It is important that clinicians assess

opioid responsiveness to determine

whether adjuvant analgesics should

play a role in the treatment plan.

Photo courtesy of Lisa Scholder. Solid Stance. 16" × 24".

Pharmacological Management of Cancer-Related Pain

Eric E. Prommer, MD

Background: Pain occurs in 50% of patients with cancer at the time of diagnosis, and nearly 80% of patients
with advanced stage cancer have moderate to severe pain. Assessment of pain requires the health care profes-
sional to measure pain intensity, delineate opioid responsiveness, and clarify the impact of pain on a patient’s
psychological, social, spiritual, and existential domains. To this end, the World Health Organization (WHO)
has developed a 3-step pain ladder to help the health care professional effectively manage pain, classifying
pain intensity according to severity and recommending analgesic agents based on their strength.
Methods: Health care professionals should follow the WHO guidelines to manage cancer-related pain in
their patients. With regard to opioids, dosing, equianalgesic conversions, the management of adverse events,
and the identification of new agents are discussed. Integrating adjuvant analgesics and interventional pain
techniques into the management of cancer-related pain is also discussed.
Results: The WHO analgesic ladder is an effective tool for managing cancer-related pain. Successful pain
management in patients with cancer relies upon the health care professional to pay attention to detail, espe-
cially during the introduction of new drugs and in identifying potential adverse events. Health care profes-
sionals must assess opioid responsiveness to determine whether adjuvant analgesics should also play a role
in a patient’s treatment plan.
Conclusion: Adherence to the WHO pain ladder and understanding proper use of interventional pain tech-
niques complement the pharmacological management of cancer-related pain.

Introduction can impact quality of life, limit function, and affect mood.
Pain occurs in 50% of patients with cancer at the time of Untreated pain may sometimes lead to requests for phy-
diagnosis, and approximately 80% of patients with ad- sician-assisted suicide or unnecessary visits to the emer-
vanced stage cancer have moderate to severe pain.1 Pain gency department and hospital admissions.2,3 Opioids are
the cornerstone of treatment for moderate to severe pain
From the Division of Hematology/Oncology, Veterans Integrated associated with cancer because they decrease pain and
Palliative Care Program, Veterans Integrated Palliative Care, David improve function.4 Strong opioids are the initial choice for
Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, moderate to severe pain associated with cancer, and the
California.
Submitted July 29, 2015; accepted September 17, 2015.
World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a pain
Address correspondence to Eric Prommer, MD, David Geffen ladder, which is a step-by-step approach for the manage-
School of Medicine, University of California, 11301 Wilshire ment of chronic pain based on pain intensity.5,6
Boulevard, Building 500, Room 2064A, Mail Code 10P, Los Angeles,
CA 90073. E-mail: [email protected]
Epidemiology
No significant relationship exists between the author and the
companies/organizations whose products or services may be refer- Pain occurs at diagnosis in 20% to 50% of patients with
enced in this article. cancer.7 Cancer-related pain may be the result of the

412 Cancer Control October 2015, Vol. 22, No. 4

cancer itself, oncology treatment, and coexisting non- ketorolac. Thus, loss of the oral route with advanced
malignant pain.8 Cancer types determine pain preva- illness eliminates NSAIDs from consideration for anal-
lence; for example, patients with head and neck cancer gesia in patients at the end of life.
have the highest prevalence of cancer pain.9 Age has At the end of life, NSAIDs are typically replaced
also been show to affect cancer pain; younger patients by stronger analgesics in the setting of moderate to
experience more pain and more pain flares than old- severe pain. It may be important to continue NSAIDs
er patients.10 In addition, elderly patients receive less as long as possible, because clinical trials show ad-
opioids than their younger counterparts.11 Patients ditive analgesia when combined with opioids as well
with cancer most commonly experience pain in the as an opioid-sparing effect.21 Ketorolac, diclofenac,
back — prompting health care professionals to exclude and ibuprofen are parenteral NSAIDs, and ketorolac
spinal cord metastasis — as well as in the abdomen, is useful for the treatment of cancer pain syndromes
shoulders, and hips.12 not uniformly responsive to opioid therapy.22 Ketoro-
lac use in the advanced patient with cancer is not rec-
World Health Organization Pain Ladder ommended for more than 1 week.23 Acetaminophen
WHO guidelines form the basis of cancer pain man- has not been shown to work synergistically with opi-
agement, recommending a step-by-step approach to oids but has not been shown to be opioid-sparing
managing cancer pain based on pain intensity.2 The with opioid doses of more than 200 mg of morphine
pain ladder starts with nonopioid analgesics, such as equivalents.22 NSAIDs are useful for pain originat-
acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory ing in tissues such as connective tissue, joints, serous
drugs (NSAIDs), for mild pain, then adds a so-called membranes, and the periosteum; in addition, visceral
weak opioid if pain persists or increases, and then re- pain may also respond to NSAIDs.24
places the weak opioid with a step 3 opioid for severe
pain. Morphine is recommended as a first-line opioid Step 2
to relieve cancer-related pain; however, the evidence Step 2 on the WHO pain ladder is for mild to moder-
level for morphine as a first-line opioid is not partic- ate cancer pain and includes recommendations for
ularly strong.3,6 Other step 3 options for moderate to acetaminophen products containing hydrocodone,
severe pain include methadone, oxycodone, fentanyl, oxycodone, codeine, and tramadol, as well as propoxy-
and hydromorphone. Successfully using the WHO phene and dihydrocodeine (not available in the United
pain ladder can help manage pain/provide effective States).2 Propoxyphene is not recommended for use in
analgesia in 90% of patients in certain settings, al- cancer pain.25
though results from randomized control trials show Hydrocodone: Hydrocodone is structurally simi-
success rates of 70% to 80%.13-15 lar to morphine, differing only in having a single
bond at carbons 7 and 8 and a keto (=O) group at
Step 1 6-carbon. Hydrocodone is metabolized by both cyto-
Step 1 analgesics include acetaminophen and NSAIDs, chrome P450–dependent oxidative metabolism and
which are both analgesic and anti-inflammatory; ac- glucuronidation. CYP3A4 and CYP2D6 play a role
etaminophen is only analgesic.16,17 Dosing of acet- in the generation of hydrocodone metabolites: nor-
aminophen and NSAIDs is limited by a ceiling effect, hydrocodone and hydromorphone, respectively.26
meaning that further dose escalation will not improve Polymorphisms of CYP2D6 potentially affect hydro-
analgesia. Acetaminophen dosing is limited by con- codone metabolism and therapeutic efficacy.27 Hy-
cerns of hepatic toxicity at a total dose of more than drocodone has equivalent potency as morphine on a
4 g/day.18 Acetaminophen has several postulated milligram-for-milligram basis.27 Adverse events of hy-
mechanisms of action, including central inhibition of drocodone are similar to other opioids.
the cyclooxygenase system, nitric oxide synthetase, Rodriguez et al28 evaluated 118 study patients
the endocannabinoid system, and the descending sero- with chronic cancer pain and compared hydrocodone/
tonin pathways.17 NSAIDs inhibit the enzyme cycloox- acetaminophen with tramadol in a double-blind, ran-
ygenase, which produces inflammatory prostaglandins domized controlled trial. A total of 62 study patients
that cause sustained nociceptive responses by lower- received hydrocodone/acetaminophen and 56 re-
ing pain thresholds in nociceptive, neuropathic, and ceived tramadol.28 Hydrocodone/acetaminophen de-
possibly visceral pain through a process called periph- creased pain in 57% of participants at a starting dose
eral sensitization.19 One major action of NSAIDs is the of 25 mg/2500 mg/day (5 doses per day).28 Analgesic
prevention of peripheral sensitization.20 When consid- responses increased by 15% with dose doubling.28 Pain
ering the use of NSAIDs, choices should be based on did not respond to hydrocodone/acetaminophen ad-
experience and the toxicity profile, which depends on ministration in 29% of study patients.28
the cyclooxygenase 1:2 ratio. There is no ideal NSAID. Another multicenter, double-blind, randomized,
NSAIDs are orally administered, with the exception of parallel group study compared codeine/acetamino-

