Lecture 5: Nuclear Physics

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 43
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapters 12 & 13

1
Properties of nuclei

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 43, Section 1
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapter 12, Section 2

2
Constituents of nuclei

o Nuclei consist of protons and neutrons – nucleons.

o The mass number 𝐴 is the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
o The nuclear charge is 𝑍𝑒, where the atomic number 𝑍 is the number of protons and
𝑒 ≈ 1.602 × 10−19 C.
o The neutron number 𝑁 is the number of neutrons: 𝐴 = 𝑍 + 𝑁.
o We will designate an atomic nucleus by the symbol
𝐴
𝑍𝑋
where 𝑋 is the chemical element symbol.
o Each nuclear species with a given 𝑍 and 𝐴 is a nuclide. Nuclides with the same mass
number are isobars:
16 16 16 16
6 C, 7N, 8 O, 9F.
Nuclides with the same neutron number are isotones:
14 15 16 17
6 C, 7N, 8 O, 9F.
3
Constituents of nuclei (cont.)

Remarks.
o The chemical properties of an atom are determined by its electron configuration and hence
by 𝑍, since the numbers of electrons and protons are equal in a (neutral) atom. Atoms
with the same 𝑍, but different 𝐴’s, are isotopes:
16 17 18
8 O, 8 O, 8O.
And,
1 2 3
ด
1H , ด
1 H , ด
1H .
𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒅𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒖𝒎
The nuclei of these atoms are the protons, deuterons, and tritons respectively.
o The atomic mass 𝑀 is the mass of the entire atom including electrons, measured, for
example, with a mass spectrometer. Atomic masses are measured in atomic mass
units:
1 0.012 −27
931.5 MeV
1u≡ × 23
kg = 1.661 × 10 kg ≡ 2
. 4
12 6.022 × 10 𝑐
Constituents of nuclei (cont.)

In atomic mass units,

9.1093836 × 10−31
𝑚𝑒 = 23
≈ 0.000549 u,
0.001Τ6.0221409 × 10
1.6726219 × 10−27
𝑚𝑝 = 23
≈ 1.007276 u,
0.001Τ6.0221409 × 10
1.6749275 × 10−27
𝑚𝑛 = 23
≈ 1.008665 u.
0.001Τ6.0221409 × 10

5
 Shapes and sizes of nuclei, and nuclear density

o Scattering experiments, such as the Rutherford one, show that to a good approximation,
nuclei are spheres. The nuclear radius 𝑅 depends on the total number of nucleons in
the nucleus and may be approximated from a spherical nuclear charge distribution
𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑟 to be 1
𝑅 = 𝐴3 𝑟0 ,
where 𝑟0 ≈ 1.2 × 10−15 m or 1.2 fm with one femtometre, 1 fm ≡ 10−15 m. Various
measurements for 𝑟0 range between 1.0 fm and 1.5 fm.
o The nuclear volume
4 3 4 3
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅 = 𝜋𝑟0 𝐴.
3 3
And, the nuclear mass density is approximately
𝐴u 1.661 × 10−27 kg 17 3 All nuclei have approximately the same
= Τ
≈ 2.3 × 10 kg m . 14
V 4 density. A nucleus is about 10 times
𝜋 1.2 × 10−15 3
3 denser than ordinary matter!
6
Shapes and sizes of nuclei, and nuclear density (cont.)

o Electron-scattering measurements of the nuclear charge distribution using electrons

with energies from 100 MeV to 500 MeV or higher, i.e., with de Broglie wavelengths
2.5 fm or less to 12 fm, yield the Fermi distribution for nuclear charge,
𝜌0
𝜌 𝑟 = .
1
1 + exp 𝑟−𝑅
𝑎
Here, 𝜌0 is the central nuclear density and
9
𝜌 𝑅 − 2 ln 3 𝑎 ≈ 𝜌0 ,
10
1
𝜌 𝑅 + 2 ln 3 𝑎 = 𝜌0 .
10
The thickness of the nuclear surface 𝑡 = 4 ln 3 𝑎 has approximately the same value for all
nuclei, giving values of 𝑎 roughly constant at 𝑎 ≈ 0.524 fm.
7
Intrinsic spin and intrinsic magnetic dipole moment

o Like the electron, the proton and neutron have intrinsic spin angular momenta with
spin angular momentum quantum numbers 𝑠 = ½, i.e., they are spin-½ particles.
o In contrast to atomic magnetic dipole moments, which are measured in units of the
Bohr magneton,
𝑒ℏ
𝜇𝐵 ≡ ,
2𝑚𝑒
nuclear magnetic dipole moments are measured in units of the nuclear magneton,
𝑒ℏ
𝜇𝑁 ≡ .
2𝑚𝑝
The nuclear magneton is some 1800 times smaller than the Bohr magneton:
𝜇𝑁 𝑚𝑒 9.109 × 10−31 1
= = −27
≈ .
𝜇𝐵 𝑚𝑝 1.673 × 10 1800
8
Intrinsic spin and intrinsic magnetic dipole moment (cont.)

o The proton has an intrinsic magnetic dipole moment,

𝜇𝑝 = 2.79285𝜇𝑁 .
o The neutron has an intrinsic magnetic dipole moment,
𝜇𝑛 = −1.91304𝜇𝑁 .
The negative sign indicates that the magnetic dipole moment points opposite to the neutron
spin, “like” the electron spin magnetic dipole moment, 𝜇𝑒 = −1.00116𝜇𝐵 .
Remarks.
o The large deviation from unity of the proton’s magnetic dipole moment and the fact that
the neutron even has a magnetic dipole moment indicate that nucleons are more
complicated structurally than electrons.
o The nonzero neutron magnetic dipole moment implies that the neutron has negative and
positive internal charge components at different radii, and hence a complex internal
charge distribution.
9
Intrinsic spin and intrinsic magnetic dipole moment (cont.)

o Protons and electron are spin s=½ particles and may also have orbital angular
momentum 𝐿.
o Total angular momentum is a vector sum of all the individual spins and angular
momenta for all the nucleons.
𝐽 = 𝑗 𝑗+1 ℏ

𝐽𝑧 = 𝑚𝑗 ℏ, (𝑚𝑗 = −𝑗, −𝑗 + 1, … , 𝑗 − 1, 𝑗)

Total momentum is called nuclear spin

• If A is even, j is an integer, if A is odd, j is half-integer.

