PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS

1
 CHARACTERIZATION OF SOLID
PARTICLES
• SIZE
• SHAPE
• DENSITY

2
 SPHERICITY, 𝜑𝑠
Equivalent diameter, Nominal diameter
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
• 𝜑𝑠 =
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
• Let
• 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒, 𝑠𝑝 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒,
• 𝐷𝑝 = 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 =
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑝 =
𝜋
𝐷𝑝 3
6
6𝑣𝑝
• Surface area of the sphere of diameter Dp, 𝑆𝑝 = 𝜋𝐷𝑝 2 =
𝐷𝑝

𝑆𝑝 6𝑣𝑝
𝜑𝑠 = =
𝑠𝑝 𝑠𝑝 𝐷𝑝
It is often difficult to calculate volume of particle, to calculate
equivalent diameter, Dp is taken as nominal diameter based on screen
analysis or microscopic analysis

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Sphericity of particles having different
shapes
Particle Sphericity
Sphere 1.0
cube 0.81
Cylinder, length = 0.87
diameter
hemisphere 0.84
sand 0.9
Crushed particles 0.6 to 0.8
Flakes 0.2 4
 Sphericity, Table 7.1, McCabe Smith
• Sphericity of sphere, cube, short
cylinders(L=Dp) = 1

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 VOLUME SHAPE FACTOR

3
𝑣𝑝 ∝ 𝐷𝑝

3
𝑣𝑝 = 𝑎 𝐷𝑝

Where , a = volume shape factor

𝜋 𝜋
For sphere, 𝑣𝑝 = 𝐷𝑝 3 or 𝑎 =
6 6

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Commonly used measurements of
particle size

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 Particle size/ units
• Equivalent diameter : Diameter of a sphere of equal
volume
• Nominal size : Based on;
 Screen analysis and
 Microscopic analysis
• For Non equidimensional particles Diameter is taken as
second longest major dimension.
• Units:
 Coarse particles – mm
 Fine particles in micrometer, nanometers
 Ultrafine - surface area per unit mass, sq m/gm

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 Particle size determination
• Screening > 50 𝜇𝑚
• Sedimentation and elutriation - > 1 𝜇𝑚
• Permeability method - > 1 𝜇𝑚
• Instrumental Particle size analyzers : Electronic
particle counter – Coulter Counter, Laser
diffraction analysers, Xray or photo
sedimentometers, dynamic light scattering
techniques

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 Screening
• Mesh Number = Number of opening per linear inch
1
• 𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = − 𝑊𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

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 Standard Screen Sizes
BSS= British Standard Screen
IMM= Institute of Mining & Metallurgy
U.S. Tyler mesh
US. ASTM= American Institute for testing Materials
• Ratio of aperture of two consecutive sieves= 2,
4
2, 2 [2, 1.41,1.18]

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 MIXED PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS:
Differential and Cumulative Screen Analysis
• 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒, 𝐷𝑝 𝑖
• Mass fraction, 𝑥𝑖
• Cumulative mass fraction , ϕ
– Cumulative mass fraction bigger than a particle size
– Cumulative mass fraction smaller than a particle size
• Differential screen analysis curve
– Plot Mass fraction vs Average particle size
• Cumulative screen analysis curve
– Plot Cumulative mass fraction vs Average particle size

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13
Sl. Mes Screen Mass Mass Average , Cumulative
No. h Opening retained on Fraction particle Cumulative Fraction
No. a screen diameter fraction
Dpi (cm) 𝑥𝑖 = mi/M Smaller
mi (gm) 𝐷𝑝𝑖 Larger than than

𝐷𝑝𝑖 𝐷𝑝𝑖
1 1.00
2
3
-----
-

Pan 1.00 0.00

𝑚𝑖 = 𝑀 𝑥𝑖 = 1

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Differential and Cumulative Screen
Analysis Curves