October 2015, Vol. 22, No. 4 Cancer Control 413

phen phosphate with hydrocodone/acetaminophen for nausea and constipation noted in the tramadol group.34
moderate to severe pain.29 Study patients had chron- The authors estimated equianalgesic doses of mor-
ic moderate to severe cancer pain (> 3 on a 10-cm vi- phine and tramadol and found a ratio of morphine to
sual analog scale and > 1 on a 4-point verbal intensity tramadol of 1:4.34
scale).29 A total of 88% of study patients had moder- Tawfik et al35 compared oral tramadol with sus-
ate pain and 12% had severe pain; 121 participants tained release morphine for cancer pain in 64 partici-
received either 1 tablet of codeine/acetaminophen pants with severe cancer pain in a randomized, dou-
30/500 mg or hydrocodone/acetaminophen 5/500 mg ble-blind study. Tramadol worked best in participants
orally every 4 hours (total daily doses, 150/2500 and with lesser pain intensity, and morphine worked more
25/2500 mg, respectively) for 23 days.29 Dose escala- effectively and was preferred for participants experi-
tion occurred after 1 week if participants experienced encing severe pain intensity.35 Good analgesia was
severe pain.29 The primary end point was the percent- achieved in 2 weeks of treatment in 88% of study pa-
age of study patients achieving a decrease in their pain tients receiving tramadol and 100% of study patients
score by 1 point on a 5-point verbal intensity scale.29 receiving sustained-release morphine. Participants
The secondary end point was the percentage of study receiving tramadol experienced fatigue (15%), nausea
patients whose pain decreased by at least 3 cm on the (8%), and sweating (8%).35 In those receiving morphine,
10-point scale.29 Of the 121 participants, 59 received adverse events included constipation (35%), rash (14%),
codeine/acetaminophen and 62 received hydroco- and drowsiness (14%).35
done/acetaminophen.29 Of the total number of cases, Bono and Cuffari36 compared tramadol with bu-
59 had ages ranging from 60 to 89 years.29 A total of prenorphine in a randomized, crossover trial in study
58% of patients in the codeine/acetaminophen arm of patients with cancer pain. All 60 study patients re-
the study experienced pain relief, and an additional ceived either drug for 1 week and then, after a 24-hour
8% achieved pain relief with a doubling of the dose.29 wash-out period, were switched to the other drug.36
Approximately one-third had unresponsive pain.29 In The tramadol dose was 300 mg/day and the buprenor-
the hydrocodone/acetaminophen arm of the study, phine dose was 0.2 mg 3 times a day.36 Tramadol was
56% experienced pain relief with a starting dose of associated with better analgesia (P < .05) and was asso-
25/2500 mg/day.29 A total of 15% more achieved pain ciated with higher acceptance among study patients.36
relief doubling of the initial dose, and one-third Tramadol was better tolerated than buprenorphine
of patients did not respond to hydrocodone/acet- and caused less frequent and milder adverse events,
aminophen.29 and more study drug withdrawals occurred in the bu-
Tramadol: Tramadol is a synthetic opioid from prenorphine arm.36
the aminocyclohexanol group. Tramadol has opi- Tapentadol: Tapentadol is structurally related
oid-agonist properties and prevents the uptake of to tramadol.37 Opioid receptor–binding studies show
norepinephrine and serotonin, making it useful for that tapentadol is a strong opioid with high-affinity
neuropathic pain.30 Tramadol possesses low affin- binding to µ, δ, and κ opioid receptors. In human µ
ity for opioid receptors, with an affinity to μ receptors opioid receptor 35S GTPγS–binding assays, tapentadol
10 times weaker than codeine, 60 times weaker than shows agonistic activity, with an efficacy of 88% rela-
dextropropoxyphene, and 6,000 times weaker than tive to morphine; tapentadol provides potent inhibi-
morphine.31 Tramadol requires conversion to an active tion of norepinephrine uptake and its bioavailability
metabolite by CYP2D6. This metabolite has affinity for is lower than tramadol.31 Tmax is achieved in 1.25 to
opioid receptors, but less so than step 3 opioids.31 Pa- 1.5 hours, the half-life is 24 hours, and the plasma
tients who are poor metabolizers of CYP2D6 may ex- protein binding is 20%.38 Tapentadol metabolism is
perience poor analgesia.32 Adverse events of tramadol mainly by glucuronidation, with some contribution
include constipation, dizziness, nausea, sedation, dry from CYP enzymes, especially CYP2D6.39 Tapentadol
mouth, and vomiting.33 is not an inducer of CYP3A4.39 Tapentadol has no ac-
Rodriguez et al28 evaluated 118 participants with tive metabolites. There is chiefly renal excretion. Ta-
chronic cancer pain and compared hydrocodone/acet- pentadol causes adverse events such as nausea, diz-
aminophen and tramadol in a double-blind, random- ziness, vomiting, headache, and somnolence.40 The
ized controlled trial. In addition, Wilder-Smith et al34 manufacturer recommends against using tapentadol
compared tramadol with morphine in a randomized, in severe hepatic or renal failure, and dosing above
crossover, double-blind study for severe cancer pain 600 mg/day should be avoided.41 Equianalgesic dos-
(N = 20). Initially, participants received either tramadol ing studies are unavailable but information from
50 mg or morphine 16 mg every 4 hours, with dose ti- its use in non–cancer-related pain studies suggest
tration to achieve pain control.34 After 4 days, pain in- morphine 60 mg is equivalent to tapentadol 100 to
tensities did not differ between the groups, although 200 mg.42 The current dosing recommendations is 50,
adverse events appeared to differ, with less-intense 75, or 100 mg every 4 to 6 hours.40 Tapentadol does

