CSS Psychology

Notes

By-: Asad Chaudhary

CSS Online Coaching, Lahore

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 Definition

Psychology is the scientific study of human mind and behavior.

 Branches of Psychology/Scope of Psychology

1. Abnormal Psychology

Abnormal psychology is a division of psychology that studies people who are "abnormal" or
"atypical" compared to the members of a given society.

 Violation of social norms

 Failure to function adequately
 Deviation from ideal mental health
 All are treated by Abnormal psychology.

2. Counseling Psychology

The counseling psychologist deals with mild problems pertaining to adjustment in social and
emotional life, and provides specialized services to deal with marital problems, stress
oriented problems and career choice.

3. Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change
over the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has
expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan.

4. Educational Psychology

This field of psychology is mainly concerned with academic performance. It studies the role
of various factors which influence learning processes in classroom setting. It focuses on
assessing the aptitude, skills and intellectual potential of the students and evaluating their
performance. An educational psychologist also helps students to overcome learning
difficulties.

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5. Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychologists are most commonly licensed psychologists who specialize in

applying psychological knowledge to legal matters, both in the criminal and civil arenas.
They hold graduate degrees in psychology, most often a PhD. Forensic psychology is a sub
discipline of psychology.

6. Health Psychology

Health psychology is the study of psychological and behavioral processes in health, illness,

and healthcare. It is concerned with understanding how psychological, behavioral, and
cultural factors contribute to physical health and illness. Psychological factors can
affect health directly.

7. Industrial Psychology
I/O psychologists:
 Identify training and development needs; 
 Design and optimize job and work and quality of work life; 
 Formulate and implement training programs and evaluate their effectiveness; 
 Coach employees; 
 Develop criteria to evaluate performance of individuals and organizations; and 
 Assess consumer preferences, customer satisfaction and market strategies.

8. School Psychology

School psychologists are uniquely qualified members of school teams that support students'

ability to learn and teachers' ability to teach. They apply expertise in mental health, learning,
and behavior, to help children and youth succeed academically, socially, behaviorally, and
emotionally.

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9. Social Psychology

Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. In this definition,
scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation.

10. Sports Psychology

Sport psychology is a branch of psychology which is primarily concerned with, but not limited to,
enhancing sporting performance. This can be done by targeting what, and how, we think and feel to
maximize outcomes. 

11. Environmental Psychology

This field is concerned with the study of interaction between physical environment and
human behavior. It studies the impact of noise, heat, humidity, pollution and crowding on
human performance. It also focuses on the impact of physical environment on
psychological health of individuals.

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 School of Thoughts in Psychology
1. Structuralism
i. the first school of thought (or perspective) in psychology, known as structuralism
ii. Structuralism, as the name suggests, was centered on investigating the structure of
the mind.
iii. Wundt’s ideas formed the basis of the first school of thought
iv. Wundt believed that psychology should focus on breaking down consciousness
into its basic elements, in much the same way a child would pull apart a toy to
reveal its component parts. 
v. Structuralism played a significant role in shaping the field of psychology during
its formative years. 
vi. Wundt and his followers helped to establish psychology as an independent
experimental science and their emphasis on scientific methods of inquiry remains
a key aspect of the discipline today.
vii. Despite their noble attempt at scientific investigation, introspection was less than
ideal because no two persons perceive the same thing in exactly the same way.
viii. Some of the fiercest criticisms of structuralism came from the person of William
James, one of the leading proponents of the functionalist perspective.

2. Functionalism 
i. From the point of view of American scholar William James, structuralists were
sorely misguided.
ii. The mind is fluid, not stable; consciousness is ongoing, not static. Attempts to
study the structure of the mind would therefore be futile at worst and frustrating at
best. 
iii. A more fruitful endeavor, they argued, would be to study the function, as opposed
to the structure, of the mind. Function in this sense can mean one of two things –
first, how the mind operates – that is, how the elements of the mind work together
– and second, how mental processes promote adaptation.

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 iv. James believed that mental processes serve vital functions that enable us to adapt
and survive in a changing world. Thus, while the structuralists asked “what
happens” when we engage in mental activity, the functionalists were more
concerned with “how it happens” and “why.”
v. Functionalism contributed greatly to the development of psychology.
vi. While the structuralists established psychology as a pure science, the
functionalists broadened this narrow focus by also concentrating on the practical
application of psychology to real-world problems. 
vii. Despite repeated verbal attacks aimed at each other, neither structuralism nor
functionalism remained at the forefront of psychology for very long. Both made
significant contributions to psychology but neglected one important influence on
human thought and behavior – the unconscious. Here is where Sigmund Freud
made his great début.

3. Psychoanalysis
i. Freud was not content with examining only conscious thought; he dived head-first
into the unconscious. Freud compared the human psyche to an iceberg – only a
small portion is visible to others with most of it lying below the surface.
ii. Freud also believed that many of the factors that influence our thoughts and
actions lie outside of conscious awareness and operate entirely in our unconscious
iii.  Psychology therefore needed to study these unconscious drives, motives and
impulses to arrive at a more complete understanding of the individual.
iv. No other psychological school of thought has received as much attention,
admiration and criticism as Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. One of the biggest
criticisms is that his theory falls short of being scientific as many of his concepts
are not testable.
v. Freud also failed to recognize how experiences after childhood contribute to
personality development and focused mainly on psychological disorders rather
than more positive, adaptive behaviors.

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4. Behaviorism
i.  John B. Watson, a staunch supporter of behaviorism
ii. Behaviorists believed that human behavior can be understood by examining the
relationship between stimuli (events in the environment) and responses
(observable behavior). The behaviorist approach proposes two main processes
whereby people learn from their environment: namely classical conditioning and
operant conditioning.
iii. B.F. Skinner, another famous behaviorist, supported Watson’s view by advancing
the idea that human behavior can be explained by reinforcement and punishment
– observable, environmental factors – with no need to consider inner mental
processes.

5. Gestalt psychology
i. The word “gestalt” means “form, pattern or whole.”
ii. Gestalt psychologists believed that psychology should study human experience as
a “whole,” not in terms of separate elements as the structuralists would contend
iii. Their slogan, “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts” conveyed the idea
that meaning is often lost when psychological events are broken down; only when
these pieces are analyzed together and the whole pattern is visible do we find true
meaning in our experiences. 
iv. To use an example, imagine breaking apart the words you are now reading into
individual letters and scattering them as you wish across the page. Would you be
able to discern anything meaningful from them? Quite likely, you wouldn’t. Only
when the letters are properly combined to form words and then structured into
sentences do you grasp any true meaning. The “whole” then becomes something
different, something greater than the accumulation of its “parts.”
v. Gestalt psychologists, such as Max Wertheimer, did extensive work on various
aspects of cognition, including perception, problem-solving and thinking.

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6. Humanistic Psychology
i. Humanist thinkers felt that both psychoanalysis and behaviorism were too
pessimistic, either focusing on the most tragic of emotions or failing to take into
accounts the role of personal choice.
ii. Humanistic psychology focused on each individual's potential and stressed the
importance of growth and self-actualization.
iii. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately good
and that mental and social problems result from deviations from this natural
tendency.

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  Theories of Learning
Psychologists often define learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of
experience.

1. Classical Conditioning
2. Operant Conditioning
3. Observational learning

1. Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning theory involves learning a new behavior via the process of association. In
simple terms two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or
animal.

There are three stages of classical conditioning. 

Stage 1: Before Conditioning:

In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response
(UCR) in an organism. In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the environment has
produced a behavior / response which is unlearned (i.e. unconditioned) and therefore is a natural
response which has not been taught. In this respect no new behavior has been learned yet.

For example, a stomach virus (UCS) would produce a response of nausea (UCR). In another
example a perfume (UCS) could create a response of happiness or desire (UCR).

This stage also involves another stimulus which has no effect on a person and is called
the neutral stimulus (NS). The NS could be a person, object, place, etc. The neutral stimulus in
classical conditioning does not produce a response until it is paired with the unconditioned
stimulus.

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Stage 2: During Conditioning:
During this stage a stimulus which produces no response (i.e. neutral) is associated with the
unconditioned stimulus at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).

For example a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a certain food such as
chocolate (CS). Also perfume (UCS) might be associated with a specific person (CS).

Often during this stage the UCS must be associated with the CS on a number of occasions, or
trials, for learning to take place. However, one trail learning can happen on certain occasions
when it is not necessary for an association to be strengthened over time (such as being sick after
food poisoning or drinking too much alcohol).

Stage 3: After Conditioning:

Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
to create a new conditioned response (CR).

For example a person (CS) who has been associated with nice perfume (UCS) is now found
attractive (CR). Also chocolate (CS) which was eaten before a person was sick with a virus
(UCS) is now produces a response of nausea (CR).

Pavlov's Famous Study:

The best-known of Pavlov's experiments involves the study of the salivation of dogs. Pavlov was
originally studying the saliva of dogs as it related to digestion, but as he conducted his research,
he noticed that the dogs would begin to salivate every time he entered the room—even if he had
no food. The dogs were associating his entrance into the room with being fed. This led Pavlov to
design a series of experiments in which he used various sound objects, such as a buzzer,
to condition the salivation response in dogs.

He started by sounding a buzzer each time food was given to the dogs and found that the dogs
would start salivating immediately after hearing the buzzer—even before seeing the food. After a
period of time, Pavlov began sounding the buzzer without giving any food at all and found that

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the dogs continued to salivate at the sound of the buzzer even in the absence of food. They had
learned to associate these sound of the buzzer with being fed. 

Basic Process of Classical Conditioning:

Let's take a closer look at five key principles of classical conditioning:

1. Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually
strengthened. For example, imagine that you are conditioning a dog to salivate in response to the
sound of a bell. You repeatedly pair the presentation of food with the sound of the bell. You can
say the response has been acquired as soon as the dog begins to salivate in response to the bell
tone.

Once the response has been established, you can gradually reinforce the salivation response to
make sure the behavior is well learned.

2. Extinction
Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. For
example, if the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a
whistle (the conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the conditioned response
of hunger. However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell of food) were no longer paired with
the conditioned stimulus (the whistle), eventually the conditioned response (hunger) would
disappear.

3. Spontaneous Recovery
Sometimes a learned response can suddenly reemerge even after a period of
extinction. Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest
period or period of lessened response. For example, imagine that after training a dog to salivate
to the sound of a bell, you stop reinforcing the behavior and the response eventually becomes
extinct. After a rest period during which the conditioned stimulus is not presented, you suddenly
ring the bell and the animal spontaneously recovers the previously learned response.

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4. Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses
after the response has been conditioned.

For example, if a dog has been conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, the animal may also
exhibit the same response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus. In John B.
Watson's famous Little Albert Experiment, for example, a small child was conditioned to fear a
white rat. The child demonstrated stimulus generalization by also exhibiting fear in response to
other fuzzy white objects including stuffed toys and Watson own hair.

5.  Stimulus Discrimination

Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli
that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being
able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds. Because the subject is
able to distinguish between these stimuli, he or she will only respond when the conditioned
stimulus is presented.

Classical Conditioning in everyday life

Example 1
When the first kid starts crying because of the pain of the needle piercing through his/her body,
all kids down the line start to cry and eventually, every kid on the line is crying even before they
see the needle. This is a perfect example of classical conditioning, where crying is the behavior
learned via classical conditioning.

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Example 2

If a student is bullied at school, they may start hating the school and respond with fear at the very
thought of school. Students might also dislike particular subjects if they have been humiliated or
punished by the particular teacher of the subject. This behavior might even continue throughout
the academic career of the student.

Example 3
Classical conditioning is not a natural occurring phenomenon and conditions can be manually
organized to learn new behavior. For instance, a teacher can create positive classroom
environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear.

By creating a condition where students are made to perform in a group, students can overcome
such anxiety-provoking situations. In the long run, students learn to speak in front of a mass, and
help to be relaxed and calm.

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 Example 4

Suppose, in an office you regularly eat lunch at 12pm. In the office, you have a colleague who
immediately alerts everyone about the lunch time. Eventually, you might not even check the time
when your colleague reminds you that it’s lunch time. Even if it’s just 11 am, you might feel that
it’s already lunch time. This is because your response to hunger has been conditioned with the
sound of your colleague’s voice.

2. Operant Conditioning
A behaviorist theory based on the fundamental idea that behaviors that are reinforced will tend to
continue, while behaviors that are punished will eventually end.

Operant conditioning can be described as a process that attempts to modify behavior through the
use of positive and negative reinforcement. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes
an association between a particular behavior and a consequence[2].

