What Most People Would Call Evil The Arc PDF

What Most People Would Call Evil:
The Archontic Spirituality of William S. Burroughs

Tommy P. Cowan
1. Introduction: The Burroughsian Legacy
William Seward Burroughs II (1914-1997) could be considered one of the most

influential American authors of the twentieth century. His writing influenced
figures such as J.G. Ballard, Hunter S. Thompson, Grant Morrison, Alan
Moore, Chuck Palahniuk, Nick Land, Terry Southern, Timothy Leary, William
Gibson, Robert Anton Wilson, and Hakim Bey, (and even Philip K. Dick to an
extent),1 which is to say nothing of his prominent status within the origins and
developments of Beat literature. He also influenced numerous musicians such as
The Rolling Stones, David Bowie, Iggy Pop, Patti Smith, Frank Zappa, Genesis
P-Orridge, Kurt Cobain, and Steely Dan;2 his works possibly led to the original
popularization of the term “heavy metal,”3 (which only later appeared in music,
first used by Hapshash and the Coloured Coat as an homage to Burroughs),4
and his inclusion on the album cover for the Beatles’ Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts
Club Band is evidence of the iconic status he had achieved by the mid-1960s. He
even made appearances on television, such as reading one of his “routines” on
Saturday Night Live in 1981,5 and by 1991 his book Naked Lunch finally became
a feature film, written and directed by David Cronenberg.
However, what is ostensibly less explored is how immense William Burroughs’
impact on Western esotericism and New Age movements is. For example,
Burroughs’ works are critical inspirations for famed esotericists Genesis
P-Orridge (1950-) and Hakim Bey, themselves important influences on the
1
See: Mr. Hand, “PKD on language virus theory of William S. Burroughs,” Philip K. Dick and
Religion.
2
See: Juan Gutierrez, “13 Musicians Influenced by Author William S. Burroughs,” Paste Magazine,
February 5, 2017; Nik Sheehan, FLicKeR, Makin’ Movies Inc., and the National Film Board of
Canada, 2008.
3
See: “Talk:Heavy Metal Music/Archive 11 (Etymology Section),” Popflock.com, last modified
January 2016.
4
Julian Palacios, Syd Barrett & Pink Floyd: Dark Globe, (London: Plexus, 2010), 170.
5
See: Josh Jones, “When William S. Burroughs Appeared on Saturday Night Live: His First TV
Appearance (1981),” Open Culture, December 14, 2016.
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La Rosa di Paracelso
Chaos Magic(k) “zine scene,”6 as well as “rave” culture.7 Burroughs was also
the first figure in the United States to popularize the use of ayahuasca.8 Robert
Anton Wilson (1932-2007) even credits Burroughs as the originator of the “23
phenomenon.”9 Yet, to my knowledge, no tenured historian of religions has
ever published a monograph specifically and solely about Burroughs’ reception
in Western esotericism.
This paper argues that the true depth of Burroughs’ ideological legacy within
Western esotericism has been somewhat underappreciated by the historiography
of religions, and this is evidenced by the insufficient credit Burroughs has thus
far received for his pivotal role in the emergence of the “2012 phenomenon,”10
(also known as “Mayan apocalypticism”).11 This is possibly because the ‘magical’
nature of his writing is often not dealt with to its justified extent by literary critics,
thus reducing discursive volume in this regard; therefore, the purpose of this
paper is to distinguish Burroughs’ works as centrally spiritual,12 thus providing
a context that can allow scholars to properly measure the communities that
gravitate to his ideas, and thus properly measure the power of those ideas and
their impact on the tangible world.
The body of this paper will begin by examining Burroughs’ role in the 2012
phenomenon, and it will be argued that the “anti-magical polemic”13 in literary
circles is perhaps a reason that scholars have yet to fully understand the impact
of Burroughs on twentieth-century spirituality. Then a diachronic comparison
will be undertaken by analyzing Gnosticism in Late Antiquity to first provide a
foundational context for situating Burroughs’ gnostic worldview as a transhistorical
pattern of thought14 that herein will be defined as ‘archontism.’ After examining
contemporary and Burroughsian archontism in detail, the concept of archontism
is then used to more accurately classify Burroughs’ literature in a specific genre
called ‘books of the dead,’ and the final section concludes with a refutation of
anti-magical polemics that explicitly denigrate the study of esotericism.
6
Christian Greer, “Occult Origins – Hakim Bey’s Ontological Post-Anarchism,” Anarchist Deve-
lopments in Cultural Studies 2 (2013), 173.
7
See: Emily Gosling, “How Genesis P-Orridge Changed the Course of Electronic Music Culture
Forever,” Thump, last modified Feb 7, 2017.
8
Oliver Harris, “Introduction,” in The Yage Letters Redux by William Burroughs and Allen
Ginsberg, (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2006), xvi-xvii.
9
See: Robert Anton Wilson, “The 23 Phenomenon,” ForteanTimes.com, last modified May 2007.
10
See: Robert K. Sitler, “The 2012 Phenomenon New Age Appropriation of an Ancient Mayan Ca-
lendar,” Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions 9:3 (February 2006), 24-38.
11
Andrew Fraknoi et al, “Doomsday 2012 and Cosmophobia: Challenges and Opportunities for
Science Communication,” Communicating Science: A National Conference on Science Education
and Public Outreach ASP Conference Series 473 (2013), 9.
12
On the value of distinguishing things as spiritual, see: Kevin Schilbrack, “After We Deconstruct
‘Religion/Then What? A Case for Critical Realism,” Method and Theory in the Study of Religion
25 (2013), 110-111.
13
Marco Pasi, “Theses de magia,” Societas Magica Newsletter 20 (Fall 2008), sec. 5;. 3-4.
14
On the benefits of analyzing transhistorical patterns in “magic,” see: Pasi, “Theses de magia,”
sec. 7; 5.
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What Most People Would Call Evil
2. Burroughs and Mayan Apocalypticism
Although this connection appears to have been only hinted at by previous

scholarship (as will be shown below), William Burroughs may be the primary
creator of the concept of a global shift in human consciousness occurring at the
end of the Mayan Long Count calendar, (which was eventually dated to 2011
or 2012 by others), a concept henceforth most often referred to in this paper as
“Mayan apocalypticism.” This concept was also promoted by New Age thinkers
like Terence McKenna (1946-2000), Frank Waters (1902-1995), José Argüelles
(1939-2011), Daniel Pinchbeck, John Major Jenkins, David Icke, and David
Wilcock. By the year 2012, over 2,000 books had been published on Mayan
apocalypticism.15
The first scholarly work to analyze the historical origins of this concept is
possibly a 2007 MA thesis out of the University of Amsterdam by Sacha Defesche,
titled ‘The 2012 Phenomenon’: An historical and typological approach to a modern
apocalyptic mythology. Defesche’s thesis concludes that Terence and Dennis
McKenna’s The Invisible Landscape: Mind, Hallucinogens, and the I Ching (1975)
is the first book to predict a global shift of human consciousness occurring in
2012,16 and that the Mayan calendar aspects of the 2012 phenomenon are a
later addition.17 Subsequent scholarship by Wouter Hanegraaff (2009) is clearly
influenced by Defesche, and draws the same general conclusion: the 2012
phenomenon originates with the McKennas’ “Eschaton Timewave” theory, and
its connections to Mayanism emerge afterwards.18
Yet, archaeologist John W. Hoopes’ 2011 article, “New Age Sympathies and
Scholarly Complicities: The History and Promotion of 2012 Mythology,” provides
a sound critique of the Defesche-Hanegraaff thesis by noting that the McKennas
were not the only ones to publish this ‘apocalyptic-consciousness’ concept in
1975: Frank Waters promotes a similar idea in his book Mexico Mystique: The
Coming Sixth World of Consciousness, which came out around the same time as
the McKennas’ Invisible Landscape.19 Although Waters’ Mexico Mystique dates
the apocalypse to 2011 instead of 2012, he does posit this 2011 date as coinciding
with the end of the Mayan Long Count calendar: this means Defesche’s argument,
that the Mayanism aspect of the 2012 phenomenon is a post-1975 addition, is
incorrect. In the same 2011 article, Hoopes further observes that José Argüelles’
15
Kevin A. Whitesides and John W. Hoopes, “Seventies Dreams and 21st Century Realities: The
Emergence of 2012 Mythology,” Zeitschrift für Anomalistik 12 (2012), 53.
16
Sacha Defesche, ‘The 2012 Phenomenon’: An historical and typological approach to a modern
apocalyptic mythology, MA thesis, (University of Amsterdam, 2007), 28.
17
Defesche, ‘The 2012 Phenomenon’, 8-9.
18
Wouter Hanegraaff, “And End History. And Go to the Stars”: Terence McKenna and 2012,”
in Religion and Retributive Logic: Essays in Honour of Professor Garry W. Trompf, eds. Carole M.
Cusack and Christopher Hartney, (Boston: Brill, 2010), 293.
19
John W. Hoopes, “New Age Sympathies and Scholarly Complicities: The History and Promotion
of 2012 Mythology,” ARCHAEOASTRONOMY 24 (2011), 191-192.
85
The Transformative Vision, also published in 1975, briefly mentions the year
2012 in a footnote as being a significant date of “transformation” for the ancient
Maya.20
The above historiography suggests that there appears to be an ‘explosion’ of
apocalypticist publications in 1975, with three sources all promoting apocalyptic
narratives that loosely overlap with one another: 1) Waters heavily focusing
on a coming apocalypse at the end of the Mayan Long Count in 2011; 2) the
McKennas heavily focusing on a coming apocalypse, yet only briefly mentioning
2012, and without connecting anything to the Mayan Long Count until re-
publishing Invisible Landscape in 1993;21 3) Argüelles briefly mentioning both
2012 and its connection to the Mayan Long Count, but without heavily focusing
on either.
The fact that three separate sources from 1975 all promote similar ideas related
to Mayan apocalypticism definitely suggests some kind of earlier source, an ‘ur-
source’ that has yet to be identified by scholars of the 2012 phenomenon. The
exact origins of Mayan apocalypticism are perhaps not pinpointable to a single
author, as different elements of the concept have gradually developed over time.
However, as will be demonstrated later on in this section, what can be said with
certainty is that William Burroughs published on Mayan apocalypticism long
before 1975 in The Exterminator (1960).
Yet Burroughs’ influence on the ‘75 apocalypticist explosion has not been
sufficiently acknowledged. Robert Sitler is possibly the first scholar to publish
an academic article on 2012 mythology,22 “The 2012 Phenomenon: New Age
Appropriation of an Ancient Mayan Calendar” (2006), though he does not
look into its historical origins therein. By the year 2012, Sitler had fully adopted
Hoopes’ account of Mayan apocalypticism,23 indicating that by then Hoopes’
chronology was generally considered the most accurate one available. To my
knowledge, there has been yet no thorough critique of Hoopes’ chronology, even
though in terms of acknowledging Burroughs’ role in Mayan apocalypticism
Hoopes seems to fall short, writing only that, “Maya stories of collapse and
destruction entered the counterculture with Beat writers in the 1950s.”24 The
fact that Hoopes here does not explicitly acknowledge Burroughs as the original
source of the apocalyptic-consciousness aspect of the 2012 phenomenon is a
strange omission, because in 2007 Hoopes had posted a comment on Tribe.net
regarding the presence of Mayan apocalypticism in Burroughs’ 1965 limited-
edition parody of Time magazine, and in this same comment Hoopes then openly
wonders how influential Burroughs was to the emergence of 2012 myths:
20
Hoopes, “New Age Sympathies and Scholarly Complicities: The History and Promotion of 2012
Mythology,” 192.
21
Hanegraaff, “And End History,” 308.
22
Hanegraaff, “And End History,” 292.
23
Robert K. Sitler, “The 2012 Phenomenon Comes of Age,” Nova Religio: The Journal of Alterna-
tive and Emergent Religions 16:1 (August 2012), 62-66.
24
Hoopes, “New Age Sympathies and Scholarly Complicities,” 189.
86
Burroughs associates Maya calendar dates with his 1953 trip to the Putumayo–
the same part of Colombia where Terence & Dennis McKenna experienced “The
Experiment” at La Chorrera–where he went in search of a yagé cure for his heroin
addiction. [/] I suspect that Burroughs played a key role in introducing Beat writers
and aficionados to ideas about the ancient Maya calendar. I’m now curious to know
whether he was ever in touch with poet Tony Shearer, who introduced the idea of a
Harmonic Convergence in his book “Lord of the Dawn” (1971). [/] I have only just
begun to explore this topic, but it’s obvious that Burroughs was aware of a Maya
calendar end date. It would be interesting to know how often he may have written
about it and whether he ever traced it out to 2012 before the date became generally
known. [/] Beat consciousness of 2012 has, to my knowledge, not yet been explored.25
Had Hoopes followed up on this hunch, which he does not appear to have
done, he would have seen that Burroughs promoted Mayan apocalypticism in
The Exterminator, (five years before the 1965 Time parody), where Burroughs
writes, “The junk way to more junk IN TIME MONEY DEATH CLEAVAGE
into Private Parts. Comfortable cocoon of second run stalies? Five Ahua 8 Cumhu
Insect Time..Last date Mayan Calendar End of Insect Time[.]”26 Burroughs’
experimental language here is perhaps difficult to interpret without being
familiar with his other works, but a modest engagement with Burroughs’ oeuvre
reveals that “insects” are a symbol for parasitic overlords that keep humanity
imprisoned in an illusory world. The “End of Insect Time” therefore implies an
apocalyptic event freeing humanity from oppressive illusions.
Though The Exterminator was not a best-seller, Burroughs would expand
upon Mayan apocalypticism in a more popular book, the 1966 version of The
Soft Machine, something counterculture fans like Waters, Argüelles, and/or the
young McKennas would have been more likely to read. A chapter of this version
of The Soft Machine is titled, “The Mayan Caper,” wherein the narrator hires a
corrupt doctor to gain access to a special drug that allows the narrator to travel
back in time and possess the body of another person. After ingesting the drug,
the narrator travels back to ancient Maya times, inhabits the body of a lowly field
laborer, and reports the following:
I felt the crushing weight of evil insect control forcing my thoughts and feelings into
prearranged moulds, squeezing my spirit in a soft invisible vice – [...] I learned also
something of the horrible punishments meted out to any one who dared challenge
or even think of challenging the controllers [...]; The ‘criminal’ was strapped to a
couch and eaten alive by giant centipedes – These executions were carried out
secretly in rooms under the temple. [...] I have explained that the Mayan control
system depends on the calendar and the codices which contain symbols representing
all states of thought and feeling possible to human animals living under such limited
John W. Hoopes, “William S. Burroughs & 2012,” Tribe.net, February 9, 2007.