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 MIXED PARTICLE SIZES : Surface area, Specific
Surface area, Volume surface mean diameter
• 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒,
• 𝑠𝑝 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒,
• 𝐷𝑝 = 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
• 𝜌𝑝 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
• Number of particles in a mass of “m”
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚 𝜌𝑝
• 𝑁= =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑝
• Total surface area:
𝑚 6𝑣𝑝 6𝑚 6𝑣𝑝
• 𝐴 = 𝑁𝑠𝑝 = = [𝜑𝑠 = ]
𝑣𝑝 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝 𝜑𝑠 𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑝 𝑠𝑝

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 Specific surface area, 𝐴𝑤 ,area/mass
𝑚 6𝑣𝑝 6𝑚 6𝑣𝑝
• 𝐴 = 𝑁𝑠𝑝 = = [𝜑𝑠 = ]
𝑣𝑝 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝 𝜑𝑠 𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑝 𝑠𝑝
6𝑚1 6𝑚2 6𝑚𝑛
• 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + + ⋯….+
𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝1 𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝2 𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝𝑛

𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 6𝑚1/𝑀 6𝑚2 /𝑀 6𝑚𝑛 /𝑀

• 𝐴𝑤 = = + + ⋯….+
𝑀 𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝1 𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝2 𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝𝑛
6𝑥1 6𝑥2 6𝑥𝑛
• 𝐴𝑤 = + + ⋯….+
𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝1 𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝2 𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝𝑛
6 𝑛 𝑥𝑖
• 𝐴𝑤 = 𝑖=1 𝐷
𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝑝𝑖
Volume surface mean diameter
[also known as Sauter Diameter]
6 6 1
• 𝐷𝑠 = = 6 𝑛 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑛 𝑥𝑖
𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐴𝑤 𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝜑 𝜌 𝑖=1𝐷 𝑖=1𝐷
𝑠 𝑝 𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑖 17
 AVERAGE PARTICLE SIZE
• Volume surface mean diameter:
6 1
𝐷𝑠 = =
𝜑𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐴𝑤 𝑖=𝑛 𝑥𝑖
𝑖=1 𝐷
𝑝𝑖
• Arithmetic Mean Diameter:
𝑛 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖 𝐷𝑝𝑖 𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖 𝐷𝑝𝑖
𝐷𝑁 = 𝑛 =
𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖 𝑁𝑇
• Mass Mean diameter
𝑛

𝐷𝑤 = 𝑥𝑖 𝐷𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1
• Number of particles:
𝑛 𝑛
𝑚𝑖 𝜌𝑝 1 𝑚𝑖
𝑁𝑖 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑇 = 𝑁𝑖 = 3
𝑎𝐷𝑝𝑖 𝑎𝜌𝑝
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝐷𝑝𝑖
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 VOLUME MEAN DIAMETER
• Volume mean diameter: Diameter of a particle with average
volume:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 3
• 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙 = = 𝑎𝐷𝑣
𝑁𝑇
𝑛 𝑛
𝑚𝑖 𝜌𝑝 1 𝑚𝑖
𝑁𝑖 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑇 = 𝑁𝑖 = 3
𝑎𝐷𝑝𝑖 𝑎𝜌𝑝
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝐷𝑝𝑖

3 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑀 𝜌𝑝 1 𝜌𝑝
𝑎 𝐷𝑣 = = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 1 𝑛 𝑚𝑖 1 𝑛 𝑥𝑖
𝑎𝜌𝑝 𝑖=1 𝐷 3 𝑎𝜌𝑝 𝑖=1 𝐷 3
𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑖
1/3
1
𝐷𝑣 = 𝑥𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1 3
𝐷𝑝𝑖
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 Number of particles
Shape Factor a
3
• 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑎𝐷𝑝
𝑛 𝑚𝑖
• 𝑁𝑇 = 𝑖=1 𝑎𝜌 𝐷 3
𝑝 𝑝𝑖