414 Cancer Control October 2015, Vol. 22, No. 4

not affect the QTc interval.43 Prolonged-release ta- is a minor contribution (30%) to glucuronidation from
pentadol (100–250 mg twice daily) is effective com- the kidneys.52 First-pass metabolism of oral morphine
pared with placebo for managing moderate to severe, determines its systemic bioavailability. Three major
chronic, malignant tumor-related pain. metabolites are produced: normorphine, morphine-
Codeine: Codeine is a prodrug whose analgesia 3-glucuronide, and morphine-6-glucuronide. The me-
is mediated through the µ receptor by its metabolite, tabolites are principally eliminated by the kidney and
morphine. A total of 10% of codeine is broken down accumulate in renal failure.53 The elimination half-life
to morphine by CYP2D6, an enzyme lacking in 5% of morphine is approximately 2 hours and is indepen-
to 10% of white populations.44 Codeine use is not dent of route of administration or formulation.54 Mor-
recommended in the setting of renal failure.45 One phine administered by sublingual and buccal routes
placebo-controlled study has evaluated codeine for has a delayed onset of action compared with oral mor-
cancer pain involving a sustained-release formula- phine (smaller peak plasma levels, lower bioavailabil-
tion.46 Thirty study patients with chronic cancer pain ity, and larger interpatient variability).54 Intrathecal
completed the study and received either sustained-re- morphine is 100 times as potent as its oral form, and
lease codeine every 12 hours or placebo in a double- epidural morphine is 10 times as potent (0.5 mg intra-
blind study.46 Crossover occurred after 7 days.46 Pain thecally equals 5 mg epidurally).54 Morphine dosing
intensity was measured using a visual analog scale is minimally affected by hepatic failure but is greatly
as well as a 5-point categorical scale. Rescue anal- affected by renal failure. There is a linear relationship
gesia (acetaminophen/codeine 300 mg/30 mg every between creatinine clearance and renal clearance of
4 hours as needed) was recorded. The median doses morphine, morphine-3-glucuronide, and morphine-
of controlled-release codeine doses were 277 ± 77 mg 6-glucuronide.55 Kidney failure impairs glucuronide
(range, 200–400 mg). Pain intensity scores on a visual excretion more than morphine excretion, increasing
analog scale, categorical pain intensity scores when the duration of action of morphine-6-glucuronide
assessed by day of treatment and by time of day, and and morphine-3-glucuronide, thus leading to adverse
need for breakthrough pain were significantly lower events.56 Glucuronidation is largely unaffected by cir-
in the codeine arm (P < .0001).53 rhosis. Morphine doses must be carefully titrated or
avoided when creatinine clearance is less than 30 mL/
Step 3 minute.54 Morphine continues to be considered the
The WHO pain ladder recommends the use of step 3 standard medication for the treatment of cancer pain
opioids as first-line therapy for moderate to severe partly due to familiarity with the product as well as
pain (morphine, oxycodone, hydromorphone, fen- cost effectiveness. However, it may not always be the
tanyl, levorphanol, methadone).47 Step 3 opioids differ ideal product due to issues associated with its me-
from those in step 2 medications in terms of potency tabolism and adverse-event profile.11 Almost all ran-
and dosing. Although many step 2 medications often domized controlled comparisons of potent opioids
have a ceiling dose due to fixed formulations with ac- have shown equivalence (ie, noninferiority) to mor-
etaminophen, step 3 opioids do not have this ceiling. phine.6,11,57-59
Dosing can increase to achieve adequate analgesia as Methadone: Methadone has features that make
long as adverse events are tolerated. Step 3 opioids in- it unique: It works at 3 levels to provide analgesia. It
teract with opioid receptors found throughout the cen- is a potent opioid with strong interactions with the
tral nervous system and peripheral tissues, resulting in µ-opioid receptor, and it is an N-methyl-D-aspartate
analgesic effects, as well potential adverse events, in- (NMDA) receptor antagonist, a receptor that is acti-
cluding sedation, respiratory depression, and depen- vated in chronic pain states and, when blocked, can
dence. Opioid receptors exist throughout the intestinal enhance analgesia and reverse opioid tolerance. Meth-
tract and, when activated, slow bowel motility.48 Vary- adone also works on neurotransmitters, such as nor-
ing degrees of activation and affinity for each receptor epinephrine and serotonin, which play a role in de-
subtype may account for the differences in efficacy and scending pain modulation.59,60
activity between opioids. In addition, interindividual Methadone is a second-line analgesic for pain that
variation is significant in analgesic response and tox- is poorly responsive to other opioids.59 It shows prom-
icities based on genetic disparities.49 However, a reli- ise as a first-line analgesic for cancer pain, neuropathic
able method to predict an individual patient’s response pain, and as a breakthrough agent. Methadone is avail-
does not exist and a paucity of evidence suggests supe- able in oral, sublingual, and intravenous formulations.
riority of one opioid over another in terms of efficacy Methadone has different pharmacokinetics from oth-
or tolerability. er opioids. Methadone has a long half-life that varies
Morphine: WHO considers morphine the drug of between 60 and 120 hours.59 High-dose intravenous
choice for moderate to severe cancer pain.50 The liver is methadone is associated with QT prolongation and tor-
the principal site of morphine glucuronidation.51 There sades de pointes.61 In fact, a retrospective study found