25
26
William Burroughs and Brion Gysin, The Exterminator, (San Francisco: David Haselwood
Books, 1967 [1960]), 13.
87
circumstances – These are the instruments with which they rotate and control units
of thought –27
After the narrator infiltrates the temple and sabotages its telepathic machinery
in order to destroy the centipede-priests, the chapter’s concluding phrases ring
out through images of triumphant destruction, “A great weight fell from the sky,
winds of the earth whipping palm trees to the ground – Tidal waves rolled over
the Mayan control calendar.”28
***
As to whether or not Burroughs truly believed a mass shift in human

consciousness would occur at the end of the Mayan Long Count, or if it was just
a literary metaphor for his gnostic radicalism, is somewhat ambiguous. But in
order to examine the intentions behind Burroughs’ Mayanism, we must look first
at what inspired him in this regard.
Hoopes seems to think Burroughs’ Mayanism was likely inspired by Le
Plongeon, observing of Burroughs’ 1965 Time parody: “He also alludes to the
“Great Atlantic Accident” (undoubtedly the lost continent of Atlantis, which
the eccentric nineteenth century archaeologist Augustus Le Plongeon linked
to Chichén Itzá) and the Dresden Codex (where he mentions that the event is
“depicted in the codices as a God pouring water on the earth”. [sic]”29
As a long-time student of Maya myth and archaeology, it seems probable that
Burroughs also read Maud Worcester Makemson’s (1891-1977) much derided
The Book of the Jaguar Priest (1951), of which Hoopes claims, “She was the first
to associate 13.0.0.0.0 4 Ajaw 3 K’ank’in with end-of-the-world prophecies.”30
Makemson’s Book of the Jaguar Priest is the first31 English translation of the
Chilam Balam of Tizimin, a well-known component of the Chilam Balam corpus.
The Chilam Balam texts emerged in the post-Contact Maya world, the earliest
fragments composed in the 16th century, but with most of the surviving editions
dated to the nineteenth century.32 They are written in the Maya language using
the Latin alphabet, and contain many enigmatic allusions to Maya cosmology
and calendrics, with references to the Maya’s historical plights suffered under
their Itza rulers and the Spanish. Chilam Balam texts are notoriously difficult
to translate,33 and Makemson’s Book of the Jaguar Priest is widely critiqued as
27
William Burroughs, The Soft Machine, (London: Calder and Boyars, 1968 [1961]), 72-73.
28
William Burroughs, The Soft Machine, 75.
29
Hoopes, “William S. Burroughs & 2012,” n.p.
30
Hoopes, “New Age Sympathies and Scholarly Complicities,” 189.
31
Munro S. Edmonson, The Ancient Future of the Itza: The Book of Chilam Balam of Tizimin,
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982), xiv.
32
Edmonson, The Ancient Future of the Itza, xii.
33
Edmonson, The Ancient Future of the Itza, xi.
88
an example of poor scholarship on numerous fronts.34 Although Makemson’s

translation is considered rather useless by archaeologists,35 when Burroughs
was studying Maya archaeology at Mexico City College in 1951 (the same year
Makemson’s book emerged), it would have been the only fully complete English
version of the Tizimin text available, and a cursory reading of Book of the Jaguar
Priest reveals many overlaps with Burroughsian Mayanism. To provide an example
using the quote given above from The Exterminator, Burroughs’ assertion that
the Maya date of “Five Ahua 8 Cumhu” is equivalent to “Insect Time,” could be
seen as a reference to Book of the Jaguar Priest, for in Makemson’s translation,
Five Ahau symbolizes the inauguration of the Itza’s conquest over the Maya:
Five Ahau shall be the day of the apportionment of food at your wells. Mountains
shall descend. They shall descend in your midst, kindling the fire of great brightness.
Foreigners shall descend from the sea as of old. Why do they come? They come to
harass us! The door leading to miracles shall be closed … [...] The rule of the Itza shall
be completely established over us, we will accept their commands.36
Later on in Book of the Jaguar Priest, the text calls for retribution against the
Itza rulers:
True, for the present we must carry the highly ornamental sons of the Itza on our
backs, maintaining them in our midst, like a great stone in our misfortune. But there
will come a time when the white flowers will again be unsheathed in this land, from
the Island of Cuzamil to Mayapan. It will come to pass on account of the well, on
account of the Cavern in this land of magic. [/] In the day of the overthrow of the Red
Eagle, in the day of retribution, when it shall come to pass later over this beautiful land
of billowing mountains, then quickly shall come the day of vexation, the vexation of
the Itza.37
As the Mayan Long Count itself begins on 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu, the fact that
Burroughs’ “Insect Time” begins in “5 Ahua” [sic] suggests he used this
inaugural date for a different reason than correlating it with the Long Count.
Combining this observation of his “5 Ahua” date with the fact that the centipede-
priests in “The Mayan Caper” are seemingly not Spaniards since they use Maya
calendrics to telepathically control their laborers, makes Burroughs’ Mayanist
villains appear as a possible reference to the cruelty of the Itza as depicted
by Makemson’s translation. If one were to additionally note that Book of the
Jaguar Priest repeatedly emphasizes the “end of the world,”38 and as well that
34
See: J. Eric S. Thompson, “Review: The Book of the Jaguar Priest: A Translation of the Book of
Chilam Balam of Tizimin with Commentary by Maud W. Makemson,” American Anthropologist
53:4, Part 1 (Oct. – Dec., 1951), 546-547.
35
Edmonson, The Ancient Future of the Itza, xiv.
36
Maude Worcester Makemson, The Book of the Jaguar Priest, (New York: Schuman, 1951), 12.
37
Makemson, The Book of the Jaguar Priest, 15.
38
Makemson, The Book of the Jaguar Priest, 32.
89
Makemson is arguably the first to associate end-of-the-world prophecies with the

Long Count, then Burroughs would appear to have likely been influenced by her.
But Le Plongeon’s Atlantis-Chichén Itzá theory, and the end-of-the-world
prophecies discussed by Makemson, while possibly both influential to Burroughs,
have little if anything to do with the apocalyptic shift in human consciousness
implied by the “End of Insect Time.” Also, Maya calendrics in Book of the Jaguar
Priest are not instruments of the Itza’s villainous control like they are in Burroughs,
but are portrayed by Makemson as magical tools for resisting oppression.
Where did Burroughs derive additional inspiration from for his sort of ‘negative
calendrics,’ and by consequence also the ‘transformation of consciousness’
essential to his Mayanism? Supposedly, these ideas came from Burroughs’ wife,
Beat icon Joan Vollmer (1923-1951); Burroughs-biographer Barry Miles notes:
Burroughs studied the Mayan Codices under Robert Hayward Barlow, the chairman
of the distinguished Anthropology Department. [...] Burroughs joined the Sahagun
Anthropology Club and went on field visits with them, including one in July 1950 led
by Barlow and Professor Pedro Armillas to the Temple of Quetzalcoatl in Teotihuacan.
Burroughs had studied a copy of the Mayan Codices in Algiers; now he examined
them in depth and they became one of the topics that he and Joan discussed. From
the things Bill told her, Joan suggested that the Mayan priests must have had some
sort of telepathic control over the population, which started Burroughs thinking in
that direction. Burroughs sometimes quoted her thoughts on the Mayans as a good
example of her intelligence. Clearly, despite their other problems, theirs was a true
meeting of minds.39
So, did Burroughs believe an apocalypse of human consciousness would

actually happen at the end of the Long Count? Well, firstly, it is unclear if
he knew when the Long Count ended. Makemson had mistakenly dated the
calendar’s end to 1752,40 and Michael Coe’s influential re-correlation of the Long
Count that dated its end to 2011 did not appear until 1966, Coe then becoming
the first scholar to associate a future Long Count date with a catastrophic event.41
Although Coe’s work is certainly an important chapter in Mayan apocalypticism,
it is still a few years after The Exterminator was published, and likely is not a
factor in Burroughs’ Mayanism. Perhaps Burroughs was aware of the Long
Count’s twenty-first century cessation by having calculated it himself, but this
is not evident in his 1960s publications, and seeing as he was likely influenced
by Makemson, Burroughs’ statement that “Tidal waves rolled over the Mayan
control calendar,” possibly refers to an event in the distant past.
However, for Burroughs, (as someone who believed in the testable reality of
“magic”),42 writing about the distant past could potentially affect the future.
39
Barry Miles, Call Me Burroughs: A Life, (New York: Twelve, 2013), 187.
40
Whitesides and Hoopes, “Seventies Dreams and 21st Century Realities,” 60.
41
Whitesides and Hoopes, “Seventies Dreams and 21st Century Realities,” 54-55.
42
Miles, Call Me Burroughs, 517.
90
Burroughs was a genuine adherent of “seekership”:43 before his time in Mexico City,
he was already interested in esotericism, studying witchcraft, yoga, and Tibetan
Buddhism at Harvard,44 and had conducted numerous telepathy experiments with
Vollmer and Allen Ginsberg (1926-1997).45 It would seem possible that Burroughs
truly believed in a literal and ominous metaphysical reality that tells the ‘real
story’ behind Maya history, with the Maya elite using magical calendrics in order
to telepathically control the minds of their societal lessers. Additionally, in the
1960s Burroughs developed an affinity for “cut-up” writing,46 a technique heavily
employed in The Exterminator and The Soft Machine. Burroughs thought cut-up
writing held magical power, and he was possibly influenced by the American author
Charles Fort in this regard.47 Fort believed reading and writing could have occult
effects on reality, and Fort called this concept “truth-fiction,”48 a similar concept
to what was later termed by postmodern philosophers as “hyperstition.”49 Likely
building off of Fort, Burroughs posits cut-up as not only a form of divination that
can reveal the future, but even once at a literary festival in Edinburgh (1962) told
the audience that he had caused a plane crash by using cut-ups.50 This enchanted
perspective is echoed in Burroughs’ words to Ginsberg: “All novelists of any
consequence are psychic assassins in a very literal [emphasis added] sense.”51
Observing that Burroughs considers cut-up tantamount to magical ritual
would suggest that he thought writing about an apocalyptic shift in human
consciousness at the end of the Mayan Long Count, (even one that takes place
in the distant past), could potentially cause such a thing to happen in the
future. Thus, Burroughs’ true intentions regarding his promulgation of Mayan
apocalypticism remain nebulous.
***
In terms of attributing the genesis of Mayan apocalypticism to Burroughs,

