Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Frame Modelling and

Classification

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Frame Idealisation

Reduction of 3-D framework to plane frames

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Frame Modelling
Frame Components
– Beams
– Beam-columns
– Joints Joint

Beam

Beam Column

Base

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Frame Modelling for Analysis

Framing and Joints

– Continuous frames: Rigid joint

– Simple frames: Pinned joint

– Semi-continuous frames: Semi–rigid joint

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Joint Modelling
The main approaches are:
 the traditional approach in which the joints are
considered as (nominally) pinned or rigid
 the semi-rigid approach in which a more realistic
model representing the joint behaviour is used. It is
usually introduced as a spiral spring at the extremity of
the member it attaches (usually the beam).
Semi-continuous elastic design should only be used where either it is
supported by test evidence according to SS EN 1993-1-8:2010,
5.2.2.1(2) or where it is based on satisfactorily performance in a similar
situation or the validity of such method that has been verified by
established results.
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Joint Modelling for Frame Analysis

JOINT BEAM-TO-COLUMN JOINTS BEAM COLUMN
MODELLING MAJOR AXIS BENDING SPLICES BASES

SIMPLE

SEMI-
CONTINUOUS

CONTINUOUS

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Moment Rotational Relationship

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Global Frame Analysis

Aims
Determine the distribution of the internal forces
Determine the corresponding deformations

Means
Adequate models incorporating assumptions about the
behaviour of the structure and its components.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Requirements for Analysis

Basic principles to be satisfied:
Equilibrium throughout the structure
Compatibility of deformation between the frame components
Constitutive laws for the frame components

Frame model – element model

Must satisfy the basic principles

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Frame Behaviour
Displacement

Load parameter
Load
Full elastic response
Peak load

Geometric and
material nonlinearity
Elastic limit

Frame

Displacement parameter
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Frame Behaviour
• Actual response of the frame is non linear
– Linear behaviour limited
– Non-linear behaviour due to:
• Geometrical influence of the actual deformed shape
(second order effects)
• Joint behaviour
• Material yielding

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Second-Order Effects
Sway
Displacement
1st Order Moment 2nd Order Moment

Load P P

H H

x x

h
x / h

Frame

M(x) = Hx M(x) = Hx + PPx/h

M(h) = Hh M(h) = Hh + P

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Second-Order Effects
• P– effect :
– due to floor sway
– 1st order frame stiffness modified
– dominant effect

• P– effect :
– due to beam-column deflection
– 1st order member stiffness modified
– significant only for relatively slender members which
is rare

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Imperfections
Frame imperfection: Member imperfection:
always to be allowed for only for slender members (rare) in
sway frames, otherwise it is covered
in the relevant buckling curve
N

L eo,d
 

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Global vs Local Imperfections

Global imperfections for Local imperfections for
frames and bracing systems individual members
Imperfections to be considered if Imperfections to be considered if
HEd < 0.15VEd Af y Af y Af y
  0.5 
N cr
 0.5
N Ed
N Ed
N Ed 1
 
N cr 4
h  2 EI
 where N cr 
L2cr

e0
L
– This limit is seldom satisfied,
i.e. initial bow imperfection is
not commonly encountered.
Only for slender members in
h sway frames.


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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Global (Initial Sway) Imperfections

EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.3.2(4)B)
VEd2
The initial sway imperfections may be HEd2
disregarded if:
VEd1
HEd1
HEd ≥ 0.15VEd
where
HEd is the design value of the horizontal
reaction at the bottom of the storey
VEd is the total design vertical load on the
structure at the bottom of the storey

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Global (Initial Sway) Imperfections

EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.3.2(3))
For buildings with
Global initial sway imperfections: = 0 h m complex layout, you
where 0 is the basic value: 0 = 1/200 may ignore the
reduction factors h , m
h is the reduction factor for height h applicable to columns and use  = 1/200
2 2
h  but   h  1.0
h 3
h is the height of the structure in meters
 1
m is the reduction factor for the number of columns in a row:  m  0.5 1  
 m
m is the number of columns in a row

h h
 

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Local (Initial Bow) Imperfections

EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.3.2(3)) & NA to SS EN1993-1-1 (Cl. NA.2.11)
Initial local bow imperfections = e0/L where L is the member length

Determination of initial imperfections e0

 Initial imperfections for an individual section about a particular axis should be L
back-calculated from the formula for the buckling curves given in EN 1993-1-
1:2010, Cl 6.3 using the section modulus.
e0   (  0.2)W / A
where W=Wel and Wpl for elastic and plastic design respectively
 is the imperfection factor from EN1993-1-1:2010 Table 6.1
 SSEN adopts recommended values from EN1993-1-1 Table 5.1 as follows
Buckling curve Elastic analysis Plastic analysis
acc. To Table 6.1 e0/L e0/L
a0 1/350 1/300
a 1/300 1/250
b 1/250 1/200
c 1/200 1/150
d 1/150 1/100
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Equivalent Horizontal Forces

The effects of initial sway (global)
global imperfection and local bow (local)
local
imperfections may be replaced by systems of equivalent horizontal
forces.