 Example 1: Parents rewarding a child’s excellent grades with candy or some other prize.
 Example 2: A schoolteacher awards points to those students who are the most calm and
well-behaved. Students eventually realize that when they voluntarily become quieter and better
behaved, that they earn more points.
 Example 3: A form of reinforcement (such as food) is given to an animal every time the
animal (for example, a hungry lion) presses a lever[3].

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The term “operant conditioning” originated by the behaviorist B. F. Skinner, who believed that
one should focus on the external, observable causes of behavior (rather than try to unpack the
internal thoughts and motivations)

Reinforcement comes in two forms: positive and negative. We will explain this below.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCERS

 Positive reinforces are favorable events or outcomes that are given to the individual after
the desired behavior. This may come in the form of praise, rewards, etc. For example, if
your teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your homework (i.e. a reward) you
will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior
of completing your homework.

 Negative reinforcers typically are characterized by the removal of an undesired or

unpleasant outcome after the desired behavior. A response is strengthened as something
considered negative is removed.

For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give your teacher £5. You will
complete your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your
homework.

The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is for the behavior to increase.

Punishment (weakens behavior)
Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or
eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior
that it follows

Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like
a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting
someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.

Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.

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There are many problems with using punishment, such as:

 Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is
no longer present.
 Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.
 Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.
 Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do,
punishment only tells you what not to do.

Behavior Shaping
A further important contribution made by Skinner (1951) is the notion of behavior shaping
through successive approximation. Skinner argues that the principles of operant conditioning can
be used to produce extremely complex behavior if rewards and punishments are delivered in
such a way as to encourage move an organism closer and closer to the desired behavior each
time.

In order to do this, the conditions (or contingencies) required to receive the reward should shift
each time the organism moves a step closer to the desired behavior.

According to Skinner, most animal and human behavior (including language) can be explained
as a product of this type of successive approximation.

Behavior Modification

Behavior modification is a set of therapies / techniques based on operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938,
1953). The main principle comprises changing environmental events that are related to a person's
behavior. For example, the reinforcement of desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesired ones.

This is not as simple as it sounds — always reinforcing desired behavior, for example, is
basically bribery.

There are different types of positive reinforcements. Primary reinforcement is when a reward
strengths a behavior by itself. Secondary reinforcement is when something strengthens a
behavior because it leads to a primary reinforcer.

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Examples of behavior modification therapy include token economy and behavior shaping

Token Economy

Token economy is a system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary
reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers).

Tokens can be in the form of fake money, buttons, poker chips, stickers, etc. While the rewards
can range anywhere from snacks to privileges or activities.

Token economy has been found to be very effective in managing psychiatric patients. However,
the patients can become over reliant on the tokens, making it difficult for them to adjust to
society once they leave prisons, hospital etc.

Teachers also use token economy at primary school by giving young children stickers to reward
good behavior.

Educational Applications
In the conventional learning situation operant conditioning applies largely to issues of class and
student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill
performance.

For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to answer questions in class they should
praise them for every attempt (regardless of whether their answer is correct). Gradually the
teacher will only praise the students when their answer is correct, and over time only exceptional
answers will be praised.

Unwanted behaviors, such as tardiness and dominating class discussion can be extinguished
through being ignored by the teacher (rather than being reinforced by having attention drawn to
them).

Knowledge of success is also important as it motivates future learning. However it is important

to vary the type of reinforcement given, so that the behavior is maintained. This is not an easy
task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to behave.

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 3. Observational Learning

Observational learning, also referred to as modeling or social learning, occurs by observing,

retaining, and replicating behavior seen in others. The individuals performing the imitated
behavior are called models. While this type of learning can take place at any stage in life, it is
thought to be particularly important during childhood.

Albert Bandura and the Bobo-Doll Experiment

One of the first recorded instances of observational learning in research was the 1961 study
performed by Albert Bandura. This experiment demonstrated that children can learn merely by
observing the behavior of a social model.
In his experiment, Bandura studied the responses of nursery-school-aged children to the actions
of adults. The children were presented with a short film in which an adult model directed
aggression towards an inflatable Bobo doll.
Results indicated that after viewing the film, when children were left alone in a room with the
Bobo doll and props used by the adult aggressor, they imitated the actions they had witnessed.

Four Conditions for Observational Learning:

According to Bandura's social learning theory, four conditions, or steps, must be met in order for
observational or social learning to occur: 

 Attention

Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to what is happening around them.

 Retention or Memory
Observers have to not only recognize the observed behavior, but also remember it. This process
depends on the observer's ability to code or structure the information so that it is easily
remembered.

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  Initiation or Reproduction

Observers must be physically and intellectually capable of producing the act. You will not be
able to become a champion juggler, for example, just by watching someone else do it.

 Motivation

An observer must be motivated to reproduce the actions they have seen.

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  Emotion
What is emotion?  A feeling?  Then what is a feeling?  These terms are difficult to define and
even more difficult to understand completely.  People have been attempting to understand this
phenomenon for thousands of years, and will most likely debate for a thousand more.  This
section will present the various theories related to the acquisition of emotion.

The mainstream definition of emotion refers to a feeling state involving thoughts, physiological
changes, and an outward expression or behavior.  But what comes first?  The thought?  The
physiological arousal?  The behavior?  Or does emotion exist in a vacuum, whether or not these
other components are present?  There are five theories which attempt to understand why we
experience emotion.

Theories of Emotions:
1. James-Lange Theory

The James-Lange theory of emotion argues that an event causes physiological arousal first and
then we interpret this arousal.  Only after our interpretation of the arousal can we experience
emotion.  If the arousal is not noticed or is not given any thought, then we will not experience
any emotion based on this event.

EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night.  You hear footsteps behind you and
you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens.  You notice these
physiological changes and interpret them as your body’s preparation for a fearful situation.  You
then experience fear.

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 2. Cannon-Bard Theory

The Cannon-Bard theory argues that we experience physiological arousal and emotional at the
same time, but gives no attention to the role of thoughts or outward behavior.

EXAMPLE:  You are walking down a dark alley late at night.  You hear footsteps behind you
and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens.  At the same time
as these physiological changes occur you also experience the emotion of fear.

3. Schachter-Singer Theory

According to this theory, an event causes physiological arousal first.  You must then identify a
reason for this arousal and then you are able to experience and label the emotion.

EXAMPLE:  You are walking down a dark alley late at night.  You hear footsteps behind you
and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens.  Upon noticing
this arousal you realize that is comes from the fact that you are walking down a dark alley by
yourself.  This behavior is dangerous and therefore you feel the emotion of fear.

4. Lazarus Theory

Lazarus Theory states that a thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal.  In
other words, you must first think about your situation before you can experience an emotion.

EXAMPLE:  You are walking down a dark alley late at night.  You hear footsteps behind you
and you think it may be a mugger so you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your

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breathing deepens and at the same time experience fear.

5. Facial Feedback Theory

According to the facial feedback theory, emotion is the experience of changes in our facial
muscles.  In other words, when we smile, we then experience pleasure, or happiness.  When we
frown, we then experience sadness.  it is the changes in our facial muscles that cue our brains and
provide the basis of our emotions.  Just as there are an unlimited number of muscle
configurations in our face, so to are there a seemingly unlimited number of emotions.

EXAMPLE:  You are walking down a dark alley late at night.  You hear footsteps behind you
and your eyes widen, your teeth clench and your brain interprets these facial changes as the
expression of fear.  Therefore you experience the emotion of fear.

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  Motivation
Ever wonder why some people seem to be very successful, highly motivated individuals?  Where
does the energy, the drive, or the direction come from?  Motivation is an area of psychology that
has gotten a great deal of attention, especially in the recent years.  The reason is because we all
want to be successful, we all want direction and drive, and we all want to be seen as motivated.

There are several distinct theories of motivation we will discuss in this section.  Some include
basic biological forces, while others seem to transcend concrete explanation.  Let’s talk about the
five major theories of motivation.

1. Instinct Theory

Instinct theory is derived from our biological make-up.  We’ve all

seen spider’s webs and perhaps even witnessed a spider in the tedious
job of creating its home and trap.  We’ve all seen birds in their nests,
feeding their young or painstakingly placing the twigs in place to form
their new home.  How do spiders know how to spin webs?  How do
birds now how to build nests?

The answer is biology.  All creatures are born with specific innate
knowledge about how to survive.  Animals are born with the capacity and often times knowledge
of how to survive by spinning webs, building nests, avoiding danger, and reproducing.  These
innate tendencies are preprogrammed at birth, they are in our genes, and even if the spider never
saw a web before, never witnessed its creation, it would still know how to create one.

Humans have the same types of innate tendencies.  Babies are born with a unique ability that
allows them to survive; they are born with the ability to cry.  Without this, how would others
know when to feed the baby, know when he needed changing, or when she wanted attention and
affection?  Crying allows a human infant to survive.  We are also born with particular reflexes

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which promote survival.  The most important of these include sucking, swallowing, coughing,
blinking.  Newborns can perform physical movements to avoid pain; they will turn their head if
touched on their cheek and search for a nipple (rooting reflex); and they will grasp an object that
touches the palm of their hands.

2. Drive Reduction Theory

According to Clark Hull (1943, 1952), humans have internal biological needs which motivate us
to perform a certain way.  These needs, or drives, are defined by Hull as internal states of arousal
or tension which must be reduced.  A prime example would be the internal feelings of hunger or
thirst, which motivates us to eat.  According to this theory, we are driven to reduce these drives
so that we may maintain a sense of internal calmness.

Homeostasis

Humans seek balance in their lives. When things are out of order or imbalanced, it tends to cause
problems. This is true particularly with regard to our internal state or well-being. Homeostasis
refers to this tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state that is optimal for
functioning. For example, you have a specific "balanced" or "normal" body temperature that is
approximately 98.6 degrees. When there is a problem with the internal functioning of your body,
this temperature may increase, signaling and imbalance. As a result, your body attempts to solve
the problem and restore homeostasis; your normal body temperature.

3. Psychoanalytic Theory

Remember Sigmund Freud and his five part theory of personality.  As part of this theory, he
believed that humans have only two basic drives: Eros and Thanatos, or the Life and Death
drives.  According to Psychoanalytic theory, everything we do, every thought we have, and every
emotion we experience has one of two goals: to help us survive or to prevent our destruction. 
This is similar to instinct theory; however, Freud believed that the vast majority of our
knowledge about these drives is buried in the unconscious part of the mind.

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Psychoanalytic theory therefore argues that we go to school because it will help assure our
survival in terms of improved finances, more money for healthcare, or even an improved ability
to find a spouse.  We move to better school districts to improve our children’s ability to survive
and continue our family tree.   We demand safety in our cars, toys, and in our homes.  We want
criminal locked away, and we want to be protected against poisons, terrorists, and anything else
that could lead to our destruction.  According to this theory, everything we do, everything we are
can be traced back to the two basic drives

4. Humanistic Theory

Although discussed last, humanistic theory is perhaps the most well know theory of motivation. 
According to this theory, humans are driven to achieve their maximum potential and will always
do so unless obstacles are placed in their way.  These obstacles include hunger, thirst, financial
problems, safety issues, or anything else that takes our focus away from maximum psychological
growth.

The best way to describe this theory is to utilize the famous pyramid developed by Abraham
Maslow (1970) called the Hierarchy of Needs.  Maslow believed that humans have specific
needs that must be met and that if lower level needs go unmet, we can not possible strive for
higher level needs.  The Hierarchy of Needs shows that at the lower level, we must focus on
basic issues such as food, sleep, and safety.  Without food, without sleep, how could we possible
focus on the higher level needs such as respect, education, and recognition?

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Throughout our lives, we work toward achieving the top of the pyramid, self-actualization, or the
realization of all of our potential.  As we move up the pyramid, however, things get in the way
which slow us down and often knock us backward.  Imagine working toward the respect and
recognition of your colleagues and suddenly finding yourself out of work and homeless. 
Suddenly, you are forced backward and can no longer focus your attention on your work due to
the need for finding food and shelter for you and your family.
According to Maslow, nobody has ever reached the peak of his pyramid.  We all may strive for it
and some may even get close, but no one has achieved full self-actualization.  Self-actualization
means a complete understanding of who you are, a sense of completeness, of being the best
person you could possibly be.  To have achieved this goal is to stop living, for what is there to
strive for if you have learned everything about yourself, if you have experienced all that you can,
and if there is no way left for you to grow emotionally, intellectually, or spiritually.

