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Computer Network
DIT
ST
PART 1
Compiled And Arranged By SARDAR AZEEM(PRINCIPAL PICT)

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DEFINITION OF COMPUTER NETWORK

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware

components and computers interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing
of resources and information.

Technically, Network is defined as "If at least one process in one computer is able to
send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote computer, the n the two
computers are said to be in network".

Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the

medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, and
organizational scope.

The rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network are defined
by communications protocols. Well-known communications protocols are Ethernet, a
hardware and Link Layer standard that is ubiquitous in local area networks, and the
Internet Protocol Suite, which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i.e. for data
communication between multiple networks, as well as host-to-host data transfer, and
application-specific data transmission formats.

HISTORY OF COMPUTER NETWORK;

Before the advent of computer networks that were based upon some type of
telecommunications system, communication between calculation machines and early
computers was performed by human users by carrying instructions between them. Many
of the social behaviors seen in today' s Internet were demonstrably present in the 19th
century and arguably in even earlier networks using visual signals.

 In September 1940, George Stibitz used a Teletype machine to send instructions

for a problem set from his Model at Dartmouth College to his Complex Number
Calculator in New York and received results back by the same means. Linking
output systems like teletypewriters to computers was an interest at the Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) when, in 1962, J.C.R. Licklider was hired and
developed a working group he called the "Intergalactic Network", a precursor to
the ARPANET.
 Early networks of communicating computers included the military radar system
Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE), started in the late 1950s
 The commercial airline reservation system semi-automatic business research
environment (SABRE) which went online with two connected mainframes in
1960.
 In 1964, researchers at Dartmouth developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System
for distributed users of large computer systems. The same year, at Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, a research group supported by General Electric and Bell
Labs used a computer to route and manage telephone connections.
 Throughout the 1960s Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran and Donald Davies
independently conceptualized and developed network systems which used packets
that could be used in a network between computer systems.
 1965 Thomas Merrill and Lawrence G. Roberts created the first wide area
network (WAN).
 The first widely used telephone switch that used true computer control was
introduced by Western Electric in 1965.
 In 1969 the University of California at Los Angeles, the Stanford Research
Institute, University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah
were connected as the beginning of the ARPANET network using 50 kbit/s
circuits.

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 Commercial services using X.25 were deployed in 1972, and later used as an
underlying infrastructure for expanding TCP/IP networks.

Today, computer networks are the core of modern communication. All modern aspects of
the public switched telephone network (PSTN) are computer-controlled, and telephony
increasingly runs over the Internet Protocol, although not necessarily the public Internet.

TYPES OF NETWORK:

Networks are often classified by their physical or organizational extent or their purpose.
Usage, trust level, and access rights differ between these types of networks.

Personal area network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among
computer and different information technological devices close to one person. Some
examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax
machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game consoles. A PAN may
include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters. A
wired PAN is usually constructed with USB and Firewire connections while technologies
such as Bluetooth and infrared communication typically form a wireless PAN.

Local area network

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a
limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or
closely positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node.
Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although new
standards like ITU- T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing home
wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines).

Typical library network, in a branching tree topology and controlled access to resources

All interconnected devices must understand the network layer (layer 3), because they are
handling multiple subnets (the different colors). Those inside the library, which have only
10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet connections to the user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection
to the central router, could be called "layer 3 switches" because they only have Ethernet
interfaces and must understand IP. It would be more correct to call them access routers,
where the router at the top is a distribution router that connects to the Internet and
academic networks' customer access routers.

The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (Wide Area Networks),

include their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and no need for leased
telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies
operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer rate. IEEE has projects
investigating the standardization of 40 and 100 Gbit/s. LANs can be connected to Wide
area network by using routers.

Home network
A home network is a residential LAN which is used for communication between digital
devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers
and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is
the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a cable TV or Digital
Subscriber Line (DSL) provider.

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Storage area network

A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated network that pro vides access to
consolidated, block level data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage devices,
such as disk arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the
devices appear like locally attached devices to the operating system. A SAN typically has
its own network of storage devices that are generally not accessible through the local area
network by other devices. The cost and complexity of SANs dropped in the early 2000s
to levels allowing wider adoption across both enterprise and small to medium sized
business environments.

Campus network
A campus network is a computer network made up of an interconnection of LANs within
a limited geographical area. The networking equipment (switches, routers) and
transmission media (optical fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling etc.) are almost entirely
owned (by the campus tenant / owner: an enterprise, university, government etc.).

In the case of a university campus-based campus network, the network is likely to link a
variety of campus buildings including, for example, academic colleges or departments,
the university library, and student residence halls.

Backbone network
A backbone network is part of a computer network infrastructure that interconnects
various pieces of network, providing a path for the exchange of information between
different LANs or subnetworks. A backbone can tie together diverse networks in the
same building, in different buildings in a campus environment, or over wide areas.
Normally, the backbone's capacity is greater than that of the networks connected to it.

A large corporation which has many locations may have a backbone network that ties all
of these locations together, for example, if a server cluster needs to be accessed by
different departments of a company which are located at different geographical locations.
The equipment which ties these departments together constitute the network backbone.
Network performance management including network congestion are critical parameters
taken into account when designing a network backbone.

A specific case of a backbone network is the Internet backbone, which is the set of wide-
area network connections and core routers that interconnect all networks connected to the
Internet.

Metropolitan area network

A Metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a
city or a large campus.

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Sample EPN made of Frame relay WAN connections and dialup remote access.

Sample VPN used to interconnect 3 offices and remote users

Wide area network

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area
such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances, using a communications
channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves.
A WAN often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as
telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of
the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

Enterprise private network

An enterprise private network is a network built by an enterprise to interconnect various
company sites, e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops, in order to share
computer resources.

Virtual private network

A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the links
between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network
(e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the
virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network when this is the case.
One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a
VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content
encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user
communities over an underlying network with strong security features.

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VPN may have best-effort performance, or may have a defined service level agreement
(SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a
topology more complex than point-to-point.

Internetwork
An internetwork is the connection of multiple computer networks via a common routing
technology using routers. The Internet is an aggregation of many connected internetworks
spanning the Earth.

Organizational scope
Networks are typically managed by organizations which own them. According to the
owner's point of view, networks are seen as intranets or extranets. A special case of
network is the Internet, which has no single owner but a distinct status when seen by an
organizational entity – that of permitting virtually unlimited global connectivity for a
great multitude of purposes.

Intranets and extranets

Intranets and extranets are parts or extensions of a computer network, usually a LAN.

An intranet is a set of networks, using the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as
web browsers and file transfer applications, that is under the control of a single
administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to all but specific,
authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of an organization.
A large intranet will typically have at least one web server to provide users wit h
organizational information.

An extranet is a network that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity and also
has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not necessarily,
trusted organizations or entities—a company's customers may be given access to some
part of its intranet—while at the same time the customers may not be considered trusted
from a security standpoint. Technically, an extranet may also be categorized as a CAN,
MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although an extranet cannot consist of a single
LAN; it must have at least one connection with an external network.

Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected governmental, academic, corporate,
public, and private computer networks. It is based on the networking technologies of the
Internet Protocol Suite. It is the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network (ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the United States Department of
Defense. The Internet is also the communications backbone underlying the World Wide
Web (WWW).

Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented,
and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an
addressing system (IP addresses) administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority and address registries. Service providers and large enterprises exchange
information about the reachability of their address spaces through the Border Gateway
Protocol (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths.

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Basic Network Terminologies:

DATA:
1. Information in raw or unorganized form (such as alphabets, numbers, or symbols) that
refer to, or represent, conditions, ideas, or objects. Data is limitless and present
everywhere in the universe. See also information and knowledge.
2. Computers: Symbols or signals that are input, stored, and processed by a computer,
for output as usable information.
DATA RATE:
Data rate can refer to:

 Bit rate, or data transfer rate

 Data signaling rate
 Data rate units

BIT RATE:
In telecommunications and computing, bit rate (sometimes written bitrate, data rate or
as a variable is the number of bits that are conveyed or processed per unit of time.
The bit rate is quantified using the bits per second (bit/s or bps) unit, often in conjunction
with an SI prefix such as kilo- (kbit/s or kbps), mega- (Mbit/s or Mbps), giga- (Gbit/s or
Gbps) or tera- (Tbit/s or Tbps). Note that, unlike many other computer-related units, 1
kbit/s is traditionally defined as 1,000-bit/s, not 1,024-bit/s, etc., also before 1999 when
SI prefixes were introduced for units of information in the standard IEC 60027-2.
The formal abbreviation for "bits per second" is "bit/s" (not "bits/s", see writing style
for SI units). In less formal contexts the abbreviations "b/s" or "bps" are often used,
though this risks confusion with "bytes per second" ("B/s", "Bps"). 1 Byte/s (Bps or B/s)
corresponds to 8-bit/s (bps or b/s).
DATA SIGNING RATE:
In telecommunication, data signaling rate (DSR), also known as gross bit rate, is the
aggregate rate at which data pass a point in the transmission path of a data transmission
system.
Notes:

1. The DSR is usually expressed in bits per second.

2. The data signaling rate is given by where m is the number of parallel

channels, ni is the number of significant conditions of the modulation in the i-
th channel, and Ti is the unit interval, expressed in seconds, for the i-th channel.
3. For serial transmission in a single channel, the DSR reduces to (1/T)log2 n; with a
two-condition modulation, i. e. n = 2, the DSR is 1/T, according to Hartley's law.
4. For parallel transmission with equal unit intervals and equal numbers of
significant conditions on each channel, the DSR is (m/T)log2 n; in the case of a
two-condition modulation, this reduces to m/T.
5. The DSR may be expressed in bauds, in which case, the factor log2 ni in the above
summation formula should be deleted when calculating bauds.
6. In synchronous binary signaling, the DSR in bits per second may be numerically
the same as the modulation rate expressed in bauds. Signal processors, such as
four-phase modems, cannot change the DSR, but the modulation rate depends on
the line modulation scheme, in accordance with Note 4. For example, in a 2400
bit/s 4-phase sending modem, the signaling rate is 2400 bit/s on the serial input
side, but the modulation rate is only 1200 bauds on the 4-phase output side.
DATA RATE UNITS;

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n telecommunications, bit rate or data transfer rate is the average number of bits,
characters, or blocks per unit time passing between equipment in a data transmission
system. This is typically measured in multiples of the unit bit per second or byte per
second.

Bit rates

Decimal prefixes (S I)

Name S ymbol Multiple

kilobit per second kbit/s 103

megabit per second M bit/s 106

gigabit per second Gbit/s 109

terabit per second Tbit/s 1012

Binary prefixes (IEC 60027-2)

kibibit per second Kibit/s 210

mebibit per second M ibit/s 220

gibibit per second Gibit/s 230

tebibit per second Tibit/s 240

To be as explicit as possible, both the prefix and the suffix of the unit must be known. For
example, the abbreviation 2 Mb can actually be expanded in 2 different ways (mega-
vs mebi- and -bit vs -byte). The difference in the associated numbers can be significant:

Unit Bits Bits / 1,000,000

Mega-bit 1,000,000 1.0

Mebi-bit 1,048,576 1.05

Mega-byte 8,000,000 8.0

Mebi-byte 8,388,608 8.39

The table above shows an approximate 5% difference between the corresponding mega-
and mebi- units with a 800% difference between -bit and -byte units. Explicitness in units
is important because difference can become even larger across different prefix units).
Prefix: k vs Ki

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k- stands for kilo, meaning 1,000, while Ki- stands for kilobinary ("kibi- "), meaning
1,024. The standardized binary prefixes such as Ki- were relatively recently introduced
and still face low adoption. K- is often used to mean 1,024, especially in KB, the kilobyte.
Suffix: b vs B
b stands for bit and B stands for byte. In the context of data rate units, one byte refers to 8
bits. For example, when a 1 Mbps connection is advertised, it usually means that the
maximum achievable download bandwidth is 1 megabit/s (million bits per second),
which is actually 0.125 MB/s (megabyte per second), or about 0.1192 MiB/s (mebibyte
per second).
Problems
In 1999, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) published Amendment 2 to
"IEC 60027-2: Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology – Part 2:
Telecommunications and electronics." This standard, approved in 1998, introduced the
prefixes kibi-, mebi-, gibi-, tebi-, pebi-, and exbi- to be used in specifying binary
multiples of a quantity. The name is derived from the first two letters of the original SI
prefixes followed by bi (short for binary). It also clarifies that the SI prefixes be used
only to mean powers of 10 and never powers of 2.
The correct use for file, disk, and memory size is as follows:

Unit (SI) Bytes Unit (IEC 60027-2) Bytes

Kilobyte (kB) 1,000 Kibibyte (KiB) 1,024

Megabyte (MB) 1,0002 Mebibyte (MiB) 1,0242

Gigabyte (GB) 1,0003 Gibibyte (GiB) 1,0243

Terabyte (TB) 1,0004 Tebibyte (TiB) 1,0244

Petabyte (PB) 1,0005 Pebibyte (PiB) 1,0245

Computer and technology industries have yet to adapt to these standards. When
Microsoft Windows shows the size of a drive or a file, it uses powers of 1,024 but uses SI
prefixes so that, for example, 28,735,078,400 bytes displays as 26.7 GB instead of either
28.7 GB, or 26.7 GiB.
The commonly advertised (formatted) capacity of the 3.5- inch floppy disk was 1.44 MB
but was actually 1,440 KiB or 1.44 × 1,000 × 1,024 bytes, giving either 1.41 MiB or
1.47 MB.
On September 18, 2003, Reuters reported that Apple, Dell, Gateway, Hewlett-Packard,
IBM, Sharp, Sony, and Toshiba were being sued in a class-action law-suit in the Los
Angeles Superior Court for "deceiving" buyers as to the true capacity of those companies'
hard drives. This of course was due to ambiguity of GB when used by software and
hardware vendors.
Decimal multiples of bits
Kilobit per second
A kilobit per second (kbit/s, kb/s, or kbps) is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:

 1000 bits per second or

 125 bytes per second.