none of the authors of the ‘75 apocalypticist explosion (Waters, Argüelles, the
McKennas) outright admit Burroughs as an ur-source specifically in this regard,
43
Colin Campbell, “The Cult, the Cultic Milieu and Secularization,” in The Cultic Milieu: Opposi-
tional Subcultures in an Age of Globalization eds. Jeffrey Kaplan and Helene Loow, (Walnut Creek,
CA: AltaMira Press, 2002), 15.
44
Miles, Call Me Burroughs, 51-52.
45
46
“Foreword,” in Cut-Ups, Cut-Ins, Cut-Outs: The Art of William S. Burroughs, eds. Colin Fallows
and Synne Genzmer, (Vienna: Kunsthalle Wien, 2012), 4.
47
Matthew Levi Stevens, The Magical Universe of William S. Burroughs, (Oxford: Mandrake of
Oxford, 2014), 122.
48
Jeffrey Kripal, Mutants and Mystics: Science Fiction, Superhero Comics, and the Paranormal, (Chi-
cago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 89.
49
See: Tim Dixon, “Futures & Fictions: Fiction as Method,” Art Monthly 415 (April 2018), 39.
50
51
John Geiger, Nothing is True Everything is Permitted: The Life of Brion Gysin, (New York: The
Disinformation Company, 2005), 170.
91
but there is circumstantial evidence suggesting some type of transmission. For

example, not only is Burroughs’ The Yage Letters (1963) cited in Argüelles’
Transformative Vision,52 but Argüelles taught at Colorado’s Naropa University
in 1975,53 the same time when Burroughs was also teaching there;54 it is possible
Argüelles sat in Burroughs’ class.
Other evidence for the transmission of Burroughsian Mayanism to the ‘75
explosion can be found in the brothers McKenna. Terence McKenna does
occasionally cite Burroughs, even acknowledging having read Yage Letters,55 but T.
McKenna does not appear to give Burroughs explicit credit for directly inspiring
New Age Mayanism, or the Eschaton Timewave theory. This would give the
impression that T. McKenna perhaps only read The Yage Letters and nothing else,
yet his brother Dennis intimates otherwise. In The Brotherhood of the Screaming
Abyss, D. McKenna says that not only was Yage Letters an influence on him and
Terence, but during university they also read the “occasional Burroughs piece”56
(meaning at least a bit more than just Yage Letters). Taking also into account that
the brothers McKenna had their “2012” apocalyptic visions in the Putumayo (a
place they were inspired to travel to because Burroughs had gone there), then the
likelihood of the McKennas’ apocalypticism being directly influenced by Burroughs
seems high. It is perhaps then not too surprising that T. McKenna even wrote some
of the questions for Burroughs’ 1987 interview in High Frontiers magazine.57
***
Before concluding this section of the paper, it should be noted that, as far I
know, only two other scholars besides Hoopes have addressed the possibility of
Burroughs’ role in Mayan apocalypticism: Luke Goaman-Dodson, and Edward
S. Robinson.
Goaman-Dodson presented a panel-paper titled, “The Real Secret of Magic:
William Burroughs, Terence McKenna, and the Syntactical Nature of Reality”
at the Breaking Convention conference in 2015.58 In his talk, Goaman-Dodson
52
Jose A. Arguelles, The Transformative Vision: Reflections on the Nature and History of Human
Expression, (Boulder, CO: Shambhala, 1975): “Bibliography I. Visionary Texts.”
53
Jose A. Arguelles, The Mayan Factor: Path Beyond Technology, (Rochester, VT: Bear & Company,
1987), 212.
54
55
Terence McKenna, Food of the Gods: The Search for the Original Tree of Knowledge, (New York:
Bantam, 1993), “Ch.11”; Terence McKenna, True Hallucinations: Being an Account of the Author’s
Extraordinary Adventures in the Devil’s Paradise, (San Francisco: Harper, 1993), “Ch.1.”
56
Dennis McKenna, The Brotherhood of the Screaming Abyss: My Life with Terence McKenna, (St.
Cloud, Minn.: Polaris Publications, 2012), “Ch.24.”
57
Faustin Bray, “William S. Burroughs in High Frontiers 1987 About Mind Technologies,” Mondo
2000 (2017), n.p.
58
See: Luke Goaman-Dodson, “The Real Secret of Magic: William Burroughs, Terence McKenna,
and the Syntactical Nature of Reality,” paper presented at Breaking Convention: Psychedelic Phar-
macology for the 21st Century, 2015.
92
speculates that Burroughs influenced T. McKenna in many ways, like in their

mutual penchants for linguistic deconstruction, entheogenic exploration, and
Mayan apocalypticism. Goaman-Dodson also notes their mutual influence on
similar esoteric milieus such as the “rave,” “cyberdelia,” and “chaos magick”
movements.59 But Goaman-Dodson’s thoughts regarding the lineage of New Age
Mayanism, though cogent, are addressed in the superficial fashion necessitated
by the limits of a conference panel; and as well he, like Hoopes, fails to pinpoint
The Exterminator as precedent in this lineage.
Edward Robinson’s treatment of the matter is far less direct than Hoopes’
or Goaman-Dodson’s, but the connection between Burroughs and the 2012
phenomenon is perhaps somewhat implied when Robinson (2012) states that
the re-publication of Burroughs’ Ah Pook is Here has a “heightened relevance
given the current interest in the Mayan calendar, and the apocalyptic so-called
‘December 2012’ prophecy.”60 Although this assertion is surely true, the reference
to Mayan apocalypticism is so brief and so vague that it leads one to wonder
whether or not Robinson is actually suggesting Burroughs as a potential ur-
source, or merely observing coincidental overlap between the 2012 phenomenon
and Burroughsian Mayanism.
3. Interpreting Burroughs
The fact that Burroughs has been under-researched as a progenitor of Mayan

apocalypticism is a curious gap of information. But I would like to note that I do
not mean to imply that Burroughs has been completely overlooked by scholars
of Western esotericism. Most visibly, Christopher Partridge has appreciated the
influence of Burroughs in multiple books.61 Burroughs also gets included in (eds.)
Asprem and Granholm’s Contemporary Esotericism (2013).62 Erik Davis has paid
service to Burroughs in numerous places,63 and Carl Abrahamsson discusses
59
Goaman-Dodson, “The Real Secret of Magic,” [2017 transcription], 8.
60
Edward S. Robinson, “William S. Burroughs and Malcolm McNeill’s Lost Mayan Caper,” Euro-
pean Beat Studies Network, n.d.
61
See: Christopher Partridge, “Chapter 52: The Occult and Popular Music,” in The Occult World,
ed. Christopher Partridge, (New York: Routledge, 2015), 509-530; Partridge, High Culture: Drugs,
Mysticism, and the Pursuit of Transcendence in the Modern World, (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2018); Partridge, “Chapter 3: Cleansing the Doors of Perception: The Contemporary Sacra-
lization of Psychedelics” in The Re-Enchantment of the West Volume II: Alternative Spiritualities,
Sacralization, Popular Culture, and Occulture (New York: T&T Clark International, 2005), 82-134.
62
See: Colin Duggan, “Chapter 5: Perennialism and Iconoclasm: Chaos Magick and the Legitimacy
of Innovation,” and Christopher Partridge, “Chapter 6: Occulture is Ordinary,” and Wouter J.
Hanegraaff, “Chapter 19: Entheogenic Esotericism,” in Contemporary Esotericism, eds. Egil As-
prem and Kennet Granholm, (Bristol: Equinox Publishing Ltd., 2013).
63
See: Erik Davis, “Chapter 63: The Counterculture and the Occult,” in The Occult World, ed.
Christopher Partridge, (New York: Routledge, 2015), 635-645; Erik Davis, TechGnosis: Myth, Ma-
gic, and Mysticism in the Age of Information, (Berkeley: North Atlantic Books, 2015); Erik Davis
and A.J. Lees, “Mentored by a Madman,” podcast, https://techgnosis.com, (Sep. 29, 2017).
93
Burroughs at various points in his 2018 book, Occulture.64 An exploration of

Burroughs’ involvement in magic and occultism would by itself certainly not be
‘breaking news’ to the field. However, my argument is not that Burroughs has
been totally unappreciated, but that he has been underappreciated, meaning that
the gap I am trying to illustrate here is not predicated on an either/or proposition.
The ‘Burroughsian gap’ is defined as a matter of degree.
For example, Burroughs’ influence on esotericism seems underutilized in other
scholarship as well, such as Jeffrey Kripal’s exposition of esotericism in science
fiction, Mutants and Mystics (2011): the book contains no mention of Burroughs,
even though it discusses Charles Fort, Alan Moore, and Grant Morrison as
proponents of truth-fiction;65 Kripal thus neglects to note that Burroughs was
heavily influenced by Fort and heavily influential to both Moore66 and Morrison,67
making Burroughs the missing link in a chain of direct transmission of the truth-
fiction praxis. Furthermore, Burroughs solidly maps onto all the “Super-Story”
characteristics laid out by Kripal.68 Further still, Mutants and Mystics also deals
with Whitley Strieber at no insignificant length, and Strieber was a personal
acquaintance of Burroughs. Not only was Burroughs influenced by Strieber, but
he even spent time at Strieber’s cabin in an attempt to contact the “visitors.”69
As to whether or not Strieber was greatly influenced by Burroughs is hard to
determine: he does not seem to explicitly incorporate Burroughsian ideas into
many of his books, but Strieber did write a Mayan-apocalypticist novel titled
2012 (2007), so at any rate the Burroughsian impact on Strieber is at least implicit,
even if Strieber is perhaps not fully conscious of it. Now, Mutants and Mystics
certainly does not suffer or stumble because of Burroughs’ absence, thus to claim
that Kripal made an ‘oversight’ in this context would be too strong a statement,
as I in no way mean to convey that Burroughs’ absence in Mutants and Mystics
is a “gap” per se, unlike his absence in Mayan apocalypticist historiography is;
however, the fact that Burroughs is so interconnected to many of the people that
Kripal focuses on in the book, as well as being so deeply resonant with Kripal’s
comparative concepts, makes it fair to say that Burroughs could have been a rich
and worthy inclusion.
Perhaps one reason why Burroughs’ enormous impact on Western
esotericism still needs unraveling is the fact that his writing is commonly
perceived as labyrinthine, opaque, demanding, and offensive, thus
disincentivizing engagement with it. These common perceptions are all
64
See: Carl Abrahamsson, Occulture: The Unseen Forces that Drive Culture Forward, (Rochester,
VT: Park Street Press, 2018).
65
Kripal, Mutants and Mystics, “Ch.2: Books of the Damned…”
66
Eric Berlatsky, “Alan Moore: Conversations Hype,” https://www.hoodedutilitarian.com, (Oct. 4,
2011), n.p.
67
See: Tom Baker, “Grant Morrison’s Most Controversial Stories,” CBR.com, (2016).
68
Kripal, Mutants and Mystics, 26-28.
69
Stevens, “William S. Burroughs: His Search for the Visitors,” https://www.newdawnmagazine.
com, (n.d.), n.p.
94
admittedly deserved: much of Burroughs’ work is undeniably complex