Types of Motives

1. Biological/Primary motives
2. Social/Secondary motives

Primary Motives:
a. Hunger motive:
We eat to live. The food we take is digested and nutritional substances are absorbed. The
biochemical processes get their energy from the food in order to sustain life. When these

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substances are exhausted, some imbalancement exists. We develop hunger motive in order to
maintain homeostasis. This is indicated by contraction of stomach muscles causing some pain or
discomfort called hunger pangs. Psychologists have demonstrated this phenomenon by
experiments.

b. Thirst motive:
In our daily life regularly we take fluids in the form of water and other beverages. These fluids
are essential for our body tissues for normal functioning. When the water level in the body
decreases we develop motive to drink water. Usually thirst motive is indicated by dryness of
mouth. Experiments by psychologists have shown that just dried mouth getting wetted is not
enough. We need to drink sufficient quantity of water to satiate our thirst.

c. Need for oxygen:

Our body needs oxygen continuously. We get it through continuous respiration. Oxygen is
necessary for the purification of blood. We cannot survive without regular supply of oxygen.
Lack of oxygen supply may lead to serious consequences like damage to brain or death.

d. Motive for regulation of body temperature:

Maintenance of normal body temperature (98.6°F or 37.0°C) is necessary. Rise or fall in the
body temperature causes many problems. There are some automatic mechanisms to regulate
body temperature, like sweating when the temperature rises above normal or, shivering when it
falls below normal. These changes motivate us to take necessary steps. For example, opening of
windows, put on fans, take cool drinks, remove clothes, etc., when the temperature increases to
above normal level; and closing doors and windows, wear sweaters, take hot beverages when
temperature falls down. In this way we try to regulate the body temperature.

e. Need for sleep:

Sleep is an essential process for normal functioning of body and mind. When our body and mind
are tired they need rest for rejuvenation of energy. It is observed that there is excess
accumulation of a toxin called ‘Lactic acid’ when tired. After sleep it disappears and the person
becomes active. Sleep deprivation also leads to psychological problems like confusion, inability
to concentrate, droopy eyelids, muscle tremors, etc.

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f. Need for avoidance of pain:
No organism can continue to bear pain. Whenever we experience pain we try to avoid it. We are
motivated to escape from painful stimulus. For example, when we are under hot sun we go to
shade. When something is pinching we avoid it.

g. Drive for elimination of waste:

Our body cannot bear anything excess or anything waste. Excess water is sent out in the form of
urine or sweat. So also digested food particles after absorption of nutritional substances are sent
out in the form of stools. We experience discomfort until these wastes are eliminated.

h. Sex motive:
This is a biological motive, arises in the organism as a result of secretion of sex hormones-like
androgens and estrogens. Sex need is not essential for the survival of the individual, but it is
essential for the survival of the species. However, fulfillment of the sex need is not like
satisfying hunger or thirst. The society and the law exercise certain codes of conduct. Human
being has to adhere to these rules. Usually this need is fulfilled through marriage.

i. Maternal drive:
This is an instinct or an inborn tendency. Every normal woman aspires to become a mother.
Psychologists have Motivation, Emotion and Attitudinal Processes 123 learnt from related
studies that, this is a most powerful drive. That is why in many cases the women who cannot
bear children of their own, will sublimate that motive and satisfy it through socially acceptable
ways, like working in orphan schools, baby sittings or adopting other’s children.

Secondary Motives:
1. Achievement motives:
They refer to a drive towards some standards of excellence. People with high-level achievement
motives prefer tasks that would promise success and are moderately difficult. David C
McClelland has found that while high achievers tend to succeed, low achievers tend to avoid
failures. High achievers challenge failures and work harder while low achievers accept failures
and go for less difficult tasks. High achievers prefer personal responsibility and like to get
feedback about their works. Children whose parents have accepted their independence tend to

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become high achievers, while those of overprotective parents tend to become low achievers.
Children learn by copying the behavior of their parents and other important people in their lives
who serve as models. The parental expectations also develop achievement motivation in
children.

2. Affiliation motives:
Man cannot exist in isolation. The need to be with other people is known as affiliation need. This
need is revealed through one’s attraction to others through friendship, sociability or group
membership. They make more local phone calls, visits and seek approvals of others.

Need to rely on others which is called dependency motive is one form of the need for affiliation.
When little children are frightened, they seek others to comfort them. This kind of experience in
early life makes one seek the friendly company of others when faced with anxiety and fear.

3. Aggression motives:
Intense frustrations after high expectations, verbal and nonverbal insults, fear and anxiety can
trigger aggression. Television and cinema depicting violence can make youngsters model
themselves to aggressive behavior. Psychoanalysts maintain that each individual, as part of his
biological inheritance, possesses destructive death urges as well as constructive life urges. In
most of us, a favorable balance exists between life and death urges so that kindness triumphs
over cruelty. Social learning (modeling), classical conditioning and instrument conditioning are
the ways in which hostile aggression may be learned.

4. Power motives:
Social power is defined as the ability of an individual to produce intended effect on the behavior
or emotions of other people. Persons with power motives will be concerned with having impact,
influence and reputation. They exercise their power by joining political parties, voluntary
organizations, and associating themselves with prominent and popular men. They select jobs
which have an impact on others and dominate weaker sections of the society. They often try to
convince others, play more competitive sports and tend to drink more.

5. Curiosity Motives:

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Almost all individuals have a desire to have some standing position among the people of his
society or group. Nobody likes to be considered inferior. Efforts to achieve a rank in the
hierarchy of the group are present not just in human beings, but even among birds and animals,
e.g. ‘pecking order’ among hens.

Measurement of motives:

1. Interviews
2. Questionnaire
3. Rating scale
4. Situational test

The importance of motivation

Motivation is one of the most important factors in determining the level of success that you will
achieve. Motivation is required throughout the entire goal process. The following are some key
reasons why motivation is so important:

1. Identifying a goal

Goals come from a desire to change something in your life. You may be motivated by positive or
negative factors. Maybe you are unhappy with some aspect of your life. If this is the case, you
would identify what you want instead and set a goal to achieve it. Alternatively, there may be
something which you enjoy in life but you would like to experience more of it or, there may be
something which you would like to add to your life. Whether it is a desire for change, a desire to

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add more or, a desire to add something new, it is motivation for improved circumstances which
inspires the goal. To set powerful goals, check out the Ultimate Guide to Goal Setting.

2. Prioritization

Whatever you want to achieve in life, you will need to commit yourself to it and focus your
energy on it. There is only so much that you can do as time and energy are limited resources. As
you are constantly inundated with things that you could do, you need to be able to prioritise your
activities and focus on the most important tasks. This allows you to achieve your best results.
Motivation is critical in helping you to determine which activities should be prioritized.

3. Action

Anybody can draw up a plan but the value of that plan will never be known until you put it into
action. Setting a goal is not enough to achieve it. You need to take consistent, decisive and
effective action to bring that goal to reality. The difference between those who consistently take
action towards their goals and those who do not, is motivation. There will be days when you
don’t really want to do anything. On these days, it is your high levels of motivation that will push
you through.

4. Overcoming setbacks

One of my favorite books is The Success Principles(TM): How to Get from Where You Are to
Where You Want to Be by Jack Canfield. In one section of the book, Jack provides a rather
amazing statistic. He tells us that 94% of all salespeople have given up on the sale after the 4th
time of asking but 60% of all sales are made after the 4th time of asking. That means that 94% of
salespeople miss out on the chance of making the sale because they don’t have the motivation to
keep asking. This can be applied to all goals. How many times have you given up on something
just because you hit an obstacle? Almost any goal worth achieving is going to require some
resilience. You will hit obstacles and when you do, you must decide whether you will continue
or give up. Motivation will ensure that you keep going.

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5. Staying the course

Many of your most important goals will require a great deal of time to accomplish. It is easy to
lose motivation and lose sight of your objectives. If you allow this to happen, you may never
reach your end goal. It requires a special kind of person to keep their eye on the prize for a long
period of time and, keep taking consistent action towards their goal. What makes these people
special is that they are highly motivated and they take action to reinforce their motivation on a
regular basis. A clear vision for life and, effective goals to realize that vision, are essential if you
want to live your best life. However, goals and a vision are only dreams unless you take
consistent action to bring them to life. To take this consistent action requires motivation.
Motivation rarely happens by accident and, when it does, it rarely lasts for long. If you want to
experience the long-lasting motivation which will help you to stick with your most important
goals, from conception to achievement, you are going to need to work on it. No matter what goal
you set, never lose sight of your need for motivation as it will be the one thing that will push you
through the tough times.

 Psychological Disorders
1. The Anxiety Disorders

 Specific Phobia -- The term "phobia" means "fear." A specific phobia is

an irrational fear of some specific thing or situation. The fear is "irrational" in
the sense that it is all out of proportion to the actual danger presented. For
example, some people are terrified when they see a spider, even though it is on
a wall 20 feet away and could not possibly do the person any harm from that
distance. A common phobia is agoraphobia (literally, "fear of the
marketplace"), in which a person develops a fear of being amongst crowds of
people.

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 Panic Disorder -- This is a disorder characterized by unforewarned attacks of
extreme dread, as if some terrible thing is about to befall the person, generally
lasting only a couple of minutes and leaving the person physically exhausted
because of the extreme activation of the physiological mechanisms aroused by
terror. These attacks do not appear to be caused by any particular situation or
thing, but if they occur several times within a given context, the person may
develop agoraphobia as a secondary effect.
 Post-traumatic Stress Disorder -- In World War I, soldiers who came down with
this were said to be "shell shocked," the idea being that the symptoms must
have resulted from being exposed to too many concussions from exploiting
artillery shells. Actually, the disorder arises when people are exposed to servely
stressful, life-threatening situations in which they perceive that they have no
control over the outcome. Those affected have flashbacks about the situation in
which they were helpless, nightmares, difficulty sleeping, and and find it
impossible to put the situation behind them and get on with their lives.
Situations inducing the disorder include military combat, natural disasters (e.g.,
being caught in an earthquake), accidents (e.g., a plane crash or train wreck)
and being taken hostage, among others.
 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder -- The name comes from two related symptoms:
obsessions and compulsions. Obsessions are thoughts, usually of a distressing
nature, that constantly intrude into awareness, over and over again.
Compulsions are ritualistic behaviors the person feels to perform over and over
again, because not to perform them means experiencing rapidly increasing
levels of anxiety. Certain drugs and behavior modification techniques have
been used to treat the disorder.
 Generalized Anxiety Disorder -- This gets its name from the theoretical notion that
what started as specific phobias has spread though generalization to almost all

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 situations. The person suffering from this disorder experiences continuous, high
levels of "free-floating" anxiety that does not seem to have been triggered by
any specific thing or situation. The symptoms of anxiety are often treated by
prescribing minor tranquilizers as an initial step; this is followed by
psychological therapy aimed and uncovering and eliminating the source of the
anxiety.

2. The Somatoform Disorders

"Soma" means "body," so these are disorders with some obvious connection to the
state of the body. Included are the following two diagnoses:

 Hypochondriasis -- You are probably more familiar with the label for the person:
"hypochondriac." This is someone who is perpetually convinced that he or she
has some dread disease which, if not treated promptly, is going to lead to their
demise. If their own diagnosis is not confirmed by the doctor, hypochondriacs
are likely to ask for a second opinion or to decide that, well, if it's not THIS,
then surely it must be THAT. The disorder may be maintained by a strong fear
of death, although being the center of attention and concern of physicians,
friends, and others can provide its own source of motivation.

3. The Dissociative Disorders

This category includes those psychological disorders that involve a "walling off" of
some part of the mind from consciousness. (The walled off parts are said to become
"dissociated." At one time conversion disorder was included here, but evidently it was
needed above so that somatoform disorders would include more than just
hypochondriasis!

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  Amnesia -- Loss of memory due to psychological factors as opposed to physical
trauma to the brain.
 Dissociative Fugue -- The person disappears, forgets their true identity and past,
replacing them with an imaginary identity and past, and begins a new life in
some other place, but is not conscious of having done these things.
 Dissociative Identity Disorder (old name: "Multiple Personality) -- the person
develops several alternate personalities, each of which seems like a normal
person. The currently "active" personality may or may not have any awareness
of what was happening when other personalities were active.

4. Schizophrenia

Although the term "schizophrenia means "split mind," it does not refer to the splitting
of the personality into several functioning personality subtypes as in dissociative
identity disorder. Rather, the term was intended to convey a splitting of the normally
integrated cognitive/behavioral/emotional functioning of the brain. For example, a
person may suddenly become emotionally agitated even though there is no apparent
objective reason for this change.

Symptoms of Schizophrenia:

Schizophrenia includes a variety of symptoms, not all of which will necessarily be

present at any one time.