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Megabit per second

A megabit per second (Mbit/s, Mb/s, or Mbps; not to be confused with mbit/s which
means, literally, millibit per second) is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:

 1,000,000 bits per second or

 1,000 kilobits per second or
 125,000 bytes per second.
Gigabit per second
A gigabit per second (Gbit/s, Gb/s, or Gbps) is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:

 1,000 megabits per second or

 1,000,000 kilobits per second or
 1,000,000,000 bits per second or
 125,000,000 bytes per second
Binary multiples of bits
Kibibit per second
A kibibit per second (Kibit/s or Kib/s) is a unit of data transfer rate equal to 1,024 bits
per second. The word "kibibit" is not capitalized, but the abbreviation "Kibits" is.
Mebibit per second
A mebibit per second (Mibit/s or Mib/s) is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:

 1,048,576 bits per second or

 1,024 kibibits per second.
Gibibit per second
A gibibit per second (Gibit/s or Gib/s) is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:

 1,073,741,824 bits per second or

 1,048,576 kibibits per second or
 1,024 mebibits per second.
Tebibit per second
A tebibit per second (Tibit/s or Tib/s) is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:

 1,099,511,627,776 bits per second or

 1,073,741,824 kibibits per second or
 1,048,576 mebibits per second or
 1,024 gibibits per second.
Decimal multiples of bytes
WARNING: These units are often not used in the suggested ways! See section above,
"Problems".
Kilobyte per second
A kilobyte per second is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:

 8,000 bits per second, or

 1,000 bytes per second, or
 8 kilobits per second.
Megabyte per second
(not to be confused with Mbps - Mega bits per second) A megabyte per
second (MB/s or MBps) is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:

 8,000,000 bits per second, or

 1,000,000 bytes per second, or
 1,000 kilobytes per second, or
 8 megabits per second.

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Gigabyte per second

A gigabyte per second (GB/s or GBps) is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:

 8,000,000,000 bits per second, or

 1,000,000,000 bytes per second, or
 1,000,000 kilobytes per second, or
 1,000 megabytes per second, or
 8 gigabits per second.
Terabyte per second
A terabyte per second (TB/s or TBps) is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:

 8,000,000,000,000 bits per second, or

 1,000,000,000,000 bytes per second, or
 1,000,000,000 kilobytes per second, or
 1,000,000 megabytes per second, or
 1,000 gigabytes per second, or
 8 terabits per second.
Binary multiples of bytes
Kibibyte per second
A kibibyte per second (KiB/s or KiBps) is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:

 1,024 bytes per second, or

 8 kibibits per second, or
 8192 bits per second.
Mebibyte per second
A mebibyte per second (MiB/s or MiBps) is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:

 1,048,576 bytes per second, or

 1,024 kibibytes per second, or
 8 mebibits per second, or
 8192 kibibits per second, or
 8,388,608 bits per second.
Gibibyte per second
A gibibyte per second (GiB/s or GiBps) is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:

 1,073,741,824 bytes per second, or

 1,048,576 kibibytes per second, or
 1,024 mebibytes per second, or
 8 gibibits per second, or
 8192 mebibits per second, or
 8,388,608 kibibits per second, or
 8,589,934,592 bits per second.
Tebibyte per second
A tebibyte per second (TiB/s or TiBps) is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:

 1,099,511,627,776 bytes per second, or

 1,073,741,824 kibibytes per second, or
 1,048,576 mebibytes per second, or
 1,024 gibibytes per second, or
 8 tebibits per second.
 8192 gibibits per second, or
 8,388,608 mebibits per second, or
 8,589,934,592 kibibits per second, or
 8,796,093,022,208 bits per second.

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BAUD RATE:
In digital co mmunications, symbol rate (also known as baud or modulation rate) is the number of symbol
changes (waveform changes or signalling events) made to the transmission mediu m per second using a
digitally modulated signal or a line code. The Symbol rate is measured in baud (Bd ) or symbols/second. In
the case of a line code, the sy mbol rate is the pulse rate in pulses/second. Each symbo l can represent or
convey one or several bits of data. The symbol rate is related to, but should not be confused with, the gross
bitrate expressed in bit/second.
PEAK DATA RATE:
The maximum data rate of the traffic.
BURSITY DATA:
In telecommunication, the term burst transmission or data burst has the following meanings:

1. Any relatively high-bandwidth transmission over a short period of time. For example, a download
might use 2 Mbit/s on average, while having "peaks" bursting up to, say, 2.4 Mbit/s.
2. Transmission that combines a very high data signaling rate with very short transmission times -
i.e., the message is compressed. This is popular with the military and spies, who both wish to
minimize the chance of their radio transmissions being detected, i.e. Low probability of
intercept (LPI) and Low probability of recognition (LPR).
3. Operation of a data network in which data transmission is interrupted at intervals.

PEER TO PEER NETWORK VS SERVER BASED NETWORK

Peer-to-peer
A network is either a peer-to-peer network (also called a workgroup) or a server-based
network (also called a client/server network).

Peer-to-peer network

In a peer-to-peer network a group of computers is connected together so that users can

share resources and information. There is no central location for authenticating users,
storing files, or accessing resources. This means that users must remember which
computers in the workgroup have the shared resource or information that they want to
access. It also means that users must log on to each computer to access the shared
resources on that computer.

In most peer-to-peer networks, it is difficult for users to track where information is

located because data is generally stored on multiple computers. This makes it difficult to
back up critical business information, and it often results in small businesses not
completing backups. Often, there are multiple versions of the same file on different
computers in the workgroup.

In some peer-to-peer networks, the small business uses one computer that is running a
client operating system, such as Microsoft Windows 98 or Windows XP Professional, as
the designated "server" for the network. Although this helps with saving data in a central
location, it does not provide a robust solution for many of the needs of a small business,
such as collaborating on documents.

Server-based network
In a server-based network, the server is the central location where users share and access
network resources (see Figure 4). This dedicated computer controls the level of access
that users have to shared resources. Shared data is in one location, making it easy to back
up critical business information. Each computer that connects to the network is called a
client computer. In a server-based network, users have one user account and password to
log on to the server and to access shared resources. Server operating systems are designed
to handle the load when multiple client computers access server-based resources.

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Windows SBS 2008 is installed and configured as the central server on a server-based
network. Windows SBS 2008 provides the central point for authenticating users,
accessing resources, and storing information.

What is a Topology?

The physical layout of a network is called network topology. The physical

topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and
other peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical
topology which is the method used to pass information between workstations.
Logical topology was discussed in the Protocol chapter.

Main Types of Physical Topologies

The following sections discuss the physical topologies used in networks and
other related topics.

 Linear Bus
 Star
 Tree (Expanded Star)
 Ring topology
 Mesh Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Linear Bus
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each
end. All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the
linear cable.

Fig. 1. Linear Bus topology

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

 Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

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 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Star
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or
concentrator (See fig. 2).

Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before
continuing to its destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and
controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow.
This configuration is common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be
used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.

Fig. 2. Star topology

Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.

 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the
hubs, etc.

Tree or Expanded Star

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It
consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable (See fig. 3). Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an
existing network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.

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Fig. 3. Tree topology

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

 Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

Ring topology?

A ring topology consists of a set of stations connected serially by cable. In other words,
it‘s a circle or ring of computers. There are no terminated ends to the cable; the signal
travels around the circle in a clockwise direction.

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Note that while this topology functions logically as ring, it is physica lly wired as a star.
The central connector is not called a hub but a Multistation Access Unit or MAU. (Don‘t
confuse a Token Ring MAU with a ‗Media Adapter Unit‘ which is actually a transceiver.)

Under the ring concept, a signal is transferred sequentially via a "token" from one station
to the next. When a station wants to transmit, it "grabs" the token, attaches data and an
address to it, and then sends it around the ring. The token travels along the ring until it
reaches the destination address. The receiving computer acknowledges receipt with a
return message to the sender. The sender then releases the token for use by another
computer.

Each station on the ring has equal access but only one station can talk at a time.

In contrast to the ‗passive‘ topology of the bus, the ring employs an ‗active’ topology.
Each station repeats or ‘boosts‘ the signal before passing it on to the next station.

Rings are normally implemented using twisted pair or fiber-optic cable.

8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a ring topology?

Advantages of ring topology:

 Growth of system has minimal impact on performance

 All stations have equal access

Disadvantages of ring topology:

 Most expensive topology

 Failure of one computer may impact others
 Complex

MESH TOPOLOGY:
The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the number of
subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and
including all the endpoints, is approximated by Reed's Law.

Fully connected

Fully connected mesh topology

The number of connections in a full mesh = n(n - 1) / 2.

Note: The physical fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and
complex for practical networks, although the topology is used when there are only
a small number of nodes to be interconnected (see Combinatorial explosion).
Partially connected

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Partially connected mesh topology

The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are
connected to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link –
this makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is
provided by a physical fully connected mesh topology without the expense and
complexity required for a connection between every node in the network.
Note: In most practical networks that are based upon the partially connected mesh
topology, all of the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network takes the
shortest path between nodes,[citation needed] except in the case of a failure or break in
one of the links, in which case the data takes an alternative path to the destination.
This requires that the nodes of the network possess some type of logical 'routing'
algorithm to determine the correct path to use at any particular time.

Hybrid Network Topology

Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the
resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring,
etc.). For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network
topology. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network
topologies are connected. Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring
network and star bus network

 A Star ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using
a multistation access unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.
 A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus
trunk (the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).
While grid and torus networks have found popularity in high-performance
computing applications, some systems have used genetic algorithms to design custom
networks that have the fewest possible hops in between different nodes. Some of the

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resulting layouts are nearly incomprehensible, although they function quite well.[citation
needed]

A Snowflake topology is really a "Star of Stars" network, so it exhibits characteristics of

a hybrid network topology but is not composed of two different basic network topologies
being connected together. Definition : Hybrid topology is a combination of Bus ,Star and
ring topology.

Networking Devices

Computer network devices also known as communication devices and they constitute a
data communication network. These devices are routers, switches, hubs, LAN cards,
gateway, modems, hardware firewall, CSU/DSU, ISDN terminals and transceivers. In an
Ethernet or WAN network, the data communication cannot be performed without these
devices. Being an IT professional or a network administrator, you must have the good
understanding of these devices.

Based on your business requirements, you have the select the best devices for your
network and before selection, make sure that they are compatible with each other. It is
recommended that you select all the devices for your IT infrastructure from the same
vendor.

1. Node
2. Routers
3. Switches
4. Hubs
5. Modems
6. LAN Cards
7. Multiplexer
8. Bridge
9. NIC Card
10. Repeater
11. B-router
12. Gateways

1. Node
In communication networks, a node (Latin
nodus, ‗knot‘) is a connection point, either a
redistribution point or a communication
endpoint (some terminal equipment). The
definition of a node depends on the network
and protocol layer referred to. A physical
network node is an active electronic device
that is attached to a network, and is capable
of sending, receiving, or forwarding
information over a communications channel.

a. Computer network nodes

In data communication, a physical network node may either be a data circuit-terminating
equipment (DCE) such as a modem, hub, bridge or switch; or a data terminal equipment
(DTE) such as a digital telephone handset, a printer or a host computer, for example a
router, a workstation or a server.

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If the network in question is a LAN or WAN, every LAN or WAN node (that are at least
data link layer devices) must have a MAC address, typically one for each network
interface controller it possesses. Examples are computers, packet switches, xDSL
modems (with Ethernet interface) and wireless LAN access points. Note that a hub
constitutes a physical network node, but does not constitute a LAN network node, since a
hubbed network logically is a bus network. Analogously, a repeater or PSTN modem
(with serial interface) is a physical network node but not a LAN node in this sense.

b. Telecommunication network nodes

In the fixed telephone network, a node may be a public or private telephone exchange, a
remote concentrator or a computer providing some intelligent network service. In cellular
communication, switching points and databases such as the Base station controller, Home
Location Register, Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) and Serving GPRS Support
Node (SGSN) are examples of nodes. Cellular network base stations are not considered
as nodes in this context.

In cable television systems (CATV), this term has assumed a broader context and is
generally associated with a fiber optic node. This can be defined as those homes or
businesses within a specific geographic area that are served from a common fiber optic
receiver. A fiber optic node is generally described in terms of the number of "homes
passed" that are served by that specific fiber node.

c. Distributed system nodes

If the network in question is a distributed system, the nodes are clients, servers or peers.
A peer may sometimes serve as client, sometimes server. In a peer-to-peer or overlay
network, nodes that actively route data for the other networked devices as well as
themselves are called supernodes.

2. Routers
A router is a communication
device that is used to connect two
logically and physically different
networks, two LANs, two WANs
and a LAN with WAN. The main
function of the router is to sorting
and the distribution of the data
packets to their destinations based
on their IP addresses. Routers
provides the connectivity between
the enterprise businesses, ISPs and
in the internet infrastructure, router
is a main device. Cisco routers are
widely used in the world. Every
router has routing software, which
is known as IOS. Router operates at the network layer of the OSI model. Router does not
broadcast the data packets.

3. Switches
Like the router, a switch is an
intelligent device that maps the IP
address with the MAC address of
the LAN card. Unlike the hubs, a
switch does not broadcast the data
to all the computers, it sends the
data packets only to the destined
computer. Switches are used in the

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LAN, MAN and WAN. In an Ethernet network, computers are directly connected with
the switch via twisted pair cables. In a network, switches use the three methods to
transmit the data i.e. store and forward, cut through and fragment free.

A switch comes in different ports like 6, 8, 16, 24 and uplink ports, which are used to
connect to other switches in the network. Switch is very important device in the WAN
communications too.

Advance switches are used in the telecommunication networks, ISPs and corporate
networks. A LAN or WAN switch routes the data packets based on the MAC and IP
address of the data. There are different vendors of the switches and Cisco is the biggest
manufacturer and provider of the routers and switches. Other manufacturers include
Juniper, Jupiter, D-Link, Linksys and Baynet etc.
To make a switched network make sure that all the switches and other network
communication devices are compatible with each other.

4. Hubs
The central connecting device in a
computer network is known as a
hub. There are two types of a hub
i.e. active hub and passive hub.
Every computer is directly
connected with the hub. When data
packets arrives at hub, it broadcast
them to all the LAN cards in a
network and the destined recipient
picks them and all other computers
discard the data packets. Hub has
five, eight, sixteen and more ports
and one port is known as uplink
port, which is used to connect with
the next hub.

5. Modems
A modem is a
communication device that
is used to provide the
connectivity with the
internet. Modem works in
two ways i.e. modulation
and demodulation. It
coverts the digital data into
the analog and analog to
digital.

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6. LAN Cards
LAN cards or network adapters are the building blocks of a computer network. No
computer can communicate without a properly installed and configured LAN card. Every
LAN card is provided with a unique IP address, subnet mask, ga teway and DNS (if
applicable). An UTP/STP cable connects a computer with the hub or switch. Both ends of
the cable have the RJ-45 connectors one is inserted into the LAN card and one in the
hub/switch. LAN cards are inserted into the expansion slots inside the computer.
Different LAN cards support different speed from 10/100 to 10/1000.

