Skin Care Creams Formulation and Use

Dermatology Clinics & Research
DCR, 5(1): 238-271

www.scitcentral.com
ISSN: 2380-5609
Review Article: Open Access
Skin Care Creams: Formulation and Use

AK Mohiuddin*
*
Department of Pharmacy, World University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Received May 13, 2019; Accepted May 16, 2019; Published August 20, 2019
ABSTRACT
Skin reflects origin, lifestyle, age and state of health. Skin color, tone and evenness, pigmentation, as well as skin surface
characteristics are signs of skin’s health. The cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry offers a vast armamentarium of skin care
products and procedures to clean, soothe, restore, reinforce, protect and to treat our skin and hence to keep it in “good
condition”. Skin care products are readily available in daily life and they play a major role in health and nursing care. The
promotion of skin care products including their claims are often based on an effect (e.g. moisturizing, antioxidant), evoked by
an active (e.g. urea, tocopherol) that is delivered through a vehicle (e.g. lotion) that relies on a specific technology (e.g.
nanotechnology). In addition, “without” claims (e.g. without parabens) often accompany nowadays promotions. Today,
modern skin care includes cleansing, soothing, restoring, reinforcing and protecting. With increasing age, the emphasis on
skin care is changing. The importance of soothing, restoring, reinforcing increases and cleansing should be executed with
particular care. The character of skin care shifts from more cosmetic objectives smooth, healthy looking skin to more
therapeutic and preventive objectives soothing, restoring, reinforcing and protecting stressed skin. Even though skin care and
skin protection play an important role throughout lifetime the skin areas in primary need of care and protection also change.
In younger years, environmental factors (e.g. UV radiation) are of primary importance whereas in advanced years, age-
related factors (e.g. prolonged exposure to various sources of moisture, including urine or feces, perspiration, wound exudate,
and their contents) become more important. Subsequently the skin areas in need of care and protection also change initially
skin areas (e.g. face, arms and legs) exposed to the external environment and later enclosed skin areas (e.g. skin folds,
perianal, perigenital skin, groin, feet) become the vulnerable zones (hot spots). Ageing per se changes the skin structure and
function across the life course increasing its susceptibility to numerous clinically relevant skin problems (e.g. xerosis cutis).
Skin diseases (e.g. bacterial/fungal infections), accumulating effects of systemic diseases (e.g. diabetes mellitus, renal
insufficiency) or pharmacotherapies (e.g. cancer therapies) also necessitate special skin care.
Keywords: Skin care, Creams, Emollients, Moisturizers, Emulsions
Abbreviations: IPM: Isopropyl Myristate; AD: Atopic Dermatitis; SLS: Sodium Lauryl Sulfate; EPA: Environmental
Protection Agency; TEA: Triethanolamine; CIR: Cosmetic Ingredient Review; LA: Linoleic acid; SCI: Sodium Cocoyl
Isethionate; SDS: Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate; PEGs: Polyethylene Glycols; SSO: Sorbitan Sesquioleate; GA: Glycolic Acid;
RAL: Retinaldehyde; SSR: Solar Simulated Radiation; AHA: Alpha-Hydroxy Acids; BHA: Beta Hydroxy Acid; ROS:
Reactive Oxygen Species; ROM: Range of Motion; INCI: International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients; SPF: Sun
Protection Factor; HMPs: Hydrophobically Modified Polymers; NLRs: Nucleotide Binding Domain and Leucine Rich
Repeat Containing Proteins; NLRC4: NLR Family CARD Domain Containing 4; AIM2: Absent in Melanoma 2; NHEK:
Normal Human Epidermal Keratinocytes; SkBF: Skin Blood Flow; TEWL: Transepidermal Water Loss; NMF: Natural
Moisturizing Factors
Corresponding author: AK Mohiuddin, Assistant Professor, Department of Pharmacy, World University of Bangladesh, 151/8, Green Road Dhanmondi,
Dhaka-1205, Bangladesh, Tel: 8801716477485; E-mail: [email protected]
Citation: Mohiuddin AK. (2019) Skin Care Creams: Formulation and Use. Dermatol Clin Res, 5(1): 238-271.
Copyright: ©2019 Mohiuddin AK. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
SciTech Central Inc.

Dermatol Clin Res (DCR) 238
Dermatol Clin Res, 5(1): 238-271 Mohiuddin AK
Graphical abstract: Beauty Secrets
BACKGROUND develop products containing pharmaceutically active

principles has led to the introduction of the concept of
Until the beginning of the 1900s, no clear difference existed
cosmeceuticals. This term indicates cosmetic-pharmaceutical
between active and inactive components in dermatological
hybrids aimed at enhancing the beauty of the skin by means
and cosmetic preparations. Later, it became possible to
of ingredients that modify skin functionality or provide
assign specific therapeutic effects to certain chemical
additional health-related function or benefit.
substances, and the concept of vehicle, i.e., a rather inactive
carrier substance, started to be developed. Nowadays, The outer layer of the epidermis, the external layer of human
formulations are mixtures of components that basically skin, is made up primarily of corneocytes which provide a
include one or more vehicles and one or more active barrier function. Underlying the corneocytes are viable
principles. The efficacy of dermatological and cosmetic keratinocytes, which migrate outward and terminally
products is influenced by the type of vehicle and active differentiate to become corneocytes. The epidermis is
principles. In general, formulations will work if the active organized into extensions called rete ridges that project
ingredients penetrate into the epidermis. Hence, the correct between dermal papille (pink) into the underlying connective
selection of a suitable vehicle plays an important role during tissue. Underlying the epidermis is the dermis, which is
the development of a product. Pharmaceutical preparations primarily made up of collagen, elastin fibers, and other
are aimed at obtaining a curative effect. In these cases, the extracellular matrix components. Collagen and elastin fibers
role of the vehicle is primarily to allow the delivery of the are synthesized by fibroblasts to provide tensile strength,
active principles to the site of application. Cosmetic firmness, and elasticity to the skin. The innermost layer of
formulations do not contain strictly curative drugs, but their the skin, the hypodermis, is composed largely of fat cells,
purpose is rather to help skin homeostasis and prevent which helps provide structure to the skin. Blood capillaries,
degenerative processes. As we have seen, a clear boundary lymph vessels, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicles
between the medical and cosmetic fields cannot be easily and lamellar bodies lie within the dermis and hypodermis
traced, while the marked tendency of cosmetic industries to (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Structure of human skin.

INTRODUCTION • Removal of dirt, sebum, microorganisms, exfoliated

corneocytes and other non-wanted substances from the
Now, a variety of skincare products are available for almost
skin.
any beauty concern one can have, including body washes,
gels, lotions, exfoliants, moisturizers, toners and sun • Reduction of unpleasant skin symptoms (e.g. pruritus,
protection. There is mainly a focus on helping skin from the burning, odor).
inside out. The existence of the FDA keeps known toxic
ingredients from being used, though many skincare products • Restoration of (sub-clinically) damaged skin (e.g. dry
still do unfortunately have side effects. From time and inflamed skin).
immemorial creams as, topical preparations are considered • Reinforcement of undamaged but vulnerable skin (e.g.
an important part of cosmetic products. Creams may be skin surface pH balance, germ reduction).
considered pharmaceutical products as even cosmetic
creams are based on techniques developed by pharmacy and • Protection of damaged, undamaged and vulnerable skin
un-medicated creams are highly used in a variety of skin from various noxious factors.
conditions in ancient times, creams were simply prepared by
• Providing a pleasant skin feel (well-being) [1].
mixing of two or more ingredients using water as the
solvent. With the advancement in technology, newer Maintaining the functional integrity of the stratum
methods are used for formulation of creams. These semisolid corneum
preparations are elegant to use by the public and society.
It has been recognized for approximately 7 decades that the
They show versatility in their functions. Creams can be
stratum corneum exhibits biological properties that
applied to any part of the body with ease. It is convenient to
contribute directly to maintaining and sustaining healthy
use cream by all the age group of people. Although it may be
skin. Continued basic science and clinical research coupled
equally well applied to non-aqueous products such as wax-
with keen clinical observation has led to more recent
solvent based mascaras, liquid eye shadows and ointments.
recognition and general acceptance that the stratum corneum
If an emulsion is sufficiently low viscosity to be pourable
completes many vital “barrier” tasks, including but not
(flow under influence of gravity alone) is referred to as
limited to regulating epidermal water content and the
lotion. Creams are emulsions of oil and water. In coming
magnitude of water loss; mitigating exogenous oxidants that
future, more advanced technologies and methods will be
can damage components of skin via an innate antioxidant
used for preparation, formulation and evaluation of creams.
system; preventing or limiting cutaneous infection via
Also, the demand of herbal constituents-based creams is
multiple antimicrobial peptides; responding via innate
increasing day by day.
immune mechanisms to “cutaneous invaders” of many
SKIN CARE PROCEDURES AND SKIN CARE origins, including microbes, true allergens, and other
PRODUCTS antigens; and protecting its neighboring cutaneous cells and
structures that lie beneath from damaging effects of
The information of skin care procedures is plentiful but little
ultraviolet radiation. Additionally, specific abnormalities of
scientifically documented and the number of products
the stratum corneum (Figure 2) are associated with the
available for cleansing, soothing, restoring, reinforcing and
clinical expression of certain disease states [2].
protecting is of an almost infinite variety. Nonetheless their
functionalities may be described as:
Figure 2. This figure depicts the “bricks and mortar” structure of the stratum corneum [2].

The corneocytes represent the bricks and the intercellular and environmental damage is important for all patients.
lamellar lipid membrane represents the mortar. Corneocytes While sunscreens are often irritants, the best options for
comprise primarily keratin macrofibrils, are protected young, oily, acne-prone skin tend to have a water or light
externally by a cornified cell envelope, and are held together liquid base. Moisturizing sunscreens are appropriate for
by corneodesmosomes. The intercellular lamellar lipid patients with dry, sun-damaged skin, as well as those who
membrane is primarily composed of ceramides, cholesterol, wear makeup, have other skin diseases, or are easily irritated
and fatty acids. A mixture of multiple small hygroscopic by products [3-6].
compounds presents within corneocytes, referred to
TYPES OF SKIN CREAMS
collectively as natural moisturizing factor (NMF), plays a
vital role in the physiological maintenance of stratum They are divided into two types: oil-in-water (O/W) creams
corneum hydration. which are composed of small droplets of oil dispersed in a
continuous phase, and water-in-oil (W/O) creams which are
The functionality of the skin care products ranges from
composed of small droplets of water dispersed in a
mono-functional, e.g. protecting barrier creams to poly-
continuous oily phase. Whether the aqueous or the oil phase
functional, e.g. soothing and restoring cleansers. They
becomes the dispersed phase depends primarily on the
unfold their functionality as leave-on products (e.g.
emulsifying agent used and the relative amounts of the two
moisturizing or skin barrier products), or as rinse-off
liquid phases. Hence, an emulsion in which the oil is
products (e.g. cleansers). Skin care procedures like
dispersed as droplets throughout the aqueous phase is termed
washing/drying and the application of leave-on products
an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion. When water is the dispersed
should be as benign as possible. The unduly removal of
phase and oil as the dispersion medium, the emulsion is of
natural skin component (e.g. lipids), prolonged exposure to
the water-in-oil (W/O) type. Oil-in-water creams are more
water (e.g. long-term immersion in full-baths), a (repeated)
comfortable and cosmetically acceptable as they are less
disruption of the physiological skin surface pH and
greasy and more easily washed off using water. Water-in-oil
excessive and/or prolonged occlusion of the skin should be
creams are more difficult to handle but many drugs which
avoided. However, the epidermal acidification is known to
are incorporated into creams are hydrophobic and will be
be fragile and it is commonly accepted that cosmetic
released more readily from a water-in-oil cream than an oil-
products, especially soaps and skin cleansing products, can
in-water cream. Water-in-oil creams are also more
induce significant changes in skin surface pH. The skin pH
moisturizing as they provide an oily barrier which reduces
recovery needs time up to several hours before it can reach
water loss from the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of
the physiological level. Skin care delivered to improve, e.g.
the skin. It is important for pharmacists to know the type of
the outcome of an eczema therapy or to reduce, e.g. the
emulsion they have prepared or are dealing with, because
adverse effects of a cancer therapy are often termed as
this can affect its properties and performance. Unfortunately,
adjuvant skin care. Nonetheless, adjuvant or the above
the several methods available can give incorrect results, so
described classic preventive skin care pursues the similar
the type of emulsion determined by one method should
goals. Moisturizing prevents and alleviates skin irritation,
always be confirmed by means of a second method [7,8].
soothing the skin by slowing the evaporation of water. Many
(Table 1).
liquid face cleansers also moisturize, which may be all that
is needed for a patient with oily skin. Protection from sun
Table 1. Characteristics of skin creams [9].
Functional Physicochemical Subjective
Medium to high oil content
Cleansing Creams O/W or W/O Oily
Cold Creams Low slip point oil phase Difficult to ‘Rub in’
Massage Creams Neutral pH May be stiff and rich
Night Creams May contain surfactant that improve Also popular as lotions
penetration
Moisturizing Creams Low oil content
Easily spreadable and ‘Rub in’ quality
Foundation Creams Usually O/W
Available as creams and lotions
Vanishing Creams Low slip-point oil phase