 Hallucinations -- a hallmark of Schizophrenia. Usually, these take the form of

hearing voices. These voices may be critical of the person, and in some cases
may tell the person to do certain things. Visual Hallucinations are less common,
but do occur in some cases.
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  Disordered Thought -- Thinking is irrational and disorganized.
 Attentional Difficulties -- The person is easily distracted and has a difficult time
focusing attention on one line of thought for long.
 "Word Salad" -- In severe cases, the individual may exhibit such disordered
thinking that sentences are almost completely disconnected, except perhaps by
a chain of loose associations. Occasionally the person uses stange words
("neologisms") which seem to have a private meaning for the person and yet
the person seems to believe that others know their meaning.
 Delusions -- false beliefs that are firmly held regardless of evidence to the
contrary. Paranoid delusions involve (a) delusions of grandeur -- an irrational
belief that one is someone of elevated position or abilities, e.g., Christ; and (b)
delusions of persecution -- an irrational belief that "they" are out to get you.
 Catatonia -- the person "freezes" into a position of "waxy flexibility": you can
reposition their arms etc. as if the person were a doll, and they will hold the
new position (even a very uncomfortable one) for long periods of time. The
person seems to be in a trance-like state, but upon emerging from the catatonia
can report what had been happening.

Classification of Schizophrenia:

Schizophrenia may be broken into two classes according to the rapidity of its
development:

 Reactive Schizophrenia
o Symptoms develop over a period of days or weeks, usually in adulthood.
o Good prognosis: the person is likely to recover from the disorder.
 Process Schizophrenia

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 o Symptoms develop gradually, over a period of months and years, usually
beginning in the teens or early twenties.
o Poor prognosis: the person is unlikely to recover from the disorder.

Causes of Schizophrenia:

The causes of schizophrenia are unknown. Genetic factors may somewhat dispose one
to develop the disorder, but even among identical twins, if one develops
schizophrenia, the other has only about a 50-50 chance of developing it also, so there
must be other precipitating factors. It is now known that there is some degree of brain
deterioration associated with the disorder, at least in those diagnosed with "process"
schizophrenia. A biochemical imbalance involving the neurotransmitter dopamine is
implicated in the disorder, as drugs have proven effective in reducing the symptoms
of schizophrenia tend to be those that reduce activity in the brain's dopamine systems.

5. Bipolar Disorder (Manic-Depressive Disorder)

Bipolar Disorder gets its name from the fact that the person alternates between two
"poles" along a continuum of emotion running from mania at one extreme to severe
depression at the other. In most cases, the person cycles between these two extremes
over a period of days, weeks, or months, with periods of apparent normality in
between. During the manic phase the person exhibits agitation, an emotional high
where everything seems possible, high energy with little apparent need for sleep, a
flood of ideas coming one right after the other, and irrationality. During the depressive
phase the opposite is evident: little energy, difficulty in initiating activity, slowed
thought processes, serious depression. Irrationality is again present -- the person may
believe that he or she has done some horrible thing for which they are being punished,
for example.

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As with schizophrenia, there is some evidence that genetics is a factor in that relatives
of someone with the disorder are somewhat more likely than nonrelatives also to
develop it, but the actual causes remain unknown. The disorder appears to relate to a
problem in the regulation of synaptic sensitivities in a certain class of
neurotransmitters; one of the effective drug treatments, lithium chloride, may act to
stabilize this sensitivity and thereby stop the cycling.

 Psychological Therapies
Developed by leading psychotherapist, Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis therapy is widely used to
help clients recognize and understand how unconscious factors affect their current relationships
and patterns of behavior. Through techniques such as free association and dream analysis, clients
can learn how to interpret deeply buried and complex memories or experiences that may be
causing them distress and preventing them from living life to the fullest.  

The ultimate aim of psychoanalysis is to foster deep-seated change and emotional development -
particularly in those who suffer from limiting psychological disorders. Clients are expected to
see improvements not only to their mental and physical health, but also to their sense of well-
being and to their ability to manage their lives more effectively. 

1. Methods used in psychoanalysis:

A range of techniques will be employed in psychoanalysis to enable the client and therapist to
interpret and make sense of deeply buried memories and experiences that are expressed during
therapy. Although free association - the client speaking freely about any subject or topic they feel

38
comfortable with - tends to preside over others, all are significant in fostering the change and
personal development that characterizes psychoanalysis therapy. 

 Dream analysis 

Freud believed that all people learn through myths, jokes, fairytales, poems and linguistic
languages - symbols which are also used in our dreams. In psychoanalysis, dream analysis
involves the interpretation of these symbols to understand the unconscious mind and indicate any
areas of trouble that need to be investigated. The client is required to recall the dreams that are
recurring and/or traumatic so that the therapist can hone in on specific areas (symbols) of
concern. 

This technique is based on Freud's assertion that our dreams are a disguised fulfillment of a wish,
and that the disguise is caused by repression (latent thoughts that stem from past experiences). It
is revolutionary in the sense that it goes beyond simply analysing the manifest content of the
dream. Although Freud did not explore the cross-cultural differences in the significance of
dreams, therapists using this method will generally be flexible in their interpretation. 

 Word association 

Typically used early on in psychoanalysis therapy, word association involves the therapist giving
a stimulus word, to which the client must reply with the very first thing that comes into their
head. This enables unconscious thoughts to enter the conscious in preparation for further
investigation later on in the therapy. 

 Projective tests 

In some cases, psychoanalysts will present clients with a series of abstract images, and will invite
them to explain what they see, or create a story based on the images. Freud believed this
technique allows the unconscious to become conscious - helping clients to unlock their inner
thoughts and desires. A common projective test used in psychoanalysis today is the blot test.
Invented by Hermann Rorschach in 1928 this involves ten specially-designed ink blot images. 

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  Para praxes 

Freud believed unconscious thoughts and feelings could transfer to the conscious mind through
Para praxes - minor slips of the tongue or pen. These 'Freudian slips' (as they are also known)
can reveal a client's real thoughts and motivations - often those which are consciously suppressed
as a result of past experiences and/or memories. Psychoanalysts take the view that every slip is
significant and can reveal something important, so they keep a close watch for these during
therapy.

2. Humanistic therapies:

1. Person-centered therapy

Person-centred therapy - also known as person-centred counselling or client-centred counselling

- is a humanistic approach that deals with the ways in which individuals perceive themselves
consciously rather than how a counsellor can interpret their unconscious thoughts or ideas.

Created in the 1950s by American psychologist, Carl Rogers, the person-centred approach

ultimately sees human beings as having an innate tendency to develop towards their full
potential. However, this ability can become blocked or distorted by our life experiences

The counsellor or psychotherapist in this approach works to understand an individual's

experience from their point of view. The counsellor must positively value the client as a person
in all aspects of their humanity, while aiming to be open and genuine. This is vital to helping an
individual feel accepted and better understand their own feelings - essentially helping them to
reconnect with their inner values and sense of self-worth. This reconnection with their inner
resources enables them to find their own way to move forward.

2. Core Conditions
Client-centered therapy operates according to three basic principles that reflect the attitude of the
therapist to the client:

1. The therapist is congruent with the client.

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 2. The therapist provides the client with unconditional positive regard.
3. The therapist shows empathetic understanding to the client.

1. Congruence in Counseling

Congruence is also called genuineness.  Congruence is the most important attribute in

counseling, according to Rogers.  This means that, the Rogerian is keen to allow the client to
experience them as they really are.

The therapist does not have a façade (like psychoanalysis), that is, the therapist's internal and
external experiences are one in the same.  In short, the therapist is authentic.

2. Unconditional Positive Regard

The next Rogerian core condition is unconditional positive regard.  Rogers believed that for
people to grow and fulfill their potential it is important that they are valued as themselves. 

This refers to the therapist's deep and genuine caring for the client.  The therapist may not
approve of some of the client's actions, but the therapist does approve of the client. In short, the
therapist needs an attitude of "I'll accept you as you are."  The person-centered counselor is thus
careful to always maintain a positive attitude to the client, even when disgusted by the client's
actions.

3. Empathy:

Empathy is the ability to understand what the client is feeling.  This refers to the therapist's
ability to understand sensitively and accurately [but not sympathetically] the client's experience
and feelings in the here-and-now. 

An important part of the task of the person-centered counselor is to follow precisely what the
client is feeling and to communicate to them that the therapist understands what they are feeling.

Who can benefit?

Generally, person-centered counseling can help individuals of all ages with a range of personal
issues. Many people find it an appealing type of therapy because it allows them to keep control
over the content and pace of sessions, and they do not need to worry that their therapist will be

41
evaluating or judging them in any way. The non-directive style of person-centred counseling is
thought to be of more benefit to individuals who have a strong urge to explore themselves and
their feelings, and for those who want to address specific psychological habits or patterns of
thinking.

The approach has been found particularly useful in helping individuals to overcome specific
problems such as depression, anxiety, personality disorders, eating disorders and alcohol
addictions. These issues can have significant impact on self-esteem, self-reliance and self-
awareness, but person-centered therapy can help individuals to reconnect with their inner self in
order to transcend any limitations. 
Alternatively, even though person-centered counseling was originally developed as an approach
to psychotherapy, it is often transferred to other areas where people are in relationships -
including teaching, childcare and patient care to name a few. Today many people who are not
practicing counselors use the approach to help guide them through day-to-day work and
relationships.  

3. Behavioral Therapy:
Behaviorism see psychological disorders as the result of maladaptive learning, as
people are born tabula rasa (a blank slate). 

Behaviorism assumes that all behavior is learnt from the environment and symptoms
are acquired through classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning involves learning by association and is usually the cause of

most phobias. Operant conditioning involves learning by reinforcement (e.g. rewards)
and punishment, and can explain abnormal behavior should as eating disorders.

Consequently, if a behavior is learnt, it can also be unlearned.

Therapies:

There are 3 Behavioral therapies are based on the theory of classical conditioning.

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 1. Systematic Desensitization
2. Aversion Therapy
3. Flooding 
1. Systematic Desensitization:

This therapy aims to remove the fear response of a phobia, and substitute a relaxation response to
the conditional stimulus gradually using counter conditioning. There are three phases to the
treatment:

First, the patient is taught a deep muscle relaxation technique and breathing exercises. E.g.
control over breathing, muscle DE tensioning or meditation. This step is very important because
of reciprocal inhibition, where once response is inhibited because it is incompatible with another.
In the case of phobias, a fear involves tension and tension is incompatible with relaxation.

Second, the patient creates a fear hierarchy starting at stimuli that create the least anxiety (fear)
and building up in stages to the most fear provoking images. The list is crucial as it provides a
structure for the therapy.

Third, the patient works their way up the fear hierarchy, starting at the least unpleasant stimuli
and practising their relaxation technique as they go. When they feel comfortable with this (they
are no longer afraid) they move on to the next stage in the hierarchy. If the client becomes upset
they can return to an earlier stage and regain their relaxed state.

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The client repeatedly imagines (or is confronted by) this situation until it fails to evoke any
anxiety at all, indicating that the therapy has been successful. This process is repeated while
working through all of the situations in the anxiety hierarchy until the most anxiety-provoking.

Thus, for example, a spider phobic might regard one small, stationary spider 5 meters away as
only modestly threatening, but a large, rapidly moving spider 1 meter away as highly
threatening. The client reaches a state of deep relaxation, and is then asked to imagine (or is
confronted by) the least threatening situation in the anxiety hierarchy.

The number of sessions required depends on the severity of the phobia. Usually 4-6 sessions, up
to 12 for a severe phobia. The therapy is complete once the agreed therapeutic goals are met (not
necessarily when the person’s fears have been completely removed).

Exposure can be done in two ways:

· In vitro – the client imagines exposure to the phobic stimulus.

· In vivo – the client is actually exposed to the phobic stimulus.

2. Aversion Therapy
Aversion therapy involves associating such stimuli and behavior with a very unpleasant
unconditioned stimulus, such as an electric shock. The client thus learns to associate the
undesirable behavior with the electric shock, and a link is formed between the undesirable
behavior and the reflex response to an electric shock.

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In the case of alcoholism, what is often done is to require the client to take a sip of alcohol while
under the effect of a nausea-inducing drug.  Sipping the drink is followed almost at once by
vomiting. In future the smell of alcohol produces a memory of vomiting and should stop the
patient wanting a drink.

More controversially, aversion therapy has been used to "cure" homosexuals by electrocuting
them if they become aroused to specific stimuli.

