UNIT 14 ERGONOMICS AND PRODUCT

DESIGN
Structure
14.1 Introduction
Objectives
14.2 Meaning of Ergonomics
14.3 Objectives of Ergonomics
14.4 Advantages of Ergonomic Design
14.5 Approaches Adopted by Ergonomics
14.6 Fields Referred in Ergonomics
14.7 Work Science
14.7.1 Techn~quesof Work
14.7.2 Organistion o f Work
14.8 Design Factors
14.9 Ergonomic Design of Display Instruments
14.10 Ergonomic Design of Controlling Devices
14.1 1 Factors for Selection of Controlling Devices
14.12 Controls for High Precision Work
14.12.1 Push Buttons
14.12.2 Toggle Switches
14.12 3 Knobs
14.13 Controls that Require Considerable Force
14.13.1 Cranks
14.13.2 Hand Wheel
14.13.3 Pedals
14.14 Relationship between Controls and Display Instruments
14.15 Man-Machine System
14.16 Summary
14.17 Key Words
14.18 Answers to SAQs

14.1 INTRODUCTION
The science of ergonolnics is concerned with the design of human work.
Ergonomics is the scientific study of the work, the people who do it and the ways in
which it is done. It is also concerned with the tools people use, the places they work in and
the procedures and practices thatthey follow. In short, ergonomics is concerned with the
design of working system.
Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to
define and explain the significance of the ergonomics in performing a job.
a explain the concept and objective of ergonomics,
describe the advantages and applications of ergonomics, 5
Ergonomics implement the work science,
observe the natural laws of work in product design,
build up a work culture that respects bioengineering, and
define the principles and standards to observe while designing the product.

14.2 MEANING OF ERGONOMICS

The effect of health, safety and comfort are the core concepts of these studies and is
given under a name Ergonomics.
Ergonomics is the word derived from Greek which means natural laws of work (ERGOS-
means work and NOMOS- means natural law). In short it is an econolnics of work. The
main aim of this study is to reduce the fatigue and strain of operator and hence,
improving his efficiency on the whole. Thus ergonomics is defined as "the study of the
relation between man and his occupation, equipment and environment, and particularly
the application of anatomical, physiological and psychological knowledge to the
problems arising there from".
It is found that many problems have been faced by ergonomic design of machine and
controls due to poor design of work place layouts. The mere availability of tools and
technology does not ensure its economic development unless the worker's effic~encyis
also favourable. To have the fruits of productivity, particularly of present developed
technology, the people must be trained to apply these tools of science and technology
effectively on a broad front of economic activities. At the same time the environmental
conditions also should encourage him to submit full of his abilities.
Ergonomics brings out the best possible match between the physical and mental demand
of work and the capabilities of individual members of the work force so as to optimize, both the
productivity of the organization and the health, safety and well being of its people.
Ergonomics uncovers the new dimension of the relationships between man, machine and
the environment to make man-machine systems more efficient and safer.
Therefore, ergonomics is the application of human biological sciences in conjunction
with engineering sciences to the worker and his working environment in order to design
the products for worker satisfaction and productivity improvement.

14.3-
- OBJECTIVES OF ERGONOMICS
Most of the recent researchers in this field are trying to explore various factors
influencing the human efficiency while working on the machine. The scientific study of
the relation between man, machine and his environment (in this context, the word
environment includes tools, material, method of work, working culture, working
environment, weather and working habits) is the main aim of ergonomics. Human body
possesses lot of adaptability and flexibility so that the effect of bad working conditions
may be apparent immediately but ultimately there will be its impact, which may affect
the efficiency badly. The identification of such effects and hence establishment of
optimum conditions so as to minimise these effects necessitate the ergonomic studies.
Thus by summing up the above, we can now list out the objectives of ergonomics as
follows :

(a) To identify basic causes related to human factors by which the efficiency of
man-machine is hampered.

(b) T o provide better working conditions so as to improve productivity of the

system.
 (c) To create adequate facilities to reduce or eliminate the stresses, fatigue and Ergonomics and
failures in the performance of man-machine system. Product Design

(d) To provide comforts and make the job easy.

(e) To match the requirements of the task with the capabilities of a man and
hence eliminate the loss in output.
Further, the field has become significant because the man in a man-machine system has
some wrong notions about himself such as :
(a) Man has false notion that he knows all about himself and he thinks that he
can work with same efficiency in all conditions. This in fact may become
true once a while but in long run he fails or lacks to perform.
(b) A human has false idea that human body can take any amount of
punishment or strain.
(c) Human tendency is to be reluctant in reporting. This is making a man to
accept the poor design, but at the cost of efficiency, which he is unable to
identify or recognise.
In every sphere of technology, the man is involved and therefore we come across many
situations in which the characteristics of man may conflict with the characteristics of
technical procedures. Matching these characteristics is not so simple since it is very
difficult to trace the characteristics and their tolerances of human beings. These depend
on many factors such as Geographic, Demographic, Economic and Environmental
reasons on one hand and physiological, psychological and anatomical reasons on the
other hand.
Sir Wilfred Le Gross Clask, in his address to the Ergonomic Research Society at its
symposium on Human factors in Equipment Design, expressed "a man and his machine
may be regarded as functional unit and the aim of ergonomics is to bring perfection in
this unit so as to promote accuracy, speed of operation and at the same time to ensure
minimum fatigue and thereby maximum efficiency". Therefore the productivity is not
the primary objective of ergonomics but is only the end product. But the primary
objective must be concentrated in establishing the most optimum working conditions
such as lighting, climatic conditions, noise level, work loads, working posture, psycho
sensorial functions, displays, handling of machine levers, controls, etc.

