Summary: PC1144, Introduction to Modern Physics

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman

http://pdg.lbl.gov/index.html 1
 14 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ 1879 − 18 𝐴𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑙 1955

Part 1: Einstein’s theory of special relativity

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 37
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 2

2
Einstein’s theory of special relativity is based on 2 postulates

o The principle of relativity:

The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames.

Remark: If the laws differed, that difference could distinguish one inertial frame from
the others or make one frame more “correct” than another.

o The principle of the constancy of the speed of light:

The speed of light in free space has the same value 𝑐 in all inertial reference frames and
is independent of the motion of the source.

Remark: If Maxwell’s equations are valid in all inertial frames, then the speed of
light in vacuum should also be the same in all inertial frames.

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 37, Section 1
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 2, Section 1 3
Length contraction and time dilation

𝛥𝑡0
𝛥𝑡 = = 𝛾 𝛥𝑡0 𝑙 = 𝑙0 1 − 𝑢2 /𝑐 2 = 𝑙0 /𝛾
1−𝑢2 /𝑐 2

Length 𝑙 in the frame where the ruler is

𝛥𝑡0 : proper time between two events (time moving is shorter than the length 𝑙0 in
in the rest frame of events) its rest frame.

𝛥𝑡 : time between events in the moving This is the length contraction effect
frame
1
𝛾= , Lorentz factor.
𝛥𝑡 > 𝛥𝑡0 1−𝑢2 /𝑐 2
Time dilation effect: Clock runs slow if it
moves relative to observer
The Lorentz transformations relates the space – time coordinates of an event in the two
frames: (t,x,y,z) in frame S and (t’, x’, y’, z’) in frame S’.

𝑥 − 𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑢
𝑥′ = 𝑣𝑥′ = 𝑢𝑣
1 − 𝑢2 /𝑐 2 1 − 2𝑥
𝑐

𝑦 ′ = 𝑦, 1 𝑣𝑦
𝑣𝑦′ =
𝛾 1 − 𝑢𝑣𝑥
𝑧 ′ = 𝑧, 𝑐2
1 𝑣𝑧
𝑡 − 𝑢𝑥/𝑐 2 𝑣𝑧′ =
′
𝑡 = 𝛾 1 − 𝑢𝑣𝑥
1 − 𝑢2 /𝑐 2 𝑐2
𝑐+𝑢
Doppler effect: 𝑓 = 𝑓
𝑐−𝑢 0
Relativistic energy and momentum:

Momentum: Energy:

𝑚𝒗 𝑚𝑐 2
𝒑= 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑚𝑐 2 = = 𝛾𝑚𝑐 2
1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2 1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2

For a photon, 𝐴𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

ℎ𝑓 ℎ
𝒑 = = .
𝑐 𝜆

Invariants:
𝐸 2 − 𝒑𝑐 2 = 𝑚2 𝑐 4 is invariant under Lorentz transformation

𝑐 2 𝑡 2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 = s2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡
Lecture 2: Quantum Physics

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapters 38 & 39
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapters 3 & 4

7
Photoeffect and Einstein’s photon hypothesis A beam of light consists of photons (small
packages of energy). The energy of a photon,
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓,
where Planck’s constant,
ℎ ≈ 6.626 × 10−34 J s,
is a universal constant, and 𝑓 is the light
frequency. According to Einstein, the
kinetic energy of the most energetic electron,
𝐾max = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙,
where 𝜙 is the work function. The energy
transfer is an all-or-nothing process, i.e., the
electron gets all of the photon’s energy or
none at all.
𝐾max = 𝑒𝑉0 .
𝑉0 is the stopping potential.
8
Compton scattering (1922)

o In 1922, Arthur H. Compton, an American physicist, aimed a beam of X-rays at a solid

target and measured the wavelength 𝜆′ of the radiation scattered from the target.

o He discovered that some of the scattered radiation has longer wavelength 𝜆′ than that of
the incident radiation 𝜆, and the change in wavelength Δ𝜆 = 𝜆′ − 𝜆 depends on the angle
𝜙 through which the radiation is scattered:
𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦
′
ℎ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡
Δ𝜆 = 𝜆 − 𝜆 = 1 − cos 𝜙 .
𝑚𝑒 𝑐 9
Wave–particle duality means that light has two aspects that seem to be in direct conflict.

Wave description: Particle description:

𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) Photon momentum

ℎ ℎ 2𝜋
Here 𝑝𝑥 = = = ℏ𝑘
𝜆 2𝜋 𝜆
Photon energy
𝑘 = 2𝜋/𝜆 and 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
ℎ
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑓 = ℏ𝜔
2𝜋
Here ℏ = ℎ/2𝜋
How can light be a wave and a particle at the same time?