• Number of particles per unit mass

𝑛 𝑛
𝑁𝑇 1 𝑚𝑖 1 𝑥𝑖
𝑁𝑤 = = 3 = 3
𝑀 𝑀 𝑎𝜌𝑝
𝑖=1 𝑎𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝𝑖 𝑖=1 𝐷𝑝𝑖
1
𝑁𝑤 = 3
𝑎𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑣
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Sl. No. Mesh No. Screen Mass Mass Average , Cumulative
Opening retained on Fraction particle Cumulative Fraction
a screen diameter fraction
Dpi (cm) 𝑥𝑖 = mi/M Smaller
mi (gm) 𝐷𝑝𝑖 Larger than, 𝐷𝑝𝑖
than𝐷𝑝𝑖
4 0
6 25
8 125
10 325
14 250
20 160
28 50
35 20
48 10
65 8
100 6
150 4
200 3
pan 2
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 PROPTERTIES OF MASSES OF PARTICLES
• Bulk density or apparent density, 𝜌𝑏 ,
is defined as the weigh per unit
volume of material including voids
inherent in the material as tested. It is
a measure of the fluffiness of the
material.
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝜌𝑏 = = and 𝜌𝑡 =
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑝 +𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑝
• Porosity, It is the ratio of the void
volume and bulk volume.
𝑉𝑣
𝜀=
𝑉𝑇
𝑉𝑇 − 𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝑚 𝜌𝑏
𝜀= =1− =1−
𝑉𝑇 𝑚 𝑉𝑇 𝜌𝑡
Pourabilityis defined as a measure of the
time required for a standard quality of
material to flow through a funnel of
specified dimension. It characterizes the
handling properties of fine particles
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• Angle of repose,, is defined as the angle formed
between sloping side of a cone shaped pile of material
and the horizontal if the mass is truly homogeneous, 
would be equal to m, the angle of internal friction. In
practice, the angle of repose is smaller than the angle
of internal friction, of those inside the mass and are
often drier and sticker.
• Coefficient of internal friction is the measure of
resistance present when one layer of solids over
another layer of same particles. It is defined as:
Coeff. Of internal friction =tan m
• For free flowing material m is between 150 to 300

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• In solid masses the pressure is not the same in all directions. If
pressure is applied in one direction it creates some pressure in
other directions, but it is always smaller than the applied
pressure. It is minimum I the direction at right angles to the
applied pressure. The ratio of the normal pressure to the
applied pressure in a mass of solid, is a material constant,
generally denoted by K’
′
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑚
𝐾 = =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑚
K’ approaches zero for cohesive solids and free flowing material
its value is between 0.36 to 0.6

• Coefficient of external friction is the measure of the resistance

at an interface between particles and the wall of different
material of construction.
Coefficient of External friction = tan S
– Where S is the angle of external friction of solid and material.24
SOLIDS CONVEYING

25
• Screw conveyors
• Belt conveyors
• Bucket elevators
• Spaced-Bucket Centrifugal-Discharge Elevators
• Spaced-Bucket Positive-Discharge Elevators
• Continuous-Bucket Elevators
• Super-capacity Continuous-Bucket Elevators
• V-Bucket Elevator-Conveyors
• Skip Hoists
• Vibrating or oscillating conveyors
• Continuous flow conveyors
• Apron Conveyors
• Pneumatic conveyors
• Hydraulic Conveyors

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 SELECTION OF CONVEYORS
• Capacity requirement : Belt for larger capacity
and screw cannot handle large capacity
• Length of travel : belt conveyors ; miles,
Pneumatic convey 300m, vibrating conveyor even
less
• Lift or lift and horizontal shift : single or mixed
• Material characteristics – chemical and physical,
size, friability, flowability abrasiveness, moisture
or oxidation effect
• Processing requirement; dewatering, heating
cooling
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 Screw conveyor
• Helicoid ( helix rolled from flat steel bar) or sectional
flight mounted on a pipe or shaft rotating in a U
shaped trough
– Horizontal of slight incline upto 20ofinely divided solids,
sticky material, semisolid materials, boiler ash. Etc.
– Continuous spiral for dry granular free flowing material
– Discontinuous spirals for wet, muddy and thick materials.
– Short distance upto about 40m
– Types of flow :
• Archemedian flow or
• Plug flow
– Unit operation – mixing, heating & cooling with hollow
shaft