Neutral to slightly acidic pH

May contain emollients and special
moisturizing ingredients
Functional Physicochemical Subjective
Low to medium oil content
Usually O/W
Easily spreadable but do not ‘Rub in’
Hand and Body Medium slip point oil phase with the ease of vanishing creams
Protective
Slightly alkaline or acidic pH Very popular in lotion form
May containing protective factors,
especially silicon and lanolin
Medium oil content Very often slightly oily but should be
All Purpose Creams
O/W or W/O easy to spread
Cleansing creams environmental impurities and cosmetic products are not

water soluble and so washing the skin with simple water
In earliest times, cleansing was done by using a piece of
would not be sufficient to remove them. Substances capable
bone or stone to scrape the skin. Later civilizations used
of emulsifying them into finer particles are to be used for
materials of plant origin along with water for cleansing.
making these fat-soluble impurities water soluble. Herein,
Many different civilizations can be given credit for
cleansers fit into the picture. Skin cleansers are surface—
discovering soap. The earliest mention of the soap making
active substances (i.e.,
process can be found in Sumerian clay tablets dating to ca.
emulsifiers/detergents/surfactants/soaps) that lower the
2000 BC. By 600 BC, tree ash and animal fat had been used
surface tension on the skin and remove dirt, sebum, oil from
by the Phoenicians to prepare soap. The first cosmetic
cosmetic products, microorganisms and exfoliated corneum
cleansing cream to be manufactured on an industrial scale
cells in an emulsified form. Careful face washing helps to
was cold cream, an emulsion made with mineral or almond
improve and prevent acne; however, intensive washing has a
oil along with beeswax, borax and water. A second type of
risk of inducing skin barrier impairment and dry skin,
cleanser was introduced around 1920. It was made solely
especially in sensitive skin. An ideal cleanser should do all
from oils and waxes, so was water-free (anhydrous) and was
these without damaging or irritating the skin, on the contrary
not an emulsion. Cleansers of this type were designed to
it should try to keep the skin surface moist. With the advent
melt or liquefy when applied to the skin – they were
of advanced technologies, newer cleansers are now being
thixotropic – which is why they were referred to as
manufactured which are mild, provide moisturizing benefits
liquefying cleansing creams. Skin permeability was found to
and can be easily washed off. The combined use of a facial
depend very strongly on temperature and less strongly on the
skin cleanser and moisturizers is safe and effective for the
duration of heating. The pores of the skin are like little
care of acne in post-adolescent women with sensitive skin.
thermostats; they expand with heat and contract with cold.
The key ingredients in cleansing creams, which are also
Now when a cream containing a high percentage of water is
known as cold creams, are usually petrolatum, mineral oil,
applied to the skin it is obvious that the pores will at once
waxes and water. Many cleansing creams also contain
contract and prevent the deep penetration which is essential
emulsifiers, which prevent the ingredients of the cream from
if the skin is to be thoroughly cleansed. Some chemists who
separating into layers. It can moisturize skin and remove
favor cold cream type cleansers argue that such a reaction is
dirt, sweat, make-up at the same time. The layers of make-
momentary and that with continued rubbing the skin warms
up, dust and sweat remain as a layer on the face and prevent
up and the pores open again. But they overlook the simple
the skin from breathing this may eventually lead to wrinkles
fact that water begins to evaporate immediately upon
and dullness. With their mild and effective action, cleansing
exposure and in evaporating it abstracts heat from the skin,
creams now days have become a beneficial approach to
which causes the pores to contract again. Many of the
healthy skin care (Table 2) [10-16].

Table 2. Typical formulation: Cleansing creams.

Ingredients Formulation 1 (%) Formulation 2 (%) Justification of Use
A key component of corneum lipids, an antioxidant
Stearic Acid 10 12.5 and also potent anti-inflammatory lipid, non-toxic
and non-irritant [17,18].
Mineral oil has been shown to improve skin softness
and barrier function better than some other
Mineral Oil 5 -
emollients. Benefits skin through hydration and
occlusion [19].
Emollient-base; it is poorly absorbed by the skin
Petrolatum 2 -
[24].
It is used as an emulsion stabilizer, opacifying
Cetostearyl agent, and foam boosting surfactant, as well as an
1.5 2
Alcohol aqueous and non-aqueous viscosity-increasing agent
[23].
Isopropyl Emollient; oleaginous vehicle; skin penetrant;
3 5
Myristate solvent, thickening agent or lubricant [18], [27].
Lubricants, processing aids, specific to petroleum
Sorbitan
2 - production. Solvents (for cleaning and degreasing),
Monolaureate
surface active agents [28].
Glycerin 6.5 - Humectant/Emollient
Anionic surfactant; detergent; emulsifying agent;
Na-Lauryl SO4 5 -
skin penetrant; wetting agent [33].
A surfactant or pH adjuster [35], alkalizing agent;
Triethanolamine 1.5 -
emulsifying agent
Polyoxyethylene
Preventing surface adsorption and as stabilizers
Sorbitan Mono 2 -
[37].
Laurate
Water 61.5 68.5
Lanolin - 0.4 Emulsifying agent
Coco-Na
- 12 Surface active agents; Cleansing Agent
Isothionate
Perfume,
q.s. q.s.
Preservative

There is strong evidence that mineral oil hydrocarbons are as source of skin active ingredients [26]. Isopropyl myristate
the greatest contaminant of the human body, amounting to is a non-greasy emollient that is absorbed readily by the
approximately 1 g per person. Possible routes of skin. It is used as a component of semisolid bases and as a
contamination include air inhalation, food intake and dermal solvent for many substances applied topically [18]. IPM, the
absorption. The present study aims to identify the most isopropyl ester of myristic acid, is used in cosmetics as a
relevant sources of mineral oil contamination [20]. substitute for natural oils because it has excellent spreading
Petrolatum is thought to be occlusive, thereby blocking properties and is absorbed easily into the skin. In many
transcutaneous water loss and trapping water under the skin's topical and transdermal preparations, IPM is also used as a
surface [21]. Petrolatum is a common moisturizer co-solvent with skin penetration enhancement properties of
(Discussed in detail in often used in the prevention of skin active ingredients [27]. Polysorbate20 is a non-ionic
infections after ambulatory surgeries and as a maintenance surfactant and emulsifier derived from sorbitan monolaurate,
therapy of atopic dermatitis (AD) [22]. Common ingredients and is distinguished from the other members in the
in emollients include petroleum products, glycerin, fatty polysorbate range by the length of the polyoxyethylene
acids and plant oils. An ideal emollient should contain a chain and the fatty acid ester moiety. Due to non-toxic
combination of occlusive agents to slow down water loss, nature, it is used as a wetting agent in flavored mouth drops
humectants to increase capacity to withhold moisture and such as Ice Drops, helping to provide a spreading feeling to
lubricants to reduce friction against skin [25]. The exotic fats other ingredients like SD alcohol and mint flavor [29,30].
used in skin care are known to exhibit their effects through Glycerin is widely used in cosmetics and well as in
restoration of a sufficient layer of skin lipids and skin pharmaceutical formulations, mainly as humectant. In vitro
elasticity, boost natural skin regeneration and increased skin studies have shown glycerin to prevent crystallization of
hydration by forming an inert, epicutaneous occlusive stratum corneum model lipid mixture at low room humidity
membrane. Besides these facts, mango butter which is one of (Figure 3). Ten days treatment of normal skin with 20%
several exotic fats is viewed as an ingenious replacement for glycerin significantly increased skin corneometer values,
cocoa butter, mineral and petroleum-based emollients indicating an increased hydration [31].
because of its appreciable contents which are very important
Figure 3. The mechanism of action of glycerol [32,81].

A humectant attracts and retains the moisture in the air form the bilayers, damages the water-barrier function. The
nearby via absorption, drawing the water vapor into or stratum corneum then calls into action repair mechanisms.
beneath the organism's or object's surface. Much more is Scientifically, the moisturizing treatment involves a 4-step
now known about the epidermis, and in particular, the process: (a) Repairing the skin barrier (b) Increasing water
stratum corneum. The “bricks and mortar” model suggests content (c) Reducing TEWL (d) Restoring the lipid barriers’
that its role is as an active membrane. Loss of intercellular ability to attract, hold and redistribute water.
lipids, i.e., the ceramides, cholesterol and fatty acids that

The intended application of detergents and cleaners should triethanolamine (TEA) and 31 related TEA-containing
not result in direct contact with product ingredients; ingredients as used in cosmetics. The TEA is reported to
however, misuse of the product could potentially cause function as a surfactant or pH adjuster; the related TEA-
dermal (skin and ocular) or inhalation exposure. Sodium containing ingredients included in this safety assessment are
Lauryl Sulfate (SLS) enters and maintains residual levels in reported to function as surfactants and hair- or skin-
the heart, the liver, the lungs and the brain from skin contact. conditioning agents. The exception is TEA-sorbate, which is
SLS is cited as causing severe eye damage and blindness. A reported to function as a preservative. The panel concluded
second erroneous ocular health claim made about SLS is its that TEA and related TEA-containing ingredients named in
link to cataract formation [32,34]. For cleaning and this report are safe as used when formulated to be
industrial uses, it is monitored by the Environmental nonirritating. These ingredients should not be used in
Protection Agency (EPA). Sodium cocosulfate, made from cosmetic products in which N-nitroso compounds can be
coconut oil, can be used as a replacement for SLS in your formed [41]. A cleansing cream or lotion is spread onto the
beauty product recipes [35]. Recent studies suggest that skin, using the fingertips, and massaged onto the surface.
coconut oil can be a useful surfactant when combined with This action serves to loosen and suspend the grime and soil
Yucca schidigera extract [36]. The polysorbates are in the emulsion. A subsequent wipe with a tissue or cotton
amphipathic, nonionic surfactants composed of fatty acid wool pad removes the majority of the applied cleansing
esters of polyoxyethylene sorbitan being polyoxyethylene emulsion and with it the skin soil, grime or makeup. The
sorbitan monolaurate for polysorbate 20 and cream should have a medium-to-high percentage oil phase
polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate for polysorbate 80. and be easily spreadable, should not “rub in” and should not
The polysorbates used in the formulation of irritate the skin. In addition, if it can leave a residual
biopharmaceuticals are mixtures of different fatty acid esters emollient film on the skin, so much the better [99].
with the monolaurate fraction of polysorbate 20 making up Surfactants in skin cleansers interact with the skin in several
only 40-60% of the mixture and the monooleate fraction of manners. In addition to the desired benefit of providing skin
polysorbate 80 making up >58% of the mixture [37]. The hygiene, surfactants also extract skin components during
Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) Expert Panel assessed cleansing and remain in the SC after rinsing. These side
the safety of 39 polyether lanolin ingredients as used in effects disrupt SC structure and degrade its barrier
cosmetics. The Panel concluded that these polyether lanolin properties. Hydrophobically modified polymers (HMPs)
ingredients are safe in the practices of use and concentration have been introduced to create skin compatible cleansing
as given in this safety assessment [38]. Nasrollahi et al. [39] systems. At the presence of HMP, surfactants assemble into
revealed that Linoleic acid (LA) containing w/o emulsion larger, more stable structures. These structures are less likely
exhibited erythema-reducing effects [39]. Sodium cocoyl to penetrate the skin, thereby resulting in less aggressive
isethionate (SCI) is an important surfactant ingredient in cleansers and the integrity of the skin barrier is maintained.
mild, syndet (synthetic detergent) cleansing bars. In vitro By creating these large polymer/surfactant complexes, the
and in vivo studies have demonstrated that SCI is mild and cleanser becomes less aggressive. In these HMP/surfactant
less damaging to the skin barrier than soaps and surfactants systems, because less surfactant enters the SC, there is less
such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) [40]. The Cosmetic inflammation and therefore the skin barrier is less disturbed
Ingredient Review Expert Panel assessed the safety of [146] (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Audrey Hepburn [141-143].