• If number of protons Z and neutrons N are both even, J=0. (nucleons tend to form pairs )

Associated with nuclear angular momentum is a magnetic moment 10

Intrinsic magnetic dipole moment, nuclear magnetic resonance
Nuclear binding energies and stability

288
114Fl

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 43 Sections 2, 7 & 8
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapters 12, Sections 3 & 5; Chapter 13, Sections 4, 5 & 6

12
The deuteron

The deuteron consists of one proton and one neutron is the next simplest nucleus, after the
proton. The mass of a deuterium atom,
𝑀 21H = 2.014102 u.
The deuteron mass is 𝑚𝑑 = 2.013553 u. So, the difference in masses is
2.014102 u − 2.013553 u = 0.000549 u,
which is effectively just the mass of an electron, 𝑚𝑒 . However,
𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑛 = 2.015941 u > 2.013553 u = 𝑚𝑑 .
By conservation of energy-mass, the deuteron nucleus is bound by an energy – the nuclear
binding energy,
𝐵𝑑 = 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚𝑑 𝑐 2 = 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑒 + 𝑚𝑛 − (𝑚𝑑 + 𝑚𝑒 ) 𝑐 2
= 𝑀 11H + 𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀 21H 𝑐 2
= 1.007825 + 1.008665 − 2.014102 931.5 MeV
≈ 2.224 MeV. 13
The deuteron (cont.)

Remark – photodisintegration of deuteron.

We can check our result for the 2.22 MeV binding energy of the deuteron by scattering 𝜸-
ray photons from deuterium gas and looking for the breakup of a deuteron into a proton
and a neutron:

𝛾 + 21H → 11H + 10𝑛

Experiment shows that a 𝜸-ray photon of energy less than 2.22 MeV cannot dissociate a
deuteron.

Interesting facts:
Spin of the deuteron is 1: spins of proton and neutron are aligned parallel to each other
Magnetic moment of the deuteron is 0.86𝜇𝑁 ≃ 𝜇𝑝 + 𝜇𝑛 14
Binding energy per nucleon

o In general, energy must be added to a nucleus to separate it into its individual protons
and neutrons. Consequently, the total rest energy of the separated nucleons is greater
than the rest energy of the nucleus.
o The binding energy of any nucleus 𝐴𝑍𝑋, i.e., the energy required to separate the nucleus
into free protons and neutrons is given by
𝐸𝐵 𝐴𝑍𝑋 = 𝑍𝑀 11H + 𝑁𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀 𝐴𝑍𝑋 𝑐 2 .
It is the magnitude of the energy by which the nucleons are bound together. Another
example,
𝐸𝐵 42He = 2𝑀 11H + 2𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀 42He 𝑐 2 ≈ 28.30 MeV.
o To compare the relative stability of different nuclides, it is important to know the binding
energy per nucleon. For example,
1 2
1
𝐸𝐵 1H , ≈ 1.112 MeV, 𝐸𝐵 42He ≈ 7.0740 MeV.
2 4
15
Binding energy per nucleon (cont.)

9 MeV
After the very light nuclei (𝐴 < 20), the
/MeV

curve is reasonably flat at about 8 MeV per

7 MeV nucleon.

The binding energy per nucleon peaks near

𝐴 = 56 and slowly decreases for heavier
nuclei.
16
The nuclear force and nuclear models

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 43, Section 2
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapter 12, Sections 4 & 5

17
The nuclear force binds nucleons (i.e., protons and neutrons) together in the nucleus

o Nuclear force has short range, of the order of nuclear dimensions, i.e., 10−15 m –
otherwise the nucleus would grow by pulling in additional protons and neutrons.
o Within its range, the nuclear force is much stronger than electric forces – otherwise, due
to the electrical repulsion of the protons, the nucleus could never be stable.
o Nuclear force does not depend on charge – protons as well as neutrons are bound, and
the binding is the same for both.
o The nearly constant density of nuclear matter and the nearly constant binding energy per
nucleon of larger nuclides show that a particular nucleon cannot interact simultaneously
with all the other nucleons in a nucleus, but only with those few in its immediate vicinity
– this is different from electric forces: every proton in the nucleus repels every other one.
This limited number of interactions is called saturation.
o Nuclear force favours binding of pairs of protons or neutrons with opposite spins and of
pairs of pairs, i.e., a pair of protons and a pair of neutrons, each pair having opposite
spins.
18
The nuclear force (cont.)

o Physicists have yet to fully determine, for example, the nuclear force dependence on
nucleon separation – unlike Newton’s law of gravitation or Coulomb’s law of
electrostatics.
o Current research focuses on the constituent quarks that make up the nucleons.
o Because the nuclear force is not precisely known, physicists have relied on a multitude of
models to explain nuclear behaviour. These models have been more or less successful in
explaining various nuclear properties. They generally fall into two categories:
• strong-interaction models, in which the nucleons are strongly coupled together.
The liquid-drop model is characteristic of these models and has been quite successful
in explaining nuclear binding energies as well as nuclear fission.
• independent-particle models, in which nucleons move nearly independently in a
common nuclear potential. The shell model has been the most successful of these.