and intentionally enigmatic.70 Furthermore, his themes, motifs, and
characters willfully assault the Western world’s moral boundaries of human
decency. Burroughsian disciple Peter Lamborn Wilson (the given name of
counterculture icon Hakim Bey, 1950-), once in a personal conversation even
joked: “No one has ever read Burroughs.”71
Burroughs’ stylistic hurdles likely serve as an impediment not only to in-depth
engagement with his corpus, but also to holistic interpretations of it. He is often
noted for his genre-defying antinomian explorations of sex, drugs, violence, and
authoritarianism. And his innovative approaches to narrative and grammar are
well known. Yet, although the gnostic/esoteric spirituality of Burroughs’ writing
has been previously emphasized by others as the key to understanding it,72 this
point still sometimes gets less attention in literary analysis than Burroughs’
overall “transgressive”73 qualities, as if his unique spiritual views were but
subcomponents to an antinomianism more essential than the metaphysics that
antinomianism creates.
Sometimes spiritual interpretations of Burroughs are even outright mocked.
In a review of Barry Miles’ Call Me Burroughs (2013), novelist and critic Duncan
Fallowell showcases precisely this type of polemic that attempts to sidestep the
issue of spirituality in literature, as Fallowell writes for The Spectator in 2014:
William S. Burroughs lived his life in the grand transgressive tradition of Lord Byron
and Oscar Wilde and, like all dandies, he had a nose for hedonistic hot spots which he
could mythologise along with himself. [...] The history of modernist literature is the
history of ‘outsiderdom’ and Burroughs’s Naked Lunch (1959) is the last key novel in
that particular trajectory. With its montage ‘open text’ techniques, it is also the herald
of post-modernism and of his own future work. The fact that his drug-addled brain
could not by that time produce coherent narrative does not undermine Burroughs’s
achievement, because the vitality of the oeuvre is inarguable: texts a-swarm with
new creatures, images, ideas, bizarre hilarities and prosodic ingenuities. [...] Since
Burroughs is one of the most important writers of the 20th century, it’s worth noting
some reservations concerning this latest biography. Miles chooses to open with a long
account of the exorcism Burroughs underwent with a Navajo shaman, hoping to rid
himself of an ‘ugly spirit’ he believed had entered and possessed him. Burroughs’s
occultism may be an aspect of his poetical mind; but like his other fads it can be
fatuous if not kept in perspective, because here was a man variously stoned on opiates,
marijuana, alcohol and many other drugs to the end of his days. For his biographer to
70
Once in personal conversation, a colleague of mine noted that Burroughs is difficult to follow
because, “Every sentence is like a new scene.”
71
Christian Greer, conversation with the author, September 2018.
72
See: Kurt Cline, “Time Junky: Shamanic Journeying and Gnostic Eschatology in the Novels of
William Burroughs,” Tamkang Review 42:3 (June 2013), 33-58; Miles, Call Me Burroughs, (2013);
Stevens, The Magical Universe of William S. Burroughs, (2014).
73
See: Viktoria Grivina, “Interrelation between the Author and the Text in W.S. Burroughs’s Na-
ked Lunch and Chuck Palahniuk’s Fight Club,” Problems of Literary Criticism 89 (2014), 247-255.
95
emphasise occultism at the outset reads like a bid for Castaneda-style momentousness
and is degrading. [...] these pursuits have no autonomous academic worth [emphasis
added] and are important to the extent that they fed his gift for fabulism. He was a
liberating and generous operator, but his centre is not as prophet or philosopher, but
as a writer of fiction. Literature can include speculative ideas; but it diminishes him,
and literature too, to try to reverse the precedence. [...] We must always come back to
this, otherwise the Burroughs phenomenon can peter out in Aleister Crowley silliness.
Miles never makes this point clearly – perhaps he doesn’t agree with it – and one is
left with the feeling that, for all his magnificent bureaucratic exertions, his biography
is still a product from the inner circle of devotees.74
Fallowell’s emphasis on the “vitality,” “transgression,” and “outsiderdom” of

William Burroughs, (as opposed to ‘esotericism’ or ‘spirituality’), is possibly a
reflection of not just adherence to ‘death-of-the-author’ post-structuralism, but
also a reflection of how difficult Burroughs is to interpret, which I will speak
about more in the conclusion of this paper. Now, I have no intentions of trying to
deconstruct Barthesian openness, or any “multiplicity”75 (i.e. anti-intentionality)
proponent that seeks to keep textual interpretation malleable; yet, by focusing
on the transgressive or “experimental”76 elements of Burroughs more so than the
spiritual meaning these elements are intended to serve, Fallowell and others fail
to grasp the real essence of Burroughs’ oeuvre. Further, Fallowell’s sort of anti-
magical polemic here is perhaps part of the reason why Burroughs’ role in the
2012 phenomenon has been largely overlooked by scholars, as these anti-magical
discourses artificially reduce the scope of Burroughsian interpretation. In short,
since the bulk of scholarship on Burroughs is from the literary realms, literary
scholars underrepresenting spirituality in Burroughs to some degree likely cause
Burroughs to be underrepresented in the historiography of Western esotericism
through simple factors of discursive volume and secondary-source availability.
The following sections intend to demonstrate that Burroughs’ unique form of
spirituality is not merely one of many factors composing his artistic vision, but
should be the primary lens of Burroughsian exegesis. As well, Burroughs’ corpus
can be appropriately grappled with not just via the realm of literary studies, but
should also be firmly situated within the history of Western esotericism.
4. Defining ‘Archontism’
To more specifically define Burroughs’ spiritual worldview, his syncretic

and innovative form of esotericism can be centered around what I term as
74
Duncan Fallowell, “William S. Burroughs was a writer – not a painter, prophet, philosopher,”
The Spectator (8 February 2014), n.p.
75
Roland Barthes, Image, music, text, trans. Stephen Heath, (New York: Hilland Wang, 1977), 148.
76
Christopher Breu, “The Novel Enfleshed: Naked Lunch and the Literature of Materiality,” Twen-
tieth-Century Literature 57:2 (Summer 2011), 201.
96
‘archontism,’ a philosophy similar to “archontic Gnosticism.”77 Archontism is

a current of thought grounded in a sort of “negative epistemology”78 that sees
human existence as controlled by ‘archons,’ or agentified barriers built into the
natural world in order to block the paths to psychic transcendence.
In this paper, the term ‘archontism’ will serve as a dehistoricized, more
theoretical form of the term “archontic79 Gnosticism.” My aim here in using
the term ‘archontism’ as opposed to “archontic Gnosticism,” or even just
“Gnosticism,” is two-fold:
1) using the word “archontism” removes a degree of historical specificity from
the terms “archontic Gnosticism,” and/or “Gnosticism”;
2) although what I define below as “archontism” can be interpreted as very
similar to some types of “Gnosticism,” I do believe in a key difference between
these two terms: according to April DeConick’s definition of “Gnosticism,”80
even though some Gnosticisms in Antiquity did believe in archons and a corrupt
Demiurge, they also generally believed that beyond the Demiurge was a ‘good
God,’ or a transcendent God of love and forgiveness that the human soul is an
extension of; yet, for certain modern esotericists, belief in the archons and belief
in the ‘one God’ of transcendent goodness do not have to colocate. ‘Archontism’
can therefore refer to archontic Gnosticism, but can also refer to the belief
in archons without a good God beyond them. This distinction is important
for this paper when analyzing secularized forms of ‘neo-archontism’ such as
Jungian psychology or postmodern conspirology, and is especially relevant when
discussing Burroughs: William Burroughs can be described as “gnostic,” and
thus I occasionally use “gnostic” with a small “g”81 to describe him in this paper,
but Burroughs does not explicitly believe in a transcendent God of goodness
like so many Gnostic sects did. In Burroughs’ cosmology, humanity must defeat
the archons to become immortal, but there is no savior figure beyond the stars;
77
Kyle Fraser, “Zosimos of Panopolis and the Book of Enoch: Alchemy as Forbidden Knowledge,”
Aries 4:2 (2004), 137.
78
Marco Pasi, “Arthur Machen’s Panic Fears: Western Esotericism and the Irruption of Negative
Epistemology,” Aries 7 (2007), 68.
79
It should be noted that the word “archontic,” in the lower case, has been used by scholars to
mean, ‘relating to archons,’ and “Archontic,” in the upper case, has been used by Church Fathers
as a polemical label for Gnostic groups adhering to the lessons of the Harmony corpus. Within
this paper, ‘archontism’ is a term of my own that is based upon the more general usage of the
lower case “archontic”; ‘archontism’ is not intended to carry polemical or historical weight, but
is intended to describe a transhistorical, theoretical pattern of spiritual thought. Thus, I advocate
that the ahistorical label for a person engaging in archontism to be ‘archontist,’ while retaining the
usage of “Archontic” only in cases describing specific communities from Late Antiquity that were
labeled so by others.
80
April DeConick, The Gnostic New Age (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016), 11-12.
81
In this paper, I use “Gnosticism” with a big “G” to refer to the spiritual currents in Late Antiqui-
ty called “Gnostic” by Church fathers, and I use “gnostic” or “gnostic spirituality” as transhistori-
cal forms of the term referring to any spiritual current after Antiquity that shares thematic overlap
with the ancient Gnostics.
97
hence, while it is fair to call Burroughs a “gnostic,” it is perhaps more accurate

to call him an ‘archontist.’82
But before getting deeper into Burroughs’ archontic spirituality, let us look at
where and whence the doctrine of evil archons first emerged: the Gnosticisms of
Late Antiquity.
“Archontic Gnosticism” is used by classicist Kyle Fraser to describe the laboratory
philosophies of Zosimos of Panopolis (fl. 300 AD), the highly renowned Egyptian
alchemist.83 The “archons,” (derived from a Greek term that means “rulers”),84
were Gnostic mythological entities who were often depicted as the diversified
subordinate spirits or personifications of the evil Demiurge (called “YHWH”
or “Ialdabaoth” in some Gnostic literature)85 who created the illusory physical
universe to imprison Primal Man.86 In Zosimos’ writings, the archons and their
daimons not only imprisoned Adam in the world of matter, but have astrological/
planetary associations that serve as a combative presence in the alchemist’s lab,
ruining chemical experiments. It is therefore the alchemist’s duty, Zosimos argues,
to ensure the most rigorous mundane laboratory discipline so as to methodologically
counteract the malevolent astrological energies that thwart transmutation.87
But forms of violence can help the alchemist. Zosimos says that purgative
magical rituals like animal sacrifice may banish the daimons and thus subvert
archontic meddling.88 Furthermore, in “Zosimos’ Visions,” a text relating the
Panopolitan’s enigmatic dreams, other violent imagery is significant. After
recounting two different dreams concerning the “secret of transmutation,”
Zosimos tells the reader that it is with the “sword in hand” that one must slay
the “dragon” that guards the “temple.”89 Zosimos’ dragon is likely a multivalent
symbol, with one potential valence being a reference to Typhon, an evil serpent
slain in myth. Plutarch writes that Typhon caused Man’s “ignorance” by tearing
apart a book of sacred knowledge in order to deny humanity a divine existence.90
82
Burroughs, to my knowledge, does not use the term “archon” in his writing. He uses the terms
“insects,” “parasites,” “aliens,” et cetera, to refer to humanity’s invisible wardens; however, scho-
lars (such as Gregory Stephenson and Kurt Cline) have used the terms “archon” and “Demiur-
ge” to describe Burroughs’ characters, and those influenced by Burroughs have used the term
“archon” in their own writing (such as Grant Morrison), and as well Burroughs’ parasitic spirit
masters who imprison humanity overlap with the concept of archons to such an extent that the
term ‘archontist’ is fairly applied to him.
83
Fraser, “Zosimos of Panopolis and the Book of Enoch,” 137.
84
DeConick, The Gnostic New Age, 94.
85
DeConick, The Gnostic New Age, 93-94.
86
Fraser, “Zosimos of Panopolis and the Book of Enoch,” 131-136.
87
88
89
This English version of Zosimos’ Visions is taken from Smith Ely Jelliffe’s translation of Herbert
Silberer’s Problems of Mysticism and its Symbolism (New York: Moffat, Yard, and Company, 1917
[1914]), 300-303; because of the fragmentary nature of Zosimos’ textual legacy, accessing a faithful
rendition of the “Visions” is somewhat untenable; thus, Jean Chrétien Ferdinand Hoefer’s rendi-
tion in Histoire de la Chimie (1866), as quoted by Silberer, will be used for the sake of simplicity.
90
Plutarch, “Isis and Osiris, (Part 1 of 5),” in Moralia, sec. 351-358, trans. by Frank Cole Babbitt
98
Thus, through Zosimos and Plutarch, we see archontic Gnosticism depicting

violent struggles with intermediary beings over lost and guarded knowledge.
Sethian Gnosticism can be described as an archetypal example of archontic
Gnosticism. The core of Sethian initiatory praxis was called the “Five Seals,” an
underwater ritual designed to defeat the five underworld archons.91 DeConick
writes: “According to the Trimorphic Protennoia, the Five Seals is associated with
Forethought’s gift of gnosis. It is the ritual that strips the body and soul from
the spirit and re-dresses the spirit with a garment of light. The spirit becomes
so empowered by its awakening and transformation that the dark lords of
the underworld, the demons of Chaos, can no longer stop its ascent into the
transcendent overworld.”92
A Gnostic sect from the fourth century, dubbed the “Archontics” by their
opponents like Epiphanius of Salamis,93 was an extraordinarily heterodox form
of early Gnostic Christianity whose corpus called the Harmony, (which contained
texts from Sethian Gnosticism), was primarily concerned with the “soul’s
experience of the divine through a ritual for heavenly ascent.”94 According to the
Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism (2006):
If the soul has attained a state of Gnosis and has separated itself from the baptism
of the church and the lawgiver Sabaoth [the Demiurge], it is able to ascend to the
eighth heaven of the Mother on high and the Father of All. It passes unharmed
through the seven heavens, by virtue of its knowledge of the necessary passwords
or words of defence [emphasis added] to be said to the planetary rulers, a feature
well known from other Gnostic texts (40, 2, 8). This was the core and kernel of
the Archontics’ doctrine of salvation. Their negative view of the material world led
them to a docetic Christology, i.e. the doctrine that Jesus had only a carnal body
in appearance (40, 8, 2). In accordance with their depreciation of the body, many
Archontics practised sexual abstinence.95
Issues of the material body played a central role in archontic Gnosticism, as

many Gnostics believed the planetary archons controlled every part of human
physiology and caused disease and pain; therefore Gnostic healing often centered
around subduing the dark lords through hymns, invocations, sounds, spells,
amulets, herbs, and astrology.96
Based on the above descriptions of Zosimos, Plutarch, the Sethians, and the
Archontics, we can discern several common features of what could be termed
‘archontism’: 1) material reality is an illusion designed to imprison humanity; 2)
(1936), sec. 351-352.