Global imperfections Local imperfections

q1 NEd
Q1 4 N Ed e0,d
L
q2
Q2 8 N Ed e0,d
L2 L

Qi=2qi l 4 N Ed e0,d
L
NEd
l l
These initial sway imperfections should apply in all
relevant horizontal directions, but only one direction
at a time.
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Including EHF in load combinations

• Dead (G) and Imposed loads (Q) are
unfavourable
1.35G + 1.5Q + 0.75W + EHF
1.35G + 1.05Q + 1.5W + EHF

• Dead (G) and imposed loads (Q) are

favorable
1.0G + 0Q + 1.5W + EHF

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Methods of Structural Analysis

MATERIAL PROPERTY

ELASTIC PLASTIC

1st order 1st order

1st ORDER
GEOMETRICAL elastic plastic
EFFECTS 2nd order 2nd order
2nd ORDER
elastic plastic

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

1st–Order Elastic Analysis

M Mj Elastic
Elastic


Mj

M M


 
Moment rotation characteristic of the section Moment rotation characteristic of the joint

 Indefinite linear elastic response of member sections and of

joints
 Equilibrium established for the undeformed structural
configuration
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

2nd–Order Elastic Analysis

Load parameter
 Indefinite linear–elastic
response of member 1st order elastic analysis
sections and joints cr
 Equilibrium established for
the deformed structure 2nd order elastic analysis

 Allows for P– effect and,

if necessary, for P–
effect

Displacement parameter
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Rigid-Plastic Global Analysis

Mpl.Rd Mpl.Rd

Mj,Rd
M p
p Mj

M
pl.Rd
Plastic hinge
M
j,Rd
Plastic hinge

p p
Moment rotation characteristics of the member Moment rotation characteristics of the joint

 Rigid-plastic member section behaviour

 Rigid-plastic joint behaviour when plastic hinges are allowed there
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Plastic Hinge Analysis

Load parameter
 Usually a first order analysis 1
2
 Find critical mechanism 3
Critical collapse load
 Easy application for simple frames Plastic mechanism

e.g. industrial portal frames

Displacement parameter

W W  W
h h
B D B B
H H D H D 
w w
 
C C
3
3
11  2
2
 plastic hinge location
 
A E A E A E

Beam mechanism Sway mechanism Combined mechanism

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

First Order Plastic Hinge Analysis

• Elastic-perfectly plastic response of member sections
and joints


Mj M j.Rd

M pl.Rd 
M
M j.Rd
Mpl.Rd Plastic hinge
Plastic hinge




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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Second Order Plastic Analysis

Load parameter
 2nd-order analysis
usually used
elastic buckling load
 Load applied in of frame

increments elastic buckling load 

of deteriorated frame 

 “Deterioration” of
frame stability as 2nd hinge
maximum load

plastic hinges form 1st hinge branch 4

branch 3
branch 2

branch 1

Displacement parameter 27
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Analysis Methods & Limit States Design

Load Ratio, 
Elastic Buckling Load Elastic Stability
cr Limit Load
First-Order
Elastic Analysis
Second-Order
Elastic Analysis
w 
Rigid Plastic First-Order
Analysis Elastic-Plastic H
System Analysis
Limit
p
State Plastic Limit Load w
H
Inelastic Stability Limit Load
1.0 Design Load Level

Service Load Level

Local and/or Lateral- Second-Order
Torsional Buckling Inelastic Analysis

Lateral Deflection, 
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Braced and Unbraced frames

Braced frame Unbraced frame

(may be sway if bracing is very flexible) (may be non-sway if it is insensitive to horizontal loads)

• A frame without bracing is unbraced.

• A frame with bracing is classified as braced only
when the braced structure is sufficiently stiff laterally.
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Resistance to horizontal force is

provided by concrete core

(a)

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Can a Braced Frame be a Sway Frame?

Yes, when lateral deflection is large.

Especially for high-rise building.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Sway Vs Non-Sway Frame

EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.2.1(3)) & NA to SS EN1993-1-1 (Cl. NA.2.9)

A frame can be deemed to be non-sway if,

cr  10
Otherwise it is a sway frame.

where
cr is the factor by which the design loading would have to be increased to cause
elastic instability in a global mode, i.e. (cr = Fcr/FEd)
FEd is the design loading on the structure
Fcr is the elastic critical buckling load for global instability based on initial elastic
stiffness.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Simple Estimate for cr

EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.2.1(4))

The following estimate for cr may be used for

 portal frames with shallow roof slopes
 beam-and-column plane frames in buildings

 H Ed  h 
 cr    
 
 VEd   H , Ed 
where
h is the storey height In the calculation of cr , the horizontal
reaction can be either due to
Ed is the horizontal reaction at the bottom of the storey  equivalent horizontal forces,
 horizontal forces, or
VEd is the total vertical load at the bottom of the storey  total horizontal forces
H,Ed is the horizontal displacement at the top of the storey, but the horizontal displacements due to
relative to the bottom of the store, when the frame is the respective horizontal forces have to
be used in the calculation.
loaded with horizontal loads.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Direct Second Order Analysis

for Sway Frames
• Direct second order analysis includes both the sway effect
(P- effect) and the member deflection effect (P- effect) by
modifying the member stiffness terms. Load is applied in
increments. Iterations and convergence procedures are
required.