19
 Liquid drop model of nuclear force
• A nucleon interacts only with a few of its nearest neighbors. This effect gives a binding
energy term that is proportional to the number of nucleons ∼ 𝐶1 𝐴,

• The nucleons on the surface of the nucleus are less tightly bound than those in the interior
because they have no neighbors outside the surface. ∼ −𝐶2 𝐴2/3

• Every one of the Z protons repels every one of the (𝑍 − 1) other protons. The total
repulsive electric potential energy is proportional to ∼ −𝐶3 𝑍(𝑍 − 1)/𝐴1/3

• Nuclei are most tightly bound if N is close to Z for small A and N is greater than Z (but
𝑁−𝑍 2
not too much greater) for larger A. ∼ −𝐶4 = −𝐶4 𝐴 − 2𝑍 2 /𝐴
𝐴

• Finally, the nuclear force favors pairing of protons and of neutrons. This energy term is
positive (more binding) if both Z and N are even, negative if both Z and N are odd, and
zero otherwise. ∼ ±𝐶5 𝐴−4/3 20
 Liquid drop model of nuclear force

A total binding energy is

2 𝐶3 𝑍 𝑍 − 1 𝐶4 𝐴 − 2𝑍 2
𝐸𝐵 = 𝐶1 𝐴 − 𝐶2 𝐴3 − 1/3
− ± 𝐶5 𝐴−4/3
𝐴 𝐴

The best fit to the experiment is given if

𝐶1 = 15.75 MeV, 𝐶2 = 17.80 MeV
𝐶3 = 0.7100 MeV, 𝐶4 = 23.69 MeV
𝐶5 = 39 MeV

Last term (~𝐶5 ) is positive if both number of protons and neutrons are even, negative if both
numbers are odd, and zero otherwise.

Mass of the atom can be estimated as

𝑀 𝐴𝑍𝑋 = 𝑍𝑀 11H + 𝑁𝑚𝑛 − 𝐸𝐵 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 /𝑐 2 21
Shell model

• Each nucleon is moving in a potential

that represents the averaged-out effect
of all the other nucleons

• We can solve Schrodinger equation for

each nucleon in such potential, and use
the concept of filled shells and subshells
and their relationship to stability.

22
Shell model

• Just as for electrons in atoms, there are certain

numbers of protons or of neutrons, called magic
numbers, that correspond to particularly stable
nuclei—that is, nuclei with particularly high
binding energies. The magic numbers are 2, 8, 20,
28, 50, 82, and 126.

• (Numbers are different from atomic shells because

subshells and shells are filled in a different order)

23
Image source: Wikipedia
Shell model
Nuclides in which Z is a magic number tend to have an above-average
number of stable isotopes.

There are several doubly magic nuclides for which both Z and N are
magic, including

4 16 40 48 208
2He, 8O, 20Ca, 20Ca, 82Pb

All these nuclides have substantially higher binding energy per nucleon than
do nuclides with neighboring values of N or Z. They also all have zero nuclear
spin.

• Island of stability is predicted for the super heavy nucleolus around N = 178 and
Z = 112 where the trend of decreasing stability in elements heavier than uranium
will reverse. These nuclides haven’t been observed experimentally yet.
Radioactive nuclides

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 43, Sections 3 & 4
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapter 12, Sections 5 & 6

25
Stable and unstable nuclides

o Most physicists now believe that the

universe was created 13.7 × 109 years
ago in a tremendous explosion – the Big
Bang. Protons and neutrons fused

,𝑁
together to form deuterons and light
nuclei within the first few minutes.
o The heavy elements were formed much
later by nuclear reactions within stars –
stellar nucleosynthesis.
o Nearly 90% of the 2500 known nuclides
are unstable – they decay into other
nuclides.
o Figure shows all known stable nuclei
,𝑍
and many unstable nuclei.
26
Stable and unstable nuclides (cont.)

o The “line” representing the stable

nuclides is the line of stability (or
“peninsula of stability”).
o For low mass numbers 𝐴, 𝑁 ≈ 𝑍.

,𝑁
o There are only four odd-odd nuclides,
having both odd 𝑍 and odd 𝑁:
2 6 10 14
1H, 3Li, 5B, 7N.
o The ratio 𝑁Τ𝑍 increases gradually with 𝐴,
up to about 1.6 at large 𝐴, because of the
increasing influence of the electrical
repulsion of the protons.

,𝑍

27
 Stable and unstable nuclides (cont.)
o Points to the right of the “peninsula of
stability” represent nuclides that have too

𝑍 = 83
many protons relative to neutrons.
o To the left are nuclides with too many

,𝑁

𝑍 = 43
neutrons relative to protons.

𝑍 = 61
o There is no stable nuclide with 𝐴 = 5 or
𝐴 = 8:
5 5 8 8 8 8
2He, 3Li, 2He, 3Li, 4Be, 5B.

𝑍=2
o There is no stable nuclide with 𝑍 = 43
(technetium) or 61 (promethium).
o No nuclide with 𝑍 > 83 or 𝐴 > 209 is stable
– a nucleus is unstable if it is too big. 209
83Bi

o Island of stability is predicted around N = 178 4

2He

and Z = 112. where stability will improve, no

,𝑍

experimental confirmation yet 28

Radioactive decay

Unstable nuclei exhibit radioactivity – they decay spontaneously via emission of 𝛼

particles, 𝛽 particles, 𝛾 rays, protons, neutrons, or other modes of decay such as fission, ⋯.
The time scale of these decay processes ranges from a small fraction of a microsecond to
billions of years. At time 𝑡, if we have 𝑁 = 𝑁 𝑡 unstable nuclei of a radioactive
sample, the decays per unit time or activity,
𝑑
𝐴 𝑡 ≡ − 𝑁 𝑡 = 𝜆𝑁 𝑡 ,
𝑑𝑡
where the decay constant, 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔
1 −𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑡
𝜆=
𝑑𝑡 𝑁
is the probability per unit time that any given nucleus will decay. 𝜆 has different values for
different nuclides. The SI unit of activity is the becquerel, Bq:
1 Bq ≡ 1 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦Τs .
29
Radioactive decay (cont.)