7. Multiplexer
Multiplexer is a device that is used to combining the several electrical signals into one
signal.

8. Bridge
A bridge is a network
communication device that is
used to connect one segment of
the network with another that
uses the same protocol. It
operates at the Data link layer
of the OSI layers model. In the
Ethernet network, the bridge is
also known as IEEE 802.1D. A
bridge process the information at the data link layer of the OSI layers model. There are
two types of the bridging.

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 Transparent bridging
 Source route bridging

The main advantages of the bridges include the following.

 Inexpensive
 Self Configuring
 Reduced size of the collision domains.
 Transmits the data based on the MAC address.
 Supports relatively big networks.

Bridges are fast devices for forwarding the data but not as fast as the routers and switches.
A bridge cannot be used as a firewall device as a router. In the bridged network, the
messages are sent to all the nodes and are picked up only by the destined computers. A
bridged when combined with the router, known as a brouter. Bridges has now replaced
the switches and routers.

9. NIC Card
NIC Stands for Network Interface card. It is one of the most important computer network
devices that are used for the
data communication and to
connect the computers with
each other. It is plugged inside
the computer either in the PCI
slot or it is built- in the
motherboard.

A twisted pair UTP/STP with

RJ45 connector is used to
connect the computer with the
Hub or Switch. Fiber optic
cable can also be used to
connect the computer with the
hub or switch.

A NIC can be wired or wireless

and it has digital circuitry and
microprocessor. A wireless
NIC is used to connect the
computers with each other wirelessly. There are different vendors of the NIC such as D-
Link, 3Com, Intel, Realtek, Baylan and Baynet.

Before buying and installing a network interface card in your computer make sure that it
is compatible with the other network devices. NIC card operates on the Data Link and
physical layer of the OSI layers model.
For every computer in a network, it is required to have a NIC to communicate with other
computers.

Every NIC has unique MAC address and no two NIC cards from two different vendors
can have the same MAC address. NIC has twisted pair, BNC and AUI sockets. The one
end of the network cable is used to connect with the NIC and the other end is used to
connect with the hub or switch.

NIC provides the fulltime connectivity for the data transmission. Sometimes computers
do not communicate with each other due to the malfunctioning of the NIC. The network
interface cards problems can be resolved with the following tips.

 Make sure that you have the updated and correct version of the LAN card‘s driver.
 Ensure that the LEDs of the NIC are working properly.
 Check that the network cable is properly connected at both ends.

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 Right click on the network status icon on the right bottom of the desktop and click
repair.
 Ensure that the TCP/IP settings are accurate.
 Disable the antivirus and firewall.
 If the problem still persists then try to replace the NIC with a new one.

Hub or a switch in a computer network acts as a relay that passes the information from
one computer to another. It is important that the LAN card is compatible with the hub or
switch to make the data flow faster to avoid the packet loss and network congestion.

10. Repeater
repeater is a communication device that retransmits the weak signals with greater power.
It receives the signals over the wireless, optical transmission and network cable mediums
such as copper wire, UTP/STP and fiber optic cables and regenerates the analog or digital
signals. It can relay the data signals between the different subnetworks.

Repeater operates at the physical layer of the OSI layers model and it is not such as
intelligent device like the switches and routers that perform the smart routing based on
the MAC and IP addresses of the source and destination computers. Repeaters are also
used in the broadcasting, where they are known as the relay transmitters and boosters.
Repeaters restrengthen the data signals in the telecommunications. Normally a repeater
consists of the following
things.

 Amplifier
 Transmitter
 Isolator
 Antennas
 Radio Receiver

In a fiber optic network, a

repeater consists of the
following.

 Amplifier
 Photocell
 IRED
 IR
 LED

Fiber optic repeaters are less expensive and operate at low power.
Repeaters were also used to connect the segments of the cables. Repeaters are of mainly
two types i.e. with internal antenna and with external antenna. If you are using repeater in
your network make sure that is it compatible with other devices in your network.

11. B-router
Bridge Router
A Bridge Router or route r is a
network device that works as a
bridge and as a router. The brouter
routes packets for known protocols
and simply forwards all other
packets as a bridge would.

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Brouters operate at both the network layer for routable protocols and at the data link layer
for non-routable protocols. As networks continue to become more complex, a mix of
routable and non-routable protocols has led to the need for the combined features of
bridges and routers. Brouters handle both routable and non-routable features by acting as
routers for routable protocols and bridges for non-routable protocols. Bridged protocols
might propagate throughout the network, but techniques such as filtering and learning
might be used to reduce potential congestion. Brouters are used as connecting devices in
the networking system, so it acts as a bridge in a network and as a router in an
internetwork.

12. Gateways
In telecommunications, the term gateway has the following meaning:

1. In a communications network, a network node equipped for interfacing with

another network that uses different protocols.
a. A gateway may contain devices such as protocol translators, impedance
matching devices, rate converters, fault isolators, or signal translators as
necessary to
provide system
interoperability.
It also requires
the
establishment of
mutually
acceptable
administrative
procedures
between both
networks.
b. A protocol
translation/mapp
ing gateway
interconnects
networks with
different
network protocol technologies by performing the required protocol
conversions.
2. Loosely, a computer or computer program configured to perform the tasks of a
gateway.

Gateways, also called protocol converters, can operate at any network layer. The
activities of a gateway are more complex than that of the router or switch as it
communicates using more than one protocol.

Transmission media

Network Media Types

is the actual path over which an electrical signal travels as it moves from
one component to another. including twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber-
optic cable, and wireless.
There are two main types of network media

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1. Guided /Wired Media:

A network media that consists of physical cables
Eg coaxial cable
Twisted pair cable
Fiber optic cable
2. Unguided media
Does not consist of physical cables
Eg radio waves
Micro waves
Satellite Waves
Infrared
Twisted-Pair Cable
Is a type of cabling that is used for telephone communications and most
Modern Ethernet networks. A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data. The
pairs are twisted to provide protection against crosstalk the noise generated by adjacent
pairs.
When electrical current flows through a wire, it creates a small, circular magnetic field
around the wire. When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, their
magnetic fields are the exact opposite of each other. Thus, the two magnetic fields cancel
each other out. They also cancel out any outside magnetic fields. Twisting the wires can
enhance this cancellation effect.
Using cancellation together with twisting the wires, cable designers can effectively
provide self-shielding for wire pairs within the network media.
Two basic types of twisted-pair cable exist: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded
twisted pair (STP). The following sections discuss UTP and STP cable in more detail.
UTP Cable
UTP cable is a medium that is composed of pairs of wires (see Figure 8-1).
UTP cable is used in a variety of networks. Each of the eight individual copper wires in
UTP cable is covered by an insulating material. In addition, the wires in each pair are
twisted around each other.

UTP cable relies solely on the cancellation effect produced by the twisted wire pairs to
limit signal degradation caused by electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio
frequency interference (RFI). To further reduce crosstalk between the pairs in UTP cable,
the number of twists in the wire pairs varies. UTP cable must follow precise
specifications governing how many twists or braids are permitted per meter (3.28 feet) of
cable.
UTP cable often is installed using a Registered Jack 45 (RJ-45) connector .
The RJ-45 is an eight-wire connector used commonly to connect computers onto a local-
area network (LAN), especially Ethernets.

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When used as a networking medium, UTP cable has four pairs of either 22- or 24-gauge
copper wire. UTP used as a networking medium has an impedance of 100 ohms; this
differentiates it from other types of twisted-pair wiring such as that used for telephone
wiring, which has impedance of 600 ohms.
UTP cable offers many advantages. Because UTP has an external diameter of
approximately 0.43 cm (0.17 inches), its small size can be advantageous during
installation. Because it has such a small external diameter, UTP does not fill up wiring
ducts as rapidly as other types of cable. This can be an extremely important factor to
consider, particularly when installing a network in an older building. UTP cable is easy to
install and is less expensive than other types of networking media. In fact, UTP costs less
per meter than any other type of LAN cabling. And because UTP can be used with most
of the major networking architectures, it continues to grow in popularity.
Disadvantages also are involved in using twisted-pair cabling, however. UTP cable is
more prone to electrical noise and interference than other types of network ing media, and
the distance between signal boosts is shorter for UTP than it is for coaxial and fiber-optic
cables.
Although UTP was once considered to be slower at transmitting data than other types of
cable, this is no longer true. In fact, UTP is considered the fastest copper-based medium
today. The following summarizes the features of UTP cable:
• Speed and throughput
—10 to 1000 Mbps
• Average cost per node
—Least expensive
• Media and connector size
—Small
• Maximum cable length
—100 m (short) Commonly used types of UTP cabling are as follows:
Category 1
—Used for telephone communications. Not suitable for transmitting data.
Category 2
—Capable of transmitting data at speeds up to 4 megabits per second (Mbps).
Category 3
—Used in 10BASE-T networks. Can transmit data at speeds up to 10 Mbps.
Category 4
—Used in Token Ring networks. Can transmit data at speeds up to 16 Mbps.
Category 5
—Can transmit data at speeds up to 100 Mbps.
Category 5e
—Used in networks running at speeds up to 1000 Mbps (1 gigabit per second Gbps]).
Category 6
—Typically, Category 6 cable consists of four pairs of 24 American Wire
Gauge (AWG) copper wires. Category 6 cables are currently the fastest standard for UTP.
Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
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Cable combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation, and wire

Twisting. Each pair of wires is wrapped in a metallic foil (see Figure 8-3). The four pairs
of wires then are wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil, usually 150-ohm cable. As
specified for use in Ethernet network installations, STP reduces electrical noise both
within the cable (pairto- pair coupling, or crosstalk) and from outside the cable (EMI and
RFI). STP usually is installed with STP data connector, which is created especially for
the STP cable. However, STP cabling also can use the same RJ connectors that UTP uses.

Although STP prevents interference better than UTP, it is more expensive and difficult to
install.
In addition, the metallic shielding must be grounded at both ends. If it is improperly
grounded, the shield acts like an antenna and picks up unwanted signals. Because of its
cost and difficulty with termination, STP is rarely used in Ethernet networks. STP is
primarily used in Europe.
The following summarizes the features of STP cable:
Speed and throughput
—10 to 100 Mbps
Average cost per node
—Moderately expensive
Media and connector size
—Medium to large
Maximum cable length
—100 m (short)
When comparing UTP and STP, keep the following points in mind:
The speed of both types of cable is usually satisfactory for local-area distances.
These are the least-expensive media for data communication. UTP is less expensive than
STP. Because most buildings are already wired with UTP, many transmission standards
are adapted to use it, to avoid costly rewiring with an alternative cable type.
Coaxial Cable
consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire
made of two conducting elements. One of these elements, located in the center of the
cable, is a copper conductor. Surrounding the copper conductor is a layer of flexible
insulation. Over this insulating material is a woven copper braid or metallic foil that acts
both as the second wire in the circuit and as a shield for the inner conductor. This second
layer, or shield, can help reduce the amount of outside interference. Covering this shield
is the cable jacket.

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Coaxial cable supports 10 to 100 Mbps and is relatively inexpensive, although it is more
costly than UTP on a per-unit length. However, coaxial cable can be cheaper for a
physical bus topology because less cable will be needed. Coaxial cable can be cabled
over longer distances than twisted-pair cable. For example, Ethernet can run
approximately 100 meters (328 feet) using twisted-pair cabling. Using coaxial cable
increases this distance to 500m (1640.4 feet). For LANs, coaxial cable offers several
advantages. It can be run with fewer boosts from repeaters for longer distances between
network nodes than either STP or UTP cable. Repeaters regenerate the signals in a
network so that they can cover greater distances. Coaxial cable is less
expensive than fiber-optic cable, and the technology is well known; it has been used for
many years for all types of data communication.
When working with cable, you need to consider its size. As the thickness, or diameter, of
the cable increases, so does the difficulty in working with it. Many times cable must be
pulled through existing conduits and troughs that are limited in size. Coaxial cable comes
in a variety of sizes. The largest diameter (1 centimeter [cm]) was specified for use as
Ethernet backbone cable because historically it had greater transmission length and noise-
rejection characteristics. This type of coaxial cable is frequently referred to as Thicknet.
As its nickname suggests, Thicknet cable can be too rigid to install easily in some
situations because of its thickness. The general rule is that the more difficult the network
medium is to install, the more expensive it is to install. Coaxial cable is more expensive
to install than twisted-pair cable. Thicknet cable is almost never used except for special-
purpose installations. A connection device known as a vampire tap was used to connect
network devices to Thicknet.
The vampire tap then was connected to the computers via a more flexib le cable called the
attachment unit interface (AUI). Although this 15-pin cable was still thick and tricky to
terminate, it was much easier to work with than Thicknet. In the past, coaxial cable with
an outside diameter of only 0.35 cm (sometimes referred to as Thinnet ) was used in
Ethernet networks. Thinnet was especially useful for cable installations that required the
cable to make many twists and turns. Because it was easier to install, it was also cheaper
to install. Thus, it was sometimes referred to as Cheapernet . However, because the outer
copper or metallic braid in coaxial cable comprises half the electrical circuit, special care
had to be taken to ensure that it was properly grounded. Grounding was done by ensuring
that a solid electrical connection existed at both ends of the cable. Frequently, however,
installers failed to properly ground the cable. As a result, poor shield connection was one
of the biggest sources of connection problems in the installation of coaxial cable.
Connection problems resulted in electrical noise, which interfered with signal transmittal
on the networking medium. For this reason, despite its small diameter, Thinnet no longer
is commonly used in Ethernet networks. The most common connectors used with Thinnet
are BNC, short for British Naval Connector or Bayonet Neill Concelman, connectors (see
Figure 8-5). The basic BNC connector is a male type mounted at each end of a cable.
This connector has a center pin connected to the center cable conductor and a metal tube
connected to the outer cable shield. A rotating ring outside the tube locks the cable to any
female connector. BNC T-connectors are female devices for connecting two cables to a
network interface card (NIC). A BNC barrel connector facilitates connecting two cables
together.

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The following summarizes the features of coaxial cables:

Speed and throughput
—10 to 100 Mbps
Average cost per node
—Inexpensive
Media and connector size
—Medium
Maximum cable length
—500 m (medium)
Fiber-Optic Cable
used for networking consists of two fibers encased in separate sheaths. If you were
viewing it in a cross-section, you would see that each optical fiber is surrounded by layers
of protective buffer material, usually a plastic shield, then a plastic such as Kevlar, and
finally an outer jacket. The outer jacket provides protection for the entire cable, while the
plastic conforms to appropriate fire and building codes. The Kevlar furnishes additional
cushioning and protect on for the fragile, hair-thin glass fibers (see Figure 8-6). Wherever
buried fiber-optic cables are required by codes, a stainless-steel wire sometimes is
included for added strength.