The legendary Roman Holiday actress once famously said, freshly made up by a local pharmacist, chemist or druggist.
“I owe 50% of my beauty to my mother and the other 50% Borax-beeswax cold creams were white; opaque had a high
to Erno Laszlo.” Erno Laszlo, a pioneer in 20th Century skin luster and spread easily on the skin, but the use of almond oil
care, believed beautiful skin was no miracle. He analyzed still limited the shelf life of the cream. When borax-beeswax
women's (and men's) skin giving them precise techniques for cold creams were made with petrolatum and mineral oil
their personal cleansing and prescribed the exact products rather than almond oil, cold creams were produced that were
for their particular skin type and concern. The backbone of stable, cheap to produce and had a long shelf life. This made
any cosmeceutical skin care regimen is facial cleansing and borax-beeswax cold creams ideal preparations for industrial
moisturizing. Moisturizers create the illusion of smooth, soft manufacture and distribution. Cold creams that contained a
skin by placing a temporary film over the skin surface or by high percentage of mineral oil (liquid paraffin) or petrolatum
imparting a transient hydration benefit that does not were regarded primarily as cleansers, to be spread on
clinically improve the quality or appearance of skin. thickly, then removed with a cloth or tissues. However,
Cleansing, aggressive exfoliation and sebum reduction in the depending on the formulation, they could be used for a
absence of a traditional moisturizer safely and effectively variety of purposes and were often advertised as beauty
improved multiple clinical endpoints of photo aged skin. creams or night creams. City air in most large western cities
was a good deal grimier than it is today. Dust, soot and other
Cold cream
particulate matter collected on the face, making it an
The invention of cold cream is credited to Galen, a physician enduring problem. Early advertisements for cold cream
in the second century from Greece. This cold cream is thick stressed the need to “cleanse your skin of all the dirt which
and softens when it touches the skin. It is perfect for dry skin lodges in the pores through the day, and which, more than
on elbow, feet and knees and also perfect for natural ways of anything else, injures the skin”. It was also suggested that
removing makeup and to avoid eczema in dry parts of your the cream be used at night to give it additional time to act.
body. The combination of fats and water in this product help Cold creams were widely used in the theatrical trades to
moisturize – the cream gets its name because it's cold to the remove greasepaint with a number of suppliers producing
touch – with people using it to soften their skin, soothe products labeled as Theatrical Cold Cream. As the use of
sunburns and protect faces from wintry weather, too. The street make-up increased, cold creams were also promoted as
emulsion is of a “water in oil” type unlike the “oil in water” a way to remove face powder, lipstick, rouge, foundation
type emulsion of vanishing cream, so-called because it and other forms of personal make-up. Cold creams formed
seems to disappear when applied on skin. Lubricating the basis of early beauty regimes developed by Pond’s,
creams, night creams or massage creams are a type of cold Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein and others. By
cream with the addition of lanolin (wool fat) and its establishing a daily regime, cosmetic companies hoped they
derivatives. The name “cold cream” derives from the cooling would increase the usage of their creams and widen
feeling that the cream leaves on the skin. Cold creams were consumer consumption to entire product lines. Guidance
usually made as water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions. After the from beauty authorities saw many women adopt the practice
creams are applied to the skin much of the water evaporates of applying cold cream before sleep to remove the dirt,
leaving the remaining oil to act as a solvent which cleanses grime and cosmetics of the day. It cleansed the skin and, if
the skin of cosmetics and other grime. There may also be not removed with soap and water, left a thin film with
some surfactant activity. Some chemists suggested that as moisturizing properties. If it was doing something else while
the water evaporated it cooled the skin which is why the you slept, so much the better. One wonders, for example,
creams are called ‘cold cream’. An alternative explanation is how many women discovered that leaving it liberally on
that in the days before mineral oil or petrolatum was used, their face when they retired, helped them avoid the
the creams needed to be stored in a cool place to stop them ‘ministrations’ of their husbands, enabling them to get a
going rancid. This made them cold to the touch and so gave night of uninterrupted sleep. The all-purpose nature of cold
them their name. The first cold cream has been attributed to cream, which had been its strength, proved to be its
the Roman physician Galen (C.E. 150) who reputedly made weakness. The recognition of different skin types and skin
a primitive emulsion by mixing water with molten beeswax conditions along with the proliferation of skin creams
and olive oil. It was laborious to make – requiring a great containing ‘beneficial additives’ saw the need for an all-
deal of mixing – and tended to separate on standing. purpose skin cream decline. This fracturing of the
However, the formulation persisted – generally using rose- commercial skin-care market which began with the
water and/or oil of roses as a perfume – and was included in introduction of stearate (vanishing) creams in 1892, picked
the first edition of the ‘Pharmacopœa Londinensis’ in 1618. up pace in the 1920s and 1930s and eroded the prestige of
Vegetable oils like almond oil are liable to deteriorate when cold creams and pushed them increasingly into the low-end
they are mixed with water, so early forms were not long- of the skin-care market. Although the use of cold creams has
lasting. Their short shelf life meant that cold creams were declined, they are still available. However, when more
usually made up at home or purchased in small quantities, recent products are compared to original formulations

marked differences are evident, primarily in the replacement of borax with modern surfactants (Figure 5) [42-50].
Figure 5. 1961 POND'S SKIN CREAM vintage magazine advertisement “Special Formula Care” [140].
Put your skin on Pond's Special Formula Care...and look lovelier overnight...Pond's Cold Cream...Pond's Dry Skin
Cream...Pond's Moisture Base…
Cold cream is an emulsion of water and certain fats, usually different roles in cold creams in that; it promotes
including beeswax and various scent agents, designed to emulsification and reduces surface tension of water. Borax is
smooth skin and remove makeup. Beeswax itself suffers used in various household laundry and cleaning products but
from 2 disadvantages as an ingredient in skin creams. The to its highly alkaline nature, it might cause skin irritation.
first of this is that it has a distinctive smell which usually has There are also reports of adverse reproductive and
to be masked in the final product; the odor is not unpleasant developmental impact on the fetus. Its use in the long term is
but not found that compatible with the products of modern not recommended as there is a possibility of causing renal
days’ sophisticated image. And the quality and price also dysfunction as the borax accumulates in the body. It can also
vary with season. The original cold cream recipe or the basic cause fatigue or vomiting due to toxicity. Some research
cold cream formula contains Borax. Borax was added to the suggests it could also cause genetic damage and be toxic to
basic combination of ingredients at the end of the nineteenth lymphocytes, the building block of the body’s immune
century. It reacts with fatty acids in the beeswax to form an system (Figure 6) [51-56].
emulsion and makes the cream stable. Borax plays many
Figure 6. A borax-free cold cream [57,58].

Since borax is a naturally occurring mineral and is so useful glyceryl stearate and PEG-100 stearate allow oil and water
in producing skincare and cleaning products, it is somewhat to mix. Used in after sun skin care, antiperspirants, beach
puzzling why there is so much fuss about its use. It’s wear sun care, cleansing wipes. When it comes to evaluating
important to remember that “natural” doesn’t always equal skin care chemicals to find the best ingredients for skin care,
safe, nor does it guarantee we are protected from adverse PEG 100 Stearate can be one of those cases where it’s
effects. difficult to make a clear-cut assessment. On the one hand,
this ingredient has many positive properties, such as the
Sodium Behenoyl Lactylate can be used as an emulsifying
ability to moisturize and cleanse the skin. However, some
agent, humectant and conditioner in skin and hair care.
studies point to a potential link between PEG 100 Stearate
Sodium Behenoyl Lactylate is vegetable derived and can be
and development of toxicity within the body. Some skin care
used in creams, lotions, facial cleansers and bath products
experts even suggest that this ingredient has been linked to
such as bath butters and scrubs [59,60]. White beeswax is a
problems with reproductive health and even cancer. When
chemically bleached form of yellow wax and is used in
looking at PEG 100 Stearate as an emollient, there are other
similar applications: for example, to increase the consistency
ingredients, like shea and cocoa butter that can also do the
of creams and ointments and to stabilize water-in-oil
job very well. Glycerin is another well-known emollient that
emulsions. White wax is used to polish sugar-coated tablets
can increase skin hydration and softness. When it comes to
and to adjust the melting point of suppositories. Beeswax
emulsification properties of PEG 100 Stearate, alternative
has been used since ancient times for its antimicrobial
chemicals that are sometimes used include ceteareth 20,
properties in European and Asian traditional medicines.
glycol stearate or laureth 3 [67-70]. Sorbitol-based
Preservative effects are possibly at the basis of its use in
emulsifiers such as sorbitan sesquioleate (SSO) is used in a
embalming and mummification practices by old Egyptians
variety of products including skin care products, skin
and Persian, or to model death masks by ancient Romans. A
cleansing products, moisturizers, eye makeup and other
total of about 50 aroma components have also been reported.
makeup, primarily as an emollient. It is added to formulas as
The ester/acid ratio is important for beeswax
a skin soother and moisturizer and is derived from sorbitol, a
characterization by different Pharmacopeias, being generally
humectant. They are commonly used in topical
lower (3-4) in European and higher (8-9) in Asian beeswax
corticosteroids, topical antibiotics, topical antifungals,
[61,62]. Ceresin is often used as a substitute for ozokerite
moisturizing creams and lotions and topical retinoids.
wax due to its similar properties, and also as a substitute for
Contact dermatitis from sorbitol derivatives appears to be
beeswax and paraffin wax. It acts as a rheological modifier
increasingly prevalent. Patch-testing with SSO can be useful
at low concentrations (2-3%) and has the ability to create
in the work-up of patients with presumptive cosmetic
very small crystallites, which crosslink and establish a
allergic contact dermatitis. Those sensitized to SSO can be
network structure that does not allow flow in practical
counseled to avoid sorbitol-containing products, especially
conditions. Ceresin produces stable mixtures with oils and
topical corticosteroids [71-73]. Glyceryl Stearate acts as
prevents bleeding or sweating of oil and it produces a lighter
emollient; emulsifying agent; solubilizing agent; stabilizing
cream that is less greasy [18,63]. Carbopol® 934 polymer is
agent; sustained-release agent; tablet and capsule lubricant.
a white powder, cross-linked polyacrylic acid polymer. It
As a lubricant on the skin's surface, it gives the skin a soft
exhibits short flow properties and a creamy sensory profile,
and smooth appearance. It also slows the loss of water from
and is therefore well suited for use as a rheology modifier in
the skin by forming a barrier on the skin's surface. Glyceryl
lotions and creams [64]. Butylene glycol is an antimicrobial
Stearate and Glyceryl Stearate SE help to form emulsions by
preservative; humectant; solvent; water-miscible co-solvent.
reducing the surface tension of the substances to be
It is used in topical ointments, creams and lotions and it is
emulsified. In cosmetics and personal care products,
also used as a vehicle in transdermal patches. Cottage cheese
Glyceryl Stearate is widely used and can be found in lotions,
whey was unsatisfactory, but B. polymyxa produced large
creams, powders, skin cleansing products, makeup bases and
amounts of the glycol in sweet whey, about 60 mmol of
foundations, mascara, eye shadow, eyeliner, hair
glycol per 100 mmol of lactose utilized [18,65]. It is widely
conditioners and rinses and suntan and sunscreen products
used in cosmetics, including low-irritant skin care products
[18,74,75]. Cetyl Alcohol is a synthetic, solid, fatty alcohol
and topical medicaments, as an excellent and low-irritation
and nonionic surfactant. Cetyl alcohol is used as an
humectant [66]. Polyethylene glycols (PEGs) are products of
emulsifying agent in pharmaceutical preparations. Often
condensed ethylene oxide and water that can have various
confused with the bad alcohols, such as denatured alcohol,
derivatives and functions. PEG-100 STEARATE (a
the fatty alcohols include, among others, cetyl alcohol and
polyethylene glycol ester of stearic acid, commercially
stearyl alcohol. Typically, fatty alcohols are used as
available as HallStar® PEG 4400 MS; Jeemate 4400 DPS;
emollients and thickeners in skin-care products. Fatty
Sabowax SE 100) is a non-ionic emulsifier (o/w) from
alcohols are not irritating and, in fact, can be beneficial for
petrochemical and vegetal sources. PEG-100 stearate is off-
dry skin [76-80]. Dimethicone is an antifoaming agent;
white, solid ester of polyethylene glycol (a binder and a
emollient; water-repelling agent. Dimethicones of various
softener) and stearic acid. The surfactant qualities of