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29
 BELT CONVEYORS
• Continuous belt passing around two large pulleys
at two ends, one drive pulley other tail pulley.
– Universal application
– Very long distances several km
– Speed up to 300m/min 5000tons/hr
– Slope upto 30o
– Material – neoprene, Teflon, natural rubber, vinyls,
cotton, asbestos fibre, etc.
– Various designs of idlers
– May require cleaning by revolving brush, metal or
rubber scraper, taut wire

30
31
Idlers and Plate support arrangements:
(a) Flat belt on idler (b) flat belt on continuous plate
(c)troughed belt on 20 deg idler (d) troughed belt on 45
deg idler (e) Same as d but with rolls of equal lengths
(f) troughed plate on continuous plate

32
33
Feeders to Belt conveyors-
Vibratory and Star Feeder

34
BELT CONVEYOR DISCHARGE ARRANGEMENTS:
(a) over end pulley (b) over end pulley by reversible
shuttle conveyor (c) through travelling tripper(d)
through fixed trippers

35
www.bakerybelting.com

36
BUCKET
ELEVATOR
• Bucket elevator consists
of a number of buckets
attached to a continuous
double strand chain
which passes over two
pulleys
• Solids fed directly to
bucket and also scooped
up from the bottom.
• Emptied from the top by
turning of the bucket.
• Line speed 1-2m/s

37
BUCKET ELEVATORS
(a)Spaced-Bucket Centrifugal-Discharge Elevators
(b)Spaced-Bucket Positive-Discharge Elevators
(c)Continuous-Bucket Elevators
(d)Supercapacity Continuous-Bucket Elevators

38
• Spaced bucket ; Centrifugal discharge – free flowing,
fine or small lump material like grain, coal, sand or dry
chemicals
• Spaced bucket positive discharge- buckets are for sticky
materials which tend to lump, inverted for positive
discharge, knockers can also be used
• Continuous – finely pulverized or fluffy materials, the
back of the preceding bucket serves as a discharge
chute for the bucket. Gentle movement Preventing
degradation
• Super capacity continuous bucket: Very high tonnage,
big particles, Generally inclined

39
 SKIPHOIST: Batch bucket elevator

• Uncounter weighted: only winding machine power

requirement is high
• Counter weight : reduces power consumption
• Balanced use two buckets and hence works twice as fast

40
 CONTINUOUS FLOW CONVEYOR
• Principle: When a surface is pulled
transversely through a mass of granular
powder or small lump material it will pull a
cross section of material along with it which is
greater than the area of the surface itself.
• Generally a chain with blades is
operated in a powder to cause the
powder to flow in the same direction.

41
FLIGHTS FOR
CONTINUOUS FLOW
CONVEYORS

• L- highly adhesive powder

• B-moderate adhesive
powder
• KL highly adhesive powder
containing granular material
• KB1 – Moderately adhesive
powder containing some
granular material

42
CONTINUOUS FLOW CONVEYORS:
(a) Horizontal (b) Z type (c) Loop feed elevator
for dewatering

43
APRON COVEYORS
• A type of continuous
flow conveyor where
series of overlapping
pans are mounted
between two strands of
roller chains

44
PRESSURE, VACUUM, PRESSURE-VACUUM
PNEUMATIC TRANSPORTATION

45
FLUIDIZATION

46
• Gas flow between 15 to 30m/s in pipes ranging from 50
to 400 mm diameter.
• Particle size range from fine powder to 6.5mm, Bulk
density from 16 to 3200kg/m3
• Pressure System
– 1-5 atm gauge
– Free flowing material for any particle size – 5-6 mm
– Flow rates more than 9000kg/hr
– Pressure loss in the system 0.5 atm
– Rotary Air lock valve required
• Vacuum System
– Lower flow rates 7000kg/hr and 300m
– Fine powders
– No Rotary air lock valve required.
• Pressure Vacuum system

47
 HYDRAULIC CONVEYING /SLURRY
TRANSPORTATION
• Generally particles less than 50 micron
• Main application in Mining industry
• Fluid used is water
• Velocity more than settling velocity of particles,
• Critical velocity , below which particles will settle
out range between 1-5m/s,
• Pressure drop calculated using same equation
with allowance for increase in density and
viscosity.