! 14.4 ADVANTAGES OF ERGONOMIC DESIGN

I
! With the better ergonomic design there would be
(a) Higher output.
(b) Improved productivity.
I (c) Minimum fatigue.
I
I (d) Greater ease of working.
1 (e) Maximum satisfaction to worker.
(f) Good product design.
(g) Comfort and convenience.
(h) Congenial atmosphere.

14.5 APPROACHES ADOPTED BY ERGONOMICS

Better Product Design Approach
Design and implement scientific experiments and other research
methodology to study human factors areas as they pertain to the operation of men,
machines, products, weapons or any complex systems. This unit focuses on this
approach.
Ergonomics Man-Machine System Approach
Evaluate existing or proposed man-machine systems and subsystems in terms
of human physiological and psychological requirements so that optimum
suitability and durability from human input standard is established. In the next
unit, i.e. Unit 15 of this block, we present the Man-Machine System Approach
and its features.
Environment and Human Productivity Approach
Consult with professional prior to, during and after design and development of
system to ensure optimum operation in terms of human capabilities,
limitations and variables with reference to environmental effects. We shall
throw some light on the aspects of this approach in Unit 16 of this block.
SAQ 1
(a) What do you understand by term ergonomics? Discuss the meaning and its
relevance.
(b) What are the objectives of ergonomic study?
(c) List out the advantages of applying ergonomics in the industries.
(d) Explicate the approaches to ergonomics in the industry.

Activity 1
Edquire the workmen of any company of your choice and record the areas
or products or units which they are not feeling comfortable and convenient.
Think any Modification if you can make to solve their problems and record
as follows.
Product Problem Modification I
(a) ................ ....................... ........................

(b) ................ ....................... ........................

(c) ................ ....................... ........................

 Ergonomics and
14.6 FIELDS REFERRED IN ERGONOMICS Product Design

Ergonomics is a blend of various subjects of engineering, medical and other relevant

fields or combinations of fields. All these are often referred and its constituent themes
are given a due consideration while ergonomically designing any product. These are
briefed out as follows :
(a) Engineering psychology
I

t (b) Work physiology

(c) Environmental physiology
(d) Anthropometry
(e) Sport mechanics
(0 Orthodontics
(g) Orthopedics

(h) Surgery
(i) Functional anatomy
(j) Experimental psychology
(k) Physiological psychology
(1) Industrial safety and hygiene

I (m) Industrial medicine

(n) Physics and engineering
(0) Biomechanics
(p) Bio Materials, and
(q) Engineering psychology engineering.
Engineering Psychology
It is concerned with perception, decision making, i.e. the way an operator
receives and processes information. It uses the applications of behavioural science
in the design of man-machine systems.
It is the study of the sensory and mental capacities of man in order to establish
the conditions under which a man-machine system can most efficiently and safely
operate. The importance of engineering psychology in equipment design can be
realized most strikingly in the design of cockpits and space capsule where the
magnitude of controls and displays and the high risks are involved.

R Work Physiology
This is concerned with the whole field of body activity particularly with reference to
many different types of environments.
Environmental Physiology
This links up the study of the inter-relation of the living organisms with the
physical factors of environment.

B Anthropometry
It establishes the principles and standards for the design of equipments, work
place, motion patterns for different operations to bring them into harmony with
size, shape, mobility and structure of the human body. 9
Ergonomics Biomechanics
It is the science that deals with the internal and external forces and the effects of
those forces produced by actions of human body.
Biomechanics of motion covers various aspects of physical movements of the body
and its parts. For example, the operation of the body member can be characterized in
terms of science of motion (Mechanics) such as bones connected at their joints in
combination with the muscles serve as levers.
Further, it provides a strong scientific basis for the analysis of human movements,
which is common to mechanics, materials, psychology, medicine, surgery,
pathology, prosthesis, patient care, dentistry, athletes, sports, environmental
studies, safety and mechanics of human tolerance to fatigue and injury.
Sport Mechanics
This focuses on analysis of various styles of movements of body as well as the
sports equipment for best results through equipment design, injury prevention,
energy optimisation, etc.