3. Flooding
Flooding (also known as implosion therapy) works by exposing the patient directly to their worst
fears. (S)he is thrown in at the deep end. For example a claustrophobic will be locked in a closet
for 4 hours or an individual with a fear of flying will be sent up in a light aircraft.

What flooding aims to do is expose the sufferer to the phobic object or situation for an extended
period of time in a safe and controlled environment. Unlike systematic desensitization which
might use in vitro or virtual exposure, flooding generally involves vivo exposure.

Fear is a time limited response. At first the person is in a state of extreme anxiety, perhaps even
panic, but eventually exhaustion sets in and the anxiety level begins to go down.

Of course normally the person would do everything they can to avoid such a situation. Now they
have no choice but confront their fears and when the panic subsides and they find they have
come to no harm. The fear (which to a large degree was anticipatory) is extinguished.

Prolonged intense exposure eventually creates a new association between the feared object and
something positive (e.g. a sense of calm and lack of anxiety). It also prevents reinforcement of
phobia through escape or avoidance behaviours.

4. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) can be used to treat people with a wide range of mental
health problems.

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CBT is based on the idea that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotion) and how we act
(behavior) all interact together.  Specifically, our thoughts determine our feelings and our
behavior.

Therefore, negative and unrealistic thoughts can cause us distress and result in problems. CBT
aims to help people become aware of when they make negative interpretations, and of behavioral
patterns which reinforce the distorted thinking.  Cognitive therapy helps people to develop
alternative ways of thinking and behaving which aims to reduce their psychological distress.

3. Albert Ellis - REBT

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is a type cognitive therapy first used by Albert Ellis
which focuses on resolving emotional and behavioral problems. The goal of the therapy is to
change irrational beliefs to more rational ones.

REBT encourages a person to identify their general and irrational beliefs (e.g. I must be perfect")
and subsequently persuades the person challenge these false beliefs through reality testing.

Albert Ellis (1957, 1962) proposes that each of us hold a unique set of assumptions about
ourselves and our world that serve to guide us through life and determine our reactions to the
various situations we encounter.

Unfortunately, some people’s assumptions are largely irrational, guiding them to act and react in
ways that are inappropriate and that prejudice their chances of happiness and success.  Albert
Ellis calls these basic irrational assumptions.

Some people irrationally assume that they are failures if they are not loved by everyone they
know - they constantly seek approval and repeatedly feel rejected.  All their interactions are

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affected by this assumption, so that a great party can leave them dissatisfied because they don’t
get enough compliments.

According to Ellis, these are other common irrational assumptions:

• The idea that one should be thoroughly competent at everything.

• The idea that is it catastrophic when things are not the way you want them to be.

• The idea that people have no control over their happiness.

• The idea that you need someone stronger than yourself to be dependent on.

• The idea that your past history greatly influences your present life.

• The idea that there is a perfect solution to human problems, and it’s a disaster if you don’t find
it.

Ellis believes that people often forcefully hold on to this illogical way of thinking, and therefore
employs highly emotive techniques to help them vigorously and forcefully change this irrational
thinking.

4. Aaron Beck - Cognitive Therapy

Beck’s (1967) system of therapy is similar to Ellis’s, but has been most widely used in cases
of depression.  Cognitive therapists help clients to recognize the negative thoughts and errors in
logic that cause them to be depressed. 

The therapist also guides clients to question and challenge their dysfunctional thoughts, try out
new interpretations, and ultimately apply alternative ways of thinking in their daily lives.

Aaron Beck believes that a person’s reaction to specific upsetting thoughts may contribute to
abnormality. As we confront the many situations that arise in life, both comforting and upsetting
thoughts come into our heads.  Beck calls these unbidden cognition’s automatic thoughts.

When a person’s stream of automatic thoughts is very negative you would expect a person to
become depressed (I’m never going to get this essay finished, my girlfriend fancies my best
friend, I’m getting fat, I have no money, my parents hate me - have you ever felt like this?).
Quite often these negative thoughts will persist even in the face of contrary evidence.

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Beck (1967) identified three mechanisms that he thought were responsible for depression:

1. The cognitive triad (of negative automatic thinking

2. Negative self schemas
3. Errors in Logic (i.e. faulty information processing)

5. Family therapy

Family therapy, also referred to as systemic therapy, is an approach that works with families and
those who are in close relationships to foster change. These changes are viewed in terms of the
systems of interaction between each person in the family or relationship. 

It is understandable that families and those in relationships sometimes get into difficulties due to
their differences, or feel the strain when loved ones have troubles. The aim of therapy is to work
on these problems by encouraging family members and loved ones to help and empathise with
each other. They are given the opportunity to understand and appreciate each other's needs, build
on family strengths and ultimately make useful changes in their lives and relationships. 

How can family therapy help? 

Common problems that a family therapist will work with include stressful and traumatic life
events such as: divorce and separation, illness or death of a loved one, and transitional stages of
family development that can cause pain and upset. Work and school-related problems,
psychosexual difficulties and parent-child conflict can also be explored through family therapy.

Family therapists may also work alongside health professionals to address specific conditions
such as ADHD, eating disorders, addictions, depression, and any other conditions that may be
having a damaging effect on family life. This makes family therapy useful for times of crisis and
long-standing problems that are taking their toll on the family. 

Essentially, by evaluating these issues and providing support, family therapy can help families
and individuals to: 

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 better understand how their family functions

 identify strengths and weaknesses within the family system

 set goals and devise strategies to resolve problems

 develop their communication skills

 make the entire family unit stronger.

What does family therapy involve? 

Family therapy will typically take place in the form of sessions in which individuals and their
loved ones will be brought together with a family therapist to discuss the issues that are affecting
their relationships. These sessions - and the family therapy techniques used - will be adapted
according to the therapy goals and the ages, needs, resources and preferences of the individuals
involved. Sessions involving children for example may include drawing and play exercises to
help them express their emotions in a more creative and engaging manner.

How many sessions will be needed?

Family therapy tends to be a solution-focused and short-term approach, and generally around six
to 20 sessions are needed for families to realise their strengths and find ways forward. For
families and loved ones who are experiencing more complex difficulties however, further
sessions may be needed.

Sessions can last from between 50 and 90 minutes, and intervals between each one could be
several weeks at a time depending on various factors, such as the problems being addressed, the
stage of treatment and the needs of family members. Ultimately all elements of family therapy,
including the setting, family therapy techniques and length of sessions will result from a
collaboration and mutual agreement between the therapist and family.

Who can benefit from family therapy? 

Families from socially and economically disadvantaged backgrounds may find family therapy
particularly beneficial. This is because they are generally more vulnerable to external issues such

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as unemployment, which can negatively impact family life and relationships. Families who have
children with behavioral issues may also find family therapy particularly valuable. 

6. Group Therapy
Group therapy is a form of psychotherapy that involves one or more therapists working with
several people at the same time. This type of therapy is widely available at a variety of locations
including private therapeutic practices, hospitals, mental health clinics, and community centers.
Group therapy is sometimes used alone, but it is also commonly integrated into a comprehensive
treatment plan that also includes individual therapy and medication.

How Does Group Therapy Work?

Groups can be as small as three or four people, but group therapy sessions often involve around
seven to twelve individuals (although it is possible to have more participants). The group
typically meets once or twice each week for an hour or two.

According to author Oded Manor in The Handbook of Psychotherapy, the minimum number of
group therapy sessions is usually around six but a full year of sessions is more common. Manor
also notes that these meetings may either be open or closed. In open sessions, new participants
are welcome to join at any time. In a closed group, only a core group of members are invited to
participate.

So what does a typical group therapy session look like? In many cases, the group will meet in a
room where the chairs are arranged in a large circle so that each member can see every other
person in the group. A session might begin with members of the group introducing themselves
and sharing why they are in group therapy. Members might also share their experiences and
progress since the last meeting.

The precise manner in which the session is conducted depends largely on the goals of the group
and the style of the therapist. Some therapists might encourage a more free-form style of
dialogue, where each member participates as he or she sees fit.

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Other therapists instead have a specific plan for each session that might include having clients
practice new skills with other members of the group.

How Effective Is Group Therapy?

Group therapy can be very effective, especially in certain situations. Studies have shown that
group therapy can be an effective treatment choice for depression and traumatic stress.

Reasons to Use Group Therapy

The principal advantages of group therapy include:

 Group therapy allows people to receive the support and encouragement of the other
members of the group. People participating in the group can see that others are going
through the same thing, which can help them feel less alone.
 Group members can serve as role models to other members of the group. By
observing someone successfully coping with a problem, other members of the group can
see that there is hope for recovery. As each person progresses, they can, in turn, serve as
a role model and support figure for others. This can help foster feelings of success and
accomplishment.
 Group therapy is often very affordable. Instead of focusing on just one client at a time,
the therapist can devote his or her time to a much larger group of people.
 Group therapy offers a safe haven. The setting allows people to practice behaviors and
actions within the safety and security of the group.
 By working in a group, the therapist can see first-hand how each person responds to
other people and behaves in social situations. Using this information, the therapist can
provide valuable feedback to each client.

7. Intelligence

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Intelligence has been defined in many different ways including as one's capacity
for logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional
knowledge, planning, creativity and problem solving. It can be more generally described as the
ability to perceive information, and to retain it as knowledge to be applied towards adaptive
behaviors within an environment or context.

Theories of Intelligence

1. Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory:

The English psychologist, Charles Spearman (1863-1945), in 1904 proposed his theory of
intelligence called two-factor theory. According to him intellectual abilities are comprised of two
factors, namely; the general ability known as G-factor and specific Abilities known as S-factors.
The performance by the individual is determined by the G-factor and the S-factors. The total
intelligence of the individual is the sum total of the G-factor and the S-factors. The performance
of a particular task depends on the ‘G’ factor or general ability and the particular ‘S’ factor or
specific ability.

Characteristics of ‘G’ Factor:

1. It is universal inborn ability.
2. It is general mental energy.
3. It is constant.
4. The amount of ‘g’ differs from individual to individual.
5. It is used in every activity of life.
6. Greater the ‘g’ in an individual, greater is his success in life.

Characteristics of ‘S’ Factor:

1. It is learned and acquired in the environment.
2. It varies from activity to activity in the same individual.
3. Individuals differ in the amount of ‘S’ ability.
‘G’ factor represents Native Intelligence thus when we respond to any situation or perform an
intellectual task, our general mental ability or ‘G’ factor is mainly responsible for it and our
specific ability in that particular task is responsible for the rest.

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There are a large number of specific abilities such as ability to draw inferences, ability to
complete sentences, ability to code message etc.

Fig: Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory or Eclectic Theory

Different individuals differed both in their ‘G’ as well as ‘S’ factors. For e.g. an individual’s
performance in literature is partly due to his general intelligence and partly due some specific
aptitude for his language, i.e. G+S1. In mathematics his performance may be the result of G+S2.
In drawing, it may be due to G+S3 and in social sciences; it may be due to G+S4 and so on. Thus
the factor ‘G’ is present in all specific activities.

Educational Implications and relevance of Spearman’s Two –Factor Theory:

1. The theory gives a better insight to the teacher about the nature of intelligence.
2. The general ability differs from individual to individual.
3. The specific abilities also differ from individual to individual.
4. ‘S’ factor varies in degrees. Therefore, it can be modified by learning or habitual training
5. A child requires different amounts of ‘G’ and ‘S’ factors for achieving success in different
Subjects.
6. We require a high quality of ‘G’ factor for our success in life.
7. Both ‘G’ and ‘S’ have a high correlation.
8. This theory could be used to guide, construction of a set of ability test

2. Thurston’s Group Factor Theory:

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Louis Thurston came out with the group factor theory (1937) saying that Intelligence is a
cluster of abilities.. He pointed out that there were Seven Primary Mental Abilities and later on
added two more. They are:
1. Verbal comprehension Factor. This factor involves a person’s ability to understand
verbal material. It is measured by tests such as vocabulary and reading comprehension.
2. Verbal fluency Factor. This ability is involved in rapidly producing words, sentences,
and other verbal material. It is measured by tests such as one that requires the examinee to
produce as many words as possible beginning with a particular letter in a short amount of
time.
3. Numerical Factor. This ability is involved in rapid arithmetic computation and in
solving simple arithmetic word problems.
4. Perceptual speed Factor. This ability is involved in proofreading and in rapid
recognition of letters and numbers. It is measured by tests such as those requiring the
crossing out of As in a long string of letters or in tests requiring recognition of which of
several pictures at the right is identical to the picture at the left.
5. Inductive reasoning Factor. This ability requires generalization—reasoning from the
specific to the general. It is measured by tests, such as letter series, number series, and word
classifications, in which the examinee must indicate which of several words does not belong
with the others.
6. Spatial visualization Factor. This ability is involved in visualizing shapes, rotations of
objects, and how pieces of a puzzle fit together. An example of a test would be the
presentation of a geometric form followed by several other geometric forms. Each of the
forms that follows the first is either the same rotated by some rigid transformation or the
mirror image of the first form in rotation. The examinee has to indicate which of the forms at
the right is a rotated version of the form at the left, rather than a mirror image.
7. Memory Factor. It means the ability to recall and associate previously learned items
effectively or memorize quickly.