viscosities are widely used in cosmetic and pharmaceutical photoaging may result in fine wrinkles, texture
formulations. In topical oil-in-water emulsions dimethicone abnormalities, pigment dyschromias and actinic keratoses
is added to the oil phase as an antifoaming agent. It is [151]. Glycolic acid (GA) chemical peels are a popular
hydrophobic and is also widely used in topical barrier treatment for photo-aged skin rejuvenation although
preparations. Also called polydimethylsiloxane, is a type of retinaldehyde (RAL)-based cosmetic creams are potentially
silicone oil with distinctive properties that make it a useful better tolerated than chemical peels [85]. Short-term topical
ingredient in many skin care products. The combination of application of glycolic acid in a cosmetic formulation
silicone with methyl groups tends to make it extremely increased the sensitivity of human skin to solar simulated
resistant to water yet it keeps them flexible and moving free, radiation (SSR), while a comparable treatment with salicylic
ideal properties for a lubricant. Dimethicone is viscoelastic acid did not [86]. Glycolic acid also stimulates the growth of
meaning that, at high temperature, acts like a viscous liquid new skin. Although the exact mechanism of action of
and, at low temperature, acts like elastic solid, similar to glycolic acid is still unknown, alpha-hydroxy acids decrease
rubber. According to USFDA, dimethicone at concentrations corneocyte cohesion and it has been suggested that this
between 1 and 30% is considered as a safe skin protectant. occurs by interference with the formation of ionic bonds.
Besides being water and UV resistant, dimethicone is not They dissolve adhesions between cells in the upper layers of
greasy and is not expensive [82]. Glydant Plus™ is a unique the skin, inducing shedding of dry scales from the skin’s
and cost-effective preservative featuring a high level of surface, commonly referred to as exfoliation [87]. AHAs
antimicrobial activity in a wide variety of cosmetic and have been used as superficial peeling agents as well as to
personal care formulations. Glydant Plus is also highly ameliorate the appearance of keratoses and acne in
effective in inhibiting the growth of gram positive and gram- dermatology. However, caution should be exercised in
negative bacteria, yeasts and molds without the need of relation to certain adverse reactions among patients using
additional auxiliary preservatives. This water-soluble products with AHAs, including swelling, burning, and
preservative has a low odor and is stable for extended pruritus [88]. GA suppressed the mRNA expression levels of
periods of time over wide pH and temperature ranges [83]. NLRC4 and AIM2 among the inflammasome complexes.
Alpha-hydroxy acids (AHA) such as glycolic acid have been GA also blocked interleukin (IL)-1β by reducing the activity
used extensively in cosmetic and dermatological formulas. of caspase-1 in the NHEKs. Treatment with GA (2%)
In low concentration (2-5%) glycolic acid is believed to inhibited UVB-induced inflammation marker NLRC4
facilitate progressive weakening of cohesion of the protein levels in mouse dorsal skin. The photoprotective
intercellular material of the stratum corneum (SC), resulting activity of GA was ascribed to the inhibition of ROS
in uniform exfoliation of its outermost layers (the stratum formation and DNA damage, as well as a reduction in the
disjunctum) [84]. Exposure to UVB radiation induces activities of inflammasome complexes and IL-1β. GA has
inflammation and free radical-mediated oxidative stress anti-inflammatory and photoprotective effects against UVB
through reactive oxygen species (ROS) that play a crucial irradiation (Figure 7). GA is potentially beneficial to the
role in the induction of skin cancer. Clinically chronic protection of human skin from UV damage [89].
Figure 7. Glycolic acid (GA) had anti-inflammatory and photoprotective effects against UVB-irradiation in keratinocytes
[88].
(Left) UVB-irradiation activated the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB) pathway and promoted the inflammasome complex
assembly, which in ROS accumulation and the release of several proinflammatory cytokines (e.g. interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8,
monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, IL-Iβ, COX-2 and IL-1β; (Right) Pretreatment with GA could activate DNMT-
3B activity and induce the hypermethylation of promoters of NLRC4 and ASC genes, which subsequently hinder of the
assembly of the inflammasome complex. GA also inhibited the UVB-induced promoter activity of NF-kB in keratinocyte cells

A natural tocopherol and one of the most potent antioxidant glycolic acid and lactic acid. Among others are citric acid,
tocopherols. It exhibits antioxidant activity by virtue of the hydroxycaprylic acid and hydroxycapric acid [97].
phenolic hydrogen on the 2H-1-benzopyran-6-ol nucleus
Night creams
[90]. Stability of vitamin E depends on its form, dl-α-Toc
acetate being the most stable. It protects the skin from Night and massage creams are designed to be left on the skin
various deleterious effects due to solar radiation by acting as for several hours or to remain mobile on the skin even after
a free-radical scavenger. Experimental studies suggest that vigorous rubbing [98]. Therefore, they are composed with a
vitamin E has anti-tumorigenic and photoprotective substantial oil phase which will spread easily without
properties [91]. Although many cosmeceuticals contain disappearing but also without rubbing off on to clothing or
vitamins C and E, very few are actually effective in topical bed linen in use. Such creams tend to be high-oil-content,
application because the stability is compromised as soon as water-in-oil, soft solid or viscous liquid creams. A
the product is opened and exposed to air and light. However, moisturizing effect is resulted due to the formation of the
when a stable formulation delivers a high concentration of occlusive layer on the skin surface thereby reducing the rate
non-esterified, optimal isomer of the antioxidant, vitamins C of trans-epidermal water loss. Hence, the skin surface feels
and E inhibit the acute UV damage as well as chronic UV smooth by lubricating action and allowing any “saw tooth”
photoaging and skin cancer [92]. The solubility of ascorbyl cells in the outer layer of the stratum corneum to be
palmitate in alcohol permits it to be used in non-aqueous and smoothed down. The occlusive layer prevents epidermal
aqueous systems and emulsions. It is an anti-mutagenic moisture loss and also gives lubrication. Massage has a
agent; antioxidant [93]. Ascorbic acid-6-palmitate reduced valuable part to play in skin care since it is well known that
cellular levels of reactive oxygen species following vigorous rubbing of the skin prevents dead surface cells and
ultraviolet B irradiation. Ascorbic acid-6-palmitate strongly keeps epidermal blood supply in good condition. The term
promoted ultraviolet-B-induced lipid peroxidation, c-Jun N- “moisturizing” has also been applied to water-in-oil creams
terminal kinase activation, and cytotoxicity, however. of this type. The recent research has broadened the concept
Despite its antioxidant properties, ascorbic acid-6-palmitate of moisturizing from the simple occlusive skin barrier
may intensify skin damage following physiologic doses of principle. Many night moisturizing creams are
ultraviolet radiation [94]. Vitamin C also improves the comparatively light and easy to rub in compared with those
elasticity of the skin and reduces wrinkles by stimulating of the overnight and massage types, although there still
collagen synthesis. Since it suppresses pigmentation and remains a market for the heavier moisturizing creams [99].
decomposes melanin, it is used as a skin-whitening agent. Recently, day and night creams containing Melatonin,
However, applied ascorbic acid is extremely reactive and vehiculated in lipospheres (Melatosphere™), have been
therefore unstable in dispersions due to the fast oxidation developed (Nutriage day cream and Nutriage night cream;
and further irreversible chemical transformation. Therefore, Cantabria Labs, Difa Cooper, Caronno Pertusella, VA,
the use of less reactive derivatives like ascorbyl phosphate Italy). Melatonin is considered as a strong antioxidant
salts (pro-antioxidant) or lipophilic ascorbyl esters is an molecule, and it is one of the most potent ·OH radical
attempt to prolong their stability [95]. Ascorbyl palmitate scavenger in nature. The liposphere carrier system could
widely used in cosmetic and pharmaceutical preparations. further improve the penetration of the Mel molecules
Light accelerated the degradation of ascorbyl palmitate. In through the skin layers. In women with skin aging,
contrast, sodium ascorbyl phosphate was stable in both types Melatonin-based creams improved significantly skin tonicity
of microemulsions. Sodium ascorbyl phosphate is shown to and skin hydration with a significant reduction in skin
be convenient as an active ingredient in topical preparations roughness, supporting the skin anti-aging effect of this
[96]. The most common AHAs in cosmetic products are molecule applied topically (Table 3) [100].

Table 3. Lightening night cream formulation [110].