October 2015, Vol. 22, No. 4 Cancer Control 415

that oral methadone can cause QT prolongation in 16% parison of sustained-release hydromorphone with sus-
of patients.62 Dosing of methadone is complicated. tained-release morphine showed equivalence in pain
Methadone shows an inverse relationship of its start- relief.70 Systematic reviews involving 11 studies and 645
ing dose to the total morphine equivalent daily dose study patients show that hydromorphone equals mor-
(MEDD). As the MEDD increases, the equianalgesic phine in analgesic effect.71
dose of methadone progressively decreases. Oxycodone: Oxycodone is available as imme-
Clinical trials comparing methadone to morphine diate-release and sustained-release formulations. (In-
have not shown superiority of methadone; in fact, travenous formulations are available in Europe.) The
3 studies have compared morphine and methadone immediate-release formulation has a half-life of ap-
as first-line therapy for cancer-related pain.6,63,64 Ven- proximately 2 to 4 hours and a bioavailability of 50%
tafridda et al63 compared methadone with morphine to 60%.72 The primary difference between oxycodone
for moderate to severe cancer pain in 54 study pa- and morphine is its bioavailability: its half-life is longer
tients who had previously been taking step 2 opioids. than normal in renal failure and liver failure.45,73 Sev-
Patients received either morphine or methadone by eral trials comparing oxycodone with morphine show
mouth for 14 days.63 Both therapies provided clear equal efficacy.72,74 Minor differences in adverse events
reductions in pain intensity, there was less stability have been described.74 Hallucinations and nausea are
in analgesia in the morphine arm, and study patients less common with oxycodone treatment.75 However,
receiving morphine had a higher incidence of dry because of its cost and lack of versatility, morphine re-
mouth.63 Otherwise, no other differences in toxicities mains the preferred analgesic.76 Bruera et al74 demon-
or the ability to achieve pain relief were seen.63 Mer- strated that oxycodone is 1.5 times as potent as mor-
cadante et al64 conducted a prospective randomized phine when comparing analgesic potency.
study in 40 study patients with advanced cancer who Oxymorphone: Oxymorphone is a semisynthetic
required strong opioids for their pain management μ-opioid agonist 1.2 times as potent as morphine.77 Un-
and receiving home hospice care. Study patients were til recently, oxymorphone was available as parenteral
treated with sustained-release morphine or methadone injection and in suppository form; however, immedi-
in doses titrated to pain relief and administered 2 or ate-release and long-acting oral formulations were de-
3 times daily according to clinical need.64 Results sug- veloped that make oxymorphone another option for
gested that methadone more quickly achieved anal- treating moderate to severe pain. Trials in malignant
gesia and methadone analgesia was more stable than and nonmalignant pain confirm its potential as anoth-
that achieved with morphine.64 Bruera et al6 compared er step 3 option.77 Oxymorphone is more lipid soluble
the effectiveness and adverse events of methadone and than morphine. The oral bioavailability of oxymor-
morphine as first-line treatment with opioids for cancer phone is approximately 10%, which is the lowest of the
pain. In this multicenter, international study, 103 partic- oral step 3 opioids.77 In healthy volunteers, the half-life
ipants with pain requiring strong opioids were random- ranges from 7.2 to 9.4 hours. The half-life of immedi-
ly assigned to receive either methadone or morphine ate-release oxymorphone is longer than that of mor-
for 4 weeks. Participants with 20% or more reductions phine, hydromorphone, and oxycodone.78 Immediate-
in pain scores were equal in both groups. Those in both release oxymorphone tablets may be given at 6-hour
arms reported satisfaction with their therapies. The intervals, whereas the extended-release formula is
methadone arm had a higher number of dropouts and dosed twice daily. Steady-state conditions are achieved
required fewer dose adjustments to achieve analgesia after 3 to 4 days. Oxymorphone is subject to hepatic
than those in the morphine arm.6,11 first-pass effects and is excreted by the kidneys. Oxy-
Hydromorphone: Hydromorphone is similar in morphone accumulates in renal failure. Oxymorphone
structure to morphine and is available as parenteral has a prolonged half-life in renal failure.79 In the setting
and oral products. It is the best opioid for subcutane- of hepatic insufficiency, increasing the dosing interval
ous administration.65 The oral formulation is available is recomended.80
in an immediate-release formulation, and a single, dai- Sloan et al81 conducted a pilot study comparing
ly dose, extended-release formulation has been shown extended-release oxymorphone and controlled-release
to be effective in patients with cancer.66 Administered oxycodone in 86 study patients with moderate to se-
orally, hydromorphone has a bioavailability of 50% and vere cancer pain. The tolerability and safety profiles
its plasma elimination half-life is 2.5 hours.67 Metabo- (eg, nausea, drowsiness, somnolence) were similar
lism in the liver produces hydromorphone-3-glucuro- between the 2 drugs, and no significant differences in
nide, which has no analgesic properties but can cause daily pain intensity scores were seen between extend-
neurotoxicity.68 Hydromorphone is effective in treating ed-release oxymorphone and oxycodone.81
pain in patients with renal impairment. Hydromor- Fentanyl: Fentanyl, a lipid-soluble, synthetic opi-
phone metabolites accumulate in patients receiving oid, is available as parenteral, transdermal, and trans-
chronic infusions.69 A double-blind, randomized com- mucosal products. Its lipophilic properties allow it to