The light-guiding parts of an optical fiber are called the core and the cladding . The core
is usually very pure glass with a high index of refraction. When a cladding layer of glass
or plastic with a low index of refraction surrounds the core glass, light can be trapped in
the fiber core. This process is called total internal reflection . It allows the optical fiber to
act like a light pipe guiding light for tremendous distances, even around bends. Fiber-
optic cable is the most expensive of the four media discussed in this chapter, but it
supports line speeds of more than 1 Gbps.
Two types of fiber-optic cable exist:
Single-mode
—Single- mode fiber cable allows only one mode (or wavelength) of light to propagate
through the fiber. It is capable of higher bandwidth and greater distances than multimode,
and it is often used for campus backbones. This type of fiber uses lasers as the light-
generating method. Single-mode cable is much more expensive than multimode
cable. Its maximum cable length is more than 10 km (32808.4 feet).
Multimode
—Multimode fiber cable allows multiple modes of light to propagate through
the fiber. It is often used for workgroup applications and intrabuilding applications such

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as risers. It uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as a light-generating device. The maximum

cable length is 2 km (6561.7 feet).
The following summarizes the features of fiber-optic cables:
• Speed and throughput—More than 1 Gbps
• Average cost per node—Expensive
• Media and connector size—Small
• Maximum cable length—More than 10 km for single mode; up to 2 km for multimode

Wireless Transmission

Our age has given rise to information junkies: people who need to be on- line all the time.
For these mobile users, twisted pair, coax, and fiber optics are of no use. They need to get
their hits of data for their laptop, notebook, shirt pocket, palmtop, or wristwatch
computers without being tethered to the terrestrial communication infrastructure. For
these users, wireless communication is the answer. In the following sections, we will look
at wireless communication in general, as it has many other important applications besides
providing connectivity to users who want to surf the Web from the beach.

Some people believe that the future holds only two kinds of communication: fiber and
wireless. All fixed (i.e., nonmobile) computers, telephones, faxes, and so on will use fiber,
and all mobile ones will use wireless.

Wireless has advantages for even fixed devices in some circumstances. For example, if
running a fiber to a building is difficult due to the terrain (mountains, jungles, swamps,
etc.), wireless may be better. It is noteworthy that modern wireless digital communication
began in the Hawaiian Islands, where large chunks of Pacific Ocean separated the users
and the telephone system was inadequate.

Radio Transmission

Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances, and can penetrate buildings
easily, so they are widely used for communication, both indoors and outdoors. Radio
waves also are omnidirectional, meaning that they travel in all directions from the source,
so the transmitter and receiver do not have to be carefully aligned physically.

Sometimes omnidirectional radio is good, but sometimes it is bad. In the 1970s, General
Motors decided to equip all its new Cadillacs with computer-controlled antilock brakes.
When the driver stepped on the brake pedal, the computer pulsed the brakes on and off
instead of locking them on hard. One fine day an Ohio Highway Patrolman began using
his new mobile radio to call headquarters, and suddenly the Cadillac next to him began
behaving like a bucking bronco. When the officer pulled the car over, the driver claimed
that he had done nothing and that the car had gone crazy.

Eventually, a pattern began to emerge: Cadillacs would sometimes go berserk, but only
on major highways in Ohio and then only when the Highway Patrol was watching. For a
long, long time General Motors could not understand why Cadillacs worked fine in all
the other states and also on minor roads in Ohio. Only after much searching did they
discover that the Cadillac's wiring made a fine antenna for the frequency used by the
Ohio Highway Patrol's new radio system.

The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent. At low frequencies, radio waves
pass through obstacles well, but the power falls off sharply with distance from the source,
roughly as 1/r2 in air. At high frequencies, radio waves tend to travel in straight lines and
bounce off obstacles. They are also absorbed by rain. At all frequencies, radio waves are
subject to interference from motors and other electrical equipment.

Due to radio's ability to travel long distances, interference between users is a problem.
For this reason, all governments tightly license the use of radio transmitters, with one
exception, discussed below.

In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the ground, as illustrated in Fig.
These waves can be detected for perhaps 1000 km at the lower frequencies, less at the

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higher ones. AM radio broadcasting uses the MF band, which is why the ground waves
from Boston AM radio stations cannot be heard easily in New York. Radio waves in
these bands pass through buildings easily, which is why portable radios work indoors.
The main problem with using these bands for data communication is their low bandwidth

Figure 2-12. (a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the
curvature of the earth. (b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.

In the HF and VHF bands, the ground waves tend to be absorbed by the earth. However,
the waves that reach the ionosphere, a layer of charged particles circling the earth at a
height of 100 to 500 km, are refracted by it and sent back to earth, as shown in Fig. .
Under certain atmospheric conditions, the signals can bounce several times. Amateur
radio operators (hams) use these bands to talk long distance. The military also
communicate in the HF and VHF bands.

Microwave Transmission

Above 100 MHz, the waves travel in nearly straight lines and can therefore be narrowly
focused. Concentrating all the energy into a small beam by means of a parabolic antenna
(like the familiar satellite TV dish) gives a much higher signal- to-noise ratio, but the
transmitting and receiving antennas must be accurately aligned with each other. In
addition, this directionality allows multiple transmitters lined up in a row to communicate
with multiple receivers in a row without interference, provided some minimum spacing
rules are observed. Before fiber optics, for decades these microwaves formed the heart of
the long-distance telephone transmission system. In fact, MCI, one of AT&T's first
competitors after it was deregulated, built its entire system with microwave
communications going from tower to tower tens of kilometers apart. Even the company's
name reflected this (MCI stood for Microwave Communications, Inc.). MCI has since
gone over to fiber and merged with WorldCom.

Since the microwaves travel in a straight line, if the towers are too far apart, the earth will
get in the way (think about a San Francisco to Amsterdam link). Consequently, repeaters
are needed periodically. The higher the towers are, the farther apart they can be. The
distance between repeaters goes up very roughly with the square root of the tower height.
For 100-meter-high towers, repeaters can be spaced 80 km apart.

Unlike radio waves at lower frequencies, microwaves do not pass through buildings well.
In addition, even though the beam may be well focused at the transmitter, there is still
some divergence in space. Some waves may be refracted off low- lying atmospheric
layers and may take slightly longer to arrive than the direct waves. The delayed waves
may arrive out of phase with the direct wave and thus cancel the signal. This effect is
called multipath fading and is often a serious problem. It is weather and frequency
dependent. Some operators keep 10 percent of their channels idle as spares to switch on
when multipath fading wipes out some frequency band temporarily.

The demand for more and more spectrum drives operators to yet higher frequencies.
Bands up to 10 GHz are now in routine use, but at about 4 GHz a new problem sets in:
absorption by water. These waves are only a few centimeters long and are absorbed by
rain. This effect would be fine if one were planning to build a huge outdoor microwave
oven for roasting passing birds, but for communication, it is a severe problem. As with
multipath fading, the only solution is to shut off links that are being rained on and route
around them.

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In summary, microwave communication is so widely used for long-distance telephone

communication, mobile phones, television distribution, and other uses that a severe
shortage of spectrum has developed. It has several significant advantages over fiber. The
main one is that no right of way is needed, and by buying a small plot of ground every 50
km and putting a microwave tower on it, one can bypass the telephone system and
communicate directly. This is how MCI managed to get started as a new long-distance
telephone company so quickly. (Sprint went a completely different route: it was formed
by the Southern Pacific Railroad, which already owned a large amount of right of way
and just buried fiber next to the tracks.)

Microwave is also relatively inexpensive. Putting up two simple towers (may be just big
poles with four guy wires) and putting antennas on each one may be cheaper than burying
50 km of fiber through a congested urban area or up over a mountain, and it may also be
cheaper than leasing the telephone company's fiber, especially if the telephone company
has not yet even fully paid for the copper it ripped out when it put in the fiber.

The Politics of the Electromagnetic Spectrum

To prevent total chaos, there are national and international agreements about who gets to
use which frequencies. Since everyone wants a higher data rate, everyone wants more
spectrum. National governments allocate spectrum for AM and FM radio, television, and
mobile phones, as well as for telephone companies, police, maritime, navigation, military,
government, and many other competing users. Worldwide, an agency of ITU-R (WARC)
tries to coordinate this allocation so devices that work in multiple countries can be
manufactured. However, countries are not bound by ITU-R's recommendations, and the
FCC (Federal Communication Commission), which does the allocation for the United
States, has occasionally rejected ITU-R's recommendations (usually because they
required some politically-powerful group giving up some piece of the spectrum).

Even when a piece of spectrum has been allocated to some use, such as mobile phones,
there is the additional issue of which carrier is allowed to use which frequencies. Three
algorithms were widely used in the past. The oldest algorithm, often called the beauty
contest, requires each carrier to explain why its proposal serves the public interest best.
Government officials then decide which of the nice stories they enjoy most. Having some
government official award property worth billions of dollars to his favorite company
often leads to bribery, corruption, nepotism, and worse. Furthermore, even a scrupulously
honest government official who thought that a foreign company could do a better job than
any of the national companies would have a lot of explaining to do.

This observation led to algorithm 2, holding a lottery among the interested companies.
The problem with that idea is that companies with no interest in using the spectrum can
enter the lottery. If, say, a fast food restaurant or shoe store chain wins, it can resell the
spectrum to a carrier at a huge profit and with no risk.

Bestowing huge windfalls on alert, but otherwise random, companies has been severely
criticized by many, which led to algorithm 3: auctioning off the bandwidth to the highest
bidder. When England auctioned off the frequencies needed for third-generation mobile
systems in 2000, they expected to get about $4 billion. They actually received about $40
billion because the carriers got into a feeding frenzy, scared to death of missing the
mobile boat. This event switched on nearby governments' greedy b its and inspired them
to hold their own auctions. It worked, but it also left some of the carriers with so much
debt that they are close to bankruptcy. Even in the best cases, it will take many years to
recoup the licensing fee.

A completely different approach to allocating frequencies is to not allocate them at all.

Just let everyone transmit at will but regulate the power used so that stations have such a
short range they do not interfere with each other. Accordingly, most governments have
set aside some frequency bands, called the ISM (Industrial, Scientific, Medical) bands for
unlicensed usage. Garage door openers, cordless phones, radio-controlled toys, wireless
mice, and numerous other wireless household devices use the ISM bands. To minimize
interference between these uncoordinated devices, the FCC mandates that all devices in
the ISM bands use spread spectrum techniques. Similar rules apply in other countries

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The location of the ISM bands varies somewhat from country to country. In the United
States, for example, devices whose power is under 1 watt can use the bands shown in Fig.
without requiring a FCC license. The 900-MHz band works best, but it is crowded and
not available worldwide. The 2.4-GHz band is available in most countries, but it is
subject to interference from microwave ovens and radar installations. Bluetooth and some
of the 802.11 wireless LANs operate in this band. The 5.7-GHz band is new and
relatively undeveloped, so equipment for it is expensive, but since 802.11a uses it, it will
quickly become more popular.

Figure 2-13. The ISM bands in the United States.

Infrared and Millimeter Waves

Unguided infrared and millimeter waves are widely used for short-range communication.
The remote controls used on televisions, VCRs, and stereos all use infrared
communication. They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build but have a major
drawback: they do not pass through solid objects (try standing between your remote
control and your television and see if it still works). In general, as we go from long-wave
radio toward visible light, the waves behave more and more like light and less and less
like radio.

On the other hand, the fact that infrared waves do not pass through solid walls well is also
a plus. It means that an infrared system in one room of a building will not interfere with a
similar system in adjacent rooms or buildings: you cannot control your neighbor's
television with your remote control. Furthermore, security of infrared systems against
eavesdropping is better than that of radio systems precisely for this reason. Therefore, no
government license is needed to operate an infrared system, in contrast to radio systems,
which must be licensed outside the ISM bands. Infrared communication has a limited use
on the desktop, for example, connecting notebook computers and printers, but it is not a
major player in the communication game.

Lightwave Transmission

Unguided optical signaling has been in use for centuries. Paul Revere used binary optical
signaling from the Old North Church just prior to his famous ride. A more modern
application is to connect the LANs in two buildings via lasers mounted on their rooftops.
Coherent optical signaling using lasers is inherently unidirectional, so each building
needs its own laser and its own photodetector. This scheme offers very high bandwidth
and very low cost. It is also relatively easy to install and, unlike microwave, does not
require an FCC license.

The laser's strength, a very narrow beam, is also its weakness here. Aiming a laser beam
1-mm wide at a target the size of a pin head 500 meters away requires the marksmanship
of a latter-day Annie Oakley. Usually, lenses are put into the system to defocus the beam
slightly.

A disadvantage is that laser beams cannot penetrate rain or thick fog, but they normally
work well on sunny days. However, the author once attended a conference at a modern
hotel in Europe at which the conference organizers thoughtfully provided a room full of
terminals for the attendees to read their e- mail during boring presentations. Since the
local PTT was unwilling to install a large number of telephone lines for just 3 days, the
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organizers put a laser on the roof and aimed it at their university's computer science
building a few kilometers away. They tested it the night before the conference and it
worked perfectly. At 9 a.m. the next morning, on a bright sunny day, the link failed
completely and stayed down all day. That evening, the organizers tested it again very
carefully, and once again it worked absolutely perfectly. The pattern repeated itself for
two more days consistently.

After the conference, the organizers discovered the problem. Heat from the sun during
the daytime caused convection currents to rise up from the roof of the building, as shown
in Fig. . This turbulent air diverted the beam and made it dance around the detector.
Atmospheric ''seeing'' like this makes the stars twinkle (which is why astronomers put
their telescopes on the tops of mountains-to get above as much of the atmosphere as
possible). It is also responsible for shimmering roads on a hot day and the wavy images
seen when one looks out above a hot radiator.

Communication Satellites

In the 1950s and early 1960s, people tried to set up communication systems by bouncing
signals off metallized weather balloons. Unfortunately, the received signals were too
weak to be of any practical use. Then the U.S. Navy noticed a kind of permanent weather
balloon in the sky-the moon-and built an operational system for ship-to-shore
communication by bouncing signals off it.

Further progress in the celestial communication field had to wait until the first
communication satellite was launched. The key difference between an artificial satellite
and a real one is that the artificial one can amplify the signals before sending them back,
turning a strange curiosity into a powerful communication system.

Communication satellites have some interesting properties that make them attractive for
many applications. In its simplest form, a communication satellite can be thought of as a
big microwave repeater in the sky. It contains several transponders, each of which listens
to some portion of the spectrum, amplifies the incoming signal, and then rebroadcasts it
at another frequency to avoid interference with the incoming signal. The downward
beams can be broad, covering a substantial fraction of the earth's surface, or narrow,
covering an area only hundreds of kilometers in diameter. This mode of operation is
known as a bent pipe.