• For most sway frames, only the P- effect (sway effect)
needs to be allowed for.

• Eurocode 3 & BS5950:Part 1: Indirect methods are

possible but beware of their limitations.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Frame Classification and

Type of Frame Analysis

BRACING

BRACED UNBRACED

LATERAL SWAY 2nd order 2nd order

DISPLACEMENT NON-SWAY 1st order 1st order

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Summary
 The frame has first to be idealised
 Then a frame classification is carried out
 sway or non sway
 On the basis of the frame class (and the
type of steel and profiles), the type of
frame analysis is finally selected

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Example 1: Frame Classification

1) Simple frames
2) All horizontal loads are resisted by
the two bracing frames
3) Stability is provided by the two
bracing frames.
4) Need to classify the bracing frame

Unfactored wind load = 154kN per braced frame

Unfactored Roof and Floor Loads

Roof: Roof beam: 305 x 127 x 37 UB in grade S275
Dead load Wdr = 3.5 kN/m2 Floor beam: 406 x 178 x 60 UB in grade S275
Imposed load Wir = 1.0 kN/m Ground to 2nd floor columns: 203 x 203 x 60 UC in grade S275
2

Floor: 2nd floor to roof columns: 203 x 203 x 46 UC in grade S275

Dead load Wdf = 3.5 kN/m2 Bracing: 168.3 x 6.3 CHS in grade S275
Imposed load Wif = 6.0 kN/m2

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Design of Bracing Frame

• Bracing system will resist all the lateral loads

W + EHF

W + EHF

W + EHF

W + EHF

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Factored roof and floor loads

Consider the following two load combinations:
(1) 1.35G + 1.5Q + 0.75W + EHF (Imposed load is leading variable))
(2) 1.35G + 1.5W + 1.05Q + EHF (Wind load is leading variable)

Gravity loads for load combination 1

Roof: wr' = (3.5 x 1.35) + (1.0 x 1.5) = 6.225 kN/m2
Floor: wf' = (3.5 x 1.35) + (6.0 x 1.5) = 13.725 kN/m2

Gravity loads for load combination 2

Roof: wr3 = (3.5 x 1.35) + (1.0 x 1.05) = 5.775 kN/m2
Floor: wf3 = (3.5 x 1.35) + (6.0 x 1.05) = 11.03 kN/m2

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Wind load (Consider 154kN per braced frame)

3m
Unfactored wind load
– At roof level = 3*0.5*154 / 12.5 = 18.48 KN
– At 2nd & 3rd floor level = 3*154 / 12.5 = 36.96 KN
3m
– At 1st level = (3+3.5)*0.5*154 / 12.5 = 40.04 KN
• As per load combination 1, factored wind load = 0.75 W
3m
– At roof level = 18.48 * 0.75 = 18.48 KN
– At 2nd & 3rd floor level = 36.96 * 0.75 = 27.72 KN
– At 1st level = 40.04 * 0.75 = 30.03 KN
3.5m
Total wind load = 103.9kN
Total gravity load = (6.225 + 3 x 13.725) x 0.5 x 28 x 49 = 19244kN 3.5m
Since Wind load is less than 0.15 Gravity load, need to consider EHF
• As per load combination 2, factored wind load = 1.5 W
– At roof level = 18.48 * 1.5 = 27.72 KN
– At 2nd & 3rd floor level = 36.96 * 1.5 = 55.44 KN
– At 1st level = 40.04 * 1.5 = 60.06 KN
Total wind load = 199kN
Total gravity load = (5.775 + 3 x 11.03) x 0.5 x 28 x 49 = 26661kN
Since Wind load is less than 0.15 Gravity load, need to consider EHF
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

EHF is conservative taken as 1/200 of the gravity load

For load combination 1
• Roof level EHF = 0.005 x 0.5 x 28 x 49 x 6.225 = 21.3 kN
• Floor level EHF = 0.005 x 0.5 x 28 x 49 x 13.725 = 47.1 kN
For load combination 2
• Roof level EHF = 0.005 x 0.5 x 28 x 49 x 5.775 = 19.8 kN
• Floor level EHF = 0.005 x 0.5 x 28 x 49 x 11.03 = 37.83 kN

Total horizontal loads HEd for load combination 1

• Roof level = 21.3 + 18.48 = 39.78 KN
• 3rd or 2nd level = 47.1 + 27.72 = 74.82 KN
• 1st level = 47.1 + 30.03 = 77.13 KN
Total horizontal load HEd for load combination 2
• Roof level = 19.8 + 27.72 = 47.52 KN
• 3rd or 2nd level = 37.83 + 55.44 = 93.24 KN
• 1st level = 37.83 + 60.06 = 97.9 KN
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Storey deflection due to horizontal loads