Phase
Product INCI Supplier %
Deionized Water Water ----- 62.10
Glycerin Glycerin Interchimie 4.00
A Dermosoft® GMCY Glyceryl Caprylate Dr Straetmans* 0.50
Satiaxane™ CX 911 Xanthan Gum Cargill 0.50
Hydrogenated Lecithin (and) C12-16
Biophilic™ H Lucas Meyer Cosmetics 4.00
Alcohols (and) Palmitic Acid
Sunflower Oil Helianthus annuus (Sunflower) Seed Oil Emile Noel 5.00
Hazelnut Oil Corylus avellana (Hazel) Seed Oil Emile Noel 5.00
Cerabeil Blanche
Bees wax Baerlocher 4.00
B Selection
Tocopherol (and) Helianthus annuus
Vitapherole® E1000 VitaeNaturals 0.20
(Sunflower) Seed Oil
Lipex® 102 Butyrospermum parkii (Shea) Butter AAK 3.00
Deionized Water Water ----- 5.00
Artocarpus heterophyllus Seed Extract (and)
Whitessence™ Maltodextrin (and) Disodium Phosphate Lucas Meyer Cosmetics 2.00
(and) Sodium Phosphate
Mamaku Vital Essence Water (and) Glycerin (and) Cyathea
C Lucas Meyer Cosmetics 2.00
Nature PF medullaris Leaf Extract
Butylene Glycol (and) Vibrio alginolyticus
Exo-T™ Lucas Meyer Cosmetics 1.00
Ferment Filtrate
Water (and) Glycerin (and) Rumex
Tyrostat™ 09 Lucas Meyer Cosmetics 1.00
occidentalis Extract
D Potassium Sorbate Potassium Sorbate ----- 0.30
E Relax 2020/2 Fragrance Vanessence 0.40
* International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI)
Deionized (DI) water is water that has been treated to Dermosoft® GMCY (Glyceryl Caprylate) is a skin-
remove all ions – typically, that means the entire dissolved conditioning agent - emollient; surfactant - emulsifying
mineral salts [111]. Glycerin is used as humectant/emollient. agent [112,113]. synergistic effects of isopropyl myristate

and glyceryl monocaprylate (GEFA-C8) enhanced Hydrogenated Lecithin are used in a large number of
transdermal permeation of PTZ by disrupting SC lipids cosmetic formulations as skin conditioning agents-
[114]. There is a considerable interest in the development of miscellaneous and as surfactant-emulsifying agents.
preservative-free or self-preserving cosmetics. Lonicera Hydrogenated Lecithin is also used as a suspending agent-
caprifoleum and Lonicera japonica in combination with non-surfactant. Based on the available data, Lecithin and
glyceryl caprylate and/or levulinic acid, p-anisic acid and Hydrogenated Lecithin are safe as used in rinse-off cosmetic
ethanol (5%) gave an important assistance in order to boost products; they may be safely used in leave-on products at
the self-preserving system and to produce stable and safe concentrations up to 15%, the highest concentration tested in
cosmetic products [115]. Glyceryl Caprylate is a preferred clinical irritation and sensitization studies; but the safety of
ingredient in many natural care products (claimed safe for use could not be substantiated in cosmetic products likely to
baby products). It is derived from plants, and a valuable be inhaled. Because of the possibility of formation of
resource because of its many properties. Glyceryl Caprylate nitrosamines, these ingredients should not be used in
moisturizes and balances the pH of the skin. Its cosmetic products in which N-nitroso compounds may be
antimicrobial and antifungal properties keep bacteria- formed [122]. Functionally sunflower oil is a diluent;
causing germs at bay. It also contains a natural preservative emollient; emulsifying agent; solvent; tablet binder. Skin
that prevents mold from forming. It is very compatible with care influences skin barrier function during the first
known organic ingredients but can also interact with extra postnatal weeks. Sunflower oil did not harm skin barrier
iron [116]. It’s moisturizing and re-fatting properties assist function adaptation in healthy term neonates during the first
with improving and maintaining the moisture and balanced five weeks of life [123]. Natural oils are applied topically as
environment of the skin. It can also help to combat part of a traditional oil massage to neonates in many
impurities due to its strong activity against developing countries. Topical application of linoleate-
Propionibacterium acnes [117]. Xanthan gum (XG) is a enriched oil such as sunflower seed oil might enhance skin
complex exopolysaccharide produced by the plant- barrier function and improve outcome in neonates with
pathogenic bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. compromised barrier function. Mustard oil, used routinely in
(Xanthomonas bacteria, a Gram-negative bacteria genus that newborn care throughout South Asia, has toxic effects on the
exhibits several different species) and is widely used as a epidermal barrier that warrant further investigation
thickener (gelling agent) or viscosity modifier [118]. It is [124,125]. Topical application of olive oil for 4 weeks
also used as stabilizing agent; suspending agent; sustained- caused a significant reduction in stratum corneum integrity
release agent [18]. The use of bioadhesive hydrogels for skin and induced mild erythema in volunteers with and without a
care presents important advantages such as long residence history of atopic dermatitis. Sunflower seed oil preserved
times on the application site and reduced product stratum corneum integrity, did not cause erythema, and
administration frequency. Hydrogel formulations showed a improved hydration in the same volunteers. In contrast to
prevalently elastic rheological behavior. Complex viscosity sunflower seed oil, topical treatment with olive oil
of carbomer homopolymer type C hydrogels was higher than significantly damages the skin barrier, and therefore has the
that of the kappa carrageenan hydrogels. Formulations potential to promote the development of, and exacerbate
which combined carbomer homopolymer type C with existing, atopic dermatitis [126]. Several studies have shown
xanthan gum or with carbomer copolymer type B were the significant differences between the moisturizing effects and
most promising for bioadhesive skin products [119]. It has skin tolerances of virgin and refined vegetable oils when
widely been used as an additive in various industrial and incorporated in cosmetic emulsions. The phospholipid
biomedical applications such as food and food packaging, content of Hazelnut oil decreased from 286 ppm in virgin oil
cosmetics, water-based paints, toiletries, petroleum, oil- to traces in refined oil. Still, moisturizing effect obtained
recovery, construction and building materials and drug with the emulsion containing the enriched refined oil was
delivery. Recently, it has shown great potential in issue shown to be the same as that obtained with the virgin oil
engineering applications and a variety of modification emulsion [127]. Hazelnut oil contains 66-85% oleic acid, 7-
methods have been employed to modify xanthan gum as 25% linoleic acid, 4-9% palmitic acid and 1-6% stearic acid.
polysaccharide for this purpose [120]. Biophilic™ H is a When used in cosmetics and personal care products,
patented phospholipid-based O/W lamellar emulsifier hazelnut oil and Hydrogenated Hazelnut Oil function as
designed to create elegant and very comfortable formulas. Its skin-conditioning agents - emollient and skin-conditioning
lamellar structure has a particular affinity to the skin, agents – occlusive. It's loaded with skin-nourishing vitamins
resulting in a second skin effect for maximum and essential fatty acids that help protect skin against sun
biocompatibility and tolerance [121]. Hydrogenated Lecithin damage, boost collagen production, and more. Hazelnut is
is the product of controlled hydrogenation of Lecithin. non-greasy and is best used for those who have oily skin but
Bilayers of these phospholipids in water may form still want to enjoy the many benefits of carrier oils [128].
liposomes, a spherical structure in which the acyl chains are Vitapherole E1000 (Tocopherol and Helianthus annuus Seed
inside and not exposed to the aqueous phase. Lecithin and Oil combination); Vitapherole® is a line of IP natural-source

vitamin E or tocopherols including α-tocopherols, mixed proteins of Whitessence ™ inhibit the transfer of melanin
tocopherols and acetates. They protect the skin from from melanocytes to keratinocytes. The decrease in the
environmental stressors like pollution and UV. Tocopherols melanin quantity at the surface of the skin results in a clear
also help tighten and firm the look of skin which makes and unified complexion [132,133]. Exo-T™,
vitamin E the perfect addition to any anti-aging formula exopolysaccharide from Kopara (microorganisms mat)
[129]. Shea butter is a vegetable fat obtained from the fruit living in unique ecosystem in the rims of French Polynesian
of a tree native to Africa, Butyrospermum parkii. Shea butter atolls, acts as an anti-wrinkle agent, anti-aging agent and
is primarily composed of fatty acids such as stearic and oleic regenerating/revitalizing (manufacturer’s claim) [134]. Also,
acids. This product can be used in formulations from 1% to Tyrostat™ 9 is claimed as a potent strong inhibitor of
100%. It is a natural emollient that will add moisture back tyrosinase enzymatic activity, one of the main enzymes
into the skin while also reducing swelling. Shea tree is involved in the pigmentation process [135]. Potassium
abundantly found in the wide belt of savannah including sorbate is a potassium salt having sorbate as the counter ion.
West African countries like Nigeria, and further east in Potassium Sorbate is a mild preservative being used in
Uganda. Nowadays, shea butter, mainly the traditional one cosmetic and skin care formulas as a paraben alternative to
(called BIO-shea butter) interests cosmetic and prevent or retard the growth of microorganisms and protect
pharmaceutical firms, contained nutritional elements like products from spoiling. Phenoxyethanol, citric acid, sodium
essential fatty acids (oleic and linoleic acids), minerals benzoate, and potassium sorbate were very common in all
(calcium, iron, copper, magnesium, sodium, potassium and the cosmetic product categories, found in a study where
zinc), vitamins (A and E) and carotene, which would present 2300 products commercially available in Spain was
them as available, cheap and accessible nutritive edible fats collected and examined to identify the frequency of a wide
[130,131]. Whitessence ™ is a strong natural lightening variety of preservatives in different product categories
agent extracted from Asian nangka seeds. The specific (Figure 8 and Exhibit 1) [136].
Exhibit 1. Benefits of day and night creams [144,145].
A day cream is designed to primarily protect and support skin during the day against damaging UV rays, pollution
and environmental stress. They contain SPF to prevent burning and photo-aging, antioxidants to fight free
Why Day
radicals, and ingredients like caffeine to make skin look energized and firm. Day creams are usually designed to
Cream?
be worn under cosmetics, so they have light, non-greasy formulas that are absorbed quickly and allow pores to
breathe.
Night cream works differently as it basically repairs and moisturize your skin to make it look supple and wrinkle-
free. Good night creams contain antioxidants and anti-wrinkle ingredients which helps to slow down our natural
process of ageing. For night cream, there’s also the whitening night cream available. Most common ingredient to
Why Night
be found in a night cream are AHA, BHA*, Retinol, Vitamin A and so forth. A topical cream containing retinol
Cream?
0.5% in combination with niacinamide, resveratrol, and hexylresorcinol is efficacious and tolerable for skin
brightening/anti-aging when used with a complementary skin care regimen including SPF 30 sun protection
(Figure 8).
* Unlike AHAs, BHAs can get deeper into the pores to remove dead skin cells and excess sebum
Figure 8. Diana, Princess of Wales, 1986 [154-156].

According to the magazine Longevity, Princess Diana was fragile dermal tissue [102]. Cellulite has been treated with
“scrupulous about using an SPF-8 sunblock.” While the massage which decreases tissue edema but it is also likely to
American Academy of Dermatology recommends applying have its effects at the cellular level by stimulating fibroblast
at least SPF 30, protection against UV rays can prevent both (and keratinocyte) activity while decreasing adipocyte
sunburn and dangerous skin cancers. activity. In addition to massage, effective topical creams
with a variety of agents were used to ameliorate the
Massage creams
condition [103]. Slimming Cream Containing 3.5% Water-
A beauty massages cream that promotes resilience and soluble caffeine and xanthenes appears to be effective for the
firmness while helping prevent sagging and other signs of treatment of cellulitis without serious adverse effects.
aging. The great interest in eternal youth has developed a Moreover, massage is also used to remove interstitial fluid
large market for skin care products claiming anti-wrinkle and accelerate lymphatic drainage, which leads to the
effects. Facial massage is an extremely popular form of reduction of cellulite [157]. Client-preferred massage creams
beauty treatment and is thought to rejuvenate the skin. It are ideal for all modalities and offer a unique combination of
may refresh the subjects by reducing their psychological medium glide, friction, and typically absorb completely into
distress and activating the sympathetic nervous system the skin. Massage Warehouse carries a wide range of
[152]. Performing short-term facial massage with a roller organic massage cream brands including TheraPro, Massage
increases SkBF and long-term use improves the vascular FX, Lotus Touch, Soothing Touch, Bon Vital and much
dilatation response [150]. Facial beauty treatment generally more! [104]. Massage therapy has been shown to have
consists of three steps: vigorous massaging of the face with beneficial effects on varying conditions including prenatal
creams, steaming (using a hot towel or a steaming gadget), depression, preterm infants, full-term infants, autism, skin
and application of a face mask containing adsorbents and conditions, pain syndromes including arthritis and
astringents. Combining massage with moisturizer fibromyalgia, hypertension, autoimmune conditions
application is a popular technique in beauty spa sessions. including asthma and multiple sclerosis, immune conditions
The subjective positive psychological effects of massage including HIV and breast cancer and aging problems
with moisturizer application in hand and face beauty including Parkinson's and dementia [105]. Thai foot massage
treatment are documented by many people attending spa may be one of the alternative therapies to improve balance
sessions. Interestingly, daily performance of massage after performance for diabetic patients as a result of increasing
moisturizer application was not an effective external range of motion (ROM) and sensation of the foot [106].
intervention for enhancing moisturizer efficacy [147]. The Massage in infancy improves growth and post-massage
action of rubbing a cream or emollient into the skin is a form sleep. However, only sesame oil showed significant benefit
of massage, and this simple action will go a very long way [107]. Swedish Massage Therapy (SMT) is a complementary
towards the recovery of skin integrity and in the prevention treatment that is believed to provide relaxation and therefore
of harm and infection [148]. Anecdotally, the addition of able to reduce blood pressure caused by stress [108].
aromatherapy oils to massage cream may have a positive Massage creams and lotions are well-suited to deep tissue
effect on symptom relief in people with cancer, although and other high-friction massages. They tend to provide
evidence is again lacking [149]. Although there are several medium glide, and while they can be nourishing to the skin,
subjective benefits with facial beauty treatment, there may are typically absorbed fairly slowly. Lotion and cream are
be immediate side-effects, such as erythema and edema, as often similar products, but tend to have a different
well as delayed problems, such as dermatitis and acneiform consistency. Creams are generally quite a bit thicker, while
eruption (follicular eruptions characterized by papules and lotions are more liquid. Lotions tend to give more bang for
pustules resembling acne), in about one-third of patients buck, as they are more spreadable. Creams do better for
[101]. Gentle massage is often facilitated using a cream to topical treatments on tough areas of skin. Some creams and
reduce friction on the skin. However, there is also the lotions, particularly water-based ones, can leave the skin
possibility of massage causing harm - massage or rubbing of feeling dried out. Creams generally come in jars or tubs
vulnerable skin may exert shear stresses which may which don’t fit into holsters, which can be a hassle during
themselves potentially cause damage. In addition, it is also treatments. Creams and lotions are often cold when first
possible that the use of a cream or emollient as part of the applied to the skin and can be difficult to heat. Many are also
massage regimen may increase epidermal hydration and scented, which will bother some clients (Table 4) [109].
prevent dermal stripping and the subsequent exposure of