Principle of complementarity (Niels Bohr, 1928)

The wave descriptions and the particle descriptions are complementary. We need both to
complete our model of nature, but we will never need to use both at the same time to describe
a single part of an occurrence.
10
Wave particle duality:

o De Broglie postulated that a free

particle of mass 𝑚 with a definite
linear momentum 𝑝 should have a 𝜃1
wavelength: the de Broglie
wavelength,
“Electron wave” scattered from two adjacent
ℎ atoms interfere constructively when
𝜆= ,
𝑝 𝑑 sin 𝜃𝑚 = 𝑚𝜆, 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3, ⋯
with
True even for relativistic speeds 𝑣 (where ℎ ℎ
𝑝 = 𝛾𝑚𝑣), 𝜆= = .
𝑝 2𝑚𝑒𝑉𝑏𝑎
Experimental proof: electron diffraction
11
Uncertainty relations
If some state is occupied for time Δ𝑡,
uncertainty of its energy is Δ𝐸

If coordinate has uncertainty Δ𝑥 ,

and corresponding momentum t
component 𝑝𝑥 has an uncertainty
Δ𝑝𝑥 than in general
1 t
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑝𝑥 ≥ ℏ
2
Here Heisenberg uncertainty relation
ℎ for time and energy
ℏ= = 1.0545716 × 10−34 J ⋅ s
2𝜋
Δ𝑡 Δ𝐸 ≥ ℏ/2
Lecture 3: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (Wave Mechanics)

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapters 40 & 41
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapters 4, 5, 6 & 7

13
Wave functions and position probability distributions (cont.)

The state of the particle in quantum mechanics is completely

described by its wave function. 𝜓 = 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡

o The quantity 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 is the probability of finding the

particle between position 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥Τ2 and position 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥Τ2
at time 𝑡.
o The particle is most likely to be found in regions where
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 2 is large.
o The probability that the particle is somewhere along the 𝑥-
axis is exactly 1. So,
∞
2
න 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 1.
−∞

That is, 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 is normalized. 14

 The Schrödinger equation – “Newton’s 2nd law” of the quantum world

The time-evolution of the 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) associated with the quantum particle is governed by the
Schrödinger equation (1926):

𝜕 ℏ2 𝜕 2 ℎ
𝑖ℏ 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = − 2
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑉 𝑥 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖2 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℏ = .
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2𝜋

𝑖
For stationary-state wave function, 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑥 exp − 𝐸𝑡 ,
ℏ
We arrive to the time independent Schrödinger equation:

ℏ2 𝑑 2
− 2
𝑢 𝑥 + 𝑉 𝑥 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥 .
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥

15
Stationary-state wave function (cont.)

It follows that
𝑖 𝑖
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 exp − ℏ𝑘𝑥 + 𝐸𝑡 , 𝑜𝑟 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 exp ℏ𝑘𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡
ℏ ℏ
with
ℏ2 𝑘 2
𝐸= .
2𝑚
According to de Broglie, a free quantum particle with a definite linear momentum 𝑝 has
an associated definite de Broglie wavelength
ℎ
𝜆= .
𝑝
So, 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓
ℎ ℎ 2𝜋 𝑝2
𝑝= = = ℏ𝑘, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = .
𝜆 2𝜋 𝜆 2𝑚 16
Particle in a box (cont.)

Finally: 0 𝑥 < 0,

𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛 𝑥 =
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 ℏ2 𝑛 2 𝜋 2
sin 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿, 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛 = 2
, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, ⋯ .
𝐿 𝐿 2𝑚𝐿
0 𝐿 < 𝑥.

17
 𝑉 𝑥 𝑢0 𝑥 𝑢1 𝑥

𝑢2 𝑥 𝑢3 𝑥

1 The harmonic oscillator

𝐸𝑛 = ℏ𝜔(𝑛 + ) 18
2

𝑉 𝑥 Tunnelling
𝑉0
Transmission probability is
Re 𝑢 𝑥
2 2
𝐿
𝑇 ∼ 𝑢 𝐿 = exp −2 2𝑚 𝑉0 − 𝐸 .
ℏ
Particle in a three-dimensional box

0 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿, 0 < 𝑦 < 𝐿, 0 < 𝑧 < 𝐿,

𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = ቊ
∞ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒.

ℏ2 𝜕 2 𝜕2 𝜕2
− 2
+ 2 + 2 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝐸𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
3
2 2 𝑛𝑥 𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝜋𝑦 𝑛𝑧 𝜋𝑧
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛𝑥,𝑛𝑦,𝑛𝑧 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = sin sin sin 0 < 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 < 𝐿,
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
ℏ2 𝑛𝑥2 + 𝑛𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑧2 𝜋 2
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛𝑥,𝑛𝑦 ,𝑛𝑧 = 2
, 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 = 1, 2, 3, ⋯ .
2𝑚𝐿
19
Lecture 4: Atomic Physics

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapters 39 & 41
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapters 3, 4, 7 & 8

20
The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom
This is a semi-classical model where electron is moving around the proton in a circular orbit.
However, unlike classical description, the angular momentum 𝑳 of the electron in the
stable orbit is quantised: 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑛 = 𝑛ℏ,
ℎ𝑐𝑅 13.6eV
Energy level 𝐸𝑛 = − 2 = 2
𝑛 𝑛
correspond to a stable circular orbit with
angular momentum 𝐿𝑛 = 𝑛ℏ, and radius

4𝜋𝜖0 2 2 2
𝑟𝑛 = 2
𝑛 ℏ = 𝑛 𝑎0 ,
𝑚𝑒

1 1 1
=𝑅 2− 2
𝜆 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖
𝑚𝑒 4
Where 𝑅 = = 10 973 731.6 m−1
8𝜖02 ℎ3 𝑐 21
Successes of Bohr model.

• We assumed that the atomic nucleolus remains at rest.

However both electron and nucleolus rotate about their
center of mass, and we can get a correct description if we
replace electron mass with the reduced mass:

𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑚𝑟 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2

• Bohr model correctly predicts energy levels of a hydrogen

atom if we can replace 𝑒 2 with 𝑍𝑒 2 everywhere. The
energy becomes

𝐸𝑛 → 𝑍 2 𝐸𝑛

Etc. 22
Stationary-state wave function (cont.)

Correct quantum mechanical description gives the same values for energy, and introduces a
set of quantum numbers:
𝑚𝑒 4 1
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛,ℓ,𝑚ℓ 𝑟, 𝜗, 𝜑 = 𝑅𝑛,ℓ 𝑟 𝑌ℓ,𝑚ℓ 𝜗, 𝜑 , 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛 = −
32𝜋 2 𝜖02 ℏ2 𝑛2
where the principal quantum number,
𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, ⋯ ,
the orbital angular momentum quantum number,
ℓ = 0, 1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑛 − 1,
the orbital magnetic quantum number,
𝑚ℓ = −ℓ, −ℓ + 1, ⋯ , 0, ⋯ , ℓ − 1, ℓ.
1 1
and the spin magnetic quantum number, 𝑚𝑠 = − , + .
2 2
23
In an atom, the electron in a stationary state with principal quantum number 𝑛 and
energy 𝐸𝑛 , could have orbital angular momentum 𝑳 with magnitude
𝐿= ℓ ℓ + 1 ℏ, ℓ = 0, 1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑛 − 1,
and 𝑧-component
𝐿𝑧 = 𝑚ℓ ℏ, 𝑚ℓ = −ℓ, −ℓ + 1, ⋯ , 0, ⋯ , ℓ − 1, ℓ.

In addition, electron has an intrinsic spin angular momentum 𝑺 with magnitude

1
𝑆= 𝑠 𝑠 + 1 ℏ, 𝑠= ,
2
and 𝑧-component
1 1
𝑆𝑧 = 𝑚𝑠 ℏ, 𝑚𝑠 = − , + .
2 2
Total angular momentum

For an electron with orbital angular momentum 𝑳 and spin angular momentum 𝑺, the
total angular momentum
𝑱 = 𝑳 + 𝑺,
has magnitude
𝐽= 𝒿 𝒿 + 1 ℏ, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝒿 = ℓ ± ½ ,
and 𝑧-component
𝐽𝑧 = 𝑚𝒿 ℏ, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝒿 = −𝒿, −𝒿 + 1, ⋯ , 𝒿 − 1, 𝒿.

Associated with the total angular momentum 𝑱 of an electron in a hydrogen atom is the
total magnetic dipole moment,
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
𝝁 = 𝝁ℓ + 𝝁𝑠 = − 𝑳− 𝑺=− 𝑳 + 2𝑺 = − 𝑱+𝑺 ,
2𝑚 𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚
25
Zeeman effect, energy of atom in the magnetic field
𝑒 𝑒ℏ
𝑉𝐵 = −𝝁 ⋅ 𝑩 = −𝑔 − 𝑚𝒿 ℏ 𝐵 = 𝑔𝑚𝒿 𝐵 = 𝑔𝑚𝒿 𝜇𝐵 𝐵.
2𝑚 2𝑚
Here, the Landé 𝒈 factor,
𝒿 𝒿+1 +𝑠 𝑠+1 −ℓ ℓ+1
𝑔 =1+
2𝒿 𝒿 + 1
And,
𝑚𝒿 = −𝒿, −𝒿 + 1, ⋯ , 𝒿 − 1, 𝒿.
Selection rules: Transition between the states are allowed if
Δ𝑚𝒿 = 0, ±1
Δ𝒿 = 0, ±1
Δ𝑙 = ±1.

26
The periodic table of the elements
Pauli’s exclusion principle (1925). No two electrons in an atom can have the same
values of all four quantum numbers, i.e., no two electrons can be in the same state in
an atom.

27
Lecture 5: Nuclear Physics

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 43
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapters 12 & 13

28
Shapes and sizes of nuclei, and nuclear density

o The nuclear radius 𝑅 depends on the total number of nucleons in the nucleus
1
𝑅= 𝐴3 𝑟0 ,
where 𝑟0 ≈ 1.2 × 10−15 m or 1.2 fm with one femtometre, 1 fm ≡ 10−15 m

Total angular momentum of the nuclei is called nuclear spin

• If A is even, j is an integer, if A is odd, j is half-integer.

• If number of protons Z and neutrons N are both even, J=0. (nucleons tend to form pairs )

Associated with nuclear angular momentum is a magnetic moment, nuclear magnetic

𝑒ℏ
dipole moments are measured in units of the nuclear magneton, 𝜇𝑁 ≡
2𝑚𝑝

29
Liquid drop model of nuclear force, binding energy

A total binding energy is

𝐸𝐵
2
2 𝐶3 𝑍 𝑍 − 1 𝐶4 𝐴 − 2𝑍
= 𝐶1 𝐴 − 𝐶2 𝐴 −
3
1/3
− ± 𝐶5 𝐴−4/3
𝐴 𝐴

𝐶1 term -- interaction with nearest neighbours

𝐶2 -- surface effects
𝐶3 -- Coulomb interaction
𝐶4 -- Equal number of protons and neutrons
𝐶5 -- Even number of protons / neutrons have higher
binding energy

Mass of the atom can be estimated as

𝑀 𝐴𝑍𝑋 = 𝑍𝑀 11H + 𝑁𝑚𝑛 − 𝐸𝐵 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 /𝑐 2
30
Radioactive decay

Unstable nuclei exhibit radioactivity – they decay spontaneously via emission of 𝛼

particles, 𝛽 particles, 𝛾 rays, protons, neutrons, or other modes of decay such as fission, ⋯.
𝑑
𝐴 𝑡 ≡ − 𝑁 𝑡 = 𝜆𝑁 𝑡 ,
𝑑𝑡
where 𝜆 is the decay constant.

Law of radioactivity is the same for all decays:

𝑁 = 𝑁 𝑡 = 𝑁0 exp −𝜆𝑡

Rather than its decay constant 𝜆, it is more common

ln 2
to refer to the half-life 𝑡½ = .
𝜆
31
Gamma decay Alpha decay Beta decay

The nuclei decays from When a parent nucleus 𝐴𝑍𝑋 Emission of a 𝜷− particle
excited to ground state emits an 𝜶 particle, its 𝑍 (electron) involves
emitting a photon and 𝑁 values each decrease transformation of a neutron
by 2 and 𝐴 decreases by 4: into a proton, an electron,
𝐴 ∗
𝑍𝑋 𝐸> → 𝐴𝑍𝑋 ∗ 𝐸< + 𝛾, and an electron
𝐴
𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴−4
𝑍−2𝑌 + 42He. antineutrino :
with the 𝜸-ray photon
energy given by ℎ𝑓 ≈ 𝐸> − Possible if the reaction 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴
𝑍+1𝑌 + 𝛽− + 𝜈𝑒ҧ
𝐸< energy, 𝑄 = ൣ𝑀 𝐴𝑍𝑋 −
𝑀 𝐴−4 4 2 Possible if the reaction
𝑍−2𝑌 − 𝑀 2He ൧𝑐 > 0.
energy, 𝑄 = ൣ𝑀 𝐴𝑍𝑋 −
𝑀 𝑍+1𝐴𝑌 ൧𝑐 2 > 0.

And more … Beta plus decay, electron capture, etc 32

Nuclear fission

Nuclear fission is a decay process in which an unstable nucleus splits into two fission
fragments, with one fragment typically somewhat larger than the other. For example, when
235 236 ∗
92 U absorbs a neutron, the resulting nuclide 92U is in a highly excited state and splits
into two fragments almost instantaneously:
235 236 ∗ 144 89
92U + 10𝑛 → 92U → 56Ba + 36 Kr + 3 10𝑛
or
235 236 ∗ 140 94
92U + 10𝑛 → 92U → 54Xe + 38 Sr + 2 10𝑛
or
235 134
92U + 10𝑛 → 236 ∗ 99 1
92U → 52Te + 40Zr + 3 0𝑛.
There are many possibilities for the 𝑍 and 𝐴
of the fission fragments:

33
Nuclear fusion

In a nuclear fusion reaction, two small light nuclei fuse together to form a nucleus with a
larger binding energy per nucleon, and energy is released. For example,
2 3 4 1
ด
1H + ด
1H → ต
2He + 0𝑛
ด , 17.6 MeV;
2.014102 u 3.016049 u 4.002603 u 1.008665 u
Or,

1 1 2
where ด
1H + ด
1H → ด
1H + 𝛽 + + 𝜈𝑒 , 0.42 MeV;
1.007825 u 1.007825 u 2.014102 u
34
Part 6: Particle Physics

In this last lecture of the module we hope to convey some of the flavour of elementary particle physics – the
physics of leptons, quarks, gauge bosons, and the Higgs boson.
(Other particles are composites, made from these elementary particles.)

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 44
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapter 14
http://pdg.lbl.gov/index.html 35
The Standard Model – a theory of quantum fields

o The Standard Model, which was

developed in the 1960s and 1970s, is the
most widely accepted theory of
elementary particle physics at present.
o It is a “simple”, comprehensive theory
that explains hundreds of particles and
complex interactions with six leptons, six
quarks, force-mediating gauge bosons,
and the Higgs boson.
o The leptons and quarks can be divided
into three generations – each generation
consists of two leptons and two quarks.
o 2nd- and 3rd-generation particles are
unstable and decay into 1st-generation particles. 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
36
Leptons

o There are 6 leptons (plus their 6 antiparticles), all spin-½ fermions:

Each of the leptons has an associated neutrino with little mass and zero charge, named
after its charged partner. For example, the electron and electron neutrino.
o There is a conservation of leptons number for each of the three families (kinds) of
leptons: the net lepton number from each family is the same both before and after a
reaction. That is, we have three conservation laws, one each for 𝐿𝑒 , 𝐿𝜇 , and 𝐿𝜏 . 37
Hadrons

o Hadrons are particles that interact via the strong force. There are two classes of
hadrons: mesons and baryons.

o Mesons are particles with integral spin, i.e., they are bosons.

o All baryons have half-integral spins, i.e., they are fermions, and have masses at least as
large as the proton.

o The conservation of baryon number requires the same total baryon number before
and after the reaction. ( 𝐵 = +1 for baryons, 𝐵 = −1 for antibaryons, and 𝐵 = 0 for all
other particles.)

o Baryons having nonzero strangeness numbers are called hyperons. Strangeness is

conserved in the strong and electromagnetic interactions, but not in the weak
interaction.
38
Quark model

o A meson consists of a quark-antiquark pair, which gives the required

baryon number of zero.
o For example, a 𝜋 − meson consists of 𝑢ത 𝑑, which gives a charge of
2 1
− 𝑒 + − 𝑒 = −𝑒,
3 3
1 1
and the two spins couple to give − + = 0.
2 2
o Baryons consist of three quarks.
o For example, a proton is 𝑢𝑢𝑑, which gives a charge of
2 2 1
𝑒 + 𝑒 + − 𝑒 = 𝑒;
3 3 3
its baryon number is 1Τ3 + 1Τ3 + 1Τ3 = 1; and two of the quarks’ spins
couple to zero, leaving a spin ½ for the proton. 39
Exam:

o PC1144 Exam : Thursday, 02-May-2019 (Morning)

o Two hours, free response (no multiple choice questions).

o Two parts:
o 5 short questions: (2-3 lines of calculations to answer), (40pts total)

o 3 long questions (60 pts total)

o Some old exam papers can be found here:

o https://www.physics.nus.edu.sg/~physoc/beta/pyp-solutions-
firefox.html

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Student feedback reminder:

Please don’t forget to submit your student feedback. Do not ignore it.

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