Combination 1 Combination 2

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

H  h 
Load Combination 1: 1.35 G + 1.5Q + 0.75 W +EHF  cr   Ed  
 
 VEd   H , Ed 

Roof to 3rd floor 2nd to 1st floor

HEd = 39.8kN HEd = 74.82*2 + 39.78 = 189kN
VEd = 0.5*49*28*6.225 VEd = 0.5*49*28*(6.225+13.725*2)
= 4270 kN per braced frame = 23101 kN per braced frame
h = 3m h = 3m
 = 3.5mm  = 4.6 mm
αcr = 39.8/4270 * 3000/3.5 = 7.98 αcr = 189/23101 * 3000/4.6 = 5.35

3rd to 2nd floor 1st to ground floor

HEd = 74.82 + 39.78 = 115kN HEd = 74.82*2 + 39.78 + 77.13 = 267kN
VEd = 0.5*49*28*(6.225+13.725) VEd = 0.5*49*28*(6.225+13.725*3)
= 13686 kN per braced frame = 32516 kN per braced frame
h = 3m h = 3.5m
 = 4 mm  = 5.4 mm
αcr = 115/13686 * 3000/4 = 6.28 αcr = 267/32516 * 3500/5.4 = 5.31
αcr < 10  Classified as Sway Frame for Load Combination 1
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

H  h 
Load Combination 2: 1.35 G + 1.05Q + 1.5 W +EHF  cr   Ed  
 
 VEd   H , Ed 

Roof to 3rd floor 2nd to 1st floor

HEd = 47.5 kN HEd = 93.2*2 + 47.5 = 234
VEd = 0.5*49*28*5.775 VEd = 0.5*49*28*(5.775+11.03*2)
= 3962 KN per braced frame = 19095 KN per braced frame
h = 3m h = 3m
δ = 4.2 mm δ = 5.8 mm
αcr = 47.5/3962 * 3000/4.2 = 8.56 αcr = 234/19095 * 3000/5.8 = 6.33

3rd to 2nd floor 1st to ground floor

HEd = 47.5 + 93.2 = 141 kN HEd = 233.9+97.9 = 332
VEd = 0.5*49*28*(5.775+11.03) VEd = 0.5*49*28*(5.775+11.03*3)
= 11528 KN per braced frame = 26661.4 KN per braced frame
h = 3m h = 3.5m
δ = 5 mm δ = 6.7 mm
αcr = 141/11528 * 3000/5 = 7.32 αcr = 332/26661 * 3500/6.7 = 6.5
αcr < 10  Classified as Sway Frame for Load Combination 2
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Example 2: Brace member design - Compression

• Sway amplification factor to incorporate since sway
sensitivity frame
• cr min = 5.31( conservatively taken) for load combination 1
1 1
k r1    1.23
1  (1 /  cr ) 1  (1 / 5.31)

• cr min = 6.33 for load combination 2

1 1
kr 2    1.19
1  (1 /  cr ) 1  (1 / 6.33)

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Amplified horizontal forces

Combination 1
(W1)*Kr1 = 39.78*1.23 = 48.93 kN
(W2)*Kr1 = 74.82*1.23 = 92.03 kN
(W3)*Kr1 = 74.82*1.23 = 92.03 kN
(W4)*Kr1 = 77.13*1.23 = 94.87 kN

Combination 2
(W1)*Kr2 = 47.5*1.19 = 56.53 kN
(W2)*Kr2 = 93.2*1.19 = 110.91 kN
(W3)*Kr2 = 93.2*1.19 = 110.91 kN
(W4)*Kr2 = 97.9*1.19 = 116.5 kN

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Loading for combination 1

Gravity load Horizontal load - Amplified

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Axial force Bending moment

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

• Maximum compressive force on bracing = 470 KN

• Try 168.3 x 6.3 CHS,
– Effective length = 4.95 m (Le = K L ; K=1.0 pin-pin )
– Compression capacity 647 KN ( use table, page D-14,
S355)
– Therefore member is adequate.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Loading for combination 2

Gravity load Horizontal load - Amplified

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Axial force Bending moment

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

• Maximum compressive force on the bracing = 564 KN

• Try 168.3 x 6.3 CHS,
– Effective length = 4.95 m (Lcr = KL ; K=1.0 pin-pin )
– Compression capacity 647 KN (use table, page D-14,
S355)
– Therefore member is adequate.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Frame Design
(Sway frame)

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Analysis method and

achievement
Distinguish between:
•Analysis method (1st or 2nd order)
• Analysis achievement i.e. can achieve
2nd order by:
1) 2nd order analysis
2) 1st order analysis and amplified sway
3) 1st order analysis and “sway” effective
length.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Design of Sway Frames

If the effects of deformed geometry has to be considered, the

design of sway frame may be accomplished by one of the following
methods:
1. Advanced analysis that consider member stability directly
2.Member resistance check with second order moment or
amplified moment method
3.Member resistance check of equivalent columns with appropriate
buckling lengths according to the global buckling mode of the
structure.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Limits for ignoring deformed geometry

EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.2.1(3))