Table 4. Massage cream formulation [158].

Ingredients % of total 500 g 2 cups Function
Part A
Distilled Water 38.10 190.50 3/4 cup+1 TBS Diluent
Glycerin 2.00 10.00 2 tsp Humectant
Part B
Cetyl Alcohol 4.25 21.25 4 1/4 tsp Thickener
Ethylhexyl Palmitate 23.00 115.00 1/2 cup Occlusive oil for slip
Grapeseed Oil 8.50 42.50 3 TBS Vegetable oil for moisturizing
Cetearyl Alcohol (and)
3.55 17.75 3 1/2 tsp Emulsifier blend
Ceteareth-20
Caprylic/Capric Triglycerides 10.00 50.00 1/4 cup Occlusive oil for slip
Sweet Almond Oil 3.50 17.50 3 1/2 tsp Vegetable oil for moisturizing
Glyceryl Stearate (and) PEG-
6.10 30.5 2 TBS Emulsifier blend
100 Stearate
Part C
Germaben II 1.00 5.00 1 tsp Preservative
Total 100% 500 g 2 cups
Ethyl hexyl palmitate is an ingredient that functions as an well as phototoxicity and hypersensitive reactions [160].
emollient, solvent, pigment wetting agent, and fragrance However, there so many other herb’s extract/juices/oils like
fixative in cosmetics and personal care products. As an grape seed, cucumber, basil, jojoba oil, almond oil, olive oil,
emollient, ethyl hexyl palmitate helps to keep the skin moist etc., present in the commercial moisturizer section claiming
and supple by reducing water loss from the epidermis (the for restoring skin hydration and viscoelasticity [161]. Many
outer layer of skin). Emollients also act as lubricants by of grape seed oil's beauty benefits may be due to its omega-6
reducing friction when anything rubs against the skin. Ethyl fatty acid content and vitamin E, an antioxidant that helps to
hexyl palmitate is considered to be a non-occlusive build tissue and lineolic acid, a fatty acid which promotes
emollient, which means it does not form a film on the hair and skin growth. Nonionic emulsifiers depend chiefly
surface of skin. It is often used as an organic replacement to upon hydroxyl groups and ether linkages (from polyhydric
silicones in a cosmetic formulation because it provides a alcohol anhydrides and polyoxyethylene chains) for their
dry-slip, silky feel that is very similar to how a silicone hydrophobic effects [164]. Nonionic emulsifiers are usually
would feel. While all skin types can benefit from emollients less irritating than their ionic counterparts. Examples of
like ethyl hexyl palmitate, emollients are very beneficial for nonionic emulsifiers include cholesterol, a natural
those who have dry, rough and/or flaky skin. Emollients can component of the lipid bilayer, polyethylene glycol, cetearyl
treat these symptoms, leaving the skin looking and feeling alcohol, ceteareth-20 and stearyl alcohol [162]. This non-
soft and smooth. In addition, emollients can benefit those ionic emulsifier blend, INCI Cetearyl Alcohol and Ceteareth
that suffer from conditions such as eczema, psoriasis, or 20, is a waxy pastille and creates a thicker, waxier end
other inflammatory skin condition [159]. Instruments that product. It is derived from coconut fatty acid. It is excellent
have been used for assessing epidermal hydration are based for foot and elbow creams, which are slightly heavier.
on measurements of conductance, capacitance and Provides good emollience and feel. It forms highly stable
impedance of the skin. Most of the commercial moisturizer emulsions with excellent appearance and feel, compatible
contains Aloe barbadensis (Aloe vera) as a moisturizing with a wide range of ingredients and pH [163]. Chemically,
agent. Ingestion of Aloe preparations is associated with caprylic/capric triglyceride contains a high concentration of
diarrhea, hypokalemia, pseudomelanosis coli (a disorder of fatty acids, which allows it to provide an occlusive layer to
pigmentation of the wall of the colon), kidney failure, as help increase moisture-retention at the skin's surface. As a
result, caprylic/capric triglyceride can have emollient

properties that may boost skin-hydration levels [166]. often regarded as synonymous, even when occlusive and
Application of the o/w emulsion formulation containing humectants are also part of it. Emollients are mostly made
either HP or capric/caprylic triglyceride significantly up of lipids and their components, which fill intercorneocyte
elevated skin moisture content and thus reduced cluster gaps to enhance skin hydration, smoothness, softness,
transepidermal water loss (TEWL) by a maximal flexibility. Occlusive are other type of moisturizer which is
approximately 33% against the control formulation within 3 mostly oil based and serve the function of maintaining skin
h and maintained this up to 6 h [167]. Germaben II-E can be water content by creating a hydrophobic barrier over the skin
used in problem formulations, without the need for and blocking trans-epidermal water loss. The last type of
additional co-preservatives. It is compatible with almost all moisturizers are humectants that consist of hygroscopic
cosmetic ingredients, including surfactants and proteins. substances which help the stratum corneum to absorb water
Germaben II-E is a clear viscous liquid preservative system by attracting water from dermis and a humid environment
with a characteristic mild odor. It is readily soluble at a level into the epidermis. The efficacy of moisturizers depends
of 1.0% in both water/oil and oil/water emulsions, but not in largely on proper selection and compliance to continuously
water alone. Germaben II contains propylene glycol, use it [199]. Moisturizers, among all other skin creams, most
propylparaben, methylparaben and diazolidinyl urea. Some widely used. If water is lost more rapidly from stratum
studies have raised concerns that paraben substances may be corneum than it is received from the lower layer of the
carcinogenic owing to their effect of mimicking the body’s epidermis. The skin becomes dehydrated and loses its
hormone estrogen” [168-170]. flexibility. Water alone will not restore the flexibility
[174,175]. There are two basic types of dry skin. The first is
VITAMINS USED IN SKIN CREAMS
due to prolonged exposure to low humidity and air
The number of cosmetic products which include vitamins as movement. The second is due to ageing related
a constituent has increased three-fold since 1991. Vitamins physicochemical changes. Again, dry skin or xeroderma is
are commonly used as ingredients of products designed to an extremely common problem which can be induced by
improve the appearance and health of the skin; for this complex interactions between environmental and individual
reason, the cutaneous benefits of such products are actively factors including, but not limited to: low environmental
researched by dermatologists and chemists. It has been temperature, low humidity, exposure to chemicals,
claimed that fat-soluble as well as water-soluble vitamins are microorganisms, aging, psychological stress, atopic
capable of being taken up through the skin. The use of dermatitis and eczema. Eczema common among young
stabilized vitamins in cosmetic preparations for external children. Other conditions, such as psoriasis and type 2
application is justified [171]. Pantothenic acid is a part of the diabetes, can also cause skin to dry out [32,184]. Xerosis is
water-soluble vitamin B complex. Its precursor and the abnormal dryness of the skin (Figure 9), mucous
related materials – panthenol, pantethine and pangamic acid membranes, or conjunctiva (xerophthalmia). There are many
have all been quoted as having a beneficial action on the causes of xerosis and treatment depends on the particular
skin and being useful in skin and/or hair preparations. Skin cause [198]. Dry skin conditions are often not considered
softening ability of pantothenic acid-based topical products important by health professionals, and as a consequence
has also been demonstrated in a few recent clinical trials treatment are frequently under-prescribed. As a result of this,
[172]. Although there is no certain proof that they penetrate problems with untreated dry skin can lead to a variety of
the skin and reach the location where they might exert an issues. Conditions such as pruritus and ichthyosis vulgaris
influence, vitamin B complex, panthenol and vitamin B6 can be distressing, while ezcema and psoriasis can lead to
(pyridoxine) are used in some cosmetics. Vitamin D, like more serious consequences such as fissures and infections
vitamin A, is oil-soluble and is essential for skin health, but and can result in a reduced quality of life and social isolation
deficiencies are best corrected by oral administration to [200]. Moisturizers are topical products designed to improve
achieve a systemic effect. However, vitamins D2 and D3 and maintain the skin barrier function and to help prevent
(calciferol) are used, sometimes in conjunction with vitamin dry skin. It is common to think that a moisturizer adds water
A. A mixture of vitamins A, E and D3 has been claimed to to the skin; however, this is a misunderstanding. Rather, a
be synergistic. Vitamin E is said to enhance percutaneous moisturizer works by preventing or reducing water
resorption and vitamin H is claimed to help fat and evaporation from the skin [8]. This action allows the skin to
cholesterol synthesis. Other vitamins having some using rehydrate from within. There are three classes of chemical
topical preparations include the so-called vitamin F, now ingredients that regularly serve as moisturizers: occlusive,
known as essential (unsaturated) fatty acids (EFA) [173]. humectants and emollients. Often these chemicals are either
the same as or similar to natural components in the SC. They
MOISTURIZER
are often used in combination, with some ingredients
This term was developed by marketers, promoting its providing overlap of characteristics [176,177].
function to moisten the skin. Moisturizer and emollient are

Figure 9. Mechanisms of xerosis [196].