This deals with the design and analysis of prosthetic and orthopedic devices,
analysis of surgical procedures, comparison of treatment and heating pattern,
design of surgical instruments, physical therapy techniques, etc.
Orthodontics
It is science concerned with the design of braces, materials for dentistry, treatment
procedures, etc.
Surgery
This subject is connected with the ergonomics in designing of instruments, analysis of
optional individualism orientation, skin heating properties, etc.
Biomaterials
This subject is referred in while studying ergonomics for testing of bio-compatibility,
life cycle, etc.
Functional Anatomy and Physiology
These are concerned with the body frame work posture and the use of muscles.
Therefore, they provide sound knowledge of the best ways in which forces can be
applied or an object is lifted and also about the limits of joint movement.
Industrial Hygiene
This subject concentrates on reduction of toxic and other health hazard.
Physiological Psychology
This is a specialized course to study functioning of the brain and of the nervous
system often referred by the ergonomics.
Experimental Psychology
This is the practical study of human behaviour that helps in ergonomic studies.
Industrial Medicine
This science helps in deciding those conditions of work which may prove harmful or
harmless to the human structure.
Physics and 'Engineering

10 These are the core subjects for ergonomic studies to define the condition of work.
 Ergonomics and
14.7 WORK SCIENCE Product Design

The work science has brought the relation between the engineering and medicine into
light. The need for knowing human performance- limitations and capabilities made the
anatomists psychologists, physiologists, industrialists, economists, industrial engineers,
industrial designers, machinelequipment designers and manufacturers under one roof to
think of laying down a bridge between social, human and engineering sciences.
The extensive research programmes undertaken in UK and other countries resulted in the
formation of ERGONOMICS RESEARCH SOCIETY in 1949, and later known as
ERGONOMICS SOCIETY. This society has identified some principles and laid down
the scientific norms for doing certain work.
The work science can be classified under two heads :
(a) Techniques of work, and
(b) Organisation of work.
14.7.1 Techniques of Work
The work techniques are again divided into two sections
(a) Biological techniques, ahd
(b) Mechanical techniques.
The biological techniques deal with hygiene of work based on work psychology and
work Pedagogies (Science of training and instructions). The mechanical techniques deal
with time and motion study.
14.7.2 Organisation of Work
This deals with the disposition of work and the evaluation of work based on output. It
concerns with the 'amount of work' to be assigned to a man, 'the rest allowances' and
'working environment' around the worker.
The work science and ergonomics can be regarded as link of bioengineering and
management. This has taken into account of biological, engineering and management
aspects in the work culture and laid down some principles. A few of these basic
principles and norms evolved by ergonomists and considered by every designer and
discussed in the following Section 14.5.
SAQ 2
(a) What are the fields referred in ergonomics? With suitable examples, discus
how they are consulted during product design.
(b) What is work science? How do you classify work science and what it speaks
about?

Activity 2
Think of the relationship between various subjects and ergonomics. Write at
least one example to represent the relationship
Subject Relationship Example
(a) ................ ....................... ........................
Ergonomics (c) ................ ....................... ........................
................ ....................... ........................
................ ....................... ........................
(d) ................ ....................... ........................
................ ....................... ........................

14.8 DESIGN FACTORS

The design factors play a significant role in not only designing seats and work-tables, but
also in working area and the plant and equipment lay out. While designing the equipment
also, the operator cannot be ignored. Even while designing the equipmqnt also the
manufacturer will not overlook the operator and he designs and manufactures in such a
way that its controls can be operated with a great ease, fast and effective. While laying
out and positioning (erection) of these controls of equipment, unfortunately sometimes
are not located at relevant positions. This causes subjection of undue stresses and
thereby operational breakdown or some fault in operation. In such cases the industrial
engineers have to take initiative and look back to study the positioning of such controls
through the parameters of work-study design factors to make necessary modifications.
The design factors and recommended dimensions of various positions of human beings
which are in common use are explained through figures and tables in the subsequent
units (also Refer Unit 15, Man-Machine Systems and Unit 16, Environment and Human
productivity of this Block 4). The design factors of the equipment and machine parts
such as optimum size, positioning, allowable force, etc. so that they can be operated with
ease and speed are covered here in this unit. These can be considered as the guidelines
for an engineer in designing the equipment and working area.

14.9 ERGONOMIC DESIGN OF DISPLAY

INSTRUMENTS
While designing any product, a designer has to incorporate the principles of ergonomics,
in additions to the technical and managerial features. The application of the ergonomic
features mainly is associated with the sub-units or components or sub-products of the
main products where the humans are directly connected with them. These sub-units or
components (in some cases main products also) include the display devices and
controlling devices. Thus the ergonomic design of display and controlling units will
automatically ensure ergonomic design of entire product.
We shall now discuss about the design factors for display devices.
There are three main types of commercially produced display instruments :
(a) Analogue Display system (Type-I) - Round dial with movable pointer.
(b) Analogue Display system (Type-11) - Fixed pointer with movable dial.
(c) Digital Display system - Open window in which the numerical value can be
read directly.
Each of these has merits in certain situations. If the object displays figures, then digital Ergonomics and
Product Design
display system is the most suitable provided that the required number is visible. In case, in
a sequence of a process a change in value is to be observed, then moving pointer on a
round dial is the better option. If a process has to be carried out directly by setting a
control at a definite value (setting the steam value or setting the desired voltage or
current), a movable pointer is useful. If such a setting is carried out slowly then movable dial
may be preferred (Figures 14.1(a), (b) and (c)).