Educational Significance and Implications

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1. Thurston contributed greatly to the measurement of attitudes. In psychology, the
‘Thurston scale’ developed in 1928 was the first formal techniques for measuring of
attitudes.
2. Thurston’s theory of intelligence was a major influence on later theories of multiple
intelligences, such as those of Guilford, Gardner, and Sternberg.
3. Thurston has been noted for developing a comparative judgment scaling technique. The
rank scale can be used to rank all possible feelings related to an issue and to categorize
people expressing an opinion based on the rank of that opinion. It is used today mainly in
basic research.
4. Thurston held that if the individual wants to perform any particular activity, one or more
of these factors or abilities are involved. Some of them are more important than others.

3. Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.

Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions
of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory
describes eight distinct intelligences based on skills and abilities that are valued in different
cultures.

The eight intelligences Gardner described are:

1. Visual-Spatial - think in terms of physical space, as do architects and sailors. Very aware
of their environments. They like to draw, do jigsaw puzzles, read maps, daydream. They
can be taught through drawings, verbal and physical imagery. Tools include models,
graphics, charts, photographs, drawings, 3-D modeling, video, videoconferencing,
television, multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs.
2. Bodily-kinesthetic - use the body effectively, like a dancer or a surgeon. Keen sense of
body awareness. They like movement, making things, touching. They communicate well

55
 through body language and be taught through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting
out, role playing. Tools include equipment and real objects.
3. Musical - show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. They love music, but they are also
sensitive to sounds in their environments. They may study better with music in the
background. They can be taught by turning lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically,
tapping out time. Tools include musical instruments, music, radio, stereo, CD-ROM,
multimedia.
4. Interpersonal - understanding, interacting with others. These students learn through
interaction. They have many friends, empathy for others, street smarts. They can be
taught through group activities, seminars, dialogues. Tools include the telephone, audio
conferencing, time and attention from the instructor, video conferencing, writing,
computer conferencing, E-mail.
5. Intrapersonal - understanding one's own interests, goals. These learners tend to shy
away from others. They're in tune with their inner feelings; they have wisdom, intuition
and motivation, as well as a strong will, confidence and opinions. They can be taught
through independent study and introspection. Tools include books, creative materials,
diaries, privacy and time. They are the most independent of the learners.
6. Linguistic - using words effectively. These learners have highly developed auditory
skills and often think in words. They like reading, playing word games, making up poetry
or stories. They can be taught by encouraging them to say and see words, read books
together. Tools include computers, games, multimedia, books, tape recorders, and lecture.
7. Logical -Mathematical - reasoning, calculating. Think conceptually, abstractly and are
able to see and explore patterns and relationships. They like to experiment, solve puzzles,
and ask cosmic questions. They can be taught through logic games, investigations, and
mysteries. They need to learn and form concepts before they can deal with details.

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 8. Naturalistic- not part of Gardner's original seven, naturalistic intelligence was proposed
by him in 1995. "If I were to rewrite Frames of Mind today, I would probably add an
eighth intelligence - the intelligence of the naturalist. It seems to me that the individual
who is readily able to recognize flora and fauna, to make other consequential distinctions
in the natural world, and to use this ability productively (in hunting, in farming, in
biological science) is exercising an important intelligence and one that is not adequately
encompassed in the current list."This area has to do with nurturing and relating
information to one's natural surroundings. Examples include classifying natural forms
such as animal and plant species and rocks and mountain types. This ability was clearly
of value in our evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it continues to be
central in such roles as botanist or chef.

4. Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive

adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one's life." While he
agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead
suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents.

Sternberg proposed what he referred to as 'successful intelligence' involving three different

factors:

 Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities.

 Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the capacity to deal with new
situations using past experiences and current skills.
 Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing
environment.

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  IQ vs. EQ
EQ or say Emotional Quotient refers to a person’s ability to understand his/her emotion
along with the other person’s emotions, whereas IQ stands for Intelligence
Quotient indicates a person’s intelligence level.

Many people hold that IQ is more important for a person to achieve success in life while
researchers hold that people with high EQ are more successful in their careers. So, it is
one of the hot topics for debates, that which is better than the other. Check out the article
below to find some interesting distinguishing points between these two.

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Definition of IQ

Intelligence Quotient, shortly known as IQ is an intelligent test score, obtained by a standardized

intelligence test in which an individual’s mental age is divided by his chronological age and then
multiplied by 100. The test aims at assessing a person’s cognitive capacity of thinking and
reasoning. The term was first introduced by William Stern.

IQ is a measure of the intelligence level of an individual that is reflected in the score obtained by
the person in the intelligence test as compared to the scores received by other people of the same
age in the same test.

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 Definition of EQ

EQ is an abbreviation for the term Emotional Quotient, which is defined as a person’s

capability of identifying his own and other’s person’s emotions. It is a measure of the
emotional intelligence level of an individual, which demarcates between different
feelings and use this intelligence to guide thinking and behavior.

The term was first evolved in 1995, by Daniel Goleman a psychologist in his book on
Emotional Intelligence. It is the ability of a person to identify, express and control his/her
thoughts and actions, understand other people and rightly interpret their situations, make
right and quick decisions, cope with pressures and crisis and so on. It has been researched
that people with high EQ have better mental health, job performance, and the way of
living life.

Key Differences between IQ and EQ

The major differences between IQ and EQ are explained in detail in the following points:

1. An individual’s level of emotional intelligence, which is represented by scores obtained

in the standardized test, is called Emotional Quotient or EQ. Intelligence Quotient or IQ is a
number obtained from standardized intelligence test, which represents an individual’s ability of
logical reasoning.

2. A person’s success in school depends on his IQ level, whereas a person’s EQ level

reflects his success in real life.

3. EQ measures an individual’s social and emotional competencies or one’s ability to

recognize one’s own and other person’s emotional expression. Conversely, IQ measures a
person’s academic competency and reasoning ability.

4. Emotional Quotient is acquired and improved. As opposed to intelligence quotient is an

ability you are born with.

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5. A person with good EQ can recognize, control and express one’s own emotion’s,
perceive and assess other’s emotions. On the contrary, a person with a high IQ can learn,
understand and implement knowledge, and possesses logical reasoning and abstract thinking.

6. High emotional intelligence can be seen in leaders, captains, managers and people with
social challenges. Unlike, Intelligence quotient identifies people with high intellect, common
sense, mental challenges, etc.

Conclusion

The IQ and EQ level are different in different persons. It is possible that a person has a high IQ
level, but low EQ count and vice versa. Therefore, the methods of checking IQ and EQ also
differ.

Your IQ is what determines your competencies and individual capacities, but your EQ
determines how you interact and treat people in your life, it shows how you are going to cope
with pressures or face the crisis. The difference between these two is that no one can alter his/her
intelligence or reasoning abilities, but anyone can learn to handle emotions, to bring success for
him.

 Mental Retardation
Intellectual disability (ID), once called mental retardation, is characterized by below-average
intelligence or mental ability and a lack of skills necessary for day-to-day living. People with
intellectual disabilities can and do learn new skills, but they learn them more slowly. There are
varying degrees of intellectual disability, from mild to profound.

Someone with intellectual disability has limitations in two areas. These areas are:

 Intellectual functioning. Also known as IQ, this refers to a person’s ability to learn,

reason, make decisions, and solve problems.

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  Adaptive behaviors. These are skills necessary for day-to-day life, such as being able to
communicate effectively, interact with others, and take care of oneself.

IQ (intelligence quotient) is measured by an IQ test. The average IQ is 100, with the majority of
people scoring between 85 and 115. A person is considered intellectually disabled if he or she has an
IQ of less than 70 to 75.

There are many signs of mental retardation.

 Sit up, crawl, or walk later than other children;

 Learn to talk later, or have trouble speaking,
 Find it hard to remember things,
 Does not understand how to pay for things,
 Have trouble understanding social rules,
 Have trouble seeing the consequences of their actions,
 Have trouble solving problems, and/or
 Have trouble thinking logically.

The most common causes of intellectual disability are:

 Genetic conditions. These include things like Down syndrome and fragile X syndrome.

 Problems during pregnancy. Things that can interfere with fetal brain development include
alcohol or drug use, malnutrition, certain infections, or preeclampsia.
 Problems during childbirth. Intellectual disability may result if a baby is deprived of
oxygen during childbirth or born extremely premature.
 Illness or injury. Infections like meningitis, whooping cough, or the measles can lead to
intellectual disability. Severe head injury, near-drowning, extreme malnutrition, infections in

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 the brain, exposure to toxic substances such as lead, and severe neglect or abuse can also
cause it.
 None of the above. In two-thirds of all children who have intellectual disability, the cause is
unknown.

Steps to help your intellectually disabled child include:

 Learn everything you can about intellectual disabilities. The more you know, the better
advocate you can be for your child.
 Encourage your child’s independence. Let your child try new things and encourage your
child to do things by himself or herself. Provide guidance when it’s needed and give positive
feedback when your child does something well or masters something new.
 Get your child involved in group activities. Taking an art class or participating in Scouts will
help your child build social skills.
 Stay involved. By keeping in touch with your child’s teachers, you’ll be able to follow his or
her progress and reinforce what your child is learning at school through practice at home.
 Get to know other parents of intellectually disabled children. They can be a great source of
advice and emotional support.

 Some Famous Theories of Psychology

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behavior is the result of
the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego. This
theory, known as Freud's structural theory of personality, places great emphasis on the role of
unconscious psychological conflicts in shaping behavior and personality. Dynamic interactions
among these fundamental parts of the mind are thought to progress through five distinct
psychosexual stages of development. Over the last century, however, Freud's ideas have since

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been met with criticism, in part because of his singular focus on sexuality as the main driver of
human personality development.

1. Freud's Structure of the Human Mind

According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among what he proposed as
the three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego. Conflicts among
these three structures, and our efforts to find balance among what each of them "desires,"
determines how we behave and approach the world. What balance we strike in any given
situation determines how we will resolve the conflict between two overarching behavioral
tendencies: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives vs. our socialized internal
control over those drives.

Conflict within the mind

According to Freud, the job of the ego is to balance the aggressive/pleasure-seeking drives of
the id with the moral control of the superego.

The Id

The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant gratification of basic
physical needs and urges. It operates entirely unconsciously (outside of conscious thought). For
example, if your id walked past a stranger eating ice cream, it would most likely take the ice
cream for itself. It doesn't know, or care, that it is rude to take something belonging to someone
else; it would care only that you wanted the ice cream.

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The Superego

The superego is concerned with social rules and morals—similar to what many people call their
"conscience" or their "moral compass." It develops as a child learns what their culture considers
right and wrong. If your superego walked past the same stranger, it would not take their ice
cream because it would know that that would be rude. However, if both your id and your
superego were involved, and your id was strong enough to override your superego's concern,
you would still take the ice cream, but afterward you would most likely feel guilt and shame over
your actions.
The Ego

In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational, pragmatic part of
our personality. It is less primitive than the id and is partly conscious and partly unconscious. It's
what Freud considered to be the "self," and its job is to balance the demands of the id and
superego in the practical context of reality. So, if you walked past the stranger with ice cream
one more time, your ego would mediate the conflict between your id ("I want that ice cream right
now") and superego ("It's wrong to take someone else's ice cream") and decide to go buy your
own ice cream. While this may mean you have to wait 10 more minutes, which would frustrate
your id, your ego decides to make that sacrifice as part of the compromise– satisfying your desire
for ice cream while also avoiding an unpleasant social situation and potential feelings of shame.
Freud believed that the id, ego, and superego are in constant conflict and that adult personality
and behavior are rooted in the results of these internal struggles throughout childhood. He
believed that a person who has a strong ego has a healthy personality and that imbalances in this
system can lead to neurosis (what we now think of as anxiety and depression) and unhealthy
behaviors.