416 Cancer Control October 2015, Vol. 22, No. 4

cross both the skin and oral mucosa.82 The transder- 72 hours. It takes 60 hours to reach Cmax. After patch re-
mal formulation delivers fentanyl from the reservoir moval, concentrations decrease to one-half in 12 hours,
into the stratum corneum where it then slowly diffuses then more gradually decline.96
into the blood. Another formulation on the market is a Metabolism by CYP3A4 and CYP2C8 converts
matrix-delivery system in which fentanyl is dissolved buprenorphine to an active metabolite, norbuprenor-
in a polyacrylate adhesive. This formulation can be phine, which is a weaker but full-opioid agonist. Bu-
cut.83 Both the reservoir and matrix-based patches prenorphine and its metabolite later experience gluc-
have similar kinetics and clinical effectiveness.83 Fen- uronidation.99 Liver disease affects buprenorphine
tanyl is metabolized to norfentanyl under the influence metabolism. With involvement of both cytochrome
of CYP3A4.84 The concomitant use of fentanyl with oxidase system and glucuronidation in metabolism,
potent CYP3A4 inhibitors (eg, ritonavir, ketoconazole) severe liver disease potentially inhibits formation
may affect its metabolism. Fentanyl is safe to use in pa- of norbuprenorphine through effects on the cyto-
tients with renal failure.60 The elimination half-life of chrome oxidase system. Liver disease does not affect
transdermal fentanyl is approximately 12 hours. Con- glucuronidation as much. Buprenorphine is safe to
versions to fentanyl are made by calculating the MEDD use in the presence of mild to moderate liver failure
and the using the ratio of 2 mg:1 µg to reach the start- as well as in the setting of renal insufficiency and
ing fentanyl dose.82 Most experts do not recommend dialysis.94,100
using transdermal fentanyl for acute titration.85,86 Com- Buprenorphine produces adverse events similar
pared with morphine, constipation is less frequent to other step 3 opioids and include constipation, uri-
with fentanyl.87 Comparisons between morphine and nary retention, sedation, and cognitive dysfunction.
transdermal fentanyl have shown equal analgesic ef- Buprenorphine causes less nausea than transdermal
ficacy.88 When compared with morphine, daytime fentanyl.101
drowsiness and interference with daytime activity oc- Three phase 3, placebo-controlled studies of
cur at lower rates.88 mixed study populations with cancer evaluated trans-
The oral transmucosal administration of fentanyl dermal buprenorphine for cancer pain.102-104 In these
has been extensively explored. In 1 study, 25% of the de- studies, buprenorphine acted as an opioid agonist.
livered drug was transmucosally absorbed, with another There was no dose ceiling or opioid antagonist activity.
25% delivered through the gastrointestinal tract.82 Ran- Levorphanol: Levorphanol is a potent opioid
domized controlled trials of oral transmucosal fentanyl considered to be similar to methadone.105 Morphologi-
citrate show increased analgesic efficacy and patient cally similar to morphine, levorphanol has strong af-
preference over placebo and morphine.89,90 Administra- finity for μ, δ, and κ opioid receptors.106 Levorphanol
tion of fentanyl is being explored through other routes is a noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist and
(eg, intranasal).91 Rapid intravenous administration of blocks NMDA with the same potency as ketamine.107
fentanyl in the emergency department can result in rap- Levorphanol can be orally, intravenously, subcutane-
id improvement in pain control.92 ously, and intramuscularly administered.108 Levorpha-
Buprenorphine: Buprenorphine is emerging nol has poor absorption via the sublingual route com-
as another option for cancer pain. Well-known as a pared with other opioids such as morphine sulfate
strong analgesic, the development of a transdermal (18%), buprenorphine (55%), fentanyl (51%), and meth-
formulation makes it a possible option for cancer adone (34%).109 The pharmacokinetics of levorphanol
pain.93,94 Buprenorphine is also available in intrave- are similar to methadone with a duration of analgesia
nous and sublingual formulations, with the sublin- ranging from 6 to 15 hours and a half-life as long as
gual formulation having a bioavailability of 50% to 30 hours.110 First-pass metabolism produces a 3-gluc-
65% and a half-life of more than 24 hours.95 After ap- uronide metabolite, which may have neurotoxicity.110
plication of the transdermal formulation, plasma con- Metabolites of levorphanol are renally excreted. The
centrations steadily increase. The larger-dose trans- high volume of distribution and increased protein
dermal formulations achieve the minimum effective binding suggest that levorphanol should not be dialyz-
therapeutic dose sooner. able. In the setting of renal disease, the dosing inter-
Open-label, randomized, parallel-group, multiple- val should be increased. This differs from methadone.
dose pharmacokinetic studies show that the minimum The predominant mode of metabolism is hepatic. In
effective concentrations are reached after 31, 14, and 13 the setting of hepatic insufficiency, it is advisable to
hours, respectively, with the 35, 52.5, and 70 mg/hour consider an increased dosing interval.108 Experience
patches (not available in the United States).96 Patches and clinical trial results suggest that the type and inci-
reach steady state after the third consecutive applica- dence of adverse events are similar to those seen with
tion.97 Bioavailability of the transdermal formulation is strong opioids.108 Levorphanol has been studied as a
60% compared with the intravenous route.98 Effective treatment for chronic neuropathic pain and has been
plasma levels occur within 12 to 24 hours and last for shown to be effective.111