Figure 14.l(a) :Dial with Movable Pointer

Figure,l4.l(b) : Movable Dials with Fixed Pointer

Figure 14.l(c) : Counter (Digital)

Table 14.1 : Common Display Instruments and their Utility

Type of Dial Utility o f Display Systems

Type of display Type-I Type-11 Type-111

Analogue Analogue Analogue

Reading absolute values Fair Fair Very good

Observing rates of change Very good Fair Useless

Setting a definite value Very good Fair Fair

directing a process

The effective utility of these display instruments could further be directed by distinctive
colour, font, shape and size of numbers and letters, etc. matching the accuracy of display
to the desired accuracy. Certain rules are recommended in order to have effective use of
display on the basis of research carried out by various investigators. Researches indicate
that the shape of the dial may influence reading accuracy. The frequency of error with very
short reading times is shown in Figure 14.2. In such cases adigital display system may be
preferred.
Ergonomics

28 %
Figure 14.2 : Effect of Different Types of Information Display on Reading Precision
14.9.1 General Guidelines for Designing the Display Devices
(a) The degree of accuracy shown on the dial must be in accordance with the
required accuracy. If a dial gives accuracy greater than the required makes
reading more difficult and leads to reading error.
(b) The dial should give the correct and needed information to the operator while
working on the machine. Superfluous information may cause error.
(c) As far as possible, subdivision should be in multiples of 1,2 or 5, since other
sub-divisions may raise difficulties in putting the correct information.
(d) Figures should be attached to the large scale markings which may be after 1.
2 or 5 sub-divisions. These numerical figures should be tangential on a
moving scale and upright on a fixed scale.
(e) The pointer must have a sharp arrow or tipped point to showthe correct
numerical value. It should neither cover the scale nor the numbers. The
pointer should move in the same plane so that the parallax can be avoided.
(f) The sizes of letters and figures must be adjusted to the Expected distance
between the eye and the information display. For this, the following formula
may be used :
Height of letters or figures in mm. = visual distance in mm/200
SAQ 3
(a) What do you understand by ergonomic design of products? What are the
advantages of ergonomic designing?
(b) Describe different types of display units that often are associated with the
products. Discuss the design factors that are to be considered while
designing these display units.
(c) Enumerate the general guidelines in designing the display units
ergonomically.
(d) Discuss the design aspects of the following display units with reference to
the ergonomics :
(i) Analogue type display instruments
(ii) Digital type display instruments

Activity 3
In a company of your choice list out and record the status of the various
display units available. Check if there is ergonomic design. If not can it be
modified or improved?
 Device Status Improvement I
(a) ................ ....................... ........................

................ ....................... ........................

(b) ................ ....................... ........................

................ ....................... ........................

(d) ................ ....................... ........................

(e) ................ ....................... ........................

................ ....................... ........................
................ ....................... ........................

14.10 ERGONOMIC DESIGN OF ,CONTROLLING

DEVICES
The design of knobs, levers, push buttons, switches, steering and handles should provide
ease so as to control efficiently. The dimensions and forces that can be applied on them
should be optimum such that the operator will not be strained. These optimum
dimensions are shown in the following Tables 14.2 and 14.3.
Table 14.2 : Optimum Dimensions for Controlling Devices
Ergonomics

Table 14.3 : Select'ed Structural Body Dimensions

1 SI.
No.
Body F e a t u r e
5Ih
Dimensions : C e n t i m e t r e s
Male, Percentile
5oth 95th
Female, Percentile
5Ih . 50Ih 95Ih
Height - - -
162 173 185 150 160 170 I

2. Sitting height, erect 84 91 97 79 85 91

( 3. Sitting height, normal 80 87 93 75 82 88
1 4. Knee height 1 49 / 54 1 59 1 46 1 50 55 1
1 5. 1 Popliteal height 1 39 1 44 1 49 1 36 1 40 1 45 /
1 6. ( Elbow rest height 1 19 1 2 4 1 3 0 ( 1 8 ) 23 1 2 8 1
1 7. Thigh - clearance height 11 15 18 10 14' 18
8. Buttock-knee length 54 59 64 52 57 63
9. Buttock-Po~liteallenath 44 50 55 43 48 53
1 1 0 . 1 Elbow to elbow breadth 1 35 1 42 1 51 1 31 1 38 1 49 1
1 11. I Seat breadth 1 31 1 36 1 40 131 ( 36 1 43 1
/ 12. 1 Weight 1 58 1 75 1 98 ( 4 7 1 62 90 1
*Weight given in kilograms.
Centimetre value is rounded to whole numbers.
Source : From weight, height and selected body dimensions of adults : data from National Health
Survey, USPHS PUBLICATION 1000, SERIES l I, No. 8 (survey conducted on 6672 adult males
and females which cover ages from 18 to 79 years).
Some Mile Stones in the History of Ergonomics
1940 : World War-I1
1949 : U.K. Ergonomic Research Society
1970 : Germany Ergonomics Standard committee
1973 : International Ergonomic Standard Organisation
1975 : IS0 Technical Committee
These are some more points note worthy in designing the controlling devices.
14.10.1 General Guidelines for Designing the Controlling Devices
(a) Location of the controlling devices such as hand grips, levers, switches,
dials, knobs, etc. is to be in such a position that they are clearly and easily
readable and comfortably and conveniently operable because any
manipulation of the machine deserves the full attention on these controlling
devices.
(b) The designer should adhere to the principle of consistency of motion. For
example, if turning increases the input to the machine the knobs or head
wheel clock wise, then the needle of the meter indicating the reading of
increase should also move clockwise.
(c) As far as possible the scales and knobs meant for the same function skoulb
placed together. Two methods are found to be most convenient in these
designs are :
(i) Scales on upper side and controls down, and
(ii) Scales on left-hand side and controls on right hand side.