According to Kepler's law, the orbital period of a satellite varies as the radius of the orbit
to the 3/2 power. The higher the satellite, the longer the period. Near the surface of the
earth, the period is about 90 minutes. Consequently, low-orbit satellites pass out of view
fairly quickly, so many of them are needed to provide continuous coverage. At an altitude

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of about 35,800 km, the period is 24 hours. At an altitude of 384,000 km, the period is
about one month, as anyone who has observed the moon regularly can testify.

A satellite's period is important, but it is not the only issue in determining where to place
it. Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts, layers of highly charged particles
trapped by the earth's magnetic field. Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed
fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earth's
magnetic field. These factors lead to three regions in which satellites can be placed safely.
These regions and some of their properties are illustrated in Fig. 2-15. Below we will
briefly describe the satellites that inhabit each of these regions.

Types Of Connectors

1. RJ 45

RJ45 may refer to:

 A registered jack connector and wiring pattern used for

connection of a high-speed modem to a telephone network
using a keyed 8P8C modular connector
 An unkeyed 8P8C modular connector, often found on
Ethernet cables

2. BNC
The BNC connector (Bayonet Neill–Concelman) is a common type
of RF connector used for coaxial cable. It is used with radio,
television, and other radio-frequency electronic equipment, test
instruments, video signals, and was once a popular computer
network connector. BNC connectors are made to match the
characteristic impedance of cable at either 50 ohms or 75 ohms.
3. RJ 11
A registered jack (RJ) is a standardized
physical network interface — both jack
construction and wiring pattern — for
connecting telecommunications or data
equipment to a service provided by a local
exchange carrier or long distance carrier. The
standard designs for these connectors and their
wiring are named RJ11, RJ14, RJ21, RJ48, etc.
Many of these interface standards are commonly
used in North America, though some interfaces
are used world-wide.

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What is OSI Model?

The OSI model (minus the physical medium) is shown in Fig. 1-20. This model is based
on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step
toward international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers (Day and
Zimmermann, 1983). It was revised in 1995 (Day, 1995). The model is called the ISO
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with connecting
open systems-that is, systems that are open for communication with other systems. We
will just call it the OSI model for short.

The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven
layers can be briefly summarized as follows:

1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across
the interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be
thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the
architecture does not become unwieldy.

Below we will discuss each layer of the model in turn, starting at the bottom layer. Note
that the OSI model itself is not a network architecture because it does not specify the
exact services and protocols to be used in each layer. It just tells what each layer should
do. However, ISO has also produced standards for all the layers, although these are not
part of the reference model itself. Each one has been published as a separate international
standard.

The Physical Layer

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The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.
The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is
received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. Typical questions here are how many
volts should be used to represent a 1 and how many for a 0, how many nanoseconds a bit
lasts, whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions, how the
initial connection is established and how it is torn down when both sides are finished, and
how many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used for. The design
issues here largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing interfaces, and the
physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.

The Data Link Layer

The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a line
that appears free of undetected transmission errors to the network layer. It accomplishes
this task by having the sender break up the input data into data frames (typically a few
hundred or a few thousand bytes) and transmit the frames sequentially. If t he service is
reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending back an
acknowledgement frame.

Another issue that arises in the data link layer (and most of the higher layers as well) is
how to keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data. Some traffic
regulation mechanism is often needed to let the transmitter know how much buffer space
the receiver has at the moment. Frequently, this flow regulation and the error handling are
integrated.

Broadcast networks have an additional issue in the data link layer: how to control access
to the shared channel. A special sublayer of the data link layer, the medium access
control sublayer, deals with this problem.

The Network Layer

The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is determining
how packets are routed from source to destination. Routes can be based on static tables
that are ''wired into'' the network and rarely changed. They can also be determined at the
start of each conversation, for example, a terminal session (e.g., a login to a remote
machine). Finally, they can be highly dynamic, being determined anew for each packet,
to reflect the current network load.

If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in o ne
another's way, forming bottlenecks. The control of such congestion also belongs to the
network layer. More generally, the quality of service provided (delay, transit time, jitter,
etc.) is also a network layer issue.

When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its destination, many
problems can arise. The addressing used by the second network may be different from the
first one. The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is too large. The
protocols may differ, and so on. It is up to the network layer to overcome all these
problems to allow heterogeneous networks to be interconnected.

In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple, so the network layer is often thin or
even nonexistent.

The Transport Layer

The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above, split it up into
smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all
arrive correctly at the other end. Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently a nd in a
way that isolates the upper layers from the inevitable changes in the hardware technology.

The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the session layer,
and, ultimately, to the users of the network. The most popular type of transport
connection is an error-free point-to-point channel that delivers messages or bytes in the

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order in which they were sent. However, other possible kinds of transport service are the
transporting of isolated messages, with no guarantee about the order of delivery, and the
broadcasting of messages to multiple destinations. The type of service is determined
when the connection is established. (As an aside, an error-free channel is impossible to
achieve; what people really mean by this term is that the error rate is low enough to
ignore in practice.)

The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer, all the way from the source to the
destination. In other words, a program on the source machine carries on a conversation
with a similar program on the destination machine, using the message headers and control
messages. In the lower layers, the protocols are between each machine and its immediate
neighbors, and not between the ultimate source and destination machines, which may be
separated by many routers. The difference between layers 1 through 3, which are chained,
and layers 4 through 7, which are end-to-end, is illustrated in Fig. 1-20.

The Session Layer

The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.
Sessions offer various services, including dialog control (keeping track of whose turn it is
to transmit), token management (preventing two parties from attempting the same critical
operation at the same time), and synchronization (checkpointing long transmissions to
allow them to continue from where they were after a crash).

The Presentation Layer

Unlike lower layers, which are mostly concerned with moving bits around, the
presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted. In order to make it possible for computers with different data representations
to communicate, the data structures to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way,
along with a standard encoding to be used ''on the wire.'' The presentation layer manages
these abstract data structures and allows higher- level data structures (e.g., banking
records), to be defined and exchanged.

The Application Layer

The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users.
One widely- used application protocol is HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), which is
the basis for the World Wide Web. When a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name
of the page it wants to the server using HTTP. The server then sends the page back. Other
application protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news.

PROTOCOLS IN NETWORKING

A communications protocol is a system of digital message formats and rules for

exchanging those messages in or between computing systems and in telecommunications.
A protocol may have a formal description.

Protocols may include signaling, authentication and error detection and correction
capabilities.

A protocol definition defines the syntax, semantics, and synchronization of

communication; the specified behavior is typically independent of how it is to be
implemented. A protocol can therefore be implemented as hardware or software or both.

Few common protocols are.

1. ftp
2. http

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3. nwlink
4. nntp
5. netbeui
6. tcp/ip
1. Ftp:
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer files from
one host to another host over a TCP-based network, such as the Internet. FTP is built on a
client-server architecture and utilizes separate control and data connections between the
client and server.
2. HTTP:
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application protocol for distributed,
collaborative, hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data
communication for the World Wide Web
3. NWLINK:
NWLink IPX/SPX/NetBIOS Compatible Transport is Microsoft's implementation of the
Novell IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange /Sequenced Packet Exchange) protocol
stack. The Windows XP implementation of the IPX/SPX protocol stack adds NetBIOS
support. The main function of NWLink is to act as a transport protocol to route packets
through internetworks. By itself, the NWLink protocol does not allow you to access the
data across the network. If you want to access NetWare File and Print Services, you must
install NWLink and Client Services for NetWare (software that works at the upper layers
of the OSI model to allow access to File and Print services). One advantage of using
NWLink is that is easy to install and configure.
4. NNTP:
The Network Ne ws Transfer Protocol (NNTP) is an Internet application protocol used
for transporting Usenet news articles (netnews) between news servers and for reading and
posting articles by end user client applications. Brian Kantor of the University of
California, San Diego and Phil Lapsley of the University of California, Berkeley authored
RFC 977, the specification for the Network News Transfer Protocol, in March 1986.
Other contributors included Stan O. Barber from the Baylor College of Medicine and
Erik Fair of Apple Computer.
5. NETBEUI:
NetBIOS is an acronym for Network Basic Input/Output System. It provides services
related to the session layer of the OSI model allowing applications on separate computers
to communicate over a local area network.
6. TCP/IP:

TCP/IP is the communication protocol for communication between computers on the

Internet.

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / InternetProtocol.

TCP/IP defines how electronic devices (like computers) should be connected to the
Internet, and how data should be transmitted between them

TCP

TCP is for communication between applications.

If one application wants to communicate with another via TCP, it sends a communication
request. This request must be sent to an exact address. After a "handshake" between the
two applications, TCP will set up a "full-duplex" communication between the two
applications.

The "full-duplex" communication will occupy the communication line between the two
computers until it is closed by one of the two applications.

UDP is very similar to TCP, but simpler and less reliable.

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IP:
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol is a network communication
protocol. It can be used as a communications protocol on private networks and it is
the default protocol in use on the internet. When you set up any system to have
direct access to the Internet, whether it is via dial-up or one of the high speed
technologies in use today, your system will need to utilize the TCP/IP protocol
whether it is a Windows based system or not.
Also, if the given system needs to communicate to other TCP/IP systems on the local
LAN or WAN it will need to utilize the TCP/IP protocol as well.
TCP/IP version 4 (IPv4) addresses are made of up four 8-bit fields (octets) and are
32-bits in size total. Microsoft TCP/IP version 4 supports the standard classes of
address, which defines which bits are used for the network ID and which bits are used
for the host ID. There are five TCP/IP version 4 (IPv4) addresses, although for the
most part, only the A, B, and C classes are used. The system of IP address classes
described here form the basis for IP address assignment. Classless Inter-Domain
Routing (CIDR) addressing is now being used more often and I will cover that later in
the article. Classless Inter-Domain Routing is making the IP address classes in their
current for "less defined", for lack of a better term. Still, the classes form the base of
any addressing scheme.
TCP/IP version 4 address are made of both a network ID and a host ID. The network
ID address identifies the physical network where the hosts exist. The host ID address
identifies the individual TCP/IP host on a network. The host ID must be unique on the
internal network, that is, no two nodes on a given network can have the same
network ID AND host ID.
TCP/IP version 6 (IPv6) addresses are a set of specifications from the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) and has been designed to overcome the current
shortage of addresses under TCP/IP version 4. TCP/IP version 6 also has some other
built in improvements that goes beyond the scope of the discussion here. The single
most important thing you will need to know for the 70-270 exam (a little more depth
may be needed for the upcoming Exam 70-275: Installing, Configuring and
Administering Microsoft .NET Server and Exam 70-276: Implementing and
Administering
a Microsoft .NET Server Network Infrastructure) is that IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in
length as opposed to 32 bits under IPv4.
Subnet Masks - Implementing subnewtorks (commonly referred to as subnets in the
field) helps to control network traffic. Every node on the same physical Ethernet
network sees all the packets of data sent out on the network. Often this has the
result of multiple collisions causing network performance to be slow. Routers or
gateways are used to separate networks into subnets. Subnet masks on each of the
nodes allow the nodes on the same subnetwork to continue to communicate with one
another and to the routers or gateways they use to send their messages.
Network Address : 158.21.0.0
Subnet Mask : 255.255.0.0
CLASSES OF IP ADRESSES:
TCP/IP Class A Address Overview
The "A" class addressing scheme has an official start address of 0.0.0.0 and an official
last address of 127.255.255.255.
Not all of these address can be used and you will OFTEN see conflicting information on
this.1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 is the range of IP addresses that are included in the "A"
class addressing scheme that are the useable range for node assignment126.255.255.255
is a broadcast address and in most case cannot be assigned. (There are exceptions to the
rule.)
The local host will use 0.0.0.0 when it cannot reach a DHCP server when it is set to
use one and cannot assign itself an address using APIPA.1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 is
the useable range.
There are 126 Class A networks total, each allowed to have up to 16,777,214 hosts
The 127.x.x.x range is used for internal host loopback There are three IP network
addresses reserved for private networks. 10.0.0.0 -10.255.255.255 with the subnet mask
255.0.0.0 is the range for Class A IP addresses.
They can be used by anyone setting up internal IP networks, such as a lab or home
LAN behind a NAT or proxy server or a router. It is always safe to use these because
routers on the Internet will never forward packets coming from these addresses.

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These addresses are defined in RFC 1918.

While 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 addresses with the subnet mask 255.0.0.0 are
available to only internal IP networks, they are still considered part of the Class "A"
range.
TCP/IP Class B Address Overview
The "B" class addressing scheme has an official start address of 128.0.0.0 and an
official last address of 191.255.255.255.Not all of these address can be used and you will
OFTEN see conflicting information on this.128.0.0.1 to 191.255.255.254 is the range of
IP addresses that are included in the "B" class addressing scheme that are the useable
range for node assignment. The local host will use 0.0.0.0 when it cannot reach a DHCP
server when it is set to use one and cannot assign itself an address using APIPA.
There are three IP network addresses reserved for private networks. 172.16.0.0 -
172.31.255.255 with the subnet mask 255.240.0.0 is the range for Class B IP
addresses.
They can be used by anyone setting up internal IP networks, such as a lab or home
LAN behind a NAT or proxy server or a router. It is always safe to use these because
routers on the Internet will never forward packets coming from these addresses.
These addresses are defined in RFC 1918. While 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 addresses
with the subnet mask 255.240.0.0 are available to only internal IP networks, they are still
considered part of the Class "B" range.
TCP/IP Class C Address Overview
The "C" class addressing scheme has an official start address of 192.0.0.0 and an
official last address of 223.255.255.255.
Not all of these address can be used and you will OFTEN see conflicting information on
this. 192.0.0.1 to 223.255.255.254 is the range of IP addresses that are included in the
"C" class addressing scheme that are the useable range for node assignment.
The local host will use 0.0.0.0 when it cannot reach a DHCP server when it is set to
use one and cannot assign itself an address using APIPA. There are three IP network
addresses reserved for private networks. 192.168.0.0 -192.168.255.255 with the subnet
mask 255.255.0.0 is the range for Class C IP
addresses.They can be used by anyone setting up internal IP networks, such as a lab or
homeLAN behind a NAT or proxy server or a router. It is always safe to use these
because routers on the Internet will never forward packets coming from these addresses.
These addresses are defined in RFC 1918. While 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255
addresses with the subnet mask 255.255.0.0 are available to only internal IP networks,
they are still considered part of the Class "C"range.
TCP/IP Class D Address Overview
The IP version 4 addresses of 224.0.0.0 through 239.255.255.255 are set aside
through IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) as a special class of addresses
for Multicast uses. At the present, ISPs are unable to allocate Class D address space
to their customers. These addresses must be allocated through IANA.
Class D addresses are only required if you wish to be a multicast source. You can still
receive multicast data without the need for a separate Class D address.
TCP/IP Class E Address Overview
The IP version 4 addresses of 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.255 are set aside through
IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) as a special class of addresses for
experimental and future use.
The IP address of 255.255.255.255 broadcasts to all hosts on the local network and
therefore, is not to be considered as part of the E class of IP addresses.
"The fact that the grass is greener on the other side of the fence is directly
proportional to how much manure is being used on the property"

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Practical Portion
PRACTICAL #1: INSTALLING AND CONFIGURING MODEM

Modem overview
Telephone lines that are used in a conventional phone system are designed to transmit
human speech with analog signals. Analog signals vary continuously, like waves, along
their length. Computers store and process data in digital format and communicate both
internally and with each other in binary digits.