October 2015, Vol. 22, No. 4 Cancer Control 417

Interventional Pain Modalities cular administration is contraindicated as it does not
Clinicians consider “step 4” of the WHO pain ladder confer any pharmacokinetic advantages and is pain-
when there is an inadequate response to step 3 agents, ful for patients.122 Subcutaneous delivery is relatively
adjuvants, or both.112 Treatment options include use of easy, effective, and safe.123 Intravenous routes are use-
nerve blocks, as well as spinal administration of local ful when pain is severe or pain levels have acutely in-
anesthetics, opioids, and other adjuvants. Abdomi- creased. Transdermal fentanyl preparations are effec-
nal pain may be controlled by a blockade of the celi- tive for patients unable to take oral medications and
ac plexus, which, if successful, can block nociceptive have stable pain control. Other short-acting opioids
input from many structures in the upper abdomen, in are used to control pain when transdermal fentanyl
particular the pancreas.113 Use of the superior hypogas- is used, because levels of fentanyl gradually increase
tric ganglion block for the treatment of malignant pel- during a 12- to 24-hour period until reaching steady
vic pain was first described by Plancarte et al.114 state.124 Transmucosal fentanyl is similar to intravenous
administration in its rapid onset, and it can be used for
Opioids acute breakthrough pain. Historically, dosing of trans-
Receptor Interactions mucosal fentanyl was not thought to be based on dose
Opioids interact with opioid receptors to produce an- proportionality, but this consideration has been chal-
algesia (as well as adverse events).115,116 Opioids inter- lenged.125 Intraspinal administration of opioids can ei-
act with receptors, leading to receptor phosphorylation ther be epidural or intrathecal. This method is the most
by G protein-coupled receptor kinases. Arrestin then invasive technique and requires a specialist for initia-
binds with the activation of distal pathways.117 Opioids tion. This delivery confers advantages in patients with
intracellularly drive receptors by endocytosis, with significant dose-limiting adverse events as systemic in-
the receptors ultimately resurfacing.117 Opioids differ volvement is circumvented. Intraspinal delivery allows
in their G protein coupling and in their propensity to the addition of adjuvant medications to opioids that
drive receptors into the cell. For example, compared can be directly administered to the spinal cord.126
with other strong opioids, morphine is inefficient in
its ability to promote receptor internalization.117 Some Dose Titration
postulate that noninternalized receptors continue to Clinicians adjust opioid analgesics to balance adequate
signal and promote adaptive responses, thus causing pain control with their respective adverse events. Dos-
cellular tolerance.117 age requirements change with cancer progression.
Most patients with cancer have chronic daily pain, so
Responsiveness analgesics should be given on a scheduled basis.121
Opioid responsiveness is the “degree of analgesia Breakthrough analgesics are ideally given according
achieved as the opioid dose is titrated to an endpoint, to the time it takes to reach C max. The C max depends
defined either by intolerable side effects or the occur- on the route of administration. Cmax is 1 hour for the
rence of acceptable analgesia.”118 Pain poorly respon- oral route, 30 minutes for the subcutaneous route, and
sive to opioids exists when intolerable adverse events, 6 minutes for the intravenous route.127,128 Once Cmax is
inadequate analgesia, or both continue despite opioid reached, another dose should be given if pain is not
escalation. Pharmacodynamic and nonpharmacody- adequately controlled.
namic factors affect opioid responsiveness. Identify- Multiple approaches to opioid initiation and ti-
ing pain poorly responsive to opioids should lead the tration exist. The European Association for Palliative
health care professional to consider using adjuvant Care recommends dose titration with immediate-
analgesics or opioid switching, changing the route of release oral morphine every 4 hours, with break-
administration, using NMDA antagonists, or interven- through dosing of the same dose given every hour
tional pain techniques.113,119-121 as needed.129 The scheduled dose should then be
adjusted to account for the oral MEDD. Several stud-
Routes of Administration ies have shown acceptable pain control and adverse-
Opioids are available in many dosage forms, including event profiles with use of 5 mg every 4 hours in study
via the oral, rectal, subcutaneous, intramuscular, in- patients naive to opioids and 10 mg every 4 hours in
travenous, transdermal, transmucosal, and intraspinal patients previously using a step 2 drug.129-131 After ac-
routes of administration. Oral administration is simple, ceptable pain control occurs, patients can use extend-
cost effective, and is the preferred route of delivery. ed-release preparations as this is convenient and im-
Both immediate-release and extended-release prepara- proves compliance.132 Breakthrough dosing is 10% to
tions are available. 20% of the MEDD.133
Clinicians use the subcutaneous, intravenous, rec- Opioid titration with sustained-release formula-
tal, transdermal, transmucosal, and intraspinal routes tions is slower than titration with immediate-release
when patients cannot take oral medications. Intramus- formulations.129 Titration with intravenous medications

418 Cancer Control October 2015, Vol. 22, No. 4

is effective and tolerated.134 In patients on established nists may be needed.116 The quaternary agents do not
opioid regimens, dosing adjustment should be made cross the blood–brain barrier and do not reverse the
according to the level of pain. Adult cancer pain guide- analgesic effects of opioids. Nausea frequently occurs
lines recommend an increase of 25% to 50% in the total at the start of opioid therapy but seldom persists. On-
MEDD for moderate pain (4–6 out of 10) and 50% to going nausea may occur with advanced disease or as a
100% for severe pain (7–10 out of 10).133 complication of disease treatments. Opioids can cause
nausea through several mechanisms, either through
Equianalgesic Conversions direct stimulation of the chemoreceptor trigger zone,
When converting between opioids, equianalgesic increased sensitivity of the vestibular apparatus, or
guidelines should be followed, although they may be delayed gastric emptying.116 Management consists of
modified according to clinical judgment with regard to therapies targeting these processes. Dopamine antago-
adequacy of a patient’s current pain medication regi- nists, such as prochlorperazine or haloperidol, work
men.135 Opioid rotation may be secondary to poor anal- on the chemoreceptor trigger zone. Antihistamines
gesia, excessive adverse events, convenience, or patient or anticholinergics can be used in patients who have
preference.136 Incomplete cross tolerance is a phenom- nausea associated with movement. Metoclopramide
enon that has been empirically observed.135 For various is both a dopamine antagonist and promotility agent
reasons, patients may develop less of a response (eg, commonly used for the treatment of nausea in pal-
poor analgesia, adverse events) to a particular opioid liative care. Ondansetron, a serotonin receptor an-
over time. Patients may not show these characteristics tagonist, is also a first-line agent for the management
with a new opioid, despite similar action between opi- of nausea.116,138 If sedation and altered sensorium are
oids, and slight variations in opioid structures may ac- present, then management should include evaluation
count for this.137 When calculating the dose of the new for other sources such as dehydration, drug interac-
opioid, new doses should be reduced by 25% to 50% to tions, or disease progression. Studies have investi-
account for non–cross tolerance.133 This is not done for gated use of stimulants such as methylphenidate and
fentanyl or methadone, and equianalgesic guidelines modafinil with varying results.139,140
should not to be used for these calculations. If excessive adverse events limit pain control or
impair quality of life, opioid rotation is often effec-
Adverse Events tive at achieving greater pain control with less adverse
The development of adverse events varies between in- events.136 In addition, this method of adverse-event
dividuals based on age, comorbidities, stage of illness, management is preferable in patients for whom poly-
and genetic differences.116 Impaired renal function also pharmacy is a concern. Based on pharmacodynamic
increases the risk of adverse events due to accumula- studies, dose-response relationships exist for central
tion of active metabolites.116 The most common adverse nervous system effects, such as sedation, myoclonus,
events include constipation, nausea, vomiting, and al- and delirium, and may improve with dose reduction.116
tered cognition.116 Other adverse events may include
xerostomia, urinary retention, respiratory depression, Treating Neuropathic Pain
myoclonus, pruritus, and hyperalgesia.116 Most ad- Although adjuvant analgesics are often used in neuro-
verse events from opioid use subside within days to pathic pain, health care professionals should consider
weeks, except for constipation for which patients do opioids as another option for neuropathic pain. Opi-
not develop tolerance and is not dose-related. For those oids are recommended as part of neuropathic pain al-
symptoms that persist or are present during the initia- gorithms.141
tion of opioid therapy, symptom management is a key
element of care. Constipation is prophylactically man- Adjuvant Analgesics
aged. Opioids inhibit gastrointestinal peristalsis; thus, Adjuvant analgesics are drugs with a primary indica-
all patients should receive a stimulant laxative such as tion other than pain that have analgesic properties.142
senna, which can be combined with a stool softener The group includes drugs such as antidepressants, an-
such as docusate sodium or polyethylene glycol. Di- ticonvulsants, corticosteroids, neuroleptics, and other
etary recommendations, such as increasing fiber in the drugs with narrower adjuvant functions. Adjuvant an-
diet, are unrealistic in patients with advanced disease algesics are particularly useful when evidence of de-
because hydration is necessary to facilitate the action creased opioid responsiveness is present.
of fiber, often something difficult to achieve in ill pa-
tients.126 Constipation is exacerbated by metabolic Tricyclic Antidepressants and Selective Serotonin
abnormalities, including diabetes, hypercalcemia, hy- Reuptake Inhibitors
pokalemia, and hypothyroidism, that should be cor- The tricyclic antidepressants have been studied for use
rected if possible.116 Increased physical activity is often in neuropathic pain syndromes, although study results
helpful if possible. Use of quaternary opioid antago- are conflicting about their analgesic effectiveness.143-145