Normal skin contains lower levels of histamine and or not they penetrate the skin surface is a moot point, but at
inflammatory cytokines compared to dry skin. Premature least they will attract moisture to the skin. [179,180]. The
expression of involucrin, a protein that forms a protective third and most valuable approach to miniaturization to
envelope around corneocytes, has been implicated in the supplementing Natural Moisturizing Factors (NMF) from
pathophysiology of dry skin. In addition, xerotic skin has the skin those are removed by polar solvents and detergent
been shown to contain higher levels of keratin 5 and 14 and solutions. The NMF contains a combination of several
lower levels of keratin 1 and 10 compared to normal skin. naturally occurring free amino acids, urocanic acid,
The schematic on the right shows the cracked stratum inorganic salts, sugars, lactic acid and urea. Many of these
corneum that is characteristic of dry skin and associated with are highly efficient at attracting and binding water from the
decreased water content (blue spheres) and increased atmosphere, allowing adequate hydration of corneocytes
involucrin cross-linking (yellow crosses). even in low humidity environment. Once applied to the skin,
the ingredients can stay on the surface, be absorbed into the
Occlusion (by lanolin, petroleum, silicones, mineral and
skin, be metabolized or disappear from the surface by
vegetable oil) prevent water loss from healthy normal skin
evaporation, sloughing off or by contact with other
causing the stratum corneum to be more hydrated, making it
materials. In addition to substances considered as actives,
softer and supple. Examples of occlusive are: mineral and
e.g. fats and humectants, moisturizers contain substances
vegetable oils, lanolin and silicones. Their effect is increased
conventionally considered as excipients (e.g. emulsifiers,
by the use of mixtures of lipids and other fatty chemicals
antioxidants, preservatives). Partitioning of antioxidants,
which have been designed to imitate the composition of the
hydrogen bonding, interphase transport, surface
skin’s natural oily secretions. More recently, skin
accessibility, and interaction of emulsifier with antioxidants
substantive barrier materials (mainly based on quaternary
are considered to be important parameters that determine
ammonium complexes) have become available which seem
antioxidant activity in lipid-containing systems. Some
to be able to influence the rate of trans-epidermal water loss
formulations may deteriorate the skin condition, whereas
without putting an inclusive or greasy barrier on the skin
others improve the clinical appearance and skin barrier
surface. These materials can be shown to be substantive to
function. For example, emulsifiers may weaken the barrier.
skin (and hair) and act not only as moisturizers, but as
On the other hand, petrolatum has an immediate barrier-
emollients and skin conditioning agents. Examples are
repairing effect in delipidized stratum corneum. Moreover,
quaternium, a hydroxyethyl-cellulose derivative [178].
one ceramide-dominant lipid mixture improved atopic
Humectants (Glycerol, Ethylene Glycol, PG, sorbitol alone
dermatitis and decreased TEWL in an open-label study in
or in admixture at various levels) attract water from
children [181-183]. A typical moisturizing formulation is
atmosphere, so supplementing the skin water content. They
detailed in Table 5.
can be used alone or in a mixture at various levels. Whether

Table 5. Moisturizer formulation [185-195].

No. Ingredients % Justification
1 Isopropyl Linoleate 2 Lubricant
2 Glyceryl Stearate 3 Emollient; emulsifying agent
3 Diisopropyl adipate 2 Plasticizer, moisturizer, cleaning agent
4 Myristyle myristate 1 Emollient
5 PEG 40 Stearate 1 Surfactant; cleansing agent
6 Cetyl alcohol 1.5 Emollient; emulsifying agent; stiffening agent
7 Ceteareath-20 0.5 Emulsifying agent
8 Quaternium-22 2 Antistatic
Emulsifying, bubble-forming agent, viscosity-
9 Hydroxyethyl cellulose (2% aq) 25
increasing agent.
10 PG 3 Preservative; disinfectant; humectant
11 Water 59
12 Perfume, preservative q.s.
Isopropyl Linoleate the ester of isopropyl alcohol, it is a pale as a lubricant on the skin surface which gives the skin a soft
yellow, oily liquid. In cosmetics and personal care products, and smooth appearance. Its solvent properties allow its use
Isopropyl Linoleate may be used in the formulation of face as a carrier for other cosmetic ingredients and also to soften
and skin care products, hair care products and eye and facial synthetic compounds by reducing brittleness and cracking
makeup. It acts as a lubricant on the skin's surface, which [187]. Myristyl Myristate is a 100% natural vegetable
gives the skin a soft and smooth appearance [185]. The derived ester utilizing only the Myristic fatty acids. Non-
structure of a stable O/W cream is characterized by a more greasy solid emollient, enhances esthetic properties of skin
or less pronounced mixed crystal bilayer. The addition of co- care products, gives more body and spreadability, results in
emulsifiers in order to achieve a soft formulation often leads superior whitening to the product and improved benefits to
to a mixed crystal bilayer network of high viscosity and even the skin [188]. About PEG-40 STEARATE: PEG-40 stearate
phases separation. In order to avoid this component of is a synthetic polymer composed of PEG (polyethylene
different chemical identities are used which often are not glycol) and stearic acid, a naturally occurring fatty acid.
inert or harmless if they are absorbed. The amount of co- Products and formulas containing PEG 40 Stearate should
emulsifier used should not be too high, as it would not be used on broken or irritated skin. Although PEGs are
crystallize increasingly during storage which gives the considered safe for use topically on healthy skin, studies
preparation an optical inhomogenity and a lack in softness showed that patients suffering from severe burns were
which is needed for a suitable cosmetic acceptance. A treated with PEG-based antimicrobial cream; this treatment
slightly higher concentration than is necessary for the mixed resulted in kidney toxicity. Due to the presence of PEG, this
emulsifier system can be advantageous, as the formation of a ingredient may contain potentially toxic manufacturing
separate crystalline lipophilic network in the preparation impurities such as 1,4-dioxane [189]. Cetyl alcohol is a
increases its viscosity which will lead to a higher physico- common choice of emollient. It forms a layer on the skin,
chemical stability of the formulation. These results were which traps the water on the skin and prevents it from
obtained with the co-emulsifiers glyceryl monostearate escaping, thereby inhibiting skin dehydration [190].
(Imwitor 900), cetylstearyl alcohol (Lanette O) and PEG-20- Ceteareth-20 functions as an emollient and emulsifier. It's
glycerolstearate (Tagat S2) as O/W emulsifier [186]. usually used in conjunction with other alcohols and fatty
Glyceryl Monostearate Emollient; emulsifying agent; acids, working to thicken a solution and help other
solubilizing agent; stabilizing agent [18]. Diisopropyl ingredients dissolve in a solvent. It also functions as a
adipate (DIPA) is a fatty acid ester and an isopropyl ester; nonionic stabilizer in oil in water emulsions. Ceteareth-20 is
clear, colorless to light yellow viscous liquids. It is used for the polyethylene glycol ether of cetearyl alcohol; may
a variety of applications, such as the production of contain potentially toxic impurities such as 1,4-dioxane
moisturizers, shaving lotions and cleaning agents. DIPA acts [191]. Quaternium-22 is a light amber-colored liquid, a

quaternary ammonium salt. The unreacted monomer content ionic and water-soluble nature [194]. Propylene glycol is a
of these ingredients was considered low and of no synthetic liquid substance that absorbs water. It is a clear,
toxicological concern. Limited data showed no skin colorless, viscous, practically odorless liquid, with a sweet,
irritation/sensitization. Although these ingredients were non- slightly acrid taste resembling that of glycerin. It is a
genotoxic in bacterial assays, mammalian genotoxicity, propanediol that exists as a clear, colorless and hygroscopic
carcinogenicity, and reproductive and developmental liquid and consists of propane where the hydrogen at
toxicity data were not available [192]. However, its toxicity positions 1 and 2 are substituted by hydroxyl groups. It acts
is due to its ability to act as a nitrosating agent, releasing as Antimicrobial preservative; disinfectant; humectant;
potentially carcinogenic nitrosamines [193]. Hydroxyethyl plasticizer; solvent; stabilizing agent; water-miscible co-
cellulose is a polysaccharide derivative with gel thickening, solvent. Propylene glycol is used as an organic solvent and
emulsifying, bubble-forming, water-retaining and stabilizing diluent in pharmaceuticals and many other industrial
properties. It is used as a key ingredient in many household applications (Figure 10) [195].
cleaning products, lubricants and cosmetics due to its non-
Figure 10. Winter treatments [137-139].

In the winter season when the air is crisp and chilly, a (conductance, dryness, roughness and scaliness) strongly
special skin care is necessary. Dry skin in the winter has correlated with the level of ceramide. Daily application of a
been reported to involve scaling, defects in water holding moisturizing cream is effective in improving mild
and barrier functions and decreased ceramide levels in the subclinical inflammation that is induced on the facial skin by
stratum corneum (SC). Indicators of dry skin conditions the winter environment (Exhibits 2-4).
Exhibit 2. Types of moisturizers [196,199].
Emollients Humectants Occlusive Protein
Rejuvenators
Mechanism Saturated and unsaturated Low molecular Consist of oils and Small molecular
of action hydrocarbons with variable substances in majority, waxes, forming an weight proteins,
length which improves skin with capability to inactive layer on the believed to aid skin
barrier function, membrane attract water into skin surface to rejuvenation by
fluidity and cell signaling, stratum corneum. physically block water replenishing skin’s
resulting in overall Frequently used with evaporation from the essential proteins.
improvement of skin texture other compounds skin (transepidermal
and appearance. Often which may retain the water loss).
combined with emulsifier. water content?
Indication Routine skin care, dry and Xerosis, ichthyosis Prevention of contact Photo-damaged
rough skin, papulosquamous dermatitis, xerosis, skin, skin
skin disease. atopic dermatitis. rejuvenation.
Adverse Contact irritation (seldom) Irritation (lactic acid, Oily application, Contact dermatitis

effect urea) cosmetically

disagreeable, folliculitis
(mineral oil), contact
dermatitis (lanolin),
acneiform eruption
Substance Fatty acids, fatty alcohols, Urea, sorbitol, Mineral oil, petroleum Collagen, elastin,
cholesterol, squalene, panthenol, glycerol, jelly, beeswax, keratin
pseudoceramides propylene glycol, silicones, zinc oxide
hyaluronic acid, alpha
hydroxy acids
Exhibit 3. Emollients used in skin creams [196-205].

“Emollience” is another ill-defined term often used in connection with skin creams. Emollient means imparting of a
smoothness and general sense of well-being to the skin, as determined by touch. In a sense, therefore, water is an
emollient. Emollients may also cause flattening of the skin surface, pluming of each corneocyte and general
smoothing and diminishing of facial lines. Every liquid, semi-solid or low-melting-point solid of a bland nature and
cosmetic quality has been used as an emollient. Among the most popular water-soluble emollients are glycerine,
sorbitol, propylene glycol and various ethoxylated derivatives of lipids. Oil-soluble emollients include hydrocarbon
oils and waxes, silicone gels, vegetable oils and fats, alkyl esters, fatty acids and alcohols, together with ethers of
fatty alcohols (including polyhydric alcohols). The choice is determined by personal preference, data on potential
skin irritation, the degree of “greasiness” and apparent residual film on the skin, cost and availability. Mineral oils
and silicone oils do not “disappear” from the skin very readily when used in any quantity and are therefore useful in
cleansing and night creams. Properlene glycol is an efficient preservative against certain micro-organisms at
concentrations of more than 8%, but it is a potential sensitizer. The alkyl esters represent a range of interesting
emollients ranging, as they do, through lactates, oleates, myristates, adipates, linoleates with the possibility of
straight-chained, branch-chained, unsaturated or saturated precursors. Some are almost water-thin liquids which rub
quickly into the skin (decal and isodecyl oleates, isopropyl myristate) and others are waxy solids which melt near
body temperature and give “body” to creams. Lanolin was once considered to be an extremely desirable emollient
and the claim “contains lanolin” was felt to be a product “plus”. Caution: Some emollients, particular those
containing white soft paraffin or petroleum jelly can catch fire if used near a naked flame. One should keep children
away from candlelight if applied emollients to them, near an open fire or while smoking a cigarette. Once the
emollients have been applied to child’s skin, he or she should also avoid naked flames, such as candles or open fires.
Emollients should be stored in a cool, dry place away from any naked flames or heat sources such as radiators. The
moisturizing effect of emollients can make the bath or shower tray very slippery. One should use a nonslip bath mat
and clean it and the bath thoroughly after each use.

Exhibit 4. Comparison between moisturizers and cold creams [209-2013].