Figure 14.3 : Knobs and Switches for Controlling Function

(d) The motion of pointer of the scale or dial should be consistent.

(e) The sub divisions and numerals on dials or scales should not strain the eyes
and should clearly be visible without causing much mental effort for
reading.
(f) A control device should be marked with its function, indications of 'on' and
'off positions and the speed levels or feed levels or steps of inputs, etc. If
possible, it is better to use colour codes or sound tones also so as to make
thein distinctive. For instance, the speedometer now-a-days is designed with
different colour codes on the dial. We can observe different sound on
telephones, tones for dial tone, phone engaged, line engagedlout of order,
cradle, ringing, local or STD call identification, etc. These are all the
outcome of the ergonomic studies only.
(g) Shapes or alignment distinctions should be made wherever possible to avoid
confusions. The computer central processing unit (CPU) will have many
points to be connected such as power cord, monitor connection, mouse
attachment, server connection, keyboard connection, etc. All these will have
different shapes and distinct in their pin positions by which one will not suit
the other except in its correct point. Such designs will enable the user to
identify soon and be free from misalignments and confusions.
Ergonomics (h) Symbols and icons should be used for controls where ever possible. For
example, each function on a computer especially in Windows is now-a-days
symbolized and kept as icons on menu barltask bar to make it user friendly.

(i) The control devices should be conventional and in the standard sizes which
makes a new man also to operate without any confusion and makes accident
free. During late seventies and early eighties most of the road accidents due
to motor bikes have been registered due to confusion in break and gear
control positions.

(j) The control positions should be designed in a logical sequence to prevent

erroneous operations. If the operations are sequential but of random in
nature, it is preferable to discover the related group of functions so that
there is a set pattern of information, though there is no set pattern of
operation. This enables the operator to locate particular control readily.

14.1 1 FACTORS FOR SELECTION OF

CONTROLLING DEVICES
Most industrial processes operated by humans generally need to be controlled by knobs,
levers, hand wheels, pedals etc. Correct type of control is to be selected with the due
consideration of the safety and operational requirements. The correct choice could be
based following factors :
Fit to the Functions
The controls should be so selected as to fit the functions and anatomy of limbs.
For instance fast and precise operations should be performed by fingers or hands
and those requiring force by arms or feet.
Easy GraspingIGripping
Hand operated controls must be placed within easy grasping distances between
elbow and shoulder height and be clearly visible. For example the types of
gripping by hand are shown in the Figure 14.4.
Anatomic Considerations
Distances between the controls must match anatomic considerations. For example,
if a control is to be operated by finger, the knob of at least 15 mm diameter is
ergonomic while for hand control at least 50 mm diameter is necessary.
Need low Energy
For operations needing low energy expenditure and step or continuous
adjustments for high precision, can be suitably done by manually operated push
buttons, toggle switches, knobs. Whereas operations needing high energy
expenditure. moving an element to great amplitude with less precision, can be
carried out b;, levers, long arms, cranks, hand wheels and pedals, etc.

14.12 CONTROLS FOR HIGH PRECISION WORK

14.12.1 Push Buttons
They should be reasonably small. The design of push buttons has the following
distinguished features :

(a) Surface should be slightly concave, so that the finger force may be
transmitted more effectively.

(b) Diameter should be able to accommodate the finger tip without slipping.
 Reco~nmendeddesign range is as follows : Ergonomics and
(c) Product Design
Diameter : 12-15 mm
Movement : 3-10 mm
Resistance : 200-500 grams
(d) It is to be made of such a material which is easily distinguishable and
preferably can shine even in the dark (luminescent colour may be used) so
that there should be no problem in locating it.

Figure 14.4 : Types of Grips by Hands

14.l2.2 Toggle Switches

They should be able to be easily identified as they are miniature levers used as switches
or selectors and guarantee high frequency of precision control. The general design
guidelines are given below.

Figure 14.5 : Toggle Switch

 Ergonomics - (a) The toggle switches have only two positions 'ON' and 'OFF'. These two
positions should be clearly written on the top and bottom, respectively.
(b) Recommended dimensions for general (simple) toggle switch L = 50 mm
and d = 25 mm if weight applied (approx) is in the range of
200 - 400 grams.
(c) Movement should be vertical.
(d) Sometimes they are used for three positions, then the angle of movement in,
I
vertical direction between the two sequential positions should be between
30' to 40°, and meaning of each position should be clearly marked.
14.12.3 Knobs
These are rotary controls that can be operated freely by gripping it on both sides with the
fingers of one hand. They are available in different shapes such as circular, bar-shaped,
pointed and so forth. The general design guidelines for these products are given below.
(a) The shape should be in such a manner that must be easy to feel and provide
a reliable grip.