48
 STORAGE OF SOLIDS
• BULK STORAGE
Coarse large quantity solids like gravel and coal
outside in large piles.
Protection from
• BIN STORAGE -
 Silos – tall and small diameter
 Bins – fairly wide and Not tall
 Hoppers – Small vessel with sloping bottom,
generally temporary storage before feeding solids
to a process.

49
50
 Types of Bins
Conical Pyramidal

Watch for in-

flowing valleys
in these bins!

51
 PRESSURE IN BINS AND SILOS
Janssen Equation: Pressure at any height h, from the base
𝜌𝑏 𝑔𝐷 4𝑓𝑤 𝐾 ℎ − 𝐻
𝑃= 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝
4𝑓𝑤 𝑘 𝐷
If value of H is sufficiently large which is the case at the base of the base of the
cylindrical portion of the hopper:
𝜌𝑏 𝑔𝐷
𝑃𝑂 =
4𝑓𝑤 𝐾
𝜌𝑏 =Bulk density
H= level of solid bed,
g = acceleration due to gravity
D = Diameter of hopper
𝑓𝑤 = Coefficient of friction between solids and wall
′
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑚
𝐾 = =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑚
𝛼𝑚 = effective angle of internal friction.

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Pressure at the base of a vertical bin filled with
particulate solids

𝜌𝑏 𝑔𝐷 4𝑓𝑤 𝐾 ℎ − 𝐻
𝑃= 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝
4𝑓𝑤 𝑘 𝐷

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 FLOW OUT OF BINS
• Mass Flow - all the material in the hopper is in
motion, but not necessarily at the same
velocity [Cone angle from vertical axis=0-40o]
• Funnel Flow - centrally moving core, dead or
non-moving annular region
• Expanded Flow - mass flow cone with funnel
flow above it

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55
COMMON DESIGNS FOR MASS FLOW HOPPERS

56
Design for Funnel Flow

57
HOPPER DESIGN PROBLEMS

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 HOPPER DESIGN PROBLEMS
• RATHOLING/PIPING. Ratholing or piping occurs when the core of
the hopper discharges (as in funnel flow) but the stagnant sides are
stable enough to remain in place without flowing, leaving a hole
down through the center of the solids stored in the bin
• FLOW IS TOO SLOW. The material does not exit from the hopper
fast enough to feed follow on processes.
• NO FLOW DUE TO ARCHING OR DOMING. The material is cohesive
enough that the particles form arch bridges or domes that hold
overburden material in place and stop the flow completely.
• FLUSHING. Flushing occurs when the material is not cohesive
enough to form a stable dome, but strong enough that the material
discharge rate slows down while air tries to penetrate into the
packed material to loosen up some of the material. The resulting
effect is a sluggish flow of solids as the air penetrates in a short
distance freeing a layer of material and the process starts over with
the air penetrating into the freshly exposed surface of material.

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 HOPPER DESIGN PROBLEMS
• INCOMPLETE EMPTYING. Dead spaces in the bin can prevent a bin from
complete discharge of the material.
• SEGREGATION. Different size and density particles tend to segregate due
to vibrations and a percolation action of the smaller particles moving
through the void space between the larger particles
• TIME CONSOLIDATION. For many materials, if allowed to sit in a hopper
over a long period of time the particles tend to rearrange themselves so
that they become more tightly packed together. The consolidated
materials are more difficult to flow and tend to bridge or rat hole.
• CAKING. Caking refers to the physiochemical bonding between particles
what occurs due to changes in humidity. Moisture in the air can react with
or dissolve some solid materials such as cement and salt. When the air
humidity changes the dissolved solids re-solidify and can cause particles to
grow together.

60