Moisturizer Cold Cream
Moisturizer is a complex mixture of chemical
General agents specially designed to make the external Cold cream is an emulsion of fats and water
description layers of the skin (epidermis) softer and more that can be used to clean and soften the skin.
pliable.
Nature It is thinner It is thicker
Time of usage Used in the day and in all seasons. Used at night and generally in winter.
Cold creams are typically a cleanser or a
Functions Moisturizers are strictly for moisturizing.
very rich moisturizer
Olay Moisturizing Lotion, Himalaya Intensive Ponds Moisturising Cold Cream, Garnier
Common
Moisturizing Body Lotion, Lakme Peach Milk Nourishing Cold Cream, Aromamagic Aloe
Examples
Moisturizers, etc. Vera Cold Cream, etc.
VANISHING AND FOUNDATION CREAM the cleansed skin. It is important to know whether a
foundation provides sun protection and whether it meets the
The majority of the products are moisturizers with added
standards set for other sunscreen products. Sunscreen agents
ingredients to support marketing claims. Whether the
help to protect the consumer’s skin from the harmful, aging
product is a facial foundation, an anti-aging night cream, a
effects of shortwave solar radiation. Foundation cream
sunscreen, a topical antioxidant or a skin-lightening serum,
comes in several forms: the original cream, a lighter mousse
the formulation is basically a moisturizer. Skin care products
version, a heavier stick version and a “pancake” version, a
are numerous and perplexing, yet there is certain
powder that turns creamy after spraying it with water.
commonality among 80% of the formulations [208]. In order
There's also a relatively new hybrid called cream to powder
to achieve rapid ‘Rub in’ effect, vanishing creams are
foundation (also called dual-finish foundation), which looks
composed of emollient esters in oil phase which leave little
like a powder and applies like a cream if it is wet and then
apparent film over skin. For this reason, a low percentage oil
dries to a powder finish. Protection which is imbalanced for
phase usually chosen. The presence of the humectant
either UV-B or UV-A radiation is potentially harmful for
glycerin was also used to claim that they helped reduce
users believing themselves adequately protected.
moisture loss from dry skin. Vanishing Cream is made
Foundations proved to be much more interesting because
especially for the outer skin. It is greaseless. It contains a
they possess a non-negligible SPF as well as good
marvelous substance that prevents loss of skin moisture –
photostability making these products safe in terms of their
actually replaces lost moisture [209]. Major difference with
mode of application (applied once daily in a study) [214].
cold cream is that cold cream is an emulsion of water and
They must therefore leave the skin non-greasy and
certain fats, usually including beeswax and various scent
preferably matte so that other makeup can easily be applied
agents, designed to smooth skin and remove makeup. The
over it. Modern foundation creams are of excellent
emulsion is of a “water in oil” type unlike the “oil in water”
appearance and stability. They contain emollients and
type emulsion of vanishing cream, so-called because it
moisturizers. In terms of spreadability, coverage and
seems to disappear when applied on skin [210]. The history
adhesion, the results of group who used the ‘oscillation
of foundation use can be traced back as far as 200 B.C. It
applicator’ were significantly twice as high as the other
was considered fashionable to have a pale complexion, so
group who applied by hand [215].
Greek women applied white lead powder and chalk to
lighten their skin. Roman women and men also lightened The right foundation helps creating illusion of flawless skin.
their skins using white lead, chalk, and tin oxide-based Foundation is arguably the most important part of our
creams. This fashion continued during the middle ages up to makeup routine. It covers blemishes, evens out skin tone and
the early 19th century when consumers used numerous toxic mattifes or illuminates depending on needs (Figure 11)
concoctions to lighten their skin [217]. Foundation creams [221]. Clients with pigmented skin are often coerced into
possess many of the same properties of vanishing creams. purchasing a foundation that has too much white pigment
Foundation creams process many of the same properties. [216]. Pigmented foundation creams can contain from 3-
These creams are for daytime use to protect and “condition” 25% of pigments. Those with between 3 and 10% form a

suitable substrate for the use for the subsequent use of dermatologists, it has been researched that the foundation
powder, whereas those with higher pigment concentrations cream covers the skin pores to produce a radiant look
can be used as complete makeup and are often termed causing pore congestion and disrupt the skin from breathing.
powder creams. They can be water-continuous or oil- Not only that, after a long time it has been observed that the
continuous systems in liquid or solid form. The difficulties cream becomes oily which might result into blemishes and
encountered in the preparations are: (a) The preferential peeling especially dry skin. It is therefore advisable that after
absorption of emulsifier in the high surface of the pigment using foundation cream the layer should be thoroughly wash
may sometimes cause inversion of the emulsion; (b) The in the evening or else face the consequences of
inadequate dispersion of the pigment for reproducible colors. inflammation, acnes, rashes and pimples as the skin might be
Pigments can be suspended by the use of cellulose stuck with this. Women with status cosmeticus cannot
derivatives or inorganic silicates such as bentonite or tolerate makeup and complain of a continuous burning
hydrated magnesium silicate [99]. According to sensation after any application (Table 6) [219].
Figure 11. Jessica Alba [221,222].

The Dark Angel (TV series by James Cameron, premiered in Y2K) super star uses an all-natural, organic foundation,
according to Glamour magazine, UK. “Vapor’s foundation makes my complexion flawless without having to use powder,”
she told InStyle
Table 6. Typical vanishing cream formulation [206].
Stearic Acid Based Vanishing Cream Palm Oil Based Vanishing Cream
Ingredients (%) Ingredients (%)
Stearic Acid 12.5 Natural palm oil base 12.5
Cetyl alcohol 1 Triethanolamine 1
Glycerol 6 Glycerol 6
Potassium hydroxide 1 Citric acid 0.2
Propyl Paraben 0.025 Propyl Paraben 0.025
Methyl Paraben 0.05 Methyl Paraben 0.05
Rose oil Qs Rose oil Qs
Purified water 29.34 Purified water 30.1
HAND AND BODY CREAMS (ALL PURPOSE emulsion or by high oil content O/W emulsions. These
CREAMS) products are for general face and body usage and generally
have a heavy consistency and significant drag on rub-out
True to its name, all-purpose cream is a flexible and versatile
[42]. The cream is pourable at room temperature but can also
type of cream that can be used for both your savory and
be easily wiped when chilled. Preparations should comply
sweet creations [207]. They act nourishing or night cream
following requirements: (a) As a foundation cream for
when applied excessively, they function as hand creams
general use it must provide a satisfactory foundation base for
when applied sparingly, thus they are called all-purpose
make-up without being too greasy (b) As a cleansing cream
cream [220]. All-purpose creams are typified by a W/O
it should liquefy quickly, be of an oily nature but should be

free from ‘Drag’. It should not be readily absorbed by the properties of drug delivery to the skin, typical of vehicles,
skin (c) As a hand cream it should be emollient yet not leave with the ability to produce specific actions on the skin, such
a greasy or sticky film on the skin (d) As a protective and as occlusive, moisturizing, smoothing, firming, soothing and
emollient cream, it should leave a continuous but non- conditioning effects. This term “Cosmetics” indicates
occlusive oil film on the skin. There appears to be a market cosmetic-pharmaceutical hybrids aimed at enhancing the
for all purpose cream because: (i) Unsophisticated user who beauty of the skin by means of ingredients that modify skin
are unwilling to pay money therefore buys one cream to do functionality or provide additional health-related function or
as much as possible (ii) Slightly more sophisticated user who benefit. As well as giving beauty to a person via the skin, the
buys a speciality cream for one particular function and uses cosmetic industry has now strongly linked its products
it as a speciality cream (iii) User who finds the cream ideally medicinally to the subject of anti-ageing of the skin. The
suited to their particular skin (iv) The user who particularly industry has also coined such terms as actives,
fragments their skin creams but resorts to an all-purpose cosmeceuticals, nutricosmetics, etc., and the legislation
cream when travelling or on holiday (v) For general family associated with cosmetology and dermatology has become
use and protection against the elements [48]. similar.
EPILOGUE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The skin plays many roles ranging from barrier function to It’s a great honor and gratitude to be pharmacists in research
highly complex biochemical and photobiochemical and education process. All pharmacists, officials, journalists,
processes. If we follow this definition then skin care magazine analysts and associates that I met in this purpose,
products are inherently not simply cosmetics to beautify the were very kind and helpful. I’m thankful to Lauren
appearance of the skin. Many cosmetic formulations have Balukonis, account executive within the beauty division at
complex mixtures of actives and the interactions of which 5W Public Relations, working with both entrepreneurs and
are not all well-defined. They then affect either the structure established brands. I’m also grateful to seminar library of
or the function (or both) of the skin. Unlike drugs, cosmetics Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka and BANSDOC
typically are very safe and have few significant serious Library, Bangladesh for providing me books, journal and
adverse events. However, like drugs, these active agents can newsletters. The greatest help was from students and
impact many diverse functions of the skin and we do not colleagues who continually supported me in collection and
fully comprehend the implications of these actions in many data extraction from books, journals, newsletters and
cases. Skin care products are readily available and their precious time in discussion followed by providing
promotions with fanciful claims are omnipresent. The information on different types of cosmetics in use. A portion
promotions are based on effects, evoked by actives that are of this article is long been lectured as course material. So, it
delivered through vehicles that rely on specific technologies. is very much helpful for me to deliver better than before as
Due to the fact, that these products are in direct contact to many more things are studied.
the target tissue, their vehicle and ingredients are able to
COMPLIANCE WITH THE ETHICAL ISSUES
profoundly modulate the characteristics of the skin and some
of its functions. This makes products for the skin absolute Ethics approval and consent to participate
unique and versatile delivery systems. Currently the majority
of skin care products are cosmetics. In cosmetic products Animal and Human experiment: N/A
claims often describe their functionalities and may be as Human Data Submission Approval: N/A
simple as “soothe signs of dry skin” but may also be more
fanciful like “Multi-ingredient anti-aging moisturizer Consent for publication
designed to improve the appearance of facial skin”. Skin Consent to publish Individual Person’s data: N/A
care products are characterized by effects, evoked by actives
that are delivered through vehicles that rely on specific Availability of data and materials
technologies. The regulatory situation is unknown to most of Data sharing: Please contact author for data requests.
the consumers and healthcare professionals. They have to
trust the current regulations on cosmetic products and Competing interests
quality standards used by the manufacturer. This means that The author declares that he has no competing interests.
professional healthcare practitioners have a substantial
responsibility for skin health while delivering skin care. Funding
ARTICLE SUMMARY Funding from individual/Organization: N/A
Skin care provide almost any possible kind of vehicles, Authors’ contributions
including emulsifiers, surfactants, oils and butters, waxes, The individual contributions of authors: N/A
and hydrophilic solutions. These substances combine the

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What are some of the different types of skin care creams discussed in the document?

What are some of the different types of skin care creams discussed in the document?

What factors influence the need for skin care as people age?

What factors influence the need for skin care as people age?

Dermatology Clinics & Research

DCR, 5(1): 238-271

Skin Care Creams: Formulation and Use

Keywords: Skin care, Creams, Emollients, Moisturizers, Emulsions

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Graphical abstract: Beauty Secrets

BACKGROUND develop products containing pharmaceutically active

Figure 1. Structure of human skin.

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INTRODUCTION • Removal of dirt, sebum, microorganisms, exfoliated

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Neutral to slightly acidic pH

Cleansing creams environmental impurities and cosmetic products are not

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Table 2. Typical formulation: Cleansing creams.

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Figure 3. The mechanism of action of glycerol [32,81].

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Figure 4. Audrey Hepburn [141-143].

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Figure 6. A borax-free cold cream [57,58].

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SciTech Central Inc.

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Table 3. Lightening night cream formulation [110].

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Figure 8. Diana, Princess of Wales, 1986 [154-156].

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SciTech Central Inc.

Table 4. Massage cream formulation [158].

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SciTech Central Inc.

Figure 9. Mechanisms of xerosis [196].

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Table 5. Moisturizer formulation [185-195].

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Figure 10. Winter treatments [137-139].

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effect urea) cosmetically

Exhibit 3. Emollients used in skin creams [196-205].

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Exhibit 4. Comparison between moisturizers and cold creams [209-2013].

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Figure 11. Jessica Alba [221,222].

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ARTICLE SUMMARY Funding from individual/Organization: N/A

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REFERENCES protagonists. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 24: 1-6.

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57. https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/bd/29/9d/4 76. National Center for Biotechnology Information (2019)

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