October 2015, Vol. 22, No. 4 Cancer Control 419

Use in the elderly may also be problematic due to ad- Anticonvulsant Drugs
verse events, including orthostatic hypotension and se- Anticonvulsants can be used for managing neuro-
dation.146 Tricyclic antidepressants should also be cau- pathic pain.158 The most often used anticonvulsant for
tiously used in patients with coronary artery disease or neuropathic pain is gabapentin. Gabapentin is effec-
cardiac rhythm disorders, as well as those with a histo- tive for cancer-related neuropathic pain.159 Gabapen-
ry of narrow anterior eye chambers or glaucoma. The tin can have significant adverse events if it is started
anticholinergic properties of these drugs contribute to at too high a dose or titrated too fast. Dosing begins
delirium in the elderly or anyone at risk for delirium at 150 mg to 300 mg at bedtime, with escalations ev-
such as patients whose cancer has metastasized to the ery 3 days if pain control is suboptimal. The maximum
central nervous system. These drugs should be started dose is 3600 mg/day. The chief adverse event is som-
at the lowest dose with cautious escalation. Dose esca- nolence.160 Gabapentin must be dose adjusted for re-
lations are made every 3 to 4 days if analgesic response nal insufficiency. Anoother anticonvulsant that may
is suboptimal. be useful for cancer pain is phenytoin.161 Agents such
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) as lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine, pregabalin, topiramate
have a limited role as adjuvants, although paroxetine and levetiracetam have been used for nonmalignant
and citalopram have been evaluated for nonmalig- neuropathic pain and are considerations in the refrac-
nant neuropathic pain.147,148 No studies have been tory case, but they have not been studied in the cancer
performed on cancer pain. Some SSRIs have unique pain population. Levetircetam requires further study
mechanisms of action that may make them useful for for cancer-related neuropathy.162 Lamotrigine is not ef-
cancer pain; for example, venlafaxine, which inhibits fective in chemotherapy-related neuropathy.163
the uptake of serotonin and norepinephrine (impor-
tant in the regulation of descending pain pathways), Oral and Parenteral Local Anesthetics
is effective for painful neuropathy and neuropathic The most common parenteral anesthetic used for
pain associated with therapy used in breast can- symptom management is lidocaine.164 Studies suggest
cer.148,149 Newer drugs, such as duloxetine, can be its efficacy in refractory cases of neuropathic pain.
used to inhibit the uptake of norepinephrine, which One study in patients with cancer with refractory
is also effective in neuropathic pain, especially re- pain showed improved analgesia with a single dose
lated to chemotherapy.150 Bupropion, a noradrenergic of lidocaine.165 The recommended starting dose is
compound, has both analgesic and activating proper- 1 to 5 mg/kg infused for 20 to 30 minutes. In patients
ties and can be effective in patients with depression- who are frail, lower doses may be needed. Lidocaine
and significant neuropathic pain.151 should be avoided in patients with coronary artery
disease. One potential benefit of lidocaine is pro-
Corticosteroids longed pain relief that occurs following its infusion.
Corticosteroids can be used for patients with bone Lidocaine can be given subcutaneously in the home
pain and to decrease swelling in the brain and spi- or hospice setting.166 Mexililetine, an oral cogener of
nal cord due to metastatic disease. Nerve root inflam- lidocaine, has been used after lidocaine infusions.167
mation responds to corticosteroids. Corticosteroids Clinical trial results suggest that mexiletine has a dis-
are often considered for painful liver metastasis and tinct adverse-event profile and may not be tolerated
obstruction of the ureter, although the evidence base by all patients.168
for this use is not strong.152 The most commonly used
corticosteroid is dexamethasone, which has low min- Transdermal Analgesics
eralcorticoid properties. Optimal dosing for palliation Transdermal lidocaine (5% patch) provides anoth-
may be 8 mg as this dose has no more adverse events er route for local anesthetics. It can be used to treat
than placebo.153 In the case of spinal cord compres- postherpetic neuralgia, but use in other settings re-
sion, recommendations exist for either high-dose quires further study to clarify its role in cancer-related
(96 mg/day) or low-dose (16 mg/day) dexametha- neuropathy. The patch has minimal systemic absorp-
sone.154 The challenge with the higher dose of ste- tion, and it can be applied 12 hours per day; evidence
roids is the occurrence of adverse events.155 The man- suggests that increasing the number of patches and
agement of edema associated with brain metastasis extended dosing periods may be safe.169,170 It may take
can be treated with dexamethasone 4 to 6 mg every several weeks to observe a maximal effect. The most
6 hours with a taper during the last phases of pallia- frequently reported adverse events are mild to moder-
tive radiation therapy. The minimal effective dose for ate skin redness, rash, and irritation at the patch ap-
brain metastasis is 8 mg/day.156 Steroids can be use- plication site.105
ful to counteract the phenomenon of radiation “flare,”
which can occur with radiation therapy when radia- Ketamine
tion is applied to painful bony sites.157 Chronic pain is associated with central nervous system