When two computers communicate with each other over a conventional phone line, a
modem translates the binary information from the computer at the sending end to an
analog signal that can pass over the phone line. At the receiving end, another modem
translates the analog signal back to binary information that can be used by the computer.
The conversion from binary to analog information is called modulation and the
conversion back from analog to binary is called demodulation. The word modem, short
for modulator/demodulator, is the name for the device that performs these conversions.

Both standard modems and fax machines perform this conversion. When you
communicate over analog telephone lines, you use standard modems. There are also
ISDN and cable modems that provide digital communication. They enable computers to
transmit digital information directly without the conversion over special lines. The most
recent developments with the fastest transmissions are broadband techno logies such as
cable or DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) that transmit over cable or phone lines as waves
similar to radio or television.

Installing a modem
To install the modem hardware on your computer, refer to the manufacturer's
documentation. Generally, the following instructions apply:

 If you have an internal modem with jumpers, set the jumpers for Plug and Play for
the Windows Server 2003 family or, if that option is unavailable, for Windows 95,
Windows 98, Windows NT, Windows 2000, or Windows Millennium Edition.

 Install an internal modem in an empty slot. Attach an external serial modem to an

unused COM port.

 If you have an external modem, ensure that it is attached to the computer, plugged
into the power source, and turned on before you turn on the computer and start
Windows.

 Ensure that your modem is properly connected to the phone line and to your
computer.

Most modems manufactured now are compatible with Plug and Play and installed
automatically after they are connected to the computer. However, olde r modems and
external serial modems may not be detected. If your modem is not installed automatically,
then use Phone and Modem Options in Control Panel to install it manually. To install a
modem, see Install a modem. To choose the modem type manually, see Install an
unsupported modem.

Setting hardware connections

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A modem has to be connected to the telephone system and to a power source.

Telephone connections
Both internal and external modems use a modular phone cord, called an RJ-11 coupler.
Usually, a new modem includes the coupler. If you have an older, four-pronged jack, you
may also need an adapter to connect to your phone line.

If your office has digital, PBX or multiline phones, you cannot connect a modem directly
to the phone system. You need to either install a standard line or install a device that
connects your modem to one of these systems. See your computer or telephone supplier
for specialized solutions.

Power connections
Internal modems are powered directly by the computer. External modems usually come
with a power adapter, but are sometimes powered by the computer. Most portable
modems for portable computers use batteries, although they often come with an adapter
too. Some are powered directly from the computer. Modems use different sizes and styles
of adapters, so if you lose the adapter, you need to get a new one from the modem or
computer manufacturer. Refer to the manufacturer's documentation for additional
information about the power requirements of your computer.

Cabling Connections
External serial modems connect to the computer with a serial cable, also called an RS-
232 cable. If a cable is not provided with your modem, make sure you get one that fits
both your computer's serial port and the modem's port.

Practical #2: DSL CONFIGURATION

Step 1: Connecting to the Splitter, Power Connection & LAN cable.

1 Line hole connects to PTCL wire or Wall phone Jack (RJ-11 Jack).
2 Modem hole connects to the DSL jack of the ADSL CPE (Customer Premises
Equipment).
3 Phone hole connects to a telephone set.
4 Connect the Power Adapter to the AC power plug and attach the connector of
adapter to the CPE and switch it on.
5 Attach one end of LAN wire (RJ-45) to the LAN interface of CPE and the other
end to the LAN wire to the LAN interface of computer‘s LAN card.
6 Link Indicator lights will lit up and show the connectivity. ADSL light will start
blinking and soon will be static as a sign of connectivity with our system, if the
line is properly jumpered in PTCL premises with the DSLAM (Digital
Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer).Joint less and direct cable line from the
nearest PTCL pole or cabinet must be connecting to your splitter and then all
the phone extensions must be taken from the phone hole of splitter. The Drop
wire distance from PTCL pole or Cabinet must not be ideally more than 50
meters.(Twisted pair wire can be longer)
Step 2: ADSL Configuration in CPE
and Computer
1. Go to Start Menu < Control Panel <
Network and Internet Connections <
Network
Connections. Check that the Local Area
Connection is enabled. Right click local
Area network and click properties.
Following window will be shown.

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Double click ―internet protocol (TCP/IP)‖, Check “Use the following IP

address” and make the following settings:
IP Address: 192.168.1.3
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Gateway: 192.168.1.1
Then, check “Use the following DNS server addresses” and make
the following settings:
Preferred DNS Server: 203.99.163.240
Alternate DNS Server:
203.135.0.170

3. Now open Internet Explorer and write ―192.168.1.1” in address bar and press
enter. There must not be any proxy setting in the internet Explorer.
A small pop up window will open as shown in the figure below and ask ”User Name”
and “Password” for opening the CPE‘s interface.
Enter User Name: ZXDSL and Password: ZXDSL and press OK.
Note: ―Both username & password must be written in capital letters.‖

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4. CPE configuration will be opened. This will show Modem Status. Click the
Connection Setting.

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5. Connection Settings show current active connection as shown in the figure. Click
create new connection service

6. In create new connection window. Select ―PPP over Ethernet”

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7. Enter VPI=0 and VCI=103 for Copper number & VPI=8 and VCI=81 for ONU Fiber
Optics number. Select Authentication protocol as ―PAP” and enter username and
Password. Click ―Create this new service”.

8. Now Connection settings window will be opened and shows current active
connections

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9. Click Advance settings and then on Security .Security Interface Configuration is

shown. Click Add Interface.

10. Following figure will be shown. Click Apply.

11. Security Interface Configuration will be opened. Click Enable NAT to interface.

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12. Following window will be opened.

13. Click System Settings and then on DHCP Server. In DHCP Server Configuration,
Click on Enable DHCPServer and Apply

14. Click on ADSL. ADSL Configuration Window will be opened. Select Standard:
G.DmtBisPlus and ActiveLine: Start. Click Startup.

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15. Click Maintenance and then on save. In save configuration, click save

16. Finally, save configuration will be completed showing the following window.

17. Now restart the Router. Click on Restart.

18. Go again to Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties and Select Obtain an IP address
automatically and leave the DNS server addresses unchanged as shown in the picture

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below and press Ok.

Now, open the Internet Explorer and start browsing the sites for successful configuration
and
DSL connection establishment.

Practical#3:Creating Straight Through,Cross cable,RollOver Cables

NETWORK CABLE AND CONNECTORS

There are several classifications of cable used for twisted-pair networks. I'll skip right
over them and state that I use and recommend Category 5 (or CAT 5) cable for all new
installations. Likewise, there are several fire code classifications for the outer insulation
of CAT 5 cable. I use CMR cable, or "riser cable," for most of the wiring I do. You
should also be aware of CMP or plenum cable (a plenum is used to distribute air in a
building). You may be required by local, state or national codes to use the more
expensive plenum-jacketed cable if it runs through suspended ceilings, ducts, or other
areas, if they are used to circulate air or act as an air passage from one room to
another. If in doubt, use plenum. CMR cable is generally acceptable for all applications
not requiring plenum cable.

CAT 5 wire is available in reel-in-box packaging. This is very handy

for pulling the wire without putting twists in it. Without this kind of
package or a cable reel stand, pulling wire is a two-person job. Before
the advent of the reel-in-box, we used to put a reel
of wire on a broom handle to pull it. One
person would hold the broom handle and the
other would pull and measure the cable. You will
produce a tangled mess, if you pull the wire off the end of the
reel.

Stranded wire patch cables are often specified for cable segments running from a wall
jack to a PC and for patch panels. They are more flexible than solid core wire. However,

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the rational for using it is that the constant flexing of patch cables may wear-out solid
core cable--break it. I don't think this is a real concern in the average small
network. For example, I have one solid core cable going to my work bench. It has
probably flexed and average person's lifetime of flexes from the many many times I have
connected customer computers to my network. Also, stranded cable is susceptible to
degradation from moisture infiltration, may use an alternate color code, and should not be
used for cables longer than 3 Meters (about 10 feet).

Most of the wiring I do simply connects computers directly to other computers or

hubs. Solid core cable is quite suitable for this purpose and for many home and small
business networks. I find it also quite acceptable for use as patch cables. You might
consider a stranded wire patch cable if you have a notebook computer you are constantly
moving around.

CAT 5 cable has four twisted pairs of wire for a total of eight individually insulated
wires. Each pair is color coded with one wire having a solid color (blue, orange, green,
or brown) twisted around a second wire with a white background and a stripe of the same
color. The solid colors may have a white stripe in some cables. Cable colors are
commonly described using the background color followed by the color of the stripe; e.g.,
white-orange is a cable with a white background and an orange stripe.

CONNECTORS. The straight through and cross-over patch cables discussed in this
article are terminated with CAT 5 RJ-45 modular plugs. RJ-45 plugs are similar to those
you'll see on the end of your telephone cable except they have eight versus four or six
contacts on the end of the plug and they are about twice as big. Make sure they are rated
for CAT 5 wiring. (RJ means "Registered Jack"). Also, there are RJ-45 plugs designed
for both solid core wire and stranded wire. Others are designed specifically for one kind
of wire or the other. Be sure you buy plugs appropriate for the wire you are going to
use. I use plugs designed to accommodate both kinds of wire.

NETWORK CABLE TOOLS

Last updated: 2/11/2000

Modular Plug Crimp Tool. You will need

a modular crimp tool. This one is very
similar to the one I have been using for
many years for all kinds of telephone cable
work and it works just fine for Ethernet
cables. You don't need a lot of bells and whistles, just a tool which will securely crimp
RJ-45 connectors. This one is made by Eclipse Enterprises, Inc. Even though the
crimper has cutters which can be used to cut the cable and individual wires, and possibly
stripping the outer jacket, I find that the following tools are better for stripping and
cutting the cable...

Universal UTP Stripping Tool (Eclipse). I recently

bought one of these tools and it works slick, and it
makes a much neater cut. I recommend that you
purchase one if you will
be making many cables.

Diagonal Cutters ("4 to 6"). It is easier to use diagonal

cutters ("diags" or "dikes") to cut the cable off at the
reel and to fine tune the cable ends during assembly. Also,
if you don't have a stripper, you can strip the cable by using a small knife (X-acto, utility,
etc.) to carefully slice the outer jacket longitudinally and use the diags to cut it off
around the circumference.

A LITTLE THEORY

Now, bear with me, you need to understand some of this stuff...

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The 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX Ethernets consist of two transmission lines. Each
transmission line is a pair of twisted wires. One pair receives data signals and the other
pair transmits data signals. A balanced line driver or transmitter is at one end of one of
these lines and a line receiver is at the other end. A (much) simplified schematic for one
of these lines and its transmitter and receiver follow:

Pulses of energy travel down the transmission line at about the speed of light (186,000
miles/second). The principal components of one of these pulses of energy is the voltage
potential between wires and current flowing near the surface of the wires. This energy
can also be considered as residing in the magnetic field which surrounds the wires and
the electric field between the wires. In other words, an electromagnetic wave which is
guided by, and travels down the wires.

The main concern is the transient magnetic fields which surrounds the wires and the
magnetic fields generated externally by the other transmission lines in the cable, other
network cables, electric motors, fluorescent lights, telephone and electric lines, lightning,
etc. This is known as noise. Magnetic fields induce their own pulses in a transmission
line which may literally bury the Ethernet pulses, the conveyor of the information being
sent down the line.

The twisted-pair Ethernet employs two principle means for combating noise. The first is
the use of balanced transmitters and receivers. A signal pulse actually consists of two
simultaneous pulses relative to ground: a negative pulse on one line and a positive pulse
on the other. The receiver detects the total difference between these two pulses. Since a
pulse of noise (shown in red in the diagram) usually produces pulses of the same polarity
on both lines one pulse is essentially canceled by out the other at the receiver. Also, the
magnetic field surrounding one wire from a signal pulse is a mirror of the one on the
other wire. At a very short distance from the two wires the magnetic fields are opposite
and have a tendency to cancel the effect of each other out. This reduces the line's impact
on the other pair of wires and the rest of the world.

The second and the primary means of reducing cross-talk--the term cross-talk came from
the ability to (over) hear conversations on other lines on your phone--between the pairs in
the cable, is the double helix configuration produced by twisting the wires together. This
configuration produces symmetrical (identical) noise signals in each wire. Ideally, their
difference, as detected at the receiver, is zero. In actuality it is much reduced.

COLOR-CODE STANDARDS

Again, please bear with me... Let's start with simple pin-out diagrams of the two types of
UTP Ethernet cables and watch how committees can make a can of worms out of
them. Here are the diagrams:

Note that the TX (transmitter) pins are connected to corresponding RX (receiver) pins,
plus to plus and minus to minus. And that you must use a crossover cable to connect

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units with identical interfaces. If you use a straight-through cable, one of the two units
must, in effect, perform the cross-over function.

Two wire color-code standards apply: EIA/TIA 568A and EIA/TIA 568B. The codes are
commonly depicted with RJ-45 jacks as follows (the view is from the front of the jacks):

If we apply the 568A color code and show all eight wires, our pin-out looks like this:

Note that pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 and the blue and brown pairs are not used in either
standard. Quite contrary to what you may read elsewhere, these pins and wires are not
used or required to implement 100BASE-TX duplexing--they are just plain wasted.

However, the actual cables are not physically that simple. In the diagrams, the orange
pair of wires are not adjacent. The blue pair is upside-down. The right ends match RJ-45
jacks and the left ends do not. If, for example, we invert the left side of the 568A
"straight"-thru cable to match a 568A jack--put one 180° twist in the entire cable from
end-to-end--and twist together and rearrange the appropriate pairs, we get the following
can-of- worms:

This further emphasizes, I

hope, the importance of the word
"twist" in making network cables
which will work. You cannot use
an flat- untwisted telephone
cable for a network
cable. Furthermore,
you must use a pair of twisted
wires to connect a set of transmitter pins to their corresponding receiver pins. You
cannot use a wire from one pair and another wire from a different pair.