I (b)
(c)
Any movement required must be clearly visible.
They may be used for making fine adjustment when loads are light upto
22 in-lb [Sometimes they may be in continuous or discrete function and as
rotary selector switches for switching operations. See Figures 14.6 (a) and (b)].
(d) Thicker knob allows two or three fingers for more grip and more ease.
[Figures 14.4 and 14.6(a) shows a side knob which gives better view of
pointer and scale].
(e) The gear ratio should be such that it should minimise the force required to
operate.
(f) Protection of scale against scratching is essential. An arc of 120 degrees can
be obtained on a single rotation. For greater angle grasps have to be
changed but this should be avoided.
(g) When several knobs are attached to an instrument panel, pointed knobs as
shown in Figurel4.6(c) are preferable as the adjusted position readily
obtained.

d =l&Mrnm; It =12-25 mm; Torque Required = 450 cm-gram

(Suitable for continuous function or fine adjustments)
Figure 14.6(a) :A Knob for Continuous Function /Fine Adjustment

h = 30-50 mm, d = 35-75 mm

(This knob is preferable for controllin~selcctionswitchingfunction)
Figurel4.6(b) :A Knob for Discrete Function or Selector Switch
 Ergonomics and
Product Design

Pointer Dimensions :L = 25 mm (min); b =25 mm (max); h =lo-70 mm

Figure 14.6 (c) :Pointed Knobs used for Selectors

14.13 CONTROLS THAT REQUIRE CONSIDERABLE

FORCE
1 14.13.1 Cranks
It is a control parallel to the shaft in which the handle is offset from the shaft. This is
suitable for setting or continuous movements which cover a wide range. It can also be
used when high turning speeds are required upto 200 rpm. Further, different gear ratios
can be selected to have desired speed. For fast movement, the handle must be set free to
turn on its own axis, while futed handles are more appropriate for precise movements or
adjustments.
1 The Preferred Position for a Crank
1 (a) facing the operator,
(b) along a horizontal line at elbow height from the centre line of the body to
the width of the shoulder of the operating hand, and

I1 (c)
Design Data
along vertical line to shoulder height.

! - Lever arm length for low torque upto 200 cm-gram and low rpm

I = at elbow, i.e. 60 - 120mm

I - Lever arm length at high torque upto 160 cm-gram and high rpm

i
I
- Lever arm length for quick movements and torques between 0.9 - 2.5 kgcm
= upto 120 mm

1 -Lever arm length for exact positioning and torques between 1 to 3.5 kgcm
= between 120 - 200 mm.

I 14.13.2 Hand Wheel

It is a circular control gripped at the rim preferably with both hands. It is recommended
when large forces have to be exerted as the use of two hands and relatively long lever
arms should be employed. It is useful for low turning speeds (1 rpm or low). Hand wheels
are best when the amount of turn required does not exceed 90" for fine positioning.
I Table 14.4 : Design Data for Hand Wheel
I
I
I Torque Diameter o f Wheel at Wheels Diameter Below
I (in-lb) 38"-48" from Floor 38" o r above 48"
I
20-48 6" (1 50 mm) 10" (250 mm)
I

60-90 10" (250 mm)

90 upwards 16" (400 mm) 16" (400 mml
Ergonomics 14.13.3 Pedals
A pedal is a reciprocating control operated by foot acting independently. When pedals
are used for heavy energy expenditure, it is advised that a high back rest and horizontal
position of the legs have to be adopted.
Flexion at the knee joint : 105°--1300
Flexion at the ankle joint : 90"
Generally, pedals are used without heavy expenditure of energy; the recommended
arrangement is given in the Figure 14.7.

Figure 14.7 : Pedal and Recommended Angles

When using pedals in standing positions, it is advantageous if such pedals are at floor
level so that the operator can change from one leg to the other. However, the use of
pedals in standing position is highly undesirable from the fatigue point view.

14.14 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONTROLS AND

DISPLAY INSTRUMENTS
It is recommended that the controls (knobs, hand wheels, pushbuttons, etc.) are always
used in conjunction with some type of display instruments. This helps in knowing the
direction of movement of control that produces its result in a display. For example, the
bed of milling machine moving from left to right; the movement of tracked vehicle when
levers are used to turn it; the turning to knob alters the dial setting, etc. In equipment
design, it happens occasionally that the designer has given very little thought to the
importance of having the control movements compatible with the effects which they
produce.
However, in early stages of development, unsatisfactory control-display relationship had
been observed either for mechanical reasons or because of micro-conceptions in early
stages of development. But the compatibility of controls with displays plays an important
role in the operating efficiency of the equipments. It is therefore desired to arrange the
controls and displays in the most simplified and distinctive way so that risk of error in
reading the displays may be reduced to minimum.
A pioneering experimental study was carried out in this direction (to establish
relationship between the controls and displays) by Worwick (1947) who used five boxes
where display unit is shown by a row of five small bulbs and the control is shown by a
rotary knob (Figure 14.8).
-0

Figure 14.8 : Arrangement of Control and Display with Strongest Preferred Relationship
In this experiment, turning the knob,(direction shown in the figure) causes a light signal Ergonomics and
Product Design
to move from one end to another end as shown by the straight arrows in the figure in
sequence. Fifty subjects were required to move the light to the centre from various
positions (right or left of the centre) by turning the knob in any direction. The light
would lit whichever way the knob was turned and the experimenter recorded whether the
initial movement of the knob was made clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. With
arrangements (I), (2) and (3) in which the control knob is in the same plane as the
display unit, 70%-95% of the subject moved the control knob clockwise to produce a
left-right movement of light in arrangement (I); an up movement of light in arrangement
(2); and a down movement of light in arrangement (3).
However, when the control unit and display unit were in different planes as shown in
(4) and (9,the preference shown by the subjects was not very clear. It can be concluded
from this experiment that :

(a) The display unit and the control should be in the same plane.