91
92
93
Hanegraaff, ed., Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism, (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2006),
89.
94
Hanegraaff, Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism, 90.
95
Hanegraaff, Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism, 90.
96
99
diverse hidden intelligences create and uphold this illusion through processes of
nature; 3) these hidden intelligences actively resist one’s attempts to transcend the
illusion; 4) methods of transcendence have violent and/or combative elements. As
argued below, all of these features are present in William Burroughs’ worldview.
5. Neo-Archontism and Somatic Archontism
Before one can deftly analyze Burroughs as an archontist, it should be noted

that the gap of time is wide between “archontic Gnosticism” and the twentieth
century; therefore, although Burroughs surely contains the four fundamental
features of archontism as outlined above, his version of archontic spirituality
operates within very different technological and philosophical contexts. As one
last interlude before sinking into Burroughsian archontism proper, it will benefit
the holism of our perspective to first look more generally at how archontism in
the twentieth century operates.
Interesting forms of archontism emerged in the latter twentieth century as
technology began to rapidly change, repositioning the archons. Erik Davis in his
book TechGnosis (2015) focuses on how changing technologies reconstruct our
spiritual surroundings.97 Davis says, “By creating a new interface between the
self, the other, and the world beyond, media technologies become part of the
self, the other, and the world beyond.”98 Not only can modern technologies serve
as vehicles for magical spells and animist tendencies, but they can also “provide
launching pads for transcendence.”99 As an example of this, Davis discusses
how advances in media and information technology have enabled conspiracy
theorists:
the systematic and deeply invasive character of contemporary media induces myriad
doubts about who controls what we see and hear, and what hidden agendas they nurse.
Moreover, as the production and distribution of information grows exponentially,
traditional hierarchies of knowledge collapse, leaving behind a fragmentary but
excessively data-saturated world of ambiguous reports, marginal information, and
suggestive correspondences [...]. God is gone: the infinite webwork is ruled no
longer by a supreme and integrated intelligence, but by an invisible array of nefarious
cabals, hidden machineries, and mysterious agents of deception – occult archons
[emphasis added] rather than omniscient angels. Even the most secular conspiracy
theorists are sometimes marked by this esoteric psychology; the archons may be
secular (the New World Order, the Trilateral Commission, ZOG), but the basic
cosmology remains the same. The visible world is controlled by invisible powers
[...]. But unlike the Christian warrior, who puts on the armor of righteous faith to
97
Erik Davis, Techgnosis: Myth, Magic, and Mysticism in the Age of Information, (Berkeley: North
Atlantic Books, 2015), xx.
98
Davis, Techgnosis, xx-xxi.
99
Davis, Techgnosis, xxiii.
100
combat [emphasis added] the “wickedness in high places,” the gnostic conspiracy
theorist girds himself with knowledge […].100
This sort of ‘neo-archontism’ that Davis implicitly describes overlaps with

Zosimos, for in both archontic worldviews invisible agents perpetuate some
type of deception, and secret knowledges are involved in a struggle for truth
and justice, knowledges achieved through special methods for combating and
transcending. Yet, in neo-archontism, Davis seems to imply that Christian
interpretations of archontic force are of comparatively lesser importance these
days: neo-archontism is often secular on its surface, bemoaning insidious alliances
of corporations and governments and mass media as the invisible agents to be
battled. Davis explains, “As I have suggested throughout this book, the gnostic
mythology of the archons is in some ways an appropriate image of power in an age
of electronic specters and high-tech propaganda, an environment of simulation
and algorithmic control […].”101 By positing “propaganda” as archontic, we see
a type of archontism constructed through the dynamics of communication, or
LANGUAGE-as-ARCHON (‘linguistic archontism’), something that will later
be shown is heavily present in Burroughs.
Perhaps the most prominent place where secular and spiritual archontism
intersect is in late twentieth-century American TV and film, such as the X-Files
show (1993-2002),102 or the Matrix films (1999-2003). The Matrix, (the first in
the series, and a notedly “gnostic” film),103 is heavily archontist: the protagonist
“Neo” escapes his computer-generated illusory world called “the Matrix” in
order to learn new skills in an attempt to battle the A.I. entities that have enslaved
humanity. The A.I. masters themselves are a secular causation of the illusion
paradigm, but by the third film in the Matrix trilogy (The Matrix Revolutions),
Neo acquires powers that can interact with the machines even when his body is
disconnected from the Matrix, implying some kind of occult, preternatural force
that is ultimately responsible for humanity’s salvation.
One framework through which the secularization of archontic agency operates
in the Matrix films is Lewis Mumford’s “myth of the machine”: a notion common
to modernity that granting high authority to science will translate into the best
societal results because science allows for greater economic control.104 Davis
refers to this as the “myth of engineered utopia.”105 A corollary to the concept of
ever increasing economic control is ever increasing social control. The archon-
like A.I. antagonists of The Matrix might then be interpreted as symbolizing the
dangers of technological power realized by the ‘authority’ granted to machines
100
Davis, Techgnosis, 244-245.
101
Davis, Techgnosis, 301.
102
103
See: Frances Flannery-Dailey and Wagner, Rachel L., “Wake up! Gnosticism and Buddhism in
The Matrix,” Journal of Religion & Film 5:2 (2016); DeConick, The Gnostic New Age, “Ch. 1.”
104
Davis, Techgnosis, xix.
105
101
because of the myth of engineered utopia. The machines in The Matrix choose
to use that power to enslave through illusion, thus symbolizing SCIENCE-as-
ARCHON (‘scientific archontism’).
One source allegedly influential to The Matrix was The Invisibles,106 by Grant
Morrison, himself a Burroughs fan. In The Invisibles, Morrison’s plot is explicitly
“Manichean,” the protagonists battling against “a vast cosmic conspiracy run
by extradimensional aliens or anti-beings called “Archons.””107 The Matrix
also bears resemblance to another film released not long before it, the heavily
“gnostic”108 Dark City (1998). In Dark City, the archontic masters are space
aliens (ostensibly secular), yet the psychokinetic powers through which they
create their illusions are innate and not technologically-driven, thus yielding
preternatural connotations. And like in the Matrix series, Dark City’s protagonist
“Murdoch” also must activate his own occult powers to defeat the villains.
These ‘secularized’ archons portrayed in twentieth-century media seem
sympathetic with Kripal’s “Orientation” and “Alienation” Super-Story
concepts,109 wherein the constant desire to ‘Other’ sources of special truth is
based on our current stage of societal knowledge: we place the Other, or the
“Orient,” in the unknown. In the ‘Space Age,’ the unknown is ‘outer space,’
hence Dark City’s SPACE-ALIEN-as-ARCHON (‘alienative archontism’).
What is also interesting to note is that not only was the Matrix series heavily
influenced by the writings of Burroughs-fans like William Gibson and Grant
Morrison, but the 2002 X-Files series finale centers around an alien colonization
of earth happening in December 2012, and even refers to the Maya as having
predicted it. Therefore the indirect influence of Burroughs on these two popular
franchises positions Burroughs as a foundational personality for twentieth-
century archontism.
***
Another aspect of neo-archontism that Erik Davis discusses, and one that
overlaps with archontic Gnosticism, involves the connection between the
archontic worldview and the rejection of the material world, thus rejecting
the body (which we will later see that Burroughs tends to do). In his analysis
of John Perry Barlow’s libertarian critiques of the governmental regulation of
cyberspace, Davis notes that Barlow’s positioning of the Internet as a “frontier”
and a method for achieving true freedom, implies that cyberspace offers users a
106
Jacopo della Quercia and Maxwell Yezpitelok and M. Asher Cantrell, “7 Classic Movies You
Didn’t Know Were Rip-Offs,” Cracked, October 03, 2011: n.p.
107
Kripal, Mutants and Mystics, 19.
108
See: Fryderyk Kwiatkowski, “How To Attain Liberation From a False World? The Gnostic
Myth of Sophia in Dark City,” Journal of Religion & Film 21:1 (1998).
109
102
sort of “bodiless fulfillment.”110 Linking the concept of bodiless fulfillment with

the archontic worldview, Davis states:
One problem with this neo-gnostic, libertarian psychology is that it needs tyrannical
archons to attack; otherwise, there is no ready explanation for the fact that life in
human societies (and human bodies) is composed of limitations and constraints. In
the most extreme cases, the search for archons leads to what the historian Richard
Hofstadter famously named the “paranoid style” of American politics: a conspiracy-
minded tendency to intensify ordinary power struggles into Manichaean battles
between good and evil.
Herein lies a rationale behind the common overlap of archontism with the
“rejection of the regulated self.”111 Perhaps the altered states of consciousness
associated with ‘gnosis’ lead one to see the physical world, and thus the body,
as composed of “limitations.” If the physical world is a limitation, it could be
seen as a type of prison, and thus the physical world must be rejected to attain
one’s true potential. If one believes their true potential has been stripped or
obscured by the physical world, (meaning they once had miraculous power and
lost it), they might agentify those forces of limitation to create a target for the
ensuing anger. The agentification of limiting forces presumably acts to uphold
the value of existential meaning: to conceive of pain and limitation as arbitrary
can possibly be more stressful on the psyche, and if one believes their physical
limitations are void of meaning, then seizing power and transcending limitation
also becomes pointless; but believing a limitation has meaning might imply that
it is an intentional act, and the idea of ‘intention’ creates the perception that
invisible entities are at work. This agentification also creates greater possibilities
for resisting the perception of limitations because it gives a cosmic template
justifying libertarian inclinations to seek higher and higher experiences of
freedom. Archontism therefore rationalizes the existential injustice of bodily
limitations, providing reasons and methods to correct the injustice by escaping
the body, thus escaping the ‘illusion’ of limitation, the BODY-as-ARCHON
(‘somatic archontism’).
Jungian scholar Stephan Hoeller is an example of a type of somatic neo-
archontism. Hoeller is a bishop for a gnostic church in Los Angeles and defines
Gnosticism as “libertarian,” seeing the ancient Gnostics as “technicians of
individuation” who attempted to overcome the internal archons that rule our
mundane, messed-up psyches.”112 The archontism of Antiquity which rejected the
bodily realm has been secularized by Hoeller into psychoanalytical terminology.
Instead of matter itself as an archontic prison, ‘Jungian archontism’ still locates
110
111
Marco Pasi, “Esoteric Experiences and Critical Ethnocentrism,” in Religion: Perspectives from
the Engelsberg Seminar 2014, edited by Kurt Almqvist and Alexander Linklater, (Stockholm: Axel
and Margaret Ax:son Johnson Foundation, 2015), 139-140.
112
103
archons in the body, but more specifically within the psyche’s tangled networks
of ego and repression, thus somatic neo-archontism does not necessarily reject
the body as a whole, but may instead reject the “messed-up” state of the body,
yielding REPRESSION-as-ARCHON.
However, not all neo-archontists necessarily subscribe to somatic archontism.
For example, author Philip K. Dick was not one who wholly “condemned the
flesh.”113 Davis writes that the “demiurgic traps” in Dick’s novels are “human
constructions, figments we build out of media technologies, commodity
hallucinations, emotional lies [...].”114 For Dick, the archontic force stems not
from the body per se, but more so from the environment and how people interact
with it. Additionally, Grant Morrison sides more with a Dickian archontism than
a somatic one, as Kripal notes Morrison’s work reflects on the “gnostic error” of
condemning materiality, since the archontic illusion is not matter itself, but that
spirit and matter are separate,115 meaning matter is not inherently bad, but the
approach to matter can generate illusions.
The nuances of Dickian archontism are illustrated via a dichotomy that Davis
makes between “Manichaean” and “Augustinian” worldviews. Manichaeanism is
locked into the concept of absolute good versus absolute evil, positing the world
in rigidly dualist terms, whereas Augustinianism “opens the self into a continual
labor of awakening that holds out the possibility of enlightening even the archons,
who in the end are no other than ourselves.”116 This “Augustinianism” Davis
describes resonates with Kyle Fraser’s description of Zosimos, as Fraser observes
that the Panopolitan is not just influenced by Sethian texts that reject the body,
but also by the Corpus Hermeticum’s doctrines of bodily redemption and
regeneration.117 ‘Hermetic archontism’ then would not necessarily be grounded
in a negative epistemology per se, but rather a ‘salvific epistemology.’
Yet, salvation in the works of William Burroughs does not often hinge upon
redeeming ‘matter.’ To oversimplify: Burroughs wants to assault, destroy, and
transcend the body.
6. Storming the Citadels: Burroughsian Archontism
Burroughs’ “gnostic” outlook on the universe has been mentioned in literary