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The id, ego, and superego

2. Psychosexual Stages of Development

For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults. Freud viewed
development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through a series of stages
during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we may
become stuck in, or fixated on, that stage. According to Freud, children’s pleasure-seeking urges
(governed by the id) are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at
each of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

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 Oral (0-1 years of age): During this stage, the mouth is the pleasure center for
development. Freud believed this is why infants are born with a sucking reflex and desire their
mother's breast. If a child's oral needs are not met during infancy, he or she may develop
negative habits such as nail biting or thumb sucking to meet this basic need.
 Anal (1-3 years of age): During this stage, toddlers and preschool-aged children
begin to experiment with urine and feces. The control they learn to exert over their bodily
functions is manifested in toilet-training. Improper resolution of this stage, such as parents toilet
training their children too early, can result in a child who is uptight and overly obsessed with
order.
 Phallic (3-6 years of age): During this stage, preschoolers take pleasure in their
genitals and, according to Freud, begin to struggle with sexual desires toward the
opposite sex parent (boys to mothers and girls to fathers). For boys, this is called the Oedipus
complex,  involving a boy's desire for his mother and his urge to replace his father who is seen as
a rival for the mother’s attention. At the same time, the boy is afraid his father will punish him
for his feelings, so he experiences castration anxiety. The Electra complex, later proposed by
Freud’s protégé Carl Jung, involves a girl's desire for her father's attention and wish to take her
mother’s place.
 Latency (6-12 years of age): During this stage, sexual instincts subside, and children
begin to further develop the superego, or conscience. Children begin to behave in morally
acceptable ways and adopt the values of their parents and other important adults.
 Genital (12+ years of age): During this stage, sexual impulses reemerge. If other
stages have been successfully met, adolescents engage in appropriate sexual behavior, which
may lead to marriage and childbirth.

Criticism of Freud's Theories

Freud's psychosexual theory is controversial and has been thoroughly criticized. First, even
though Freud's stages are related to children, he based most of his theory on his work with
troubled adults; he in fact never worked with children. Second, many believed his work was too
focused on human sexuality, especially his focus on the Oedipus complex and children's sexual
desire for parents. Some critics of Freud believe the memories and fantasies of childhood

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seduction Freud reported were not real memories but constructs that Freud created and forced
upon his patients. Finally, supporters of feminist theory believe Freud's theory to be sexist and
overly reliant upon a male perspective (for example, his belief that girls developed
sexual libido due to "penis envy").

3. Erikson’s stages of development

Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development considers the impact of external factors, parents
and society on personality development from childhood to adulthood. According to Erikson’s
theory, every person must pass through a series of eight interrelated stages over the entire life
cycle.

1. INFANCY: BIRTH-18 MONTHS OLD

Basic Trust vs. Mistrust – Hope

During the first or second year of life, the major emphasis is on the mother and father’s nurturing
ability and care for a child, especially in terms of visual contact and touch. The child will
develop optimism, trust, confidence, and security if properly cared for and handled. If a child
does not experience trust, he or she may develop insecurity, worthlessness, and general mistrust
to the world.

2. TODDLER / EARLY CHILDHOOD YEARS: 18 MONTHS TO 3 YEARS

Autonomy vs. Shame – Will

The second stage occurs between 18 months and 3 years. At this point, the child has an
opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as he or she learns new skills and right from
wrong. The well-cared for child is sure of himself, carrying himself or herself with pride rather
than shame. During this time of the “terrible twos”, defiance, temper tantrums, and stubbornness
can also appear. Children tend to be vulnerable during this stage, sometimes feeling shame and
and low self-esteem during an inability to learn certain skills.

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3. PRESCHOOLER: 3 TO 5 YEARS

Initiative vs. Guilt – Purpose

During this period we experience a desire to copy the adults around us and take initiative in
creating play situations. We make up stories with Barbie’s and Ken’s, toy phones and miniature
cars, playing out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what we believe it
means to be an adult. We also begin to use that wonderful word for exploring the world
—”WHY?”

While Erikson was influenced by Freud, he downplays biological sexuality in favor of the
psychosocial features of conflict between child and parents. Nevertheless, he said that at this
stage we usually become involved in the classic “Oedipal struggle” and resolve this struggle
through “social role identification.” If we’re frustrated over natural desires and goals, we may
easily experience guilt.

The most significant relationship is with the basic family.

4. SCHOOL AGE CHILD: 6 TO 12 YEARS

Industry vs. Inferiority – Competence

During this stage, often called the Latency, we are capable of learning, creating and
accomplishing numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industry. This is
also a very social stage of development and if we experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy
and inferiority among our peers, we can have serious problems in terms of competence and self-
esteem.

As the world expands a bit, our most significant relationship is with the school and
neighborhood. Parents are no longer the complete authorities they once were, although they are
still important.

5. ADOLESCENT: 12 TO 18 YEARS

Identity vs. Role Confusion – Fidelity

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Up until this fifth stage, development depends on what is done to a person. At this point,
development now depends primarily upon what a person does. An adolescent must struggle to
discover and find his or her own identity, while negotiating and struggling with social
interactions and “fitting in”, and developing a sense of morality and right from wrong.

Some attempt to delay entrance to adulthood and withdraw from responsibilities (moratorium).
Those unsuccessful with this stage tend to experience role confusion and upheaval. Adolescents
begin to develop a strong affiliation and devotion to ideals, causes, and friends.

6. YOUNG ADULT: 18 TO 35

Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation – Love

At the young adult stage, people tend to seek companionship and love. Some also begin to “settle
down” and start families, although seems to have been pushed back farther in recent years.

Young adults seek deep intimacy and satisfying relationships, but if unsuccessful, isolation may
occur. Significant relationships at this stage are with marital partners and friends.

7. MIDDLE-AGED ADULT: 35 TO 55 OR 65

Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation – Care

Career and work are the most important things at this stage, along with family. Middle adulthood
is also the time when people can take on greater responsibilities and control.

For this stage, working to establish stability and Erikson’s idea of generativity – attempting to
produce something that makes a difference to society. Inactivity and meaninglessness are
common fears during this stage.

Major life shifts can occur during this stage. For example, children leave the household, careers
can change, and so on. Some may struggle with finding purpose. Significant relationships are
those within the family, workplace, local church and other communities.

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8. LATE ADULT: 55 OR 65 TO DEATH

Integrity vs. Despair – Wisdom

Erikson believed that much of life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage and the last stage
involves much reflection. As older adults, some can look back with a feeling of integrity — that
is, contentment and fulfillment, having led a meaningful life and valuable contribution to society.
Others may have a sense of despair during this stage, reflecting upon their experiences and
failures. They may fear death as they struggle to find a purpose to their lives, wondering “What
was the point of life? Was it worth it?”

4. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

According to psychologist Jean Piaget, children progress through a series of four critical stages
of cognitive development. Each stage is marked by shifts in how kids understand the world.
Piaget believed that children are like "little scientists" and that they actively try to explore and
make sense of the world around them.

Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual
development that included four distinct stages:

 The sensorimotor stage, from birth to age 2

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  The preoperational stage, from age 2 to about age 7
 The concrete operational stage, from age 7 to 11
 The formal operational stage, which begins in adolescence and spans into adulthood.

A Look at Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development:

 The Sensorimotor Stage: During this stage, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge
through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. It was his observations of his
daughter and nephew that heavily influenced his conception of this stage.

At this point in development, a child's intelligence consists of their basic motor and
sensory explorations of the world. Piaget believed that developing object permanence or
object constancy, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot
be seen, was an important element at this point of development. By learning that objects
are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their own outside of
individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to
objects.

 The Preoperational Stage: At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still
struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle
with understanding the ideal of constancy.

For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and
then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is
rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the
flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though
the two pieces are exactly the same size.

 The Concrete Operational Stage: Kids at this point of development begin to think
more logically, but their thinking can also be very rigid. They tend to struggle with
abstract and hypothetical concepts. At this point, children also become less egocentric
and begin to think about how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete

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 operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that
not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
 The Formal Operational Stage: The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an
increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract
ideas. At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to
problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a
quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their
existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change
in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages. A child at age 7
doesn't just have more information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a fundamental
change in how he thinks about the world.

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  The five sense organs in human beings
The sense organs — eyes, ears, tongue, skin, and nose — help to protect the body. The human
sense organs contain receptors that relay information through sensory neurons to the appropriate
places within the nervous system.

Each sense organ contains different receptors.

 General receptors are found throughout the body because they are present in skin,
visceral organs (visceral meaning in the abdominal cavity), muscles, and joints.
 Special receptors include chemoreceptors (chemical receptors) found in the mouth and
nose, photoreceptors (light receptors) found in the eyes, and mechanoreceptors found in
the ears.

1. OOOH, THAT SMELL: OLFACTION

Olfactory cells line the top of your nasal cavity. On one end, olfactory cells have cilia — hair-
like attachments — that project into the nasal cavity. On the other end of the cell, are olfactory
nerve fibers, which pass through the ethmoid bone and into the olfactory bulb. The olfactory
bulb is directly attached to the cerebral cortex of your brain.

As you breathe, anything that is in the air that you take in enters your nasal cavity: hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, dust, pollen, chemicals. You don’t “smell” air or dust or pollen, but you can
smell chemicals. The olfactory cells are chemoreceptors, which mean the olfactory cells have
protein receptors that can detect subtle differences in chemicals.

The chemicals bind to the cilia, which generate a nerve impulse that is carried through the
olfactory cell, into the olfactory nerve fiber, up to the olfactory bulb and to your brain. Your
brain determines what you smell. If you are sniffing something that you haven’t experienced
before, you need to use another sense, such as taste or sight, to make an imprint in your brain’s
memory.

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 2. MMM, MMM, GOOD: TASTE

The senses of smell and taste work closely together. If you cannot smell something, you cannot
taste it, either. Taste buds on your tongue contain chemoreceptors that work in a similar fashion
to the chemoreceptors in the nasal cavity. However, the chemoreceptors in the nose will detect
any kind of smell, whereas there are four different types of taste buds, and each detects different
types of tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, and salty.

A common misconception is that the little bumps on your tongue are the taste buds. As with all
misconceptions, this idea is wrong, too. The little bumps on your tongue are called papillae, and
the taste buds actually lie down in the grooves between each papilla.

Foods contain chemicals, and when you put something into your mouth, the taste buds in your
tongue can detect what chemicals you are ingesting. Each taste bud has a pore at one end with
microvilli sticking out of the pore, and sensory nerve fibers attached to the other end. Chemicals
from food bind to the microvilli, generating a nerve impulse that is carried through the sensory
nerve fibers and eventually to the brain.

3. NOW HEAR THIS: SOUND

The ear not only is the organ of hearing, but it also is responsible for maintaining equilibrium —
or balance. To maintain equilibrium, the ear must detect movement. To hear, the ear must
respond to mechanical stimulation by sound waves.

The outer ear is the external opening to the ear canal. Sound waves are shuttled through the ear
canal to the middle ear. The eardrum sets the mechanics in motion:

1. When a sound wave hits the eardrum, the eardrum moves tiny bones — the malleus,
incus, and stapes — which subsequently move.
2. This movement is picked up by the mechanoreceptors in the inner ear, which exist on hair
cells containing cilia between the end of the semicircular canals and the vestibule.
3. When the cilia move, the cells create an impulse that is sent through the cochlea to the
eighth cranial nerve, which carries the impulse to the brain.
4. The brain then interprets the information as a specific sound.

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The fluid within the semicircular canals of the inner ear moves, and that movement is ultimately
detected by the cilia. When the fluid doesn’t stop moving, you can develop motion sickness. The
cilia transmit impulses to the brain about angular and rotational movement, as well as movement
through vertical and horizontal planes, which helps your body to keep its balance.

4. SEEING IS BELIEVING: SIGHT

When you look at an eye, the iris is the colored part. The iris actually is a pigmented muscle that
controls the size of the pupil, which dilates to allow more light into the eye or contracts to allow
less light into the eye. The iris and pupil are covered by the cornea.

Behind the pupil is an anterior chamber. Behind the anterior chamber is the lens. The ciliary
body contains a small muscle that connects to the lens and the iris. The ciliary muscle changes
the shape of the lens to adjust for far or near vision. The lens flattens to see farther away, and it
becomes rounded for near vision. The process of changing the shape of the lens is
called accommodation. People lose the ability of accommodation as they grow older, prompting
the need for glasses.

Behind the lens of the eye is the vitreous body, which is filled with a gelatinous material called
vitreous humor. This substance gives shape to the eyeball and also transmits light to the very
back of the eyeball, where the retina  lies. The retina contains photoreceptors, which detect light.

Two types of sensors detect light:

 Rods detect motion. The rods work harder in low light.