Keeping the above principles in mind, we can simplify the diagram for a 568A straight-
thru cable by untwisting the wires, except the 180° twist in the entire cable, and bending
the ends upward. Likewise, if we exchange the green and orange pairs in the 568A
diagram we will get a simplified diagram for a 568B straight-thru cable. If we cross the
green and orange pairs in the 568A diagram we will arrive at a simplified diagram for a
crossover cable. All three are shown below.

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LET'S MAKE IT SIMPLE

Last updated: 8/17/2000

There are only two unique cable ends in

the preceding diagrams. They correspond
to the 568A and 568B RJ-45 jacks and are
shown to the right.

Again, the wires with colored

backgrounds may have white stripes and
may be denoted that way in diagrams
found elsewhere. For example, the green
wire may be labeled Green-White--I don't
bother. The background color is always
specified first.

Now, all you need to remember, to

properly configure the cables, are the
diagrams for the two cable ends and the
following rules:

 A straight-thru cable has identical ends.

 A crossover cable has different ends.

It makes no functional difference which standard you use for a straight-thru cable. You
can start a crossover cable with either standard as long as the other end is the other
standard. It makes no functional difference which end is which. Despite what you may
have read elsewhere, a 568A patch cable will work in a network with 568B wiring and
568B patch cable will work in a 568A network. The electrons couldn't care less.

My preference is to use the 568A standard for straight-thru cables and to start
crossover cables with a 568A end. That way all I have to remember is the diagram
for the 568A end, that a straight-thru cable has two of them, and that the green and
orange pairs are swapped at the other end of a crossover cable .

LET'S MAKE SOME CABLES

Last updated: 5/20/02

1. Pull the cable off the reel to the desired length and cut. I have a box of
cable at one end of my shop and a mark on the floor 10' away. For cable
lengths which are a fraction of ten feet, I eye-ball the length as I pull the
cable out of the box (also, my feet are about one foot long). For longer cables,
I pull it out to the ten foot mark and go back to the box and pull the remaining
fraction or another ten feet. If you are pulling cables through walls, a hole in
the floor, etc., it easier to attach the RJ-45 plugs after the cable is pulled. The
total length of wire segments between a PC and a hub or between two PC's
cannot exceed 100 Meters (328 feet or about the length of a football field) for
100BASE-TX (and 10BASE-T).

2. Strip one end of the cable with the stripper or a knife and diags. If you are
using the stripper, place the cable in the groove on the blade (left) side of the
stripper and align the end of the cable with the right side of the stripper. This

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is about right to strip a little over 1/2" of the jacket off the cable. Turn the stripper about
one turn or so. If you turn it much more, you will probably nick the wires. The idea is to
score the outer jacket, but not go all the way through. Once scored, you should be able to
twist the end of the jacket loose and pull it off with one hand while holding the rest of the
cable with the other. If you are using a knife and diags, carefully slit the cable for about
an inch or so and neatly trim around the circumference of the cable with the diags to
remove the jacket.

3. Inspect the wires for nicks. Cut off the end and start over if you see any. You may
have to adjust the blade with the screw at the front stripper. Cable diameters and jacket
thicknesses vary.

4. Spread and arrange the pairs roughly in the order of the desired cable end.

5. Untwist the pairs and arrange the wires in the order of the desired cable end. Flatten
the end between your thumb and forefinger. Trim the ends of the wires so they are even
with one another. It is very important that the unstripped (untwisted) end be slightly
less than 1/2"

long. If i t is longer than 1/2" it will be out-

of-spec and susceptible to crosstalk. If it less than slightly less than 1/2" it
will not be properly clinched when RJ-45 plug is crimped on.. Flatten again. There
should be little or no space between the wires.

6. Hold the RJ-45 plug with the clip facing down or away from you. Push the wire
firmly into the plug. Now, inspect the darn thing... before crimping and wasting the
plug! Looking through the bottom of the plug, the wire on the far left side will have a
white background. The wires should alternate light and dark from left to right. The
furthest right wire is brown. The wires should all end evenly at the front of the plug. The
jacket should end just about where you see it in the diagram--right on the line. Aren't you
glad you didn't crimp the plug?

ALL ABOUT CRIMPING

Last updated: 2/11/2000

7. Hold the wire near the RJ-45 plug with the clip down and firmly push it into the left
side of the front of the crimper (it will only go in one way). Hold the wire in place
squeeze the crimper handles quite firmly. This is what will happen:

(Crimp it once.) The crimper pushes two plungers down on the RJ-45 plug. One forces
what amounts to a cleverly designed plastic plug/wedge onto the cable jacket and very

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firmly clinches it. The other seats the "pins," each with two teeth at its end, through the
insulation and into the conductors of their respective wires.

8. Test the crimp... If done properly an average person will not be able to pull the plug
off the cable with his or her bare hands. And that quite simply, besides lower cost, is the
primary advantage of twisted-pair cables over the older thinwire, coaxial cables. In fact,
I would say the RJ-45 and ease of its installation is the main reason coaxial cable is no
longer widely used for small Ethernets. But, don't pull that hard on the plug. It could
stretch the cable and change its characteristics. Look at the side of the plug and see if it
looks like the diagram and give it a fairly firm tug to make sure it is crimped well.

9. Prepare the other end of the cable so it has the desired end and crimp.

10. If both ends of the cable are within reach, hold them next to each other and with RJ-
45 clips facing away. Look through the bottom of the plugs. If the plugs are wired
correctly, and they are identical, it is a straight-thru cable. If they are wired correctly and
they are different, it is a crossover cable.

11. If you have an operational network, test the cable. Copy some large files.

12. If the cable doesn't work, inspect the ends again and make sure you have the right
cable and that it is plugged into the correct units for the type of cable. Try power-cycling
(cold booting) the involved computers.

13. If you have many straight-thru cables and a crossover cable in your system, you
should consider labeling the crossover cable or using a different colored cable for the
crossover cable so you don't mix them up. I do not recommend implementing the
crossover function, as recommended elsewhere, with two RJ-45 jacks, appropriately
wired back to back, and two straight-thru cables. This method costs noticeably more,
introduces more than the necessary number of components and connections, increases the
complexity and time of assembly, and decreases reliability.

CABLING RULES
Last updated: 2/23/2003

1. Try to avoid running cables parallel to power cables.

2. Do not bend cables to less than four times the diameter of the cable.

3. If you bundle a group of cables together with cable ties (zip ties), do not over-cinch
them. It's okay to snug them together firmly; but don't tighten them so much that you
deform the cables.

4. Keep cables away from devices which can introduce noise into them. Here's a short
list: copy machines, electric heaters, speakers, printers, TV sets, fluorescent lights,
copiers, welding machines, microwave ovens, telephones, fans, elevators, motors, electric
ovens, dryers, washing machines, and shop equipment.

5. Avoid stretching UTP cables (tension when pulling cables should not exceed 25 LBS).

6. Do not run UTP cable outside of a building. It presents a very dangerous

lightning hazard!

7. Do not use a stapler to secure UTP cables. Use telephone wire/RG-6 coaxial wire
hangers which are available at most hardware stores.

Practical#4:Basic Commands for Troubleshooting

Ping, ipconfig / all, ipconfig / renew, ipconfig / release, trace route,
PING - Ping can be used to test your TCP/IP connection by sending a message to
the remote node or gateway from a local system. (It can also be used to test the
loopback locally only to see if it is working correctly.) If the remote node or gateway

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receives the message, it responds with a reply message. The reply consists of the
remote's IP address, the number of byt es in the message, how long it took to reply-
given in milliseconds (ms), the length of time-to-live (TTL) in seconds and it will also
show any pack loss in terms of percentages.

Pinging 127.0.0.1 with 32 bytes of data:

Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128

Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128
Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128
Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128

Ping statistics for 127.0.0.1:

Packets: Sent = 4, Received = 4, Lost = 0 (0% loss),
Approximate round trip times in milli-seconds:
Minimum = 0ms, Maximum = 0ms, Average = 0ms

Usage: ping [-t] [-a] [-n count] [-l size] [-f] [-i TTL] [-v TOS]
[-r count] [-s count] [[-j host-list] | [-k host-list]]
[-w timeout] target_name

Switches:

 -t Ping the specified host until stopped. To see statistics and continue - type
Control-Break; To stop - type Control-C.
 -a Resolve addresses to hostnames.
 -n count Number of echo requests to send.
 -l size Send buffer size.
 -f Set Don't Fragment flag in packet.
 -i TTL Time To Live.
 -v TOS Type Of Service.
 -r count Record route for count hops.
 -s count Timestamp for count hops.
 -j host-list Loose source route along host -list.
 -k host-list Strict source route along host -list.
 -w timeout Timeout in milliseconds to wait for each reply.

ARP - Displays and modifies the IP-to-Physical address translation tables used by
address resolution protocol (ARP).

ARP -s inet_addr eth_addr [if_addr]

ARP -d inet_addr [if_addr]
ARP -a [inet_addr] [-N if_addr]

 -a Displays current ARP entries by interrogating the current protocol data. If

inet_addr is specified, the IP and Physical addresses for only the specified
computer are displayed. If more than one network interface uses ARP, entries
for each ARP table are displayed.
 -g Same as -a.
 inet_addr Specifies an internet address.
 -N if_addr Displays the ARP entries for the network interface specified by
if_addr.
 -d Deletes the host specified by inet_addr. inet_addr may be wildcarded with
* to delete all hosts.
 -s Adds the host and associates the Internet address inet_addr with the
Physical address
 eth_addr. The Physical address is given as 6 hexadecimal bytes separated by
hyphens. The entry is permanent.
 eth_addr Specifies a physical address.
 if_addr If present, this specifies the Internet address of the interface whose
address translation table should be modified. If not present, the first
applicable interface will be used.

Example:
> arp -s 157.55.85.212 00-aa-00-62-c6-09 .... Adds a static entry.
> arp -a .... Displays the arp table.

IPCONFIG - Use the ipconfig command to get the local system's basic IP
configuration information, including the IP address, subnet mask, and default
gateway.

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The IPCONFIG/all switch produces a detailed configuration report for all interfaces,
including any configured remote access adapters.

USAGE: ipconfig [/? | /all | /renew [adapter] | /release [adapter] | /flushdns |

/displaydns | /registerdns | /showclassid adapter | /setclassid adapter [classid] ]

 /all Display full configuration information.

 /release Release the IP address for the specified adapter.
 /renew Renew the IP address for the specified adapter.
 /flushdns Purges the DNS Resolver cache.
 /registerdns Refreshes all DHCP leases and re-registers DNS names
 /displaydns Display the contents of the DNS Resolver Cache.
 /showclassid Displays all the dhcp class IDs allowed for adapter.
 /setclassid Modifies the dhcp class id.

The default is to display only the IP address, subnet mask and default gateway for
each adapter bound to TCP/IP.

For Release and Renew, if no adapter name is specified, then the IP addre ss leases
for all adapters bound to TCP/IP will be released or renewed.

NBTSTAT - NetBT Statistics (Nbtstat.exe) is used for troubleshooting network

NetBIOS names over TCP/IP (NetBT) resolution problems from the command line. It
displays protocol statistics and current TCP/IP connections that are using NetBT.

When a network is functioning, NetBT resolves NetBIOS names to IP addresses. It

uses several options for NetBIOS name resolution, including local cache lookup,
WINS server query, broadcast, Lmhosts and Hosts file lookup, and DNS server query.

Displays protocol statistics and current TCP/IP connections using NBT

(NetBIOS over TCP/IP).

NBTSTAT [ [-a RemoteName] [-A IP address] [-c] [-n] [-r] [-R] [-RR] [-s] [-S]
[interval] ]

 -a (adapter status) Lists the remote machine's name table given its name
 -A (Adapter status) Lists the remote machine's name table given its IP
address.
 -c (cache)Lists NBT's cache of remote [machine] names and their IP
addresses
 -n (names)Lists local NetBIOS names.
 -r (resolved) Lists names resolved by broadcast and via WINS
 -R (Reload) Purges and reloads the remote cache name table
 -S (Sessions) Lists sessions table with the destination IP addresses
 -s (sessions) Lists sessions table converting destination IP addresses to
computer NETBIOS names.
 -RR(ReleaseRefresh) Sends Name Release packets to WINS and then, starts
Refresh

 RemoteName - Remote host machine name.

 IP address - Dotted decimal representation of the IP address.
 interval - Redisplays selected statistics, pausing interval seconds between
each display. Press Ctrl+C to stop redisplaying statistics.

NETSTAT - Netstat (Netstat.exe) displays TCP/IP protocol statistics and active

connections to and from your computer from the command line and also provides an
option to display the number of bytes sent and received, as well as network packets
dropped (if any).

NETSTAT [-a] [-e] [-n] [-o] [-s] [-p proto] [-r] [interval]

 -a Displays all connections and listening ports.

 -e Displays Ethernet statistics. This may be c ombined with the -s option.
 -n Displays addresses and port numbers in numerical form.
 -o Displays the owning process ID associated with each connection.
 -p proto Shows connections for the protocol specified by proto; proto may be
any of: TCP, UDP TCPv6, or UDPv6. If used with the –s option to display per-
protocol statistics, proto may be any of: IP, IPv6, ICMP, ICMPv6, TCP, TCPv6,
UDP, or UDPv6.

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 -r Displays the routing table.

 -s Displays per-protocol statistics. By default, statistics are shown for IP, IPv6,
ICMP, ICMPv6, TCP, TCPv6, UDP, and UDPv6; the -p option may be used to
specify a subset of the default.
 interval Redisplays selected statistics, pausing interval seconds between each
display. Press CTRL+C to stop redisplaying statistics. If omitted, netstat will
print the current configuration information once.

ROUTE - You can use the route command line tool to display the current IP routing
table and add or delete IP routes.

ROUTE [-f] [-p] [command] [destination] [MASK netmask] [gateway] [METRIC

metric] [IF interface]

 -f Clears the routing tables of all gateway entries. If this is used in

conjunction with one of the commands, the tables are cleared prior to running
the command.
 -p When used with the ADD command, makes a route persistent across boots
of the system. By default, routes are not preserved when the system is
restarted. Ignored for all other commands, which always affect the
appropriate persistent routes.

commands

 PRINT Prints a route

 ADD Adds a route
 DELETE Deletes a route
 CHANGE Modifies an existing route

 destination - Specifies the host.