(b) The display pointer should move in the same direction as the control itself
i.e. as shown in the figure by arrangement (I), (2) and (3).
A second experiment was conducted with the same taking another group of subjects to
determine which arrangement would produce the greatest speed and least error. It could
again be concluded that the arrangements (4) and (5) could not show the effect on
efticiency; however, the greatest degree of compatibility is achieved with a rotary
control when the part of nearest to the index of a display moves in the same direction as does
the index.
In this experiment the effect of expected and unexpected direction of movement on the
performance was also considered because it is useful in tracking system. In tracking
system, the subject has to follow a moving index with an index under his control. In
target acquisition also, the subject has to move a marker under his control until it lies
over a target. In order to carry out this experiment, two control systems (positional control
and velocity control) with different dynamics have also been compared fiom the efficiency and
accuracy points of view. The conclusions are :

(a) In positional control, the marker and the joystick have a relationship where
left to right movement of the joystick will give a left to right movement of
the marker.
(b) In velocity control, the speed of movement of the marker depends on the
extent to which the joystick is displaced from its central position so that if a
movement of the marker is being made from left to right, the initial
movement of the joystick will be stationary, whilst the marker is moving at
a constant speed and it will be moved from right to left while the marker is
deceleration.

(c) Thus, in positional control, the relationship between the joystick and the
index will be compatible for the whole ofthe time, but with velocity
control, the movement between the joystick and the index will be
compatible while the index is accelerating. So position control is superior.

(d) In the case of tracking, though the subjects were given using both operation
control and velocity control, it was observed that the initial performance
with velocity control was substantially inferior.
The consistency in the direction of movement of control between electrical and pressure
controls was also tested on the same setup. Generally electrical control turns clockwise
to increase and pressure control turns anti-clockwise to open the valve or to increase and
it was concluded that the clock wise-clockwise arrangement is compatible, hence if the
pressure control has to be mounted in the same panel where electrical control is fitted,
then the pressure control should be fitted with left hand thread. It will further decrease
the accidents also.
Ergonomics Some important points to be considered are, therefore, given below :

(a) The display pointer should move in the same direction as the control itself
i.e. a knob, hand wheel, lever, crank etc. should revolve to the right to
control the process, if the pointer of display moves to the right on a circular
scale.
(b) A clockwise turn of a control should mean an increase in the control process
and anticlockwise turn should mean decreased in flow.
(c) Concerned scales and knobs with a givedspecified function should be
placed together. The best arrangement would be scale above, knob below.
All the display instruments and control instruments should preferably be on
the same control board. If the display panel is separate from the switch
board, then the arrangement of the knobs or switches must match that of the
dials.
(d) The correct Symbols or icons must be specified at appropriate place
wherever necessary. See Figure 14.9 for various symbols.

Figure 14.9 :Various Symbols of Controls

SAQ 4
(a) Describe different types of control units that often are associated with the
products. Discuss the design factors that are to be considered while
designing these control units.
(b) Discuss the design aspects of the following controlling devices with
reference to the ergonomics :
(i) Push Buttons
(ii) Toggle Switches
(iii) Knobs
(c) Discuss the design aspects of the following control devices with reference to
the ergonomics :
(i) Cranks
(ii) Hand Wheels or Steering
(iii) Pedals
 (d) Enumerate the general guidelines in designing the control devices Ergonomics end
Product Design
ergonomically.
(e) Discuss the factors influencing the selection of controlling units while
designing a product.
(f) Discuss the relationship between the display devices and control devices.

Activity 4
In a company of your choice, list out and record the status of the various
control units available. Check if there is ergonomic design. If not, can it be
modified or improved?
Device Status Improvement
(a) ................ ....................... ........................

................ ....................... ........................

(b) ................ ....................... ........................
................ ....................... ........................
................ ....................... ........................
(c) ................ ....................... ........................

................ ....................... .........................

(d) ................ ....................... ........................
................ ....................... ........................
................ ....................... ........................
(e) ................ ....................... ........................

Activity 5
Observe the bikes - Yamaha, Suzuki, Rajdoot, Bajaj and Hero Honda. Do you
find the standardisation in them in all respects of systems such as breaking, gears,
clutch etc, and spare parts? List out your findings.
Ergonomics Activity 6
Observe some products and write the design considerations involved in thein with
reference to ergonomics. An example is shown below.
(a) A Pen :Its radius is around 6 to 10 mm, which is most convenient
size for holding between fingers comfortably.
(b) A Mouse used in Personal Computer :the width is around 50 to
70mm and length is 100 to 120 mm, which is as saine size as of a
human palm, thus makes so convenient.
(c) Computer Table: ....................;..... ..:...............................

