on the other side is a detailed elaboration of a specific
function or a sub system in the product.

The purpose of both horizontal and vertical prototype is different. Horizontal prototypes are used
to get more information on the user interface level and the business requirements. It can even be
presented in the sales demos to get business in the market. Vertical prototypes are technical in
nature and are used to get details of the exact functioning of the sub systems. For example,
database requirements, interaction and data processing loads in a given sub system.

Software Prototyping Types

There are different types of software prototypes used in the industry. Following are the major
software prototyping types used widely:
 Throwaway/Rapid Prototyping: Throwaway prototyping is also called as rapid or close
ended prototyping. This type of prototyping uses very little efforts with minimum requirement
analysis to build a prototype. Once the actual requirements are understood, the prototype is
discarded and the actual system is developed with a much clear understanding of user
requirements.

Evolutionary Prototyping: Evolutionary prototyping also called as breadboard prototyping

is based on building actual functional prototypes with minimal functionality in the beginning.
The prototype developed forms the heart of the future prototypes on top of which the entire
system is built. Using evolutionary prototyping only well understood requirements are
included in the prototype and the requirements are added as and when they are understood.

Incremental Prototyping: Incremental prototyping refers to building multiple functional

prototypes of the various sub systems and then integrating all the available prototypes to
form a complete system.

Extreme Prototyping : Extreme prototyping is used in the web development domain. It

consists of three sequential phases. First, a basic prototype with all the existing pages is
presented in the html format. Then the data processing is simulated using a prototype
services layer. Finally the services are implemented and integrated to the final prototype.
This process is called Extreme Prototyping used to draw attention to the second phase of the
process, where a fully functional UI is developed with very little regard to the actual services.

Software Prototyping Application

Software Prototyping is most useful in development of systems having high level of user
interactions such as online systems. Systems which need users to fill out forms or go through
various screens before data is processed can use prototyping very effectively to give the exact
look and feel even before the actual software is developed.

Software that involves too much of data processing and most of the functionality is internal with
very little user interface does not usually benefit from prototyping. Prototype development could
be an extra overhead in such projects and may need lot of extra efforts.

Software Prototyping Pros and Cons

Software prototyping is used in typical cases and the decision should be taken very carefully so
that the efforts spent in building the prototype add considerable value to the final software
developed. The model has its own pros and cons discussed as below.

Following table lists out the pros and cons of Big Bang Model:

Pros Cons

Increased user involvement in the Risk of insufficient requirement analysis

product even before implementation owing to too much dependency on
prototype
Since a working model of the system is
displayed, the users get a better Users may get confused in the
understanding of the system being prototypes and actual systems.
developed.
Practically, this methodology may
Reduces time and cost as the defects can increase the complexity of the system as
be detected much earlier. scope of the system may expand beyond
original plans.
Quicker user feedback is available
leading to better solutions. Developers may try to reuse the existing
prototypes to build the actual system,
Missing functionality can be identified even when its not technically feasible
easily
The effort invested in building prototypes
Confusing or difficult functions can be may be too much if not monitored
identified properly