scholarship before,118 but is often posed more as coincidence than historical fact;
113
114
Davis, Techgnosis., 302.
115
116
Davis, Techgnosis, 301-302.
117
Kyle Fraser, “Distilling Nature’s Secrets: The Sacred Art of Alchemy,” in The Oxford Handbook
of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, eds. Paul Keyser and John Scarborough, (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2017), 739.
118
See: Gregory Stephenson, “The Gnostic Vision of William S. Burroughs,” Review of Contem-
porary Fiction 4:1 (1984), 40-49.
104
however, this “gnostic” label can be applied not just as mere speculation based
on thematic comparison. Bill Burroughs himself in fact explicitly identified as
a “Manichaean,” and “Gnostic.”119 His esoteric influences are vast and span
across his whole life, as he was steeped in occult practices ever since youth. For
example, his mother was a believer in spirits and psychic phenomena.120 And the
first thing Burroughs ever published when he was fifteen years old was an article
titled “Personal Magnetism” for his high school newspaper which contained a
review of mind control lessons he had purchased through a magazine.121
The 1950s were particularly important years for Burroughs regarding his
spiritual development. In 1951 he accidentally killed his wife (Vollmer) with
a pistol during a botched William Tell performance at a friend’s apartment in
Mexico City.122 Having been fascinated by occultism since long before killing his
wife,123 Burroughs later came to believe that Vollmer’s death happened because
he had been possessed by an evil spirit.124 In an oft-quoted introduction to his
book Queer, (with much of the book being written in the early-1950s, but not
published until 1985), Burroughs says:
a scone, a cup of tea, an inkwell purchased for a few schillings, become charged with
a special and often sinister significance. I get exactly the same feeling to an almost
unbearable degree as I read the manuscript of Queer. The event towards which Lee finds
himself inexorably driven is the death of his wife by his own hand, the knowledge of
possession, a dead hand waiting to slip over his like a glove. [...] My concept of possession
is closer to the medieval model than to modern psychological explanations, with their
dogmatic insistence that such manifestations must come from within and never, never,
never from without. (As if there were some clear-cut difference between inner and outer.)
I mean a definite possessing entity. [...] I am forced to the appalling conclusion that I
would have never become a writer but for Joan’s death, and to a realization of the extent
to which this event has motivated and formulated my writing. I live with the constant
threat of possession, and a constant need to escape from possession, from Control. So the
death of Joan brought me into contact with the invader, the Ugly Spirit, and maneuvered
me into a lifelong struggle, in which I have had no choice except to write my way out.125
A couple of years after Vollmer’s death, Burroughs embarked on a lengthy

expedition through South America in search of ayahuasca, during which he wrote
a letter to Ginsberg in 1953 claiming, “Yage is space time travel.”126 But the most
119
Stevens, The Magical Universe of William S. Burroughs, 103.
120
121
122
Miles, Call Me Burroughs, “Ch. 18.”
123
124
125
William Burroughs, “Introduction,” in Word Virus: The William S. Burroughs Reader, eds. James
Grauerholz and Ira Silverberg, (New York: Groves Press, 1998), 93-94.
126
William Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg, The Yage Letters, (London: Penguin Books, 2012
[1963]), 44.
105
‘esoteric’ period of his life is maybe the eclectic drug and ritual experimentation
that occupied much of his time at the Rue Git-le-Coeur “Beat Hotel” in Paris,
beginning in 1958.
During the Beat Hotel days, Bill Burroughs was heavily influenced by Surrealist
painter Brion Gysin (1916-1986), who also lived in the building. Prior to having
met, both Gysin and Burroughs held affinities for visionary drugs, mythology,
and the paranormal, but Brion also taught Bill a lot about Scientology, trance
music, and Ismailism.127 They also developed and popularized more novel forms
of consciousness exploration: once while on a bus in France, Gysin experienced
a meditative state that induced closed-eye geometric hallucinations when his
bus passed by a row of trees, flickering sunlight across his already closed-eyes;
when Brion told Bill about it, Bill recommended William Gray Walter’s The
Living Brain, the first scientific book ever published that dealt with studies of
flicker-induced hallucinations.128 In the coming years, their desire to experiment
with reliable flicker induction (sometimes also in combination with drugs like
psilocybin)129 would eventually lead to the creation of the “Dreamachine,”
the first patented flicker induction device intended for mass market (although
Gysin never managed to sell it).130 Burroughs once famously wrote to Gysin in
reference to the possibilities of flicker induction: “We must storm the citadels of
enlightenment. The means are at hand.”131
As his relationship with Gysin intensified, so did Burroughs’ esoteric
experiences. Matthew Levi Stevens observes, “the atmosphere around Burroughs
and Gysin in those early days at the Beat Hotel in Paris was steeped in the occult,
with daily experiments in mirror-gazing, scrying, trance and telepathy, all fuelled
by a wide variety of mind-altering drugs,”132 including hashish, mescaline, and
other substances intended to bring on visions.133 One time Gysin saw a “Moslem
funeral” in the smooth spherical surface of a steel keychain;134 another time “the
devil” appeared in Gysin’s room, three-feet tall and dressed like an eighteenth-
century Swedish gentleman.135 In a letter to Allen Ginsberg, Burroughs claimed, “I
have been making such incredible discoveries in the line of psychic exploration...
What is happening now is that I literally turn into someone else not a human
creature but man like–He wears some sort of green uniform...The face is full of
black boiling fuzz and what most people would call evil…”136
Burroughs himself had a somewhat paranoid interpretation of their work
127
Geiger, Nothing is True Everything is Permitted, 118.
128
John Geiger, The Chapel of Extreme Experience, (New York: Soft Skull Press, 2003), 11.
129
Geiger, The Chapel of Extreme Experience, 58.
130
131
132
Stevens, The Magical Universe of William S. Burroughs, 50.
133
134
135
136
106
at Git-le-Coeur, as though these consciousness experiments were treading on

forbidden ground: “We all thought we were interplanetary agents involved in
a deadly struggle...battles...codes...ambushes. It seemed real at the time. From
here, who knows? We were promised transport out of the area, out of Time
and into Space. [...] Everything had meaning. The danger and fear were real
enough. When somebody is trying to kill you, you know it.”137 This belief that
they were somehow “agents” working in an esoteric war against demiurgic
forces resonates with the crime noir aspects of Burroughs’ fiction, but it is also
possibly the reason he found Gysin’s interest in Hassan i Sabbah, legendary
leader of the Ismaili Assassins, so fruitful for his writing. In Nova Express
(1964), Burroughs writes:
What scared you all into time? Into body? Into shit? I will tell you: “the word.” Alien
Word “the.” “The” word of Alien Enemy imprisons “thee” in Time. In Body. In Shit.
Prisoner, come out. The great skies are open. I Hassan i Sabbah rub out the word
forever. If you I cancel all your words forever. And the words of Hassan i Sabbah as
also cancel. Cross all your skies see the silent writing of Brion Gysin Hassan i Sabbah.138
Here we see the gnostic cosmology of Burroughs at play, wherein Gysin (as
Sabbah) is a great revolutionary figure who destroys the demiurgic forces of
the “word” to bring everlasting peace through “silence.” Such an association
connotes perhaps that Gysin to an extent was the ‘leader’ of the Beats’ gang of
gnostic ‘secret agents’ at Git-le-Coeur, and they saw the Assassins as kindred
souls in a cosmic struggle.
The same reason why the Assassins were fascinating to Burroughs is probably
related to his penchant for fictive guerilla warfare, as Sabbah was said to have
“invented a new type of warfare.”139 In The Revised Boy Scout Manual (1970),
Burroughs includes sections on “Revolutionary Weapons and Tactics,” and a
five-step process for achieving independence from “alien domination”:
1) Proclaim a new era and set up a new calendar, 2) Replace alien language, 3) Destroy
or neutralize alien gods, 4) Destroy alien machinery of Government and Control, 5)
Take wealth and land from individual aliens.140
Later on in the Manual, there is a section titled “Start Assassination by List”:
We have a tentative list of the real higher-ups in England. As we start working through
it, other higher-ups will betray themselves to the trained observer, so the list keeps
137
Geiger, The Chapel of Extreme Experience, 127-128.
138
William Burroughs, Nova Express, (New York: Grove Press, 1992 [1964]), 4.
139
Brion Gysin and Terry Wilson, Here to Go: Planet R-101, (San Francisco: Re/Search Publica-
tions, 1982), xiv.
140
William Burroughs, et al., Throbbing Gristle, (San Francisco: Re/Search Publications, 1982), 5.
107
growing. We will need that list when the time rolls around for mass murder, mass
assassination (MA), and we turn our boys loose.141
Gysin even gave Burroughs the initial idea for his cut-up style of writing, a
method that involved fragmenting printed texts and rearranging their fragments
into “arbitrary” (not “random”)142 orders to reveal hidden meaning. This cut-up
technique is employed heavily in Burroughs’ Nova movement. And despite that
cut-up was technically done first by Tristan Tzara (a friend of Gysin’s) during the
Dada movement, Burroughs gives credit to Gysin for its invention, although the
way Burroughs employs it is wholly his own and goes far beyond whatever Tzara
or Gysin ever did with it.
Burroughs also credits Gysin with introducing him to “the whole magical
universe.”143 But Gysin was not his only ‘guru.’ Before meeting Gysin, Burroughs
was heavily influenced by Wilhelm Reich,144 and the book Think and Grow Rich
by Napoleon Hill.145 Around the time his friendship with Gysin was coming
into full bloom, Burroughs even made reference to Aleister Crowley in a letter
to his mother, worrying that he might inherit the title of “The Wickedest Man
Alive” from Crowley after Naked Lunch became a scandal;146 it is no wonder
that ‘sex magic’ is abundant in the Burroughsian corpus. After the Beat Hotel
phase, Burroughs would continue his esoteric research, reading Konstantin
Raudive, Carlos Castaneda, Robert Monroe, Major Bruce MacManaway, and
Whitley Strieber.147 During his time in London in the 1960s and 70s, he even
published an esoteric column in Mayfair magazine called the “Burroughs
Academy.”148
The gnostic spirituality of Burroughs’ works has been discussed in the past,
such as his “archon”-like149 character “Mr Bradly–Mr Martin” from the Nova
movement. Mr Bradly–Mr Martin is the leader of the “Nova Mob” who are the
controllers of reality, creators of the physical realm. In The Third Mind (1978),
Burroughs writes, “Mr Bradly–Mr Martin, in my mythology, is a God that failed,
a God of Conflict in two parts so created to keep a tired old show on the road,
The God of Arbitrary Power and Restraint, Of Prison and Pressure [...].”150 In
141
Burroughs, “Throbbing…”, 9.
142
Michael W. Clune, American Literature and the Free Market, 1945-2000, (Cambridge: Cambrid-
ge University Press, 2010), 79.
143
144
145
William Burroughs and Brion Gysin, The Third Mind (New York: Viking Press, 1978), “23
Stitches Taken…”
146
Bill Morgan, editor, Rub Out the Words (New York: Ecco, 2012), 13.
147
148
149
Stevens, The Magical Universe of William S. Burroughs, 104; see also: Cline, “Time Junky,”
(2013).
150
Burroughs and Gysin, The Third Mind, 97.
108
Burroughs’ writing, “Control” is the ultimate evil.151 Control is the domain of the
“Sender,” a nebulous intelligence that projects a “one-way telepathic broadcast”
meant to “control, coerce, debase, exploit or annihilate the individuality of another
living creature.”152 Burroughs-scholar Oliver Harris is worth quoting here:
And what is the “Master Virus: Deteriorated Image” of the human species? The
Sender. Of course, the Sender is therefore “not a human individual”–let alone a
letter writer–but Communication itself, which Burroughs always presents in the
abstract, as he does Control. This seems to make each term monumental and both
naively immaterial and ahistorical; but it might equally be thought of as a way to
render the elusiveness of an always absent cause. As the viral or virtual Real of
cybernetic power, the Sender is not itself fully alive or fully material or even visible
but needs human individuals to materialize Communication and Control historically
and symptomatically.153
From the quote, we see that Burroughs’ Manichaean archons are portrayed as
a fundamental principle of language itself, transposed into a disembodied force
often termed by Burroughs as a type of “virus.” Burroughs’ particular theory
about the evilness of “the Word” and its ability to imprison humanity in the
realm of “Time” was heavily influenced by the epistemological theories of Polish-
American writer Alfred Korzybski (1879-1950).154
So, how should one combat the forces of language to cure the virus? Through
‘giving up control.’ To give up control over one’s language, for Burroughs,
means to escape “self-control,” since the self is just another method of the bigger
Control.155 For example, Burroughs once claimed that his best writing happened
while he was in states similar to “automatic writing.”156 Burroughs’ cut-up
methods also adhere to the purpose of destroying Control through linguistic
deprogramming, because Burroughs identifies “Time” as the main realm of
bodily imprisonment, and the deconstruction of language could deconstruct
Time by unraveling the neurological biases enforced by language, therefore
disrupting the sense of Time and allowing one to achieve “nonbody knowledge.”
In The Third Mind, Burroughs says, “[Silence is the] most desirable state. In one
sense a special use of words and pictures can conduce silence. The scrapbooks
and time travel are exercises to expand consciousness, to teach me to think in
association blocks rather than words. I’ve recently spent a little time studying
hieroglyph systems, both the Egyptian and the Mayan. [...] Words – at least the
151
Oliver Harris, William Burroughs and the Secret of Fascination, (Carbondale and Edwardsville,
Illi.: Southern Illinois University Press, 2003), 201.
152
Harris, William Burroughs and the Secret of Fascination, 202.
153
Harris, William Burroughs and the Secret of Fascination, 202-203.
154
155
156
109
way we use them – can stand in the way of what I call nonbody experience. It’s
time we thought about leaving the body behind.”157
This “rejection of the regulated self” within Burroughs seems to fit with his
later influence on Chaos Magic(k) methodology in the 1980s zine scene (notably
through disciples Genesis P-Orridge and Hakim Bey).158 As Bey-scholar
Christian Greer puts it, “Essential to Chaos Magick is the meta-belief that belief
and identity are tools, indeed “magickal force[s],” that can be used to manipulate
reality according to one’s will.”159 The overarching philosophical structure of
the Chaos Magic(k) scene is thoroughly archontist, holding “the belief that the
experience of “gnosis” through magical techniques, rituals, and psychedelics,
revealed the anarchic, yet malleable, interplay of forces that structure reality.
Additionally, it was believed that the structure of reality was actively obscured by
[a] “barrage of psychic propaganda”[…].”160
P-Orridge founded Thee Temple ov Psychick Youth (TOPY) in 1981, a
transgressive occult “fellowship,” and offshoot of the band Psychick TV.161 To
resist Control, they advocated Gysin’s cut-up method of artistic creation for
“breaking its ideological spell.”162 Not only does P-Orridge associate bodily
dissolution during flicker induction as indicative of transcendence,163 but somatic
rejection seems to inhere to the cut-up philosophy of TOPY through themes
of extensive body modification, as Erik Davis writes, “Along with reclaiming
their bodies through the kind of tribal tattoos and novel piercings that would
later spread to the mall, TOPYites spent a lot of time communicating through
alternative networks in which the information they passed around seemed less
important than the manner in which it was swapped.”164 TOPY’s type of somatic
archontism is thus a drive to modify and recreate the body in order to take
ownership of oneself, an ownership regained by defying nature and society on
an aesthetic level.
TOPYite “reclaiming” of the body shows how Burroughs can be interpreted
by others via somewhat more positive epistemologies of the body’s ability to
transfigure, and this salvific reclamation of the body is even echoed in the
concluding section of The Yage Letters when Ginsberg describes his own
experiences with ayahuasca:
To whom it may concern: [/] Self deciphers this correspondence thus: the vision
of ministering angels my fellow man and woman first wholly glimpsed while the
Curandero gently crooned human in ayahuasca trance-state 1960 was prophetic of
157
158
Greer, “Occult Origins,” 173.
159
160
161
162
163
164
110
transfiguration of self consciousness from homeless mind sensation of eternal fright