(d) Handle of a Suitcase: ......................................................

(e) Cellular Phone orland Telephone Hand Set: ........................

...................................................................................
(f) Peddles and Handles of a Bicycle: ....................................
...................................................................................
(g) Steering and Seat Design in a Car : ....................................
...................................................................................
(h) Knobs and Control Switches of a Power Press : ..................
...................................................................................
(i) Hand Stick for an Old ManIBlind Man : ..............................
...................................................................................
(j) Fitter's Tablellnspection Table : .......................................
....................................................................................
(k) A Television Characteristics and Features : ........................
...................................................................................

14.15 MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM

-

A man-machine system is defined as an operating combination of one or more men with

one or more machines interacting to bring about from given inputs to the desired outputs
through a specified process or procedure with in the constraints of the environment.
A driver with his vehicle, operator on a lathe, a typist on a type machine, a programmer
on a personal computer is a few to quote as examples of a simple man-machine system.
A server based computer based systems in LAN (Local area network) is an example for
several people with several machines, while many men working on rolling mill is many
men to one machine system and operator if operates more than one automatic machines
is an example of one man to many machines system.
Now we look into the system clearly, we find the following essential features or
characteristics :
(a) Specific purpose and objective
(b) Information input
(c) Information processing and decision making unit
(d) Output
(e) Feed back unit
(f) Environmental constraints
Objective Ergonomics and
Product Design
A specific aim of the system is objective

lnput
lnput may be in the form of physical objects, materials, energy, skill or
information. In a computer system the input is information while in a saw-mill,
wood-log is an input and on lathe the input is skill and energy of the operator in
terms of speed and feed, etc.
Processing and Decision
This is composed of three components, viz., sensing (receiving information),
memory (storage) and decision (action). The sensing elements such as eyes, ears,
skin, tongue and nose (the five senses) through sight, hearing, touch, taste and
smell respectively for human beings and electronic/mechanica1devices for
machines receive the information and send to memory or storage unit (mind in the
case of human beings). Based on the available information a decision will come
out to perform the operation (programmed operation in the case of some machines
like CNC/Computers, etc.).
Output
The result expected to come out of the system is output after making necessary
changes and modifications on the input. Obviously this output also may be in any
form like those of inputs.
Feed Back
It is treated as controlling component of the system. This is necessary to take
corrective actions, but in some systems this is missed. The system in which output
is not linked Jvith input (feed back is missing) is said to be 'open loop system' and
if it is linked, it is 'closed loop system'.
Environmental Constraints
The barriers often posed by the environment in the form of thermal discomfort,
noise, bad lighting, wrong gestures and postures etc., cause the reduction in the
input and hence the efficiency gets lowered. These are to be identified in time and
prevented or corrected accordingly.
Machine

Information
display

lnput and
Control

Figure 14.10 : A Simple Model of Man-Machine System

A simple model of this system is shown in the above Figurel4.10.
Summarily, we can conclude that the man-machine system will have some purpose
composed of system components, sub systems either in parallel of in series so as
to suit the man with distinguished input-process- output- feed back model in
certain environmental constraints. A detailed discussion is made in the next unit.
Ergonomics SAQ 5
(a) What is a man-machine system? Discuss a man-machine model with
example. Give its significance in ergonomic design.
(b) Why do people overlook the importance of ergonomics in some cases?
What are the wrong notions that a man has in man-machine system?

14.16 SUMMARY
This unit focuses mainly on ergonomic product design. Therefore, at the outset the
meaning and objectives and the advantages of ergonomic design are discussed.
Various approaches adopted by ergonomics and the constituents o f ergonomics to
consider while designing a product is narrated. T h e work science comprising ofthe
techniques and organisation of work are explained. Then some light is thrown on aspects
of the product design and process design factors. In any product or process while
designing, the ergonomics is more concerned with the design of display instruments.
Therefore, the general guidelines for designing the display devices and controlling devices
and the factors for selection of controlling devices are described. The controls for high
precision work and need little effort, such as push buttons, toggle switches, knobs, etc.
and controls that require considerable force like cranks, hand wheel. steering, pedals are
illustrated with figures and their design aspects. The relationship between controls and
display instruments is established through this unit.

14.17 KEY WORDS

Bio Mechanics It is the science that deals with the internal and
external forces and the effect of the forces
produced by actions of human body.
Bio-materials are used for testing of bio
compatibility, life cycle while studying
ergonomics.
Biological Techniques It deals with hygiene of work based on work
psychology and work pedagogies.
Mechanical Techniques It deals with time and motion study.
Knobs Rotary controls that can be operated freely by
gripping it on both sides with fingers of one hand.
Hand Wheel It is a circular control gripped at the rim
preferably with both hands.
Pedal Pedal is a reciprocating control operated by foot
acting independently.
Toggle Switches Toggle switches are miniature levers used as
switches and guarantee high frequency of
precision control.
Crank Crank is a control parallel to the shaft in which the
handle is offset from the shaft.

14.18 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the preceding text for all the Answers to SAQs.