 Cones detect fine detail and color. The cones work best in bright light. There are three
types of cones: one that detects blue, one that detects red, and one that detects green.
Color blindness occurs when one type of cone is lacking.

When light strikes the rods and cones, nerve impulses are generated. The impulse travels to two
types of neurons: first to bipolar cells and then to ganglionic cells. The axons of ganglionic cells
form the optic nerve.

The optic nerve carries the impulse directly to the brain. Approximately 150 million rods are in a
retina, but only 1 million ganglionic cells and nerve fibers are there, which means that many

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more rods can be stimulated than there are cells and nerve fibers to carry the impulses. Your eye
must combine “messages” before the impulses are sent to the brain.

5. A TOUCHY-FEELY SUBJECT: TOUCH

The skin contains general receptors. These receptors can detect touch, pain, pressure, and
temperature. Throughout your skin, you have all four of these receptors interspersed. Skin
receptors generate an impulse when activated, which is carried to the spinal cord and then to the
brain.

The skin is not the only tissue in the body to have receptors, however. Your organs, which are
made of tissues, also have receptors. Joints, ligaments, and tendons contain proprioceptors,
which detect the position and movement of the limbs.

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Perceptual Constancy

Perceptual constancy is perceiving objects as having constant shape, size, and color regardless of
changes in perspective, distance, and lighting.

Visual Perceptual Constancies

There are many common visual and perceptual constancies that we experience during
the perception process.

Size Constancy

Within a certain range, people's perception of a particular object's size will not change,
regardless of changes in distance or size change on the retina. The perception of the image is still
based upon the actual size of the perceptual characteristics. The visual perception of size
constancy has given rise to many optical illusions.

The Ponzo illusion

This famous optical illusion uses size constancy to trick us into thinking the top yellow line is
longer than the bottom; they are actually the exact same length.

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Shape Constancy
Regardless of changes to an object's orientation, the shape of the object as it is perceived is
constant. Or, perhaps more accurately, the actual shape of the object is sensed by the eye as
changing but then perceived by the brain as the same. This happens when we watch a door open:
the actual image on our retinas is different each time the door swings in either direction, but we
perceive it as being the same door made of the same shapes.

Shape constancy

This form of perceptual constancy allows us to perceive that the door is made of the same shapes
despite different images being delivered to our retinae.

Distance Constancy

This refers to the relationship between apparent distance and physical distance. An example of
this illusion in daily life is the moon. When it is near the horizon, it is perceived as closer to
Earth than when it is directly overhead.

Color Constancy

This is a feature of the human color perception system that ensures that the color of an object
remains similar under varying conditions. Consider the shade illusion: our perception of how

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colors are affected by bright light versus shade causes us to perceive the two squares as different
colors. In fact, they are the same exact shade of gray.

Checker-shadow illusion

Color constancy tricks our brains into seeing squares A and B as two different colors; however,
they are the exact same shade of gray. 

Auditory Perceptual Constancies

Our eyes aren't the only sensory organs that "trick" us into perceptual constancy. Our ears do the
job as well. In music, we can identify a guitar as a guitar throughout a song, even when its
timbre, pitch, loudness, or environment change. In speech perception, vowels and consonants are
perceived as constant even if they sound very different due to the speaker's age, sex, or dialect.
For example, the word "apple" sounds very different when a two year-old boy and a 30 year-old
woman say it, because their voices are at different frequencies and their mouths form the word
differently... but we perceive the sounds to be the same. This is thanks to auditory perceptual
constancy!

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  Big Five Personality Traits

The "big five" are broad categories of personality traits. While there is a significant body of
literature supporting this five-factor model of personality, researchers don't always agree on the
exact labels for each dimension. However, these five categories are usually described as follows:

1. Extraversion is characterized by excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness and

high amounts of emotional expressiveness.

People who are high in extroversion are outgoing and tend to gain energy in social situations.
People who are low in extroversion (or introverted) tend to be more reserved and have to expend
energy in social settings.

2. Agreeableness: This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness,

affection and other prosaically behaviors.

People who are high in agreeableness tend to be more cooperative while those low in this trait
tend to be more competitive and even manipulative.

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3. Conscientiousness: Standard features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness,
with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors. Those high on conscientiousness tend to be
organized and mindful of details.

4. Neuroticism: Neuroticism is a trait characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional instability.

Individuals who are high in this trait tend to experience mood swings, anxiety, moodiness, irritability and
sadness. Those low in this trait tend to be more stable and emotionally resilient.

5. Openness: This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this
trait also tend to have a broad range of interests. People who are high in this trait tend to be more
adventurous and creative. People low in this trait are often much more traditional and may struggle with
abstract thinking.

It is important to note that each of the five personality factors represents a range between two
extremes. For example, extraversion represents a continuum between extreme extraversion and
extreme introversion.

In the real world, most people lie somewhere in between the two polar ends of each dimension.

 Leadership Styles:

1. The Authoritarian: The authoritarian leadership style keeps main emphasis on the

distinction of the authoritarian leader and their followers. These types of leaders make sure to
only create a distinct professional relationship. Direct supervision is what they believe to be key
in maintaining a successful environment and follower ship. Authoritarian leadership styles often
follow the vision of those that are in control, and may not necessarily be compatible with those
that are being led. Authoritarian leaders have a focus on efficiency, as other styles, such as a
democratic style, may be seen as a hindrance on progress.

Examples of authoritarian leadership: a police officer directing traffic, a teacher ordering a

student to do his or her assignment, and a supervisor instructing a subordinate to clean a
workstation. All of these positions require a distinct set of characteristics that give the leader the
position to get things in order or get a point across. Authoritarian Traits: sets goals individually,

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engages primarily in one-way and downward communication, controls discussion with followers,
and dominate interactions

2. Paternalistic: The way a paternalistic leader works is by acting as a father figure by taking
care of their subordinates as a parent would. In this style of leadership the leader supplies
complete concern for her followers or workers. In return she receives the complete trust and
loyalty of her people. Workers under this style of leader are expected to become totally
committed to what the leader believes and will not strive off and work independently. The
relationship between these co-workers and leader are extremely solid. The workers are expected
to stay with a company for a longer period of time because of the loyalty and trust. Not only do
they treat each other like family inside the work force, but outside too. These workers are able to
go to each other with any problems they have regarding something because they believe in what
they say is going to truly help them.

3. The Democratic Leadership: The democratic leadership style consists of the leader

sharing the decision-making abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the
group members and by practicing social equality.

The boundaries of democratic participation tend to be circumscribed by the organization or the

group needs and the instrumental value of people's attributes (skills, attitudes, etc.). The
democratic style encompasses the notion that everyone, by virtue of their human status, should
play a part in the group's decisions. However, the democratic style of leadership still requires
guidance and control by a specific leader. The democratic style demands the leader to make
decisions on who should be called upon within the group and who is given the right to participate
in, make and vote on decisions. Traits of a Good Leader compiled by the Santa Clara
University and the Tom Peters Group

4. The laissez-faire: The laissez-faire leadership style is where all the rights and power to

make decisions is fully given to the worker. This was first described by Lewin, Lippitt, and
White in 1939, along with the autocratic leadership and the democratic leadership styles.

Laissez-faire leaders allow followers to have complete freedom to make decisions concerning the
completion of their work. It allows followers a self-rule, while at the same time offering
guidance and support when requested. The laissez-faire leader using guided freedom provides

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the followers with all materials necessary to accomplish their goals, but does not directly
participate in decision making unless the followers request their assistance

5. Transactional leaders: Transactional leaders focus their leadership on motivating followers

through a system of rewards and punishments. There are two factors which form the basis for this
system, Contingent Reward and management-by-exception.

 Contingent reward provides rewards, materialistic or psychological, for effort and

recognizes good performance.
 Management-by-exception allows the leader to maintain the status quo. The leader
intervenes when subordinates do not meet acceptable performance levels and initiates
corrective action to improve performance. Management by exception helps reduce the
workload of managers being that they are only called-in when workers deviate from course.

This type of leader identifies the needs of their followers and gives rewards to satisfy those needs
in exchange of certain level of performance.

Transactional leaders focus on increasing the efficiency of established routines and procedures.
They are more concerned with following existing rules than with making changes to the
organization.

A transactional leader establishes and standardizes practices that will help the organization reach:

 Maturity
 Goal-setting
 Efficiency of operation
 Increasing productivity.

6. Transformational Leader: A transformational leader is a type of person in which the leader

is not limited by his or her followers' perception. The main objective is to work
to change or transform his or her followers' needs and redirect their thinking. Leaders that
follow the transformation style of leading, challenge and inspire their followers with a sense of
purpose and excitement. Transformational leaders also create a vision of what they aspire to be,
and communicate this idea to others (their followers) Schultz and Schultz identify three
characteristics of a transformational leader:

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 Charismatic leadership has a broad field of knowledge, has a self-promoting personality,
high/great energy level, and willing to take risk and use irregular strategies in order to
stimulate their followers to think independently
 Individualized consideration
 Intellectual stimulation

 Stress at work place

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  Stages in socialization Process
 Socialization can be conceptualized as a process made up of three stages.

a. Pre-arrival Stage:

This stage explicitly recognizes that each individual arrives with a set of organizational values,
attitudes, and expectations. For instance, in many jobs, particularly high skilled and managerial
jobs, new members will have undergone a considerable degree of prior socialization in training
and in school. Pre-arrival socialization, however, goes beyond the specific job. The selection
process is used in most organizations to inform perspective employees about the organization as
whole. In addition, of course, interviews in the selection process also act to ensure the inclusion
of the “right type” determining those who will fit in. Indeed, the ability of the individuals to
present the appropriate face during the selection process determines their ability to move into the
organization in the first place. Thus success depends upon the degree to which aspiring members
have correctly anticipated the expectations and desires of those in the organization in charge of
selection.

b. Encounter Stage:

Upon entry into the organization, new members enter the encounter stage. Here the individuals
confront the possible dichotomy between their expectations about their jobs, their coworkers,
their supervisors, and the organization in general and reality. If expectations prove to have been
more or less accurate, the encounter state merely provides a reaffirmation of the perceptions
generated earlier. However, this is often not the case. Where expectation and reality differ; new
employees must undergo socialization that will detach them from their previous assumption and
replace these with the organization’s pivotal standards. Socialization, however, cannot solve all
the expectation differences. At the extreme, some new members may become totally
disillusioned with the actualities of their jobs and resign. It is hoped that proper selection would
significantly reduce this latter occurrence.

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 c. Metamorphosis Stage:

Finally the new member must work out any problems discovered during the encounter stage.
This may mean going through changes. Hence the last stage is termed as metamorphosis stage.
Metamorphosis is complete as is the socialization process – when new members have become
comfortable with the organization and their work teams. In this situation they will have
internalized the norms of the organization and their coworkers; and they understand and accept
these norms. New members will feel accepted by their peers as trusted and valued individuals.
They will have gained an understanding of the organizational system- not only their own tasks
but the rules, procedures and informally accepted practices as well. Finally they will know how
they are going to be evaluated. They will know what is expected of them and what constitutes a
good job. Consequently, successful metamorphosis should have positive effect on a new
employees productivity and the employee’s commitment to the organization, and should reduce
the likelihood that the employee will leave the organization any time soon

 Sexual harassment

What is sexual harassment?

Sexual harassment is unwanted behavior of a sexual nature which:

 violates your dignity

 makes you feel intimidated, degraded or humiliated

 creates a hostile or offensive environment

You don’t need to have previously objected to someone's behavior for it to be considered
unwanted.

What’s the effect or intention behind the behavior?

Sexual harassment is a form of unlawful discrimination under the Equality Act 2010. The law
says it’s sexual harassment if the behavior is either meant to, or has the effect of:

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 violating your dignity, or

 creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment

If you're being harassed at work

Sexual harassment can include:

 sexual comments or jokes

 physical behavior, including unwelcome sexual advances, touching and various forms of
sexual assault

 displaying pictures, photos or drawings of a sexual nature

 sending emails with a sexual content

Example

Your employer displays a topless calendar above his desk which you find offensive. If he refuses
to remove it you could take action, as this counts as sexual harassment under the Equality Act.

If you're being sexually harassed by someone you work with, you should:

 tell your manager - put it in writing and keep a copy of the letter or email

 talk to your HR team or trade union - they’ll be able to give you advice

 collect evidence - keep a diary recording all of the times you’ve been harassed

If your colleague doesn't stop harassing you, you could raise a formal grievance (complaint). All
employers must have a grievance process - ask your manager or HR team.

You could make a claim at an employment tribunal if you can’t solve your problem using the
grievance procedure.

If you’re treