EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 2

FUNDAMENTALS OF
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL

CIRCUITS

INDEPENDENT SOURCES

• The voltage/current sources that have the capability of

generating a prescribed voltage or current independent of
any other element within the circuit.
• These sources may output a constant voltage/current, or
they may output voltage/current that varies with time.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1) Ideal Voltage Sources

An ideal voltage source is a two-terminal element that

maintains the same voltage across its terminals regardless
of the current flowing through it.

IL
+
L
Vo
t

-
Vt
Vo

• Vt = constant, no matter what the load current is.

EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

2) Ideal Current Sources

An ideal current source is a two-terminal element that

maintains the same current regardless of the voltage
across its terminals.

IO

IS

VO

• IS = constant, no matter what the load voltage is.

EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

DEPENDENT (CONTROLLED) SOURCES

• Dependent sources are whose output (current or voltage)

is a function of some other voltage or current in a circuit.
• The symbols typically used to represent dependent
sources are in the shape of a diamond.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BRANCH, NODE, LOOP, MESH

• Branch : any portion of a circuit with two terminals

connected to it.
• A branch may consist of one or more circuit elements.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Node : the point of connection between two or more

branches.
• A node usually indicated by a dot in a circuit.

• Loop : any closed path through the circuit in which no

node is encountered more than once.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Mesh : a loop that does not contain other loops.

EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CURRENT AND KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT

LAW
Electric Current
• Electric current is defined as the time rate of change of
charge passing through a predetermined area.

∆𝑞 𝑑𝑞
𝑖= 𝑜𝑟 𝑖=
∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• The units of current are called Amperes, where

1 Ampere (A) = 1 Coulomb/second (C/s).

• In order for current to flow, there must exist a closed
circuit.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• In the circuit of this figure, the current i flowing from the

battery to the light bulb is equal to the current flowing from
the light bulb to the battery.
 no current (and therefore no charge) is “lost” around
the closed circuit. This principle is known as
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL).
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

• One of the fundamental laws of circuit analysis.
• Establish in 1874 by G.R. Kirchhoff.

• “The sum of the currents at a node must equal zero.”

𝑖𝑛 = 0 𝑜𝑟
𝑛=1

(𝐸𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠) = (𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠)

EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Example of Kirchhoff’s current law:

At node 1:
−𝑖 + 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 = 0
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3

• In this illustration, currents

entering a node are defined as
negative and currents leaving
the node as positive.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

VOLTAGE AND KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE

LAW
Voltage
• The total work per unit charge associated with the motion
of charge between two points.
• The units of voltage are called Volts, where
1 Volts (V) = 1 Joule (J)/Coulomb (C).
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• The second fundamental laws of circuit analysis introduced
by G.R. Kirchhoff.
• The principle underlying KVL is that no energy is lost or
created in an electric circuit.
• In circuit terms, the sum of all voltages associated with
source must equal the sum of the load voltages.

• “The net voltage around a closed circuit is zero.”

𝑣𝑛 = 0
𝑛=1
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Example of Kirchhoff’s voltage law:

𝑣1 = 𝑣2 where
𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑎𝑏 = 𝑣𝑎 − 𝑣𝑏

• In general, elements that provide

energy are referred as sources
and elements that dissipate energy
as loads.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ELECTRIC POWER AND SIGN

CONVENTION
Power
• The electric power generated by an active element, or
that dissipated or stored by a passive element, is equal to
the product of the voltage across the element and the
current flowing through it.

𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰

• The units of power are called Watts (Joules/second).

EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Passive Sign Convention

• State that if current flows from a higher to a lower voltage
(plus to minus), the power is dissipated and will be a positive
quantity.
• Example:

Power dissipated = vi Power dissipated = - vi

Power generated = vi

• Power generated (supplied) always equals power dissipated.

EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

RESISTANCE AND OHM’S LAW

• An ideal resistor is a device that exhibits linear resistance

properties according to Ohm’s law,

𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹

which states that the

voltage across a
resistance is directly
proportional to the current
flowing through it.

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, First Edition, by Giorgio Rizzoni, © 2009 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• The value of the resistance R is measured in units of

ohm’s (), where
1  = 1 V/A

• For a resistor R, the power dissipated can be expressed

by

𝑽 𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 =
𝑹
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Open and Short Circuits

• Open circuit : a circuit element whose resistance
approaches infinity.

• Short circuit : a circuit element with resistance

approaching zero.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Series Circuit
• Two or more circuit elements are said to be in series if the
current from one element exclusively flows into the next
elements.
• All series elements have the same current.

Series Resistors
• Equivalent series resistance:

𝑹𝑬𝑸 = 𝑹𝒏 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝑵
𝒏=𝟏
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Example 2.1:

For the circuit shown,

a) Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source.

b) Find the current I .
c) Calculate the voltage drop in each resistor.
d) Calculate the power dissipated by each resistor.
e) Find the power output of the source.

Given: V = 24 V, R1 = 1 , R2 = 3 , and R3 = 4 .
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Solution:
a) 𝑅𝐸𝑄 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
REQ
=1+3+4
=8

𝑉 24 𝑉
b) 𝐼= = =3𝐴
𝑅𝐸𝑄 8Ω

c) 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 = 3 𝐴 1 Ω = 3 𝑉
𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 = 3 𝐴 3 Ω = 9 𝑉
𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3 = 3 𝐴 4 Ω = 12 𝑉

Note: 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 3 + 9 + 12 = 24 𝑉

The total voltage drop is equal to the voltage output of the source.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

d) 𝑃1 = 𝐼2 𝑅1 𝑃2 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 𝑃3 = 𝐼2 𝑅3
2 = 3𝐴 2 4Ω
= 3𝐴 1Ω = 3𝐴 2 3Ω
=9𝑊 = 27 𝑊 = 36 𝑊

e) 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = 3 𝐴 24 𝑉 = 72 𝑊

Note: 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 = 9 + 27 + 36 = 72 𝑉

The total power dissipated by the resistors is the same as the power
output by the source.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Parallel Circuit
• Two or more circuit elements are said to be in parallel if
the elements share the same terminals.
• All parallel elements have the same voltage.

Parallel Resistors
• Equivalent parallel resistance:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 or
= + + ⋯+
𝑹𝑬𝑸 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝑵

𝟏
𝑹𝑬𝑸 =
𝟏 + 𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝟏
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝑵

where 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = 𝑉4
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Various Parallel Resistors Networks

EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Example 2.2:

For the circuit shown,

a) Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source.

b) Find the total current I .
c) Calculate the currents in each resistor.
d) Calculate the power dissipated by each resistor.
e) Find the power output of the source.

Given: V = 24 V, R1 = 1 , R2 = 3 , and R3 = 4 .
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

I
REQ

Solution:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a) = + + = + + = 1.583 Ω
𝑅𝐸𝑄 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 1 3 4

1
∴ 𝑅𝐸𝑄 = = 0.632 Ω
1.583

𝑉 24 𝑉
b) 𝐼= = = 37.975 𝐴 ≈ 38 𝐴
𝑅𝐸𝑄 0.632 Ω
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

I
REQ

𝑉 24 𝑉 𝑉 24 𝑉
c) 𝐼1 = = = 24 𝐴 𝐼2 = = =8𝐴
𝑅1 1Ω 𝑅2 3Ω

𝑉 24 𝑉
𝐼3 = = =6𝐴
𝑅3 4Ω

Note: 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = 24 + 8 + 6 = 38 𝐴

The sum of the individual current is equal to the current output of the
source.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

d) 𝑃1 = 𝐼1 2 𝑅1 𝑃2 = 𝐼2 2 𝑅2 𝑃3 = 𝐼3 2 𝑅3
= 24 𝐴 2 1 Ω = 8𝐴 2 3Ω = 6𝐴 2 4Ω
= 576 𝑊 = 192 𝑊 = 144 𝑊

e) 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = 38 𝐴 24 𝑉 = 912 𝑊

Note: 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 = 576 + 192 + 144 = 912 𝑉

The total power dissipated by the resistors is the same as the power
output by the source.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Series and Parallel Resistor Combinations

• Example 2.3:
The Wheatstone Bridge consists of two series circuits that are connected
in parallel with each other.

1) Find the value of the voltage

Vab = Vad - Vbd in terms of the four
resistances and the source voltage Vs.

2) If R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 k, Vs = 12 V,
and Vab = 12 mV, what is the value
of Rx.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Solution:
c
𝑅2 𝑅𝑥
1) 𝑉𝑎𝑑 = 𝑉 and 𝑉𝑏𝑑 = 𝑉
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑠 𝑅3 +𝑅𝑥 𝑠 R11 R33
Vs
a Vab b
Thus,
R
R2 RXX
2
𝑅2 𝑅𝑥
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑑 − 𝑉𝑏𝑑 = − 𝑉𝑠
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅𝑥 d

1000 𝑅𝑥
2) 0.012 = − 12
1000+1000 1000+𝑅𝑥
𝑅𝑥 = 996 Ω
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

• VDR is useful in determining the voltage drop across a
resistance within a series circuit.
+ V1 -

𝑹𝑿 +
𝑽𝑿 = 𝑽𝑺 V2
𝑹𝑬𝑸 S -

+ V3 -

where VX = the voltage drop across the measured resistor,

RX = the resistance value of the measured resistor,
REQ = the circuit total resistance,
VS = the circuit applied voltage
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Example 2.4:

Determine the voltage across the R2 and the R3.

Solution:
𝑅2 20
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑆 = 60 = 20 V
𝑅𝐸𝑄 10 + 20 + 30

𝑅3 30
𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑆 = 60 = 30 V
𝑅𝐸𝑄 10 + 20 + 30
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Current Divider Rule (CDR)

• CDR is useful in determining the current flow through one
branch of a parallel circuit.

𝑹𝑬𝑸
𝑰𝑿 = 𝑰𝑺
𝑹𝑿

where IX = the current flow through any parallel branches,

RX = the resistance of the branch through which the
current is to be determined,
REQ = the total resistance of the parallel branch,
IS = the circuit applied current
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Example 2.5:

Find each of the branch currents in the figure shown below.

Solution:
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + = + + =
𝑅𝐸𝑄 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 3 𝑘Ω 8 𝑘Ω 24 𝑘Ω 2 𝑘Ω
𝑅𝐸𝑄 = 2 𝑘Ω
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Thus,
𝑅𝐸𝑄 2 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝑅1 = ∙𝐼 = 12 𝑚𝐴 = 8 𝑚𝐴
𝑅1 3 𝑘Ω
𝑅𝐸𝑄 2 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝑅2 = ∙𝐼 = 12 𝑚𝐴 = 3 𝑚𝐴
𝑅2 8 𝑘Ω
𝑅𝐸𝑄 2 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝑅3 = ∙𝐼 = 12 𝑚𝐴 = 1 𝑚𝐴
𝑅3 24 𝑘Ω

𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3 = 8 + 3 + 1 = 12 𝑚𝐴 ( KCL  )

EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• For the particular case of two parallel resistors,

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 I
𝑹𝑬𝑸 = 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
I1 I2

and, the current passing through

R1 and R2 are

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝐸𝑄 𝑹𝟐

𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝐼1 = ∙𝐼 = ∙𝐼 𝑰𝟏 = ∙𝑰
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝐸𝑄 𝑹𝟏

𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝐼2 = ∙𝐼 = ∙𝐼 𝑰𝟐 = ∙𝑰
𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

Note: It only works for two parallel resistors.

EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MEASURING DEVICES
Ohmmeter
• The ohmmeter is a device that, when
connected across a circuit element,
can measure the resistance of the
element.
• The resistance of an element can be
measured only when the element is
disconnected from any other circuit.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Ammeter
• The ammeter is a device that, when connected in series
with a circuit element, can measure the current flowing
through the element.

1. The ammeter must be placed in series with the

element whose current is to be measured (e.g.,
resistor R2).
2. The ammeter should not restrict the flow of current
(i.e., cause a voltage drop), or else it will not be
measuring the true current flowing in the circuit. An
ideal ammeter has zero internal resistance.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Measurement of current
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Voltmeter
• The voltmeter is a device that can measure the voltage
across a circuit element.

1. The voltmeter must be placed in parallel with the

element whose voltage it is measuring.
2. The voltmeter should draw no current away from the
element whose voltage it is measuring, or else it will not
be measuring the true voltage across that element.
Thus, an ideal voltmeter has infinite internal resistance.
EEE 1012 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Measurement of voltage