Effects of deformed geometry can be ignored if

For elastic analysis:

where
αcr = factor by which the design loading would have to be increased to
cause elastic instability in a global mode (λcr in BS 5950-1)
FEd = design loading on the structure
Fcr = elastic critical buckling load for global instability based on initial
elastic stiffness.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Simple Estimate for cr

EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.2.1(4))

The following estimate for cr may be used for

 portal frames with shallow roof slopes
 beam-and-column plane frames in buildings

 H Ed  h 
 cr    
 
 VEd   H , Ed 
where
h is the storey height
In the calculation of cr , the horizontal
Ed is the horizontal reaction at the bottom of the storey reaction can be either due to
 equivalent horizontal forces,
VEd is the total vertical load at the bottom of the storey  horizontal forces, or
 total horizontal forces
H,Ed is the horizontal displacement at the top of the storey, but the horizontal displacements due to
relative to the bottom of the store, when the frame is the respective horizontal forces have to
be used in the calculation.
loaded with horizontal loads.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Limitations on use of simple estimate for cr

 beam-and-column plane frames in buildings

Af y
– axial compression in the beams or rafters satisfy   0.3
N Ed
where
NEd is the design value of the compression force
 is the in-plane non-dimensional slenderness calculated for the beam or rafters
considered as hinged at its ends of the system length measured along the beams
or rafters.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Frame stability
Limits for treatment of second order
effects depend on αcr= Fcr/FEd

59
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Design of Non-Sway Frames

Non-Sway frames should be designed as follows:
→ to resist gravity loads (load combination 1).
→ the non-sway mode effective length of the
columns may be used.
→ pattern loading should be used to
determine the most severe moments and
forces.
→ sub frames may be used to reduce the
number of load cases.
→ the frame should then be checked for combined vertical and
horizontal loads without pattern loading.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Design of Sway Sensitive Frames

Sway sensitive frames should be designed as follows:
• Check in the non-sway mode i.e. design to
resist gravity loads (load combination 1) as for
independently braced frames without taking
account of sway ( i.e. without notional
horizontal forces, but with pattern loading).
• Check in the sway mode for gravity load (i.e.
Load combination 1) plus the notional
horizontal forces without any pattern loading.
• Check in the sway mode for combined vertical
and horizontal loads, without pattern loading.

The sway effect should be allowed for by using (1) column effective
lengths, or (2) amplified sway moments, or (3) direct analysis.
61
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Member Resistance Checks

Second order moment / amplified moment OR
M y ,Ed M z ,Ed Member Buckling Resistance Check 
N Ed
 k yy  k yz  1 Biaxial bending combined with flexural buckling about
N b, y ,Rd M b,Rd M z ,Rd MAJOR axis

Effective length for sway frame

Second order moment / amplified moment OR

N Ed M y , Ed M z , Ed Member Buckling Resistance Check 
 k zy  k zz  1 Biaxial bending combined with flexural buckling about
N b , z , Rd M b , Rd M z , Rd MINOR axis

Effective length for sway frame

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Design of Sway & Non-Sway Frame

Equivalent column Calculate initial
method sway imperfections 

No
Verify stability
Choose material
Choose method by considering HEd ≥ 0.15VEd?
and section
imperfections
Yes

Determine
sensitivity to sway
– calculate acr

Determine member No cr ≥ 10?

design forces for (cr ≥15 for plastic
sway frames analysis)

Yes

Determine member design

Verification of forces for non-sway frames
elements by 1st Order Analysis
MEd , VEd , NEd
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Equivalent Column Method (Effective Length Method)

Determine member
Determine slenderness Determine
Choose material design forces by
parameter  using reduction factor  for
and section 1 Order Analysis
st
  ( Lcr / i ) f y / E flexural buckling
MEd , VEd , NEd

Effective Length Determine

design compression
resistance Nb,Rd

No No
Interaction Determine
between M and N. MEd / Mb,Rd ≤ 1.0? design bending NEd / Nb,Rd ≤ 1.0?
OK?
Yes Yes No
resistance Mb,Rd

Yes

Verification of other components

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Determination of Member Design Forces for Sway Frames

Calculate additional
effects of initial bow
imperfections

Yes
Determine if local bow No Select method
imperfections have to   0.5 Af y / N Ed ? of allowing for
be considered sway effects

Carry out Yes No Carry out

1st Order Analysis cr ≥ 3? 2nd Order Analysis

Allow for 2nd order

Determine member
effects by increasing
design forces
sway effects using
MEd , VEd , NEd
kr = 1/(1 – 1/cr)

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Designing for Sway Effects

Sway effects can be calculated using:
 Second Order Analysis (for any cr) or
 Amplified Sway Method (for cr  3.0)

Amplified Sway Method

Perform first order analysis and amplify all horizontal loads (i.e. wind and
equivalent horizontal forces) by the factor:
1
kr 
1  (1 /  cr )
This approach is valid for
 Single storey frames designed on the basis of elastic global analysis
 Multiple storey frames provided that all storeys have similar distribution of
(1) vertical loads;
(2) horizontal loads;
(3) frames stiffness with respect to the applied storey shear forces. 66
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Effective Length Method