to incarnate body feeling bliss now actualized 1963. [/] Old love, as ever [/] Allen
Ginsberg165
This contrast between the body-negative linguistic archontism of Burroughs

and some of the more body-positive esoteric currents he influenced would be
interesting to explore in future research. How and why does a form of esotericism
based on an avant-garde philosophy of “nonbody” archontism become tempered
as its doctrine of spiritual transfiguration is gradually pulled into the material
sphere? Are there multiple ways in which this change can happen, and for a
variety of different reasons? Is the distinction between ‘bad-body’ Gnosticism
and ‘better-body’ Gnosticism a paradox of ambiguity? How can we categorize
the spectrum of body-positivity within New Age spiritualities? Analyzing such
spectrums of body-positivity as they evolve over successive generations could
reveal important dynamics within the histories of gender relations, LGBTQIA
rights, and feminism, as well as elucidate Western esotericism’s importance to
these histories.166
In The Gnostic New Age, DeConick points out that, (in reference to the Corpus
Hermeticum’s interpretation from Ficino onward), “This reengagement with
Gnostic spirituality in its most cosmic-friendly guise cannot be overemphasized.
As we have seen, The Gnostic spirituality of the Hermetics is quite tempered
when it comes to our universe. Our universe is the best-case scenario of a God
who unfolded himself into lower and lower forms of life. It is this tempered form
of Gnosticism, not the forms that framed our world as a dark, demonic place,
that became the undercurrent of Western spirituality.”167 DeConick’s point
here is not that Western esotericism does not contain pessimism, but that the
Corpus Hermeticum and the spiritual currents it influenced in the West after the
Renaissance generally have more positive views of the body than the mainstream
religious perspectives.168 Yet, Burroughs, a person with sizeable influence
on Western esoteric currents, does not necessarily fit this Hermetic mould,
exemplified in his words, “the whole human organism and its way of propagating
is repellent and inefficient. A living being is an artifact, like the flintlock. Well,
what’s wrong with the flintlock? Just about everything.”169 Burroughs saw the
body as something that imprisons us, preventing us from entering Space and
becoming immortal. Thus, Burroughs’ phrase “storm the citadels” really means
‘storm the body.’
‘Storm the body’ could have a dual meaning: 1) destroy the body; 2) reclaim
the body. And destruction and reclamation are not necessarily mutually exclusive.
165
Burroughs, The Yage Letters, 64.
166
Italian transgender activist and esotericist Helena Velena would be a quality case study in this regard.
167
DeConick, The Gnostic New Age, 93-94.
168
DeConick, e-mail message to author, September 2018.
169
Ted Morgan, Literary Outlaw: The Life and Times of William S. Burroughs, (London: Pimlico,
1991), 352.
111
Burroughs’ themes through which he explores the body (drugs, violence, sex)
can read like a critique of the body, things of the world which help to make
us keep ourselves imprisoned through our desires. Yet, there is another dual
meaning here: the archontic weapons used against humans, (i.e. these bodily
restrictions through which we imprison ourselves), can also be inverted, can be
weaponized in other ways and transformed into instruments that allow us to
escape the body. To give an example, Burroughs often thought that the biological
need for sex was one of the most powerful vices that kept spirits trapped in the
human body;170 this negative view of sex could be influenced by his childhood
experiences with sexual abuse.171 However, sex magic, frequently depicted as
the “flash bulb of orgasm” in The Soft Machine, is one of the most common
ways in which Burroughs’ characters escape their bodies. Therefore, sex, drugs,
and violence are ironically also tools of transcendence, and within Burroughs
the line between bodily imprisonment and liberation is frequently obfuscated,
the negative and positive connotations rapidly vacillating, or even coinciding.
This dual purpose of the Burroughsian body, a body both archontic prison and
tool of transcendence, is possibly the fulcrum that allows esoteric spiritualities
influenced by Burroughs to migrate along the spectrum of body-positivity.
7. ‘Necroconic’ Archontism
Returning to the quandaries of literary scholarship, perhaps part of the trouble

with interpreting Burroughs is the fact that his writing is difficult to classify. It often
gets categorized as satire172 or science fiction,173 and surely it contains elements of
both; but, neither genre is exactly right. His style in the Nova movement texts is
just as poetic as it is satirical, but one would be hard-pressed to market The Soft
Machine as a book of poetry. Burroughs often called his works “picaresque,”174
yet this by itself still does not seem sufficient. Whatever may be said of the bulk
of his corpus, it is fair to posit that it represents highly experimental methods
employed in the creation of an avant-garde philosophy grounded in archontic
esotericism.
But is there an appropriate genre for Burroughs that can be determined by
using what we know about his archontic philosophy?
Let us consider that many of Burroughs’ narratives center around death,
taking place in the spirit world, and sometimes depict the souls of bodily-
departed humans being eaten by gods.175 Let us also consider that Burroughs
170
See Burroughs’ negative depiction of the ‘Chimu’ in The Soft Machine, 17-18.
171
172
Ihab Hassan, “The Subtracting Machine: The Work of William Burroughs,” Critique 6:1 (Spring
1963), 21.
173
Hassan, “The Subtracting Machine,” 6.
174
175
Burroughs, The Soft Machine, 57.
112
occasionally gives instructions and/or clarion calls for how to transcend the
prison of embodied reality: in the “Mayan Caper,” the narrator declares, “‘Cut
word lines – Cut music lines – Smash the control images – Smash the control
machine – Burn the books – Kill the priests – Kill! Kill! Kill!’”176 These sentences
are commands meant to empower the reader. Looking at calls to violence within
Burroughs, and noting that these calls often take place in contexts of bodiless
realms, perhaps the best possible category for describing most of Burroughs’
narrative works is the Western term “book of the dead,”177 or a book that seeks
to prepare spirits for a turbulent afterlife.
First of all, the similarity between Burroughs’ corpus and books of the dead
has been noted before, with Burroughs even agreeing to this interpretation when
interviewer Philippe Mikriammos presents it.178 Secondly, the titles of many
Burroughs books openly admit the connection. For example, in ancient Egypt,
the ‘west’ was the land of death because it was where the sun set, and deceased
persons were euphemistically said to have ‘gone west’:179 some time after the Nova
books, Burroughs wrote the ‘Red Night trilogy,’ the third book of which is titled
The Western Lands (1987). The second Red Night book is titled The Place of Dead
Roads (1983). These Red Night titles explicitly inform us that the events therein
largely take place in a land beyond death. Long before the Red Night trilogy,
Burroughs published a book in 1971 called The Wild Boys: A Book of the Dead.
And there is reason to believe that the book-of-the-dead references in Burroughs
are not just metaphors. Ancient Egyptian funerary spells associated with books of
the dead are sometimes of a martial ilk, providing departing spirits with weapons
and spells that would allow them the power to dismember and neutralize their
serpentine underworld enemies so they can build a newly transfigured body of
light and live forever.180 If we recall that Burroughs considers writing a magical act,
and also considers his books acts of defiance against an “Ugly Spirit” that literally
possessed him, then there is very little conceptual difference between Burroughs’
works and the magical texts compiled in the Egyptian Book of the Dead.
To look at archontism as a transhistorical pattern of thought, it is interesting to
note that “Zosimos’ Visions” indeed shares some general features with Burroughs’
corpus: both largely take place in an immaterial realm beyond the body, and both
directly instruct the reader to battle and destroy the hostile entities found there;
thus, the Panopolitan’s “dreams” then also appear rather ‘book-of-the-dead-ish.’
176
Burroughs, The Soft Machine, 74.
177
See: Stanislav Grof, Books of the Dead: Manuals for Living and Dying, (New York: Thames &
Hudson, 1994); François-René Herbin, Books of Breathing and Related Texts, (London, British
Museum Press, 2008).
178
Philippe Mikriammos, “A Conversation with William Burroughs,” The Review of Contemporary
Fiction 4:1 (Spring 1984), n.p.
179
See: Bob Brier, “Mummification: Resurrection of a Lost Art,” (paper presented at Stuart L.
Wheeler Gallery, 2009).
180
Katalin Anna Kóthay, “Divine Beings at Work: a Motif in Late First Intermediate Period and
Early Middle Kingdom Mortuary Texts,” The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 96 (2010), 89-90.
113
This makes sense because Zosimos himself was Egyptian, and “Visions” contains
implicit references to ancient Egyptian funerary rites like the Opening of the
Mouth ceremony, a ritual intended to regenerate a deceased spirit’s perceptual
powers: the “man of brass” speaks to Zosimos through a dream, “I command
every one to take the book of lead and to write in it with his hand until his pharynx
is developed, the mouth is opened, and the eyes have taken their place again.”181
The man of brass’s instructions here are a clear reference to the Opening of the
Mouth. Kyle Fraser also notes that mummification symbolism is important to
Zosimos.182 Thus, the remnants of ancient funerary rites remain prominent in the
Panopolitan’s alchemical lessons.
A certain type of logic makes archontists like Zosimos and Burroughs both
draw inspiration from Egyptian funerary rites, even though they lived thousands
of years apart from each other: magical spells designed to thwart evil demons
in the afterlife are clearly the most useful tools in an archontic universe. When
Burroughs says, “I am mapping an imaginary universe. A dark universe of
wounded galaxies and novia [sic] conspiracies where obscenity is coldly used
as a total weapon [emphasis added],”183 one must remember the “literal”ness
of his “psychic assassins” comment to Ginsberg: Burroughs means his writing
is literally intended as a “weapon” that can be used in the land beyond death.
For Burroughs himself, his transgression achieved through literature is often
about metaphysical combat, meaning such literary transgressiveness is in fact a
subcomponent of his spirituality and subservient to a metaphysical mission.
Reading Burroughs’ works as books of the dead also gives an interesting
dimension to the Mayan apocalypticism he advocated in the 1960s. The global
shift in consciousness Burroughs was possibly trying to create through his
writing was likely not just about evolving, or transfiguration, but implicitly
anticipates an epic event of massive psychic violence when the ‘old gods’ would
need to be killed. Burroughs’ works empower the reader in the land of death
and sanction their violence. Seeing as how violence played such a pivotal role
in his own life through the guilt he suffered over Vollmer’s death, (which he
admits is what ultimately led him to become a serious writer), Burroughs’
desire to ready others for a momentous metaphysical battle is no longer about
just finding the highest form of freedom, but (contrary to some opinions),184 is
also about moral redemption.
Analyzing Burroughs’ works as books of the dead has been done before, but
arguably not enough. Paul H. Wild’s article “William S. Burroughs and the
181
Silberer, Problems of Mysticism and its Symbolism, 302; original French: “Je commande à chacun
de prendre le feuillet de plomb et d’y écrire avec la main, jusqu’à ce que leur arrière-bouche se
soit développée, que leur bouche se soit ouverte, et que les yeux aient repris leur place.” (Hoefer,
Histoire de la Chimie [1866], p. 266).
182
Fraser, “Distilling Nature’s Secrets,” 727.
183
James Baxter, “The Problem of Beckett in Postmodern American Literature,” (PhD diss., Univer-
sity of Reading, 2017), 75.
184
James Parker, “The Junky Genius,” The Atlantic (April 2014), 34.
114
Maya Gods of Death” (2008) is a deconstruction of Burroughs’ legitimacy as an