Radioactive decay is a statistical process and the general form of the law of radioactivity
is the same for all decays:
𝑑𝑁
− = 𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
or
𝑁 = 𝑁 𝑡 = 𝑁0 exp −𝜆𝑡
where the initial number of nuclei 𝑁0 = 𝑁 0 , since
𝑁 𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑁 ′ ′ ′
𝑁 𝑡 𝑁 𝑡
= −𝜆𝑑𝑡 ⇒ න ′
= − න 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ ln 𝑁 ቚ = ln = −𝜆𝑡.
𝑁 𝑁0 𝑁 0 𝑁0 𝑁0
From 𝐴 𝑡 = 𝜆𝑁 𝑡 , we also have
𝐴 = 𝐴 𝑡 = 𝐴0 exp −𝜆𝑡
where 𝐴0 = 𝜆𝑁0 .
30
Radioactive decay (cont.)

Rather than its decay constant 𝜆, it is more common to refer to the half-life 𝑡½ of an
unstable nucleus – the time it takes one half of the unstable nuclei to decay:
1 ln 2
𝑁 𝑡½ = 𝑁0 exp −𝜆𝑡½ = 𝑁0 ⇒ 𝑡½ = .
2 𝜆
Figure shows the number of unstable nuclei as a function of time 𝑡:

31
Radioactive decay (cont.)

Remark – lifetime.
The mean lifetime, or lifetime 𝜏, of an unstable nucleus:
1
𝑁 𝜏 = 𝑁0 exp −𝜆𝜏 = 𝑁0
𝑒
or
1 1
𝜆𝜏 = 1 ⇒ 𝜏 = = 𝑡½ .
𝜆 ln 2

32
Gamma, alpha, and beta decay.
Nuclear reactions

208
82Pb

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 43, Sections 3 & 6
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapter 12, Sections 7 & 8; Chapter 13, Sections 1, 2 & 3

33
Gamma decay

o A nucleus 𝐴𝑍𝑋 has a set of allowed energy levels, including a state of lowest energy, i.e.,
the ground state, and several excited states, in much the same way as atoms do.
o When a nucleus 𝐴𝑍𝑋 is placed in an excited state 𝐴𝑍𝑋 ∗ , either by bombardment with high-
energy particles or by a nuclear reaction, i.e., rearrangement of nuclear components, it
can 𝜸 decay to the ground state 𝐴𝑍𝑋 by emission of one or more 𝜸-ray photons, with
typical energies of 10 keV to 10 MeV. For example,
𝐴 ∗ 𝐴 ∗
𝑍 𝑋 𝐸 > → 𝑍𝑋 𝐸< + 𝛾,
with the 𝜸-ray photon energy given by
ℎ𝑓 ≈ 𝐸> − 𝐸<
Recall that the nucleus must absorb some of this energy difference in order to conserve
momentum.
o The excited state energies are characteristic of each nuclide, and a careful study of the 𝜸-
ray photon energies is usually sufficient to identify a particular nuclide – nuclear
spectroscopy. 34
Gamma decay Example: Possible energy levels of the 226 90Th
nuclide formed after an alpha - decay of 230
92U.

Some of the nuclear energy levels are metastable,

they are not allowed by the selection rules, they
are called isomeric states or isomers.

For example, 210𝑚83Bi has spin 9 and half-life of

𝑡1/2 = 3 × 106 years and does not decay to the
ground state 210
83Bi through gamma decay.

Gamma rays can travel in matter for tenth of centimetres, and typically lose energy
due to Compton scattering on the electrons or pair production. This radiation is a health
hazard.
35
Alpha decay

o An 𝜶 particle is a helium nucleus, 42He – two protons and two neutrons bound together,
with binding energy 28.3 MeV.
o When a parent nucleus 𝐴𝑍𝑋 emits an 𝜶 particle, its 𝑍 and 𝑁 values each decrease by 2
and 𝐴 decreases by 4:
𝐴 𝐴−4 4
𝑍 𝑋 → 𝑍−2 𝑌 + 2He.
Here, 𝐴−4
𝑍−2𝑌 is the daughter nucleus.
o If the “last” two protons and neutrons in 𝐴𝑍𝑋 are bound by less than 28.3 MeV, then the
emission of an 𝜶 particle is energetically possible, i.e., the reaction energy,
𝑄 = 𝑀 𝐴𝑍𝑋 − 𝑀 𝐴−4 4
𝑍−2𝑌 − 𝑀 2He 𝑐 > 0.
2

𝜶 decay is possible whenever the mass of the original neutral atom is greater than the sum
of the masses of the final neutral atom and a neutral helium atom.
o Energy is thus released in an 𝜶-decay process – this released energy goes into the kinetic
energy of the emitted 𝜶 particle and of the daughter nucleus.
36
Alpha decay (cont.)

For example, the 𝜶 decay,

226 222
88Ra → 86Rn + 42He,
is energetically possible:
𝑀 22688 Ra = 226.025403 u, 𝑀 222
86 Rn = 222.017570 u, 𝑀 4
2He = 4.002603 u.
It follows that
𝑀 22688 Ra − 𝑀 222
86 Rn − 𝑀 4
2He = 0.00523 u > 0.
And,
𝑄 = 0.00523 × 931.5 MeV ≈ 4.872 MeV.
Now, 𝑀 11H = 1.007825 u and 𝑚𝑛 = 1.008665 u. So,
𝐸𝐵 226
88 Ra = 88𝑀 1
1𝐻 + 138𝑚 𝑛 − 𝑀 226
88 Ra 𝑐 2 ≈ 1732 MeV.

Or,
1
4× 𝐸𝐵 226
88Ra ≈ 30.65 MeV. 37
226
Alpha decay (cont.)

o In 𝜶 decay, the 𝜶 particle tunnels

through a potential-energy barrier.
o 𝜶 particles are always emitted with
definite kinetic energies, determined by
30.65 conservation of energy and momentum:

226
88Ra
4.785
222
→ 86Rn + 42He:

𝑉← 𝑣

38
Alpha decay (cont.) • Alpha particles are emitted
at high speeds, typically a
For example, after decay of 226
88Ra alpha particle can few percent of the speed of
have of two possible energies, depending on the light
energy level of the daughter nucleus
• Nonetheless, because of
their charge and mass,
alpha particles can travel
only several centimeters
in air, or a few tenths or
hundredths of a
millimeter through
solids. A paper or foil can
block them.

39
Alpha decay (cont.)

Suppose 𝑀𝑅𝑎 𝑐, 0, 0, 0 , 𝛾𝑉 𝑀𝑅𝑛 𝑐, −𝛾𝑉 𝑀𝑅𝑛 𝑉, 0, 0 and 𝛾𝑣 𝑚𝑐, 𝛾𝑣 𝑚𝑣, 0, 0 . Then,

𝑀𝑅𝑎 = 𝛾𝑉 𝑀𝑅𝑛 + 𝛾𝑣 𝑚, 𝛾𝑉 𝑀𝑅𝑛 𝑉 = 𝛾𝑣 𝑚𝑣.
Therefore,
𝑚 𝑣 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑉= , 𝛾𝑉 = 1+ 2 2 2
.
𝑀𝑅𝑛 𝑀𝑅𝑛 𝑐 − 𝑣
𝑚2 𝑣 2
1− 1− 2
𝑀𝑅𝑛 𝑐 2
And,
𝑣 ≈ 1.517 × 107 mΤs , 𝛾𝑣 − 1 𝑚𝑐 2 ≈ 4.785 MeV.
Further,
𝑉 ≈ 2.739 × 105 mΤs , 𝛾𝑉 − 1 𝑀𝑐 2 ≈ 0.08633 MeV.
So, the 𝜶 particle takes most of the kinetic energy.
40
Alpha decay (cont.)

o 𝜶 particles are emitted at high speeds, typically a few percent of the speed of light.
Nevertheless, because of their charge and mass, 𝜶 particles can travel only several
centimetres in air, or a few tenths or hundredths of a millimetre through solids, before
they are brought to rest by collisions.
o An 𝜶 particle emitted in the decay of 226 88Ra can actually have either of two possible
energies, depending on the energy level of the 222
86Rn daughter nucleus just after the
decay:

41
Alpha decay (cont.)
• Nevertheless, alpha particle can cause a lot of damage
if decay happens inside the human body.

• For example, 222Rn is produced as one of the products

in 238U decay chain and has half-life of 3.8 days.

• Accumulation of radioactive gas 222Rn in houses is a

serious health hazard. Poisoning by 210Po, another 𝛼 - emitter

• Lifetime exposure to 222Rn would reduce your life

expectancy by about 40 days

• For comparison, smoking one pack of cigarettes per

day reduces life expectancy by 6 years,
42
Beta-minus decay

o A 𝜷− particle is an electron.
o Emission of a 𝜷− particle involves transformation of a neutron into a proton, an
electron, and an electron antineutrino:
1 1 − + 𝜈ҧ .
0𝑛 → 1H + 𝛽 𝑒
In fact, a free neutron will 𝜷− decay with a half-life of about 10.4 minutes.
o When a parent nucleus 𝐴𝑍𝑋 emits a 𝜷− particle, its 𝑍 increases by 1, 𝑁 decreases by 1,
and 𝐴 does not change:
𝐴 𝐴 −
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝑌 + 𝛽 + 𝜈𝑒 ҧ .
Here, 𝑍+1𝐴𝑌 is the daughter nucleus. For example,
14 14
6C
ด → ต7N + 𝛽− + 𝜈𝑒ҧ .
14.003242 u 14.003074 u

43
Beta-minus decay (cont.)

o If the reaction energy,

𝑄 = 𝑀 𝐴𝑍𝑋 − 𝑀 𝑍+1𝐴𝑌 𝑐 2 > 0,
then the emission of a 𝜷− particle is energetically possible. 𝜷− decay can occur whenever
the mass of the original neutral atom is larger than that of the final atom.
o The electron antineutrino, 𝜈𝑒ҧ , is the antiparticle of the electron neutrino, 𝜈𝑒 . Both the
𝜈𝑒 and 𝜈𝑒ҧ are spin-½ particles with very small mass and zero charge, which produce
very little observable effect when passing through matter.
o Because of the electron antineutrinos, 𝜷− particles are emitted with a continuous
spectrum of energies, unlike 𝜶 particles in 𝜶 decays:

𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝛽 − 44
Beta-minus decay (cont.)
o The fission fragment 140 54Xe from
235 1 236 ∗ 140 94 1
92 U + 0𝑛 → 92 U → 54 Xe + 38 Sr + 2 0𝑛
undergoes a series of 𝜷− decays to the stable 140
58Ce:
140
54Xe → 140 −
55Cs + 𝛽 + 𝜈𝑒 ҧ ,
139.921640 u
140
55Cs → 140
56 Ba + 𝛽 − + 𝜈ҧ ,
𝑒
140
56Ba → 140
57 La + 𝛽 −
+ 𝜈𝑒ҧ ,
140
57La → 140 58 Ce + 𝛽 −
+ 𝜈𝑒ҧ .
139.905434 u
This series of 𝜷− decays produces, on average, about 15 MeV of energy in addition to that
from fission. This was responsible for the accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear power
plant in Pennsylvania in March 1979.

• Beta radiation interacts strongly with solids, can be stopped by several 45

millimetres of Aluminium.
Beta-plus decay

o A 𝜷+ particle is a positron, i.e., a positive electron – the electron’s antiparticle.

o Emission of a 𝜷+ particle involves transformation of a proton into a neutron, a
positron, and an electron neutrino:
1 1 ++𝜈 .
1 H → 0𝑛 + 𝛽 𝑒
In contrast to a free neutron, a free proton does not 𝜷+ decay (𝑡½ > 1034 years). A
proton bound within the nucleus may transmute if energy is taken from the nucleus and the
result is a more stable nucleus.
o When a parent nucleus 𝐴𝑍𝑋 emits a 𝜷+ particle, its 𝑍 decreases by 1, 𝑁 increases by 1,
and 𝐴 does not change:
𝐴
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−1𝐴𝑌 + 𝛽+ + 𝜈𝑒 .
Here, 𝑍−1𝐴𝑌 is the daughter nucleus. For example,
14 14
ต8O → ต7N + 𝛽+ + 𝜈𝑒 .
14.008595 u 14.003074 u
46
Beta-plus decay (cont.)

o If the reaction energy,

𝑄 = 𝑀 𝐴𝑍𝑋 − 𝑀 𝑍−1𝐴𝑌 − 2𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 > 0,
then the emission of a 𝜷+ particle is energetically possible. 𝜷+ decay can occur whenever
the mass of the original neutral atom is at least two electron masses larger than that of the
final atom. For example,
𝑄 = 𝑀 148O − 𝑀 147N − 2𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 = 0.005521 − 0.001097 × 931.5 MeV
≈ 4.121 MeV.

47
Electron capture

o There are a few nuclides for which 𝜷+ decay is not energetically possible but in which an
orbital electron (usually in the innermost 𝐾 shell) can combine with a proton in the
nucleus to form a neutron and an electron neutrino:
1 − → 1𝑛 + 𝜈 .
1H + 𝛽 0 𝑒
The neutron remains in the nucleus and the electron neutrino is emitted.
o When a parent nucleus 𝐴𝑍𝑋 captures a 𝜷− particle, its 𝑍 decreases by 1, 𝑁 increases by
1, and 𝐴 does not change:
𝐴 − → 𝐴
𝑍 𝑋 + 𝛽 𝑍−1𝑌 + 𝜈𝑒 .
Here, 𝑍−1𝐴𝑌 is the daughter nucleus.
o If the reaction energy,
𝑄 = 𝑀 𝐴𝑍𝑋 − 𝑀 𝑍−1𝐴𝑌 𝑐 2 > 0,
then electron capture is energetically possible. Electron capture can occur whenever the
mass of the original neutral atom is larger than that of the final atom.
48
Electron capture (cont.)

For example,
𝑀 57 27Co = 56.936296 u, 𝑀 57
26Fe = 56.935399 u, 2𝑚𝑒 = 0.001097 u.
Clearly,
57 57
𝑀 27Co >𝑀 26Fe .
But,
𝑀 57
27 Co − 𝑀 57
26Fe = 0.000897 u < 0.001097 u = 2𝑚𝑒 .
So, 57
27 Co may undergo electron capture, but not 𝜷+ decay.

49
 Biological effects and hazards of radiation

Note: absorbed dose of radiation is measured in gray

(1 Gy = 1 J/kg) Contribution of various sources to
Equivalent dose (Sv) = RBE * Absorbed dose (Gy) the total average radiation exposure
50
Radioactive decay series

When an unstable nucleus decays, the resulting daughter nucleus may also be unstable. In
this case a series of successive 𝜶 and 𝜷 decays occurs until a stable daughter nucleus is
reached – the effect of these decays is to bring the nuclide closer to the line of stability until a
stable nuclide is finally reached. Several such series are found in nature:

The four radioactive decay series have mass numbers expressed by either 4𝑛, 4𝑛 + 1, 4𝑛 +
2, or 4𝑛 + 3, where 𝑛 is some positive integer, because only 𝜶 decay can change the mass
number.
51
Radioactive decay series (cont.)

64%
𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔
36%
𝛽−

52
 238
92U → 234
90 Th + 4
2He Radioactive decay series (cont.)
234
90Th → 234 ∗ −
91Pa + 𝛽 + 𝜈𝑒
ҧ
234 ∗
91Pa → 234
91Pa + 𝛾

53
Nuclear fission

Nuclear fission is a decay process in which an unstable nucleus splits into two fission
fragments, with one fragment typically somewhat larger than the other. For example, when
235 236 ∗
92 U absorbs a neutron, the resulting nuclide 92U is in a highly excited state and splits
into two fragments almost instantaneously:
235 236 ∗ 144 89
92U + 10𝑛 → 92U → 56Ba + 36 Kr + 3 10𝑛
or
235 236 ∗ 140 94
92U + 10𝑛 → 92U → 54Xe + 38 Sr + 2 10𝑛
or
235 134
92U + 10𝑛 → 236 ∗ 99
92U → 52Te + 40Zr + 3 0𝑛.
1

In fact, there are many possibilities for the 𝑍

and 𝐴 of the fission fragments:

54
Nuclear fission (cont.)

Remarks.
o Symmetric fission (fission fragments with equal 𝐴) is possible, but the most probable
fission is asymmetric (one with 𝐴 larger than the other), as shown by the two peaks.
o Fission resulting from neutron absorption is called induced fission. Some nuclei with
𝐴 > 220 can also undergo spontaneous fission without initial neutron absorption.
o The total kinetic energy of the fission fragments is enormous, about 200 MeV:
235 1 236 ∗ 144 89 1
ถ92U + 0𝑛
ด → 92U → 56Ba + ถ
36Kr +3 0𝑛
ด
235.043923 u 1.008665 u 236.045562 u 143.922940 u 88.917630 u 1.008665 u
It follows that
𝐵 236
92 U = 92𝑀 1
1𝐻 + 144𝑚 𝑛 − 𝑀 236
92 U 𝑐 2 ≈ 1790 MeV,

𝐵 144
56 Ba = 56𝑀 1
1𝐻 + 88𝑚 𝑛 − 𝑀 144
56 Ba 𝑐 2 ≈ 1190 MeV,
89
𝐵 36 Kr = 36𝑀 11𝐻 + 53𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀 144 56 Ba 𝑐 2 ≈ 766.9 MeV,
144
or 𝑀 236 89 2
92U − 𝑀 56Ba − 𝑀 36Kr − 3𝑚𝑛 𝑐 ≈ 166.7 MeV.
55
Nuclear fission (cont.)

o Fission of a uranium nucleus, triggered

by neutron bombardment, releases other
neutrons that can trigger more fission,
suggesting the possibility of a chain
reaction.
o The chain reaction may be made to
proceed slowly and in a controlled manner
in a nuclear reactor or explosively in a
bomb.
o Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239
fission easily after absorbing thermal (low
energy) neutrons
o Uranium-238 needs a neutron of at least
1 MeV to fission.
56
Nuclear fission (cont.)

• Uranium-235 produces on average about 2.5 neutrons per fission. To sustain

chain reaction, one needs to make sure that neutrons interact with other nuclei
before they can escape.
• Critical mass of an uncompressed sphere of bare metal is 50 kg for uranium-235
and 16 kg (35 lb) for plutonium-239

57
How to control nuclear fission (cont.)

• We need fissionable fuel (For example, U-235)

• Most of the uranium is U-238. Natural abundance of U-235 is 0.7%. It has to
be enriched to at least 3-4% by the isotope separation process.

• We need a moderator to slow down neutrons

• Hydrogen (in water), carbon (graphite), and beryllium are good moderators

• Control rods are made of Cadmium that absorbs neutrons without the fission
process.
• Some neutrons are emitted by the fission fragments and are delayed by a few
seconds. It gives sufficient time to control rate of the nuclear reaction by
moving the rods.

58
 1. Fissionable fuel (For example, U-235)
Nuclear fission (cont.)
2. Moderator to slow down neutrons (Hydrogen
(in water), carbon (graphite), and beryllium )

3. Control rods for safety and to control

criticality of reactor

4. Reflector to surround moderator and fuel in

order to contain neutrons and thereby
improve efficiency (e.q water)

5. Reactor vessel and radiation shield

First nuclear reactor was constructed by
Enrico Fermi December 2, 1942, and ran for 4 6. Energy transfer systems if commercial
½ minutes under the stands of the power is desired
university’s football stadium in Chicago
59
Nuclear reactor

Typical nuclear
plant has a
electricity
generation capacity
of about 1000MW.

The efficiency of the

electricity
generation is about
30%.

The heat generated

by the reactor is
about 3000MW
60
Nuclear fission (cont.)

Note: All Singapore power plants can

produce about 10000 MW of power.
They use mostly natural gas.
Nuclear fission

There are evidence that a natural fission reactor

occurred in the Republic of Gabon, Aftica about 2
billion years ago.

At that time U-235 made up about 3.1% of the

natural uranium

Water inside the uranium ore served as a moderator

to slow down neutrons 1. Geological situation in Gabon leading
to natural nuclear fission reactors
Nuclear reactor zones
2. Sandstone
3. Uranium ore layer
4. Granite

62
Nuclear fusion

In a nuclear fusion reaction, two small light nuclei fuse together to form a nucleus with a
larger binding energy per nucleon, and energy is released. For example,
2 3 4 1
ด
1H + ด
1H → ต
2He + 0𝑛
ด , 17.6 MeV;
2.014102 u 3.016049 u 4.002603 u 1.008665 u
Or,

1 1 2
where ด
1H + ด
1H → ด
1H + 𝛽 + + 𝜈𝑒 , 0.42 MeV;
1.007825 u 1.007825 u 2.014102 u
63
Nuclear fusion (cont.)

And,
1
ด
1H + 2
ด
1H → 32ต He + 𝛾, 5.49 MeV;
1.007825 u 2.014102 u 3.016029 u
3 3 4 1 1
ต
2He + ต
2He → ต
2He + ด
1H + ด
1H , 12.86 MeV.
3.016029 u 3.016029 u 4.002603 u 1.007825 u 1.007825 u
This is the proton-proton chain. The net effect of the chain is the conversion of four 11H’s
into one 42He, two 𝛽+ ’s, two 𝜈𝑒 ’s, and two 𝛾’s. The two 𝛽+ ’s annihilate with two electrons
in the process. The total energy release from the proton-proton chain is thus given by
2 × 0.42 + 2 × 5.49 + 12.86 + 4 × 0.511 MeV ≈ 26.7 MeV.
The proton-proton chain takes place in the interior of the sun and other stars.

64
Nuclear fusion (cont.)

The first reaction in the chain is special kind of a beta decay, this reaction is extremely
slow, only 1 in 1026 collisions produces a reaction. That is why our Sun does not
explode

• Equilibrium exists in the stars between the gravitational attraction and a gas
pressure pushing out due to all the particles.

• As the lighter nuclides are “burned up” to produce the heavier nuclides, the
gravitational attraction increases and temperature increases. A higher temperature
allows the nuclides with higher Z to fuse. This process continues in a star until a
large part of the star’s mass is converted to iron.

• The star then collapses under its own gravitational attraction to become, a white
dwarf star, neutron star, or black hole.

• Sun can sustain fusion for 10 × 109 years, it is currently 4.5 × 109 years old.
Nuclear fusion (cont.)
The most energy released when two isotopes of Hydrogen fuse
together

2
1H + 31H → 𝑛 + 42H, 𝑄 = 17.6 MeV

Fusion can be used to construct a very powerful bomb.

Another possible reaction is

2
1H + 21H → 32H + 11H, 𝑄 = 4.0 MeV
Etc.
Controlled nuclear fusion ultimately represents our
best source of energy. However, confining plasma with a very high
temperatures (~ 1 × 108 K) to bring the nucleus close together for
the reaction is a difficult task.
Nuclear reactions

o Rutherford produced the first man-made nuclear reaction in a laboratory experiment in

1919. He used 7.7 MeV 𝜶 particles from the 𝜶 decay of 21484Po to bombard a nitrogen
target, and he observed protons being emitted:
4 14 1 17
ต
2He + ต7 N → ด
1H + ต8O .
4.002603 u 14.003074 u 1.007825 u 16.999132 u
o In this case, the reaction energy,
𝑄 = 𝑀 42He + 𝑀 147N − 𝑀 11H − 𝑀 178O 𝑐 2
= −1.280 × 10−3 × 931.5 MeV ≈ −1.192 MeV.
Since 𝑄 < 0, the nuclear reaction is endothermal or endoergic.
At least 1.192 MeV of energy will be absorbed in this reaction. What is the kinetic energy
of the alpha particle in the laboratory frame for this reaction to occur?

Since the reaction energies are much smaller than the rest energies of the particles we can
67
use the laws of classical mechanics for calculations.
Nuclear reactions (cont.)
If the particle of mass m, velocity v and kinetic energy K collides with the stationary particle
of mass M, centre of mass of two particles is moving with velocity v

𝑚
𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑣
𝑚+𝑀

The velocities of each particle in the CM frame are

′
𝑚 𝑀 ′
𝑚
𝑣 = 1− 𝑣= 𝑣, 𝑉 = 𝑣
𝑚+𝑀 𝑀+𝑚 𝑀+𝑚

And total kinetic energy in the CM frame, that can be used to induce nuclear reaction is:

𝑚𝑣 ′2 𝑀𝑉 ′2 𝑚𝑀 2
𝑀
𝐾𝑐𝑚 = + = 𝑣 = 𝐾
2 2 2(𝑚 + 𝑀) 𝑀+𝑚 68
Nuclear reactions (cont.)

With respect to a laboratory frame where the 147N nucleus is at rest, the 𝜶 particle has
kinetic energy
𝑀 + 𝑚 14.003074 u
𝐾 = 𝐾𝑐𝑚 = × 1.192MeV = 1.533 MeV
𝑀 18.005677 u
o For a charged particle such as an 𝜶 particle to penetrate the nucleus of another atom and
cause a nuclear reaction, it must usually have enough initial kinetic energy to overcome
the potential-energy barrier caused by the repulsive electrostatic forces. In this case, if we
treat the 𝜶 particle and the 147N nucleus as spherically symmetric charges with radii
given by
1
𝑅= 𝐴3 𝑟0 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟0 ≈ 1.2 × 10−15 m,

their centres will be 4.8 × 10−15 m apart when they “touch”.

69
Nuclear reactions (cont.)

At this separation,
7 × 2 𝑒2
−15
≈ 4.2 MeV.
4𝜋𝜖0 4.8 × 10

In general, a nuclear reaction could result from a bombardment by a massive particle with
sufficient kinetic energy to penetrate a nucleus and cause the nuclear reaction.

The lower energy particle can still tunnel into the nucleus and cause nuclear reaction, but
this process is much less likely.

70
Nuclear reactions (cont.)

If 𝑄 > 0, the nuclear reaction is exothermal or exoergic. For example,

1 7 4 4
ด
1H + Li
3ด → ต
2He + ต
2He .
1.007825 u 7.016004 u 4.002603 u 4.002603 u
Clearly,
𝑄 = 𝑀 11H + 𝑀 73Li − 2𝑀 42He 𝑐 2 ≈ 17.35 MeV > 0.
In this case,
3𝑒 2
−15
≈ 1.2 MeV.
4𝜋𝜖0 3.5 × 10
o Nuclear reactions are subject to several conservation laws: laws of conservation of
charge, energy-mass, momentum, and angular momentum (including spin), law of
conservation of baryon number – conservation of the total number of nucleons and law
of conservation of lepton number.
71
Applications: Radioactive dating
o Radioactive 14C is produced in the atmosphere by the
bombardment of 14N by neutrons produced by cosmic rays. Its
half-life is 5730 years.

o A natural equilibrium of 14C and 12C exist for molecules of CO2 in

the atmosphere, and in all the living organisms that breathe it.

o When living organism dies, intake of 14C ceases, and the ratio
o of 14C / 12C decreases.

o Measuring this ratio allows to determine age of the objects.

o Other isotopes, e.q 10Be, 26Al, 36Cl, 129I are useful for radioactive
dating as well. (e.q. half life of 10Be is 1.5 × 106 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠)
72
Applications: Neutron activation
o When bombarded by neutrons, many stable nuclides absorb a neutron to become
unstable and then undergo beta decay. The energies of the beta and associated gamma
emissions depend on the unstable nuclide and provide a means of identifying it and the
original stable nuclide.
o For example, A thermal neutron beam from can be spread
broadly and evenly over the painting. Several elements
within the painting become radioactive. X-ray films
sensitive to beta emissions from the radioactive nuclei are
subsequently placed next to the painting for varying lengths
of time to look “inside” the painting.

o A neutron source and a detector can be inserted down an

exploratory drill hole to examine the material at different
depths and look for oil.
73
 Dear students,
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