(BS5950: Part 1
or
NCCI: Buckling lengths of columns: A Rigorous Approach)

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Effective Lengths and Critical Loads

Critical load of a Pin-ended Column
Ncr = Pe = 2EI/L2

Critical load of a column with other boundary condition

Ncr = 2EI/(KL)2 = Ne/ K2
KL = Effective Length
Ne = Euler buckling load
Effective Length factor, K = (Ne/Ncr)0.5

e.g., Cantilever Column

Pcr= 0.252EI/L2 = 2EI/4L2 = 2EI/(2L)2

Effective Length factor = (Ne/Ncr)0.5

Hence the effective length LE for a cantilever is 2L
68
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Nominal Effective Lengths

Restraint Position Position Position None
Direction Direction Direction

Restraint Position Position Position Position Position

Direction Direction Direction
Practical 1.0 L 0.85 L 0.7 L 2.0 L 1.2 L
LE

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Buckling of a column in a non-sway frame (theoretical values)

Buckling of a column in a sway frame (theoretical values)

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Subassemblage of Donnell's formula

Example of substitute frame

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

BS5950:Part1: Annex E: Effective length of columns in Nonsway frames

Pinned
1

0.9
k1
0.8

0.7

Ku 0.6
K TL
K TR
0.5
Kc
0.4

K BL K BR
0.3
KL
0.2

0.1

Fixed 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k2
Fixed Pinned
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

BS5950:Part1: Annex E: Effective length of columns in Sway frames

Pinned
1

0.9
k1
0.8

0.7 k2

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Fixed 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k2
Fixed Pinned
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Buckled Mode Shapes

Non Sway Frame Sway Frame

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Effective Length of Columns in Multistorey Frame

Total Column Stiffness at Joint

k
Total Stiffness of All Members at Joint

Kc  Ku
k1  K
K c  K u  K TL  K TR
u

K K1 K
TL TR

K = I/L
c
Column being considered
Kc  K L K K
k2  BL
K
BR

K c  K L  K BL  K BR 2
KL

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Derivation of Charts
kl = KC / (KC + KBL + KBR) 1
LE
k2 = KC+ KL / (KC +KL + KBL + KBR)
2

Conservative Formulae for the curves

For non-sway frames

LE / L  0.5  0.14k1  k 2   0.55(k1  k 2 ) 2

For sway frames
1  0.2(k1  k 2 )  0.12k1k 2 
LE / L   
 1  0.8(k1  k 2 )  0.6k1k 2 
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Use of the charts of Annex E

• k1 = (Kc + Ku) / (Kc+Ku+KTL +KTR)
• k2 = (Kc + KL) / (Kc+KL+KBL +KBR)
• The stiffness K for each member is taken as a
function of I / L
• If a beam supports a floor slab, its K value should be
taken as I / L
• For a beam which is not rigidly connected to the
column, K should be taken as zero.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Use of the charts of Annex E

• For a beam which carries more than 90% of
its moment capacity, a pin should be
90%Mp
inserted at that location or set Ib/Lb = 0.
Ib/|Lb = 0
• If either end of the column carries more
than 90% of Mp, the value of k1 or k2 as k2 = 1
appropriate should be taken as 1.0.
• For other conditions, the appropriate values
of K are given in Tables E1, E2 and E3 of
the code.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Beam stiffness values

Table E.1 – BS5950:Part1
Loading condition Non-sway mode Sway mode

Beam directly supporting 1.0 ( I/L ) 1.0 ( I/L )

concrete floor or roof slab
Other beams supporting 0.75 ( I/L ) 1.0 ( I/L )
direct loads
Beams with end moments 0.5 ( I/L ) 1.5 ( I/L )
only

Beam in single
Beam in double
curvature
curvature

Non Sway Frame Sway Frame

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Columns in a Mixed Frame (E.5)

Effective length to
be increased by F

Rigid frame Simple frame

Storey buckling amplification factor

 Vsr = total vertical load in that storey in the columns that resist sway in that plane

V su = total vertical load in that storey in the columns not resisting sway in that plane

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Amplified Moment Method

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Amplification factor for sway effect

For multi-storey frames second order sway effects may be calculated
by increasing the horizontal loads HEd (e.g. wind) and equivalent
horizontal loads Ved due to imperfections according to first order
theory by the factor:

1
kr  provided that αcr ≥ 3.0
1  (1 /  cr )
H  h 
 cr   Ed  
 
 VEd   H , Ed 

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Limitation of the simplified

method (Cl 5.2.2 (6)B)
All storeys have a similar
• distribution of vertical loads and
• distribution of horizontal loads and
• distribution of frame stiffness with respect
to the applied storey shear forces.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Amplified Sway Effect

Sway effect can be introduced approximately by amplifying
the design horizontal load by kr

kr(W + EHF)

kr(W + EHF)

kr(W + EHF)

kr(W + EHF)