archaeologist, wherein Wild notes of Burroughs-scholar Timothy Murphy:
Murphy notes that books of the dead have “received little attention from literary
scholars” and cites “the Tibetan Bardo Thodol, the Egyptian Books of the Dead and
the Maya codices” as examples. However, he partially corrects himself about the
codices with the following disclaimer: “Scholars disagree, but Burroughs insists that
the Maya codices, which he studied in Mexico are undoubtedly books of the dead;
that is to say, directions for time travel.”185
Kathryn Hume’s article “Books of the Dead: Postmortem Politics in Novels

by Mailer, Burroughs, Acker, and Pynchon” (2000) centers its analysis on the
connection between “postmortem metaphysics” and politics,186 and is an
exemplary effort toward digging at what Burroughs is actually trying to do
through the bulk of his narrative corpus. But Hume notes in the introduction,
“William Burroughs’s use of the Egyptian otherworld in The Western Lands
(1987) and Thomas Pynchon’s of the Tibetan in Vineland (1990) have been noted
by critics but not seriously examined.”187 This apprehension of literary scholars
to engage with spirituality’s connection to culture and politics is a cumbersome
yoke collaterally rendered by centuries of anti-magical polemics that have yet to
be purged.
8. Conclusion: Responding to Fallowell
In closing, it is hopefully clear by this point that Duncan Fallowell’s contention

about Burroughs being “not a [...] philosopher,” (as the title of Fallowell’s review
states), is at the very least highly subjective,188 though Fallowell offers his position
so bluntly that one might assume he thinks it a material fact. Burroughs had an
eccentric spiritual philosophy that he developed and wrote about extensively over
decades; without seeing this esoteric philosophy as central to his books, much of
Burroughs’ legacy would be largely indecipherable. Further, to say that Barry Miles
overemphasizes Burroughs’ spirituality is an obtuse statement, as Miles’ book was
more often criticized by readers for not focusing on esotericism enough.189
The conservative readership of The Spectator may have been a cause of
Fallowell’s anti-magical leanings. But one could also surmise that Fallowell
185
Paul H. Wild, “William S. Burroughs and the Maya Gods of Death: The Uses of Archaeology,”
College Literature 35:1 (Winter, 2008), 40-41.
186
Kathryn Hume, “Books of the Dead: Postmortem Politics in Novels by Mailer, Burroughs,
Acker, and Pynchon,” Modern Philology 97:3 (Feb., 2000), 418.
187
Hume, “Books of the Dead,” 417.
188
For a treatment of Burroughs’ The Third Mind as philosophy, see: Regina Weinreich, “The Dyna-
mic Deja Vu of William Burroughs,” Review of Contemporary Fiction 4:1 (Spring 1984), 55-58.
189
Miles, personal correspondence, January 2019.
115
probably feels his perspective is legitimated by a scholarly ideology, namely what

Roland Barthes calls the “Death of the Author.”
In “The Death of the Author” (1967), literary scholar Roland Barthes
argues for an ‘anti-theological’ interpretation of texts, meaning that an author’s
intentions do not hold a monopoly on textual interpretations.190 For example,
a text can have an unconscious meaning that the author is unaware of, or a
continually recreated meaning in different readership contexts. Barthes says
that the primary function of writing is “enunciation”;191 therefore, the language
of a text itself and its structural relations within its sociolinguistic continuum
takes precedence over the author’s inspiration, and this is why texts are meant
to be “ranged over,” not “pierced.”192 Barthes thus believes a contextual
interpretation is never the only possible true meaning of a text, and aims to
preserve the multiplicity of meanings.
So, Fallowell must feel so confident in denouncing the importance of
esotericism because he knows the academy will at least methodologically validate
his position. But I think there is a flaw in Fallowell’s polemic based on the fact that
he is not content to simply ignore the intention of magic. Instead, Fallowell sees
fit to explicitly discourage it, thus creating a different hierarchy of interpretive
value in which analyses of writing as a form of magical ritual are somehow ‘less
true’ than other interpretations. I disagree with Fallowell here because I think
that diminishing the importance of esotericism does not actually preserve a
multiplicity of meanings. When Fallowell states that the esoteric is unequal to
other interpretations, he is by definition restricting access to certain meanings.
Additionally, what makes Fallowell’s position all the more tenuous is that
intentionality is arguably of even greater importance to interpreting Burroughs
than other authors because of how difficult cut-up writing is to read. In The
Exterminator, Burroughs says, “Remember my medium been obvious Mr Bradly
out in Stale..Junk Reconversion..You-Tie in The Me is In-Look. The Traveller..
Junk is Time..Show Room Con Flesh..Sank into SUCH A DEAL with “Plants.”
DEAL to learn out of Time.”193
As seen from the above quote, cut-up writing can create enigmatic and densely
structured passages that appear much like encrypted information. In order to make
any kind of sense from such an unorthodox sequence of statements, one should
not be content to merely “range over” it, as Barthes advocates. I instead advocate
what I think is a more realistic approach to interpreting cut-up, and that is since
this writing appears to be not entirely comprehensible, nor grammatical English, it
is indeed likely a type of ‘code.’ And codes by definition are to be “pierced.”
Since cut-up is so unorthodox as to not even be considered ‘normal’ English,
merely being fluent in English is not sufficient to holistically understand The
190
Barthes, Image, music, text, 146-147.
191
Barthes, Image, music, text, 145.
192
Barthes, Image, music, text, 147.
193
Burroughs, The Exterminator, 33.
116
Exterminator. Even Roland Barthes would agree that one must at least know the
language that a text is written in if they are to derive any meaning from it. Thus,
the existence of language barriers illustrates that a belief in multiple meanings does
not usually equate to a belief in infinite meanings. Not knowing the language of a
text is essentially a hyperbolic form of disdaining authorial intention, but one does
not get greater access to multiple meanings by being illiterate. If one is illiterate
in any context, they do not end up with more meanings, but with no meanings.
In some cases, scholars need Burroughs’ biography to pierce the Burroughsian
code; therefore, Fallowell’s accusation that the emphasis on esotericism degrades
literature by ‘reversing the precedence’ of interpretation seems more so to simply
miss the point of Burroughs rather than to ‘safeguard’ literature.
And for Fallowell to say that esotericism has “no autonomous academic
worth” is outright mistaken. Understanding esotericism in an academic sense
is about understanding Culture and the history of ideas,194 ideas that can drive
the formations of communities, products, and tangible events entailing political,
economic, and artistic developments. Anti-magical polemics discouraging the
study of esotericism in literature neither empower nor protect literary scholarship,
they merely contribute to historical inaccuracy.
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What is the main topic of discussion in the document?

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What are some of the major figures discussed in relation to William S. Burroughs?

What are some of the major figures discussed in relation to William S. Burroughs?

What Most People Would Call Evil:

The Archontic Spirituality of William S. Burroughs

1. Introduction: The Burroughsian Legacy

William Seward Burroughs II (1914-1997) could be considered one of the most

La Rosa di Paracelso 1/2018

2. Burroughs and Mayan Apocalypticism

Although this connection appears to have been only hinted at by previous

John W. Hoopes, “William S. Burroughs & 2012,” Tribe.net, February 9, 2007.

As to whether or not Burroughs truly believed a mass shift in human

an example of poor scholarship on numerous fronts.34 Although Makemson’s

Makemson is arguably the first to associate end-of-the-world prophecies with the

So, did Burroughs believe an apocalypse of human consciousness would

In terms of attributing the genesis of Mayan apocalypticism to Burroughs,

but there is circumstantial evidence suggesting some type of transmission. For

speculates that Burroughs influenced T. McKenna in many ways, like in their

The fact that Burroughs has been under-researched as a progenitor of Mayan

Burroughs at various points in his 2018 book, Occulture.64 An exploration of

admittedly deserved: much of Burroughs’ work is undeniably complex

Fallowell’s emphasis on the “vitality,” “transgression,” and “outsiderdom” of

To more specifically define Burroughs’ spiritual worldview, his syncretic

‘archontism,’ a philosophy similar to “archontic Gnosticism.”77 Archontism is

hence, while it is fair to call Burroughs a “gnostic,” it is perhaps more accurate

Thus, through Zosimos and Plutarch, we see archontic Gnosticism depicting

Issues of the material body played a central role in archontic Gnosticism, as

(1936), sec. 351-352.

5. Neo-Archontism and Somatic Archontism

Before one can deftly analyze Burroughs as an archontist, it should be noted

This sort of ‘neo-archontism’ that Davis implicitly describes overlaps with

sort of “bodiless fulfillment.”110 Linking the concept of bodiless fulfillment with

6. Storming the Citadels: Burroughsian Archontism

Burroughs’ “gnostic” outlook on the universe has been mentioned in literary

A couple of years after Vollmer’s death, Burroughs embarked on a lengthy

at Git-le-Coeur, as though these consciousness experiments were treading on

Later on in the Manual, there is a section titled “Start Assassination by List”:

transfiguration of self consciousness from homeless mind sensation of eternal fright

This contrast between the body-negative linguistic archontism of Burroughs

Returning to the quandaries of literary scholarship, perhaps part of the trouble

Maya Gods of Death” (2008) is a deconstruction of Burroughs’ legitimacy as an

Kathryn Hume’s article “Books of the Dead: Postmortem Politics in Novels

8. Conclusion: Responding to Fallowell

In closing, it is hopefully clear by this point that Duncan Fallowell’s contention

probably feels his perspective is legitimated by a scholarly ideology, namely what

Research.” Aries 5:2 (2005): 225-254.

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