420 Cancer Control October 2015, Vol. 22, No. 4

changes, including activation of the NMDA receptor, zapine for the treatment of associated anxiety and mild
and can lead to opioid tolerance and the development cognitive impairment. Participants did not meet diag-
of opioid resistance.171 Pharmacological blockade of nostic criteria for delirium and the cognitive impair-
the NMDA receptor offers a therapeutic approach in ment was classified as not otherwise specified.182 Study
the setting of opioid resistance. Ketamine is a useful patients received 2.5 to 7.5 mg of olanzapine daily, and
NMDA antagonist to consider in the management of their pain intensity, sedation, and opioid consump-
cancer pain and its use often leads to reduced opioid tion measurements were made before administering
requirements.172 Given at subanesthetic doses (< 1 mg/ olanzapine and 2 days after olanzapine was given.182
kg), ketamine is an effective analgesic in cancer-relat- Cognitive function was assessed daily.182 All partici-
ed neuropathic pain.172 Multiple routes exist for ad- pants experienced reduced pain scores, and the aver-
ministration and include the oral, intravenous, subcu- age daily opioid use significantly decreased in all study
taneous, and topical routes. Ketamine is metabolized patients.182 Cognitive impairment and anxiety resolved
via CYP3A4. No significant drug interactions have within 24 hours of initiating olanzapine.182 The authors
been reported.173 Ketamine is recommended by the suggested that olanzapine may have an intrinsic anal-
WHO for the management of refractory pain.174 The gesic action, but they also suggested that pain scores
oral bioavailability is 17%, and onset of action of ket- and opioid requirements may have resulted from im-
amine is 15 to 20 minutes. The half-life of ketamine is provement in cognitive function and the known anxio-
2.5 to 3 hours. Ketamine has protein binding of 20% to lytic effect of olanzapine.182
30%.175 Pharmacologically, no major differences exist
in the characteristics between the isomers.176 Its intra- Agents Specifically Used for Bone Pain
venous onset of action is within seconds and, subcu- Bone pain is a common problem in the palliative care
taneously, the onset of action is 15 to 20 minutes. The setting. Radiation therapy can be effective with local-
half-life is 2 to 3 hours for both routes.173 The results of ized pain. Systemic therapies with NSAIDs, corticoste-
1 trial of subcutaneous ketamine as an add-on option roids, bisphosphonates, and radiopharmaceuticals can
to opioids showed no efficacy in cancer-related noci- be useful for patients with multifocal lesions.
ceptive pain.177 Bisphosphonates: Bisphosphonates are ana-
logues of inorganic pyrophosphate that inhibit osteo-
Cannabinoids clast activity and can be useful in many types of can-
Formulations of cannabinoids, the cannabinoid extracts, cer in which bone resorption leads to complications.
have been studied for cancer-related pain.178 Johnson Bisphosphonates bind to calcium on bone, become
et al179 evaluated tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)/can- ingested by osteoclasts, and then subsequently kill os-
nabidiol (CBD) in a 2-week, multicenter, double-blind, teoclasts, thus preventing bone resoprtion.183 The end
randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial of result of decreased osteoclast activity is increased bone
177 study patients with cancer whose pain was inade- stability and reduced pathological fractures. The most
quately controlled despite them being on opioid thera- potent bisphosphonate is zoledronic acid, which has
py. The cannabinoid extract contains THC 2.7 mg and been shown to reduce pain and the occurrence of skel-
CBD 2.5 mg per dose.179 It is formulated in ethanol/pro- etal-related events in breast and prostate cancers, mul-
pylene glycol with peppermint flavoring and is designed tiple myeloma, and a variety of solid tumors, including
as a pump spray for self-administration and titration via lung cancer.184-187 Denosumab is useful when renal in-
the oromucosal route.180 The study patients received sufficiency precludes the use of bisphosphonates.188
THC/CBD, THC extract, or placebo and continued Radiopharmaceuticals: Radionuclides are agents
their previous analgesics.179 The THC/CBD extract arm absorbed in areas of metastatic cancer activity. Stron-
achieved a statistically significant improvement in pain tium-89 and samarium-153 are effective for diffuse
when compared with placebo (P < .024) as measured bony metastatic disease, such as in the case of prostate
on a numerical rating scale, a primary end point of the cancer.189
study.179 The THC extract showed no significant changes
from baseline compared with placebo.179 Muscle Relaxants
Pain originating from connective tissue injury is com-
Neuroleptics mon in patients with cancer. However, use of muscle
Second-generation (atypical) agents, such as olanzap- relaxants as adjuvant agents has not been evaluated in
ine, have been shown to have antinociceptive activity patients with cancer.
in animal models.181 Clinical evaluation of its analge-
sic effects has been limited. Khojainova et al182 evalu- Use for Malignant Bowel Obstruction
ated the analgesic activity of olanzapine in 8 study pa- Pain, along with nausea and vomiting, is a common
tients with severe cancer pain who did not respond to symptom associated with malignant bowel obstruc-
increased opioid dosing and who also received olan- tion. Nonsurgical management of malignant bowel ob-

October 2015, Vol. 22, No. 4 Cancer Control 421

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