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Examples

85
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Example 1: Determine effective lengths of

columns in sway frame

2 3.6m
Ix beams = 21500cm4
1 3.6m
Ix columns = 6090cm 4
3.6m

3 3.6m

7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m

Factored dead plus live load
16kN/m
72kN/m

Beams are supporting concrete slab, Kb = 1.0 I/L

2011/10/28 86
86
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Using Appendix E
Column 1 2 3.6m

Beams KTL = KTR = KBL = KBR = I/L =21500/720 = 29.9 1 3.6m

Columns KU = KC = KL = I/L = 6090/360 = 16.9 3.6m

End restraint factors

3 3.6m
Top k1 = (KC+KU) / (KC + KU +KTL+KTR) = 0.36
7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m
Bottom k2 = (KC+KL) / (KC + KL +KTL+KTR) = 0.36

The frame is a sway frame; use Figure E.2 for sway frame
LE/L = 1.27 i.e. LE = 1.27 x 3.6 = 4.57m

If bracings were provided and the frame is a non-sway frame, the effective length ratio from
Figure E.1 would be 0.625 .
i.e. LE = 0.625 x 3.6 = 2.25m

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang
Pinned
1

0.9
k1
0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Fixed 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k2
Fixed Pinned
88
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Column 2
Beams KTL = KBL = I/L =21500/720 = 29.9 2 3.6m

Columns KC = KL = I/L = 6090/360 = 16.9 1 3.6m

End Restraint factors 3.6m

Top k1 = (KC) / (KC +KTL) = 0.36

3 3.6m
Bottom k2 = (KC+KL) / (KC + KL +KTL) = 0.53
7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m

From Figure E.2 for sway frame

LE/L = 1.4 i.e. LE = 1.4 x 3.6 = 5.04m

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang
2 3.6m

1 3.6m

If the column bases are pinned 3.6m

3 3.6m

7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m

Column 3
Beams KTL = KTR = I/L =21500/720 = 29.9
Columns KU = KC = I/L = 6090/360 = 16.9
End restraint factors
Top k1 = (KC+KU) / (KC + KU +KTL+KTR) = 0.36
Bottom k2 = (KC) / (KC ) = 1

Therefore as the frame is a sway frame from Figure E.2

LE/L = 2.25 i.e. LE = 2.25 x 3.6 = 8.10m
The design would then proceed as normal using the effective
lengths calculated above.

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

2
If the column bases were rigid –
1
base stiffness is taken as column
stiffness : cl. 5.1.3.2 in BS5950:Part1
3
Column 3
Beams KTL = KTR = I/L =21500/720 = 29.9
Columns KU = KC = I/L = 6090/360 = 16.9

End restraint factors

Top k1 = (KC+KU) / (KC + KU +KTL+KTR) = 0.36
Bottom k2 = (KC) / (KC + KC ) = 0.50
From Figure E.2 LE/L = 1.35 i.e. LE = 1.35 x 3.6 = 4.86m

The effective length is much reduced and the column will be smaller but the cost of
providing moment resisting foundations may out-weight the cost of the savings in steelwork.
The fixity would also be beneficial in controlling sway deformations.
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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Example 2
The figure below shows an unbraced two-storey frame where the column based are fixed and
subjected to factored floor (dead and imposed) loadings qi and factored wind loadings Wi.
Determine sway imperfections and equivalent horizontal forces if it is necessary to be
considered in the design of this frame.
q1=40kN/m
W1=8kN
q2=60kN/m 3m
W2=16kN
3m

6m 6m
H Ed  (W1  W2 )  (8  16)  24 kN
VEd  ( q1  q2 ) * 2l  (40  60) * 12  1200 kN
H Ed  24 kN  0.15VEd  0.15 * 1200  180kN

Since HEd < 0.15VEd, sway imperfections have to be taken into account.
92
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

 1  2   1   1 2 2
  0 h m     0.5 *  1    h  but   h  1.0
 200  6   
 3   300 h 3
1
H1   q1 (2l )  * 40 * 12  1.6kN  1
300  m  0.5 1  
1  m
H 2   q2 (2l )  * 60 * 12  2.4kN
300
Example 3
For the frame in Example 2, determine the horizontal forces that need to be considered to
account for the sway effects. The inter-floor displacements for the total horizontal force
(equivalent horizontal forces + Wind forces) are H,1 = 6.48mm and H,2 = 8.75mm
respectively.
q1=40kN/m  = 6.48mm
H,1
H1=1.6kN
W1=8kN q1=60kN/m 3m
H2=2.4kN
W2=16kN H,2 = 8.75mm
3m

6m 6m 93
 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

VEd 1  q1 (2l )  40 * 12  480 kN

VEd 2  q2 (2l )  60 * 12  720 kN

 H 1  W1   h1   1.6 + 8   3000   Conservatively taking  = 8.00

 cr 1           9.26  The amplification factor crk is
 VEd 1    H ,1   480   6.48   r
 1 1
 H1  W1  H 2  W2   h2   9.6  18.4   3000   kr    1.14
 cr 2          8.00  1  (1 /  cr ) 1  (1 / 8)
 V Ed 1  VEd 2 
  H ,2   480  720  8.75 

Total horizontal forces to be considered for design

q1=40kN/m
(H1+W1) x kr = 11.0kN
q1=60kN/m 3m
(H2+W2) x kr = 21.0kN
3m

6m 6m 94
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Example 4
Design Column “A” for the following load combination (factored loads)
Assume the frame is braced in the out-of plane direction at each storey. Assume that the
frame is braced out of plane at the storey level to prevent side sway.

W1=8kN W2=16kN H1=1.6kN H2=2.4kN

k r  1.14

q1=40kN/m
(H1+W1) x kr = 11.0kN
q1=60kN/m 3m
(H2+W2) x kr = 21.0kN column “A”

3m

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Bending Moment Shear Forces

Column Reaction Force Axial Forces

96
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures
Design of Column “A” S D Pang

Analysis result Member section

My(major) 19.2KNm Try203x203x60 UC S275
Mz-z (minor) 0KNm Section table mm
NEd 660KN h 209.6 Iy-y 6120cm4
L 3m b 205.8 Iz-z 2060
Span 6m tw 9.4 Wy-y 656cm3
tf 14.2 Wz-z 305
Eff legth fac(major) 1 r 10.2 A 76.4cm2
Eff legth fac(minor) 1 d 160.8 Iw 0.197dm6
cf/tf 6.2 IT 47.2cm4
Ley
Lez
3
3
cw/tw 17.1 iy
iz
8.96cm
5.2cm
660 kNm
E 210KN/mm2
fy 275 G 81KN/mm2
ε 0.92 14.54 kNm

Member classification

Flange
cf/tf 6.2 < 9ε 8.32 Class 1
Web

1  h 1 N Ed 
     t  r 
19.2 kNm
f
c  2 2 f y t w  = 1.29 < 1.0
take  = 1.0
cw=d=c
cw/tw 17.1 < 396ε/(13α - 1) = 30.36 Class 1

Overall classification is Class 1

Column “A”

 1  93 . 9   86.8

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

For buckling about y-y axis:

L cr, y 1
y   0.39
iy 1
h/b = 1.02< 1.2
Using buckling curve b, imperfection factor α 0.34

 
Φ  0.5 1  α  λ  0.2   λ 2   0.61
y   y  y 
1
χ   0.93
y 2  λ 2
Φ  Φ
y y y

χ Af
N 
y y
 1957.5 KN Design table : N b,y,Rd = 1960 KN
b, y, Rd γ
M1

For buckling about z-z axis:

L 1
cr, z
λ   0.66
z i λ
z 1
h/b = 1.02< 1.2

Using buckling curve c, imperfection factor α 0.49

Φ
z
 0.5  1  α λ  0.2
 z
  λ
z
2   0.83

1
χ   0.75
z 2 2
Φ  Φ  λ
z z z

χ Af
N 
z y
 1568.3KN Design table : N b,Z,Rd = 1570 KN
b, z, Rd γ
M1

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

Resistance to lateral torsional buckling:

660 kNm
C1 = (1.88-1.4*ψ+0.52*ψ^2)
ψ= M1/M2
ψ= -0.76
C1= 3.23 so 2.7 should be <= 2.7 14.54 kNm
0.5
 2 EI z  I w Lcr GI T 
2

M cr,0    2  = 629.76KNm
Lcr
2
 I z  EI z 

M  C M  1700KNm
cr 1 cr,0
W f
pl.y y
λ   0.33
LT M
cr 19.2 kNm
h/b = 1.02< 2

Using buckling curve a, imperfection factor α = 0.21 Column “A”

Φ
LT
 0.5 1  α

λ
LT LT
 0.2  λ 2 
LT 
  0.57

1
χ   0.97
LT 2  λ 2
Φ  Φ
LT LT LT

χ W f
LT pl, y y
M   175.24 KNm Design table : M b,,Rd = 180 KNm
b, Rd γ
M1

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Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures S D Pang

From bending moment distribution

and Annex B-EC3
C = 0.6+0.4ψ >=0.4
ψ= -0.76
Cmy = 0.3 so 0.4
Cmz = 0
CmLT = 0.3 so 0.4

Interaction factors:
 N 
λ  1.0  k  C   
1   λ  0.2  Ed   0.43
y yy my   y  N 
 b, y, Rd 

 0.1 λ N 
λ  1.0  k  1  z Ed   0.81
z zy  C  0.25 N 
 mLT b, z, Rd 

Second order moment

M Member Buckling Resistance Check 
NEd 660 19.2
 kyy y,Ed   0.43  0.38  1.0 Biaxial bending combined with flexural buckling about MAJOR
Nb,y,Rd Mb,Rd 1957.5 175.24 axis

NEd M M Member Buckling Resistance Check 

 kzy y,Ed  kzz z,Ed
Nb,z,Rd Mb,Rd Mz,Rd Biaxial bending combined with flexural buckling about MINOR
First order moment (=19.2/1.14)
axis.
660 16.8 The frame is non-sway in the out-of-plane at the storey level.
  0.81  0  0.42  0.096  0.52  1.0
1568 175.24
Column “A” is adequate
A smaller column size may be used

Homework
Design the edge column

100