 MASK -Specifies that the next parameter is the 'netmask' value.
 netmask - Specifies a subnet mask value for this route entry. If not specified,
it defaults to 255.255.255.255.
 gateway - Specifies gateway.
 interface - Specifices the interface number for the specified route.
 METRIC - Specifies the metric, ie. cost for the destination.

All symbolic names used for destination are looked up in the network database file
NETWORKS. The symbolic names for gateway are looked up in the host name
database file HOSTS.

If the command is PRINT or DELETE. Destination or gateway can be a wildcard,

(wildcard is specified as a star '*'), or the gateway argument may be omitted.

If Dest contains a * or ?, it is treated as a shell pattern, and only matching

destination routes are printed. The '*' matches any string, and '?' matches any one
char. Examples: 157.*.1, 157.*, 127.*, *224*.

Invalid MASK generates an error, that is when (DEST & MASK) != DEST.

Example> route ADD 157.0.0.0 MASK 155.0.0.0 157.55.80.1 IF 1 The route addition
failed: The specified mask parameter is invalid. (Destination & Mask) != Destination.

Examples:

route PRINT
route ADD 157.0.0.0 MASK 255.0.0.0 157.55.80.1 METRIC 3 IF 2
destination^ mask^ gateway^ metric^ ^Interface

If IF is not given, it tries to find the best interface for a given gateway.

route PRINT 112* .... Only prints those matching 112*

route CHANGE 112.0.0.0 MASK 255.0.0.0 112.89.8.5 METRIC 2 IF 2

CHANGE is used to modify gateway and/or metric only.

HOSTNAME - Hostname is used to show the local computer's host name for
authentication by the Remote Copy Protocol (RCP), Remote Shell (RSH), and Remote
Execution (REXEC) tools

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TRACERT - Tracert is sometimes used to verify that IP addressing has been

correctly configured on a client. It will basically show the route taken to reach a
remote system

Usage: tracert [-d] [-h maximum_hops] [-j host-list] [-w timeout] target_name

Options:

 -d Do not resolve addresses to hostnames.

 -h maximum_hops Maximum number of hops to search for target.
 -j host-list Loose source route along host-list.
 -w timeout Wait timeout milliseconds for each reply.

PATHPING - Pathping also shows the route taken to reach a remote system as does
TRACERT but PATHPING does so with more detail and allows for more functionality
as well.

Usage: pathping [-g host-list] [-h maximum_hops] [-i address] [-n] [-p period] [-q
num_queries] [-w timeout] [-P] [-R] [-T] [-4] [-6] target_name

Options:

 -g host-list Loose source route along host-list

 -h maximum_hops Maximum number of hops to search for target.
 -i address Use the specified source address.
 -n Do not resolve addresses to hostnames.
 -p period Wait period milliseconds between pings.
 -q num_queries Number of queries per hop.
 -w timeout Wait timeout milliseconds for each reply.
 -P Test for RSVP PATH connectivity.
 -R Test if each hop is RSVP aware.
 -T Test connectivity to each hop with Layer-2 priority tags.
 -4 Force using IPv4.
 -6 Force using IPv6.

There are additional tools that can be used to test TCP/IP connectivity. They are
standard use tools for the TCP/IP protocol. FTP

- FTP is the File Transfer Protocol and it is used to transfer files from system to
system.

Internet Explorer interconnectivity allows for a Windows Explorer type of GUI

environment for the file transfer by allowing functionality of file and folder views and
drag and drop / copy and paste.

The command line FTP allows for more functionality. FTP is considered to be a
connected session using Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

FTP commands are listed in the table below.

! delete literal prompt send

? debug ls put status
append dir mdelete pwd trace
ascii disconnect mdir quit type
bell get mget quote user
binary glob mkdir recv verbose
bye hash mls remotehelp
cd help mput rename
close lcd open rmdir

FTP [-v] [-d] [-i] [-n] [-g] [-s:filename] [-a] [-w:windowsize] [-A] [host]

 -v Suppresses display of remote server responses.

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 -n Suppresses auto-login upon initial connection.

 -i Turns off interactive prompting during multiple file transfers.
 -d Enables debugging.
 -g Disables filename globbing (see GLOB command).
 -s:filename - Specifies a text file containing FTP commands; the commands
will automatically run after FTP starts.
 -a Use any local interface when binding data connection.
 -A - login as anonymous.
 -w:buffersize - Overrides the default transfer buffer size of 4096.
 host - Specifies the host name or IP address of the remote host to connect to.

[NOTES FROM THE FIELD] - Use mget and mput commands take y/n/q for
yes/no/quit.
Use Control-C to abort actively executing commands.

TFTP - The Trivial File Transfer Protocol allows for the connectionless transfer of files
to and from systems using User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

[NOTES FROM THE FIELD] - User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless

protocol that does not guarantee delivery of data packets between hosts and is used
when data transfer acknowledgments are not required. It can transmit only small
portions of data at a time because it is not capable of segmenting and reassembling
frames and does not implement sequence numbers.

While TFTP is limited in functionality, there are still some command line switches that
can be used to tailor its performance.

TFTP [-i] host [GET | PUT] source [destination]

 -i Specifies binary image transfer mode (also called octet). In binary image
mode the file is moved literally, byte by byte. Use this mode when
transferring binary files.
 host - Specifies the local or remote host.
 GET - Transfers the file destination on the remote host to the file source on
the local host.
 PUT - Transfers the file source on the local host to the file destination on the
remote host.
 source - Specifies the file to transfer.
 destination - Specifies where to transfer the file.

TELNET - Telnet is a terminal emulation program, which allows user to perform

commands on a remote computer from a command window.

telnet [-a][-e escape char][-f log file][-l user][-t term][host [port]]

 -a Attempt automatic logon. Same as -l option except uses the currently

logged on user's name.
 -e Escape character to enter telnet client prompt.
 -f File name for client side logging
 -l Specifies the user name to log in with on the remote system. Requires that
the remote system support the TELNET ENVIRON option.
 -t Specifies terminal type. Supported term types are vt100, vt52, ansi and
vtnt only.
 host - Specifies the hostname or IP address of the remote computer to
connect to.
 port - Specifies a port number or service name.

RCP - RCP copies files to and from computer running the RCP service. RCP uses the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) to utilize the connected and reliable delivery of
data between the client and the host and can be scripted in a batch file and does not
require a password. The remote host must be running the RSHD service, and the
user’s username must be configured in the remote host’s .rhosts file. RCP is one of
the r-commands available on all UNIX systems.

[NOTES FROM THE FIELD] - Microsoft’s implementation of TCP/IP includes the RCP
client software but not rshd services.

RCP [-a | -b] [-h] [-r] [host][.user:]source [host][.user:] path\destination

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 -a Specifies ASCII transfer mode. This mode converts the EOL chara cters to a
carriage return for UNIX and a carriage return/line feed for personal
computers. This is the default transfer mode.
 -b Specifies binary image transfer mode.
 -h Transfers hidden files.
 -r Copies the contents of all subdirectories; destination must be a directory.
 host Specifies the local or remote host. If host is specified as an IP address
OR if host name contains dots, you must specify the user.
 .user: Specifies a user name to use, rather than the current user name.
 source Specifes the files to copy.
 path\destination Specifies the path relative to the logon directory on the
remote host. Use the escape characters (\ , ", or ') in remote paths to use
wildcard characters on the remote host.

RSH - RSH is a TCP/IP utility that enables clients to run commands directly on
remote hosts running the RSH service without having to log on to the remote host.
RSH is one of the UNIX r-commands that are available on all UNIX systems.

[NOTES FROM THE FIELD] - Microsoft’s implementation of TCP/IP includes the

RSH client software but not the RSH service. If a user on a computer running in a
Windows domain tries to use RSH to run a command on a remote UNIX server that is
running the RSH daemon, the domain controller is required by the RSH client in
order to resolve the username of the user.

REXEC - REXEC runs commands on remote hosts running the REXEC service and
authenticates the user name on the remote host before executing the specified
command.

REXEC host [-l username] [-n] command

 host Specifies the remote host on which to run command.

 -l username Specifies the user name on the remote host.
 -n Redirects the input of REXEC to NULL.
 command Specifies the command to run.

FINGER - FINGER is a TCP/IP utility used for viewing information about a user on a
system running the finger service.

Typing the command finger [email protected] displays information

about user Jason on a server called windowsxp.2000trainers.com.

FINGER [-l] [user]@host [...]

 -l Displays information in long list format.

 user Specifies the user you want information about. Omit the user parameter
to display information about all users on the specified host.
 @host Specifies the server on the remote system whose users you want
information about.

[NOTES FROM THE FIELD] - Microsoft’s implementation of TCP/IP includes the

FINGER client software but not the FINGER service. You are able to run the FINGER
client on a machine running a Windows operating system that is connected to the
Internet in order to obtain results from a remote UNIX server running the FINGER
daemon as a FINGER gateway.

Practical # 5: Windows Xp Networking Practical Labs

Managing desktop setting & Control Panel

(performance options)
Select windows classic theme.
1. Right-click on Desktop
2. Click Properties
3. Select Windows Classic
4. Click Apply

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5. Click OK
Customize start menu items.
1. Right Click on Taskbar
2. Click Properties
3. Uncheck Group similar taskbar buttons
4. Click Start Menu
5. Click Classic Start menu
6. Click Customize
Check following Advance Start menu options:
7. Display Administrative Tools
8. Display Favorites
9. Display Log Off
10. Display Run
11. Enable dragging and dropping
12. Use Personalized Menus
13. Click OK
14. Click Apply
15. Click OK
Customize files, folders and windows.
1. Double-click My Computer
2. Select Icons
3. Tools
4. Folder Options
5. General Tab Select followings:
6. Use Windows classic folders
7. Open each folder in the same window
8. Double-click to open an item
9. View
10. Apply to All Folders
11. Apply
12. Ok
4- Disable Windows Firewall, Automatic Updates and Change Security Center alerts
for enable other PC's to ping i.e \\ping server.
Start �
Settings �
Control Panel �
Double-click Security Center �
Windows Firewall �
Select Off (not recommended) �
Ok
Automatic Updates �
Select Turn off Automatic Updates �
Apply �
Ok
Resources:
Change the way Security Center Alerts me �
Uncheck following Alert Settings:
Firewall �
Automatic Updates �
Virus Protection �
Ok
Disable user switching and enable offline files.
You must have a computer administrator account on a computer that is a member of a
workgroup or is a stand-alone computer to turn on or turn off the User Fast User Switching
feature. Fast User Switching is not available on computers that are members of a network
domain.
Start �
Settings �
Control Panel �
Double-click User Accounts �
Change the way users log on or off �
Uncheck following options from User Accounts:
Use the Welcome screen �
Use Fast User Switching �
Apply Options �

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Offline Files overview

You can make network files available offline by storing shared files on your computer so
they are accessible when you are not connected to the network.
This can be helpful when you use a portable computer to accomplish most of your work,
or if your stand-alone computer is frequently disconnected from the network. You can work
with
offline files the same way you work with files when you‘re connected to the network.
When you reconnect to the network, any changes that you made to files while working
offline are updated to the network. This process is called synchronization. If you and
someone
else on the network made changes to the same file, you can save your version of the file to
the
network, keep the other version, or save both.
If you share folders on your computer with others on the network, they can work offline
with those folders. To protect files in your shared folders, you can specify whether other
users
can change your documents or just view them. You can also control which shared files users
can
access offline.
Enable offline files:
Double-click My Computer �
Tools �
Folder Options �
Offline Files Tab �
Check Enable Offline Files �
Apply �
Ok
6- Sharing and Security settings.
Double-click My Computer �
Tools �
Folder Options �
View �
Advance settings:
Uncheck use simple file sharing (Recommended) �
Apply �
Ok
7- Assigning IP address and display network icon in notification area.
Double-click My Network Places �
Right-click �
Properties �
Right-click on Local Area Connection �
Properties �
Check following options from General Tab:
Show icon in notification area when connected �
Notify me when this connection has limited or no connectivity �
Select Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) �
Properties �
Select use the following IP Address: �
IP address: 192.168.0.1 �
Subnet mask: 255.255.255.0 �
Ok
8- Set up hardware profiles for different hardware configuration. At startup, you can
choose the profile you want to use.
Hardware profiles provide a way for you to set up and store different hardware
configurations. You can set up hardware profiles for different hardware configurations. At
startup, you can choose the profile you want to use.
Right-click on My Computer �
Properties �
Hardware Tab �
Hardware Profiles �
Select Profile 1 (Current) from Available hardware profiles: �
Copy �
Copy Profile name To: Home �
Ok �
Ok

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9- Select default operating system at system startup "Microsoft Windows XP

Professional" or "Microsoft Windows Server 2003".
Right-click on My Computer �
Properties �
Advance Tab �
Startup and Recovery:
Settings �
Select Default operating system �
Uncheck following from System startup:
Time to display list of operating systems: �
Time to display recovery options when needed: �
Ok �
Ok
10- Delete old operating system support files (AUTOEXEC.BAT, CONFIG.SYS,
IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS).
Double-click My Computer �
Tools �
Folder Options… �
View �
Select Show hidden files and folders �
Uncheck following from Advanced settings: �
Hide extensions for known file types
Hide protected operating system files (Recommended) �
Apply �
Ok
Goto C:\ and delete following files (these files are used for old operating system
software)
AutoExec.bat
Config.sys
IO.sys
MSDOS.sys
11- Enable/Disable hiberfil.sys (this file is use for hibernation i.e when we hibernate
windows it keep all the open windows, files etc in hibernate file and when we start
windows
it shows all the files and windows in the same place.
When your computer hibernates, it stores whatever it has in memory on your hard disk
and then shuts down. When your computer comes out of hibernation, it returns to its previous
state.
Start �
Settings �
Control Panel �
Double-click Power Options �
Hibernate Tab �
Uncheck Enable Hibernation �
Apply �
Ok
12- Remove pagefile.sys from C:\ drive or move it to any other drive. Pagefile.sys
support RAM it is by default 1 and half of the RAM s ize.
Right-click on My Computer �
Properties �
Advanced �
Select from Performance:
Settings �
Advance Tab �
Virtual memory:
Change �
Select C: from drive �
Custom size:
Initial size (MB): 0 �
Maximum size (MB): 0 �
Set �
Ok �
Apply �
Ok �
Ok

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Restart computer to take effect.

Right-click on My Computer �
Properties �
Advanced �
Select from Performance:
Settings �
Advance Tab �
Virtual memory:
Change �
Select D: from drive �
Custom size:
Initial size (MB): 100 �
Maximum size (MB): 300 �
Set �
Ok �
Apply �
Ok �
Ok
Restart computer to take effect. After restart the file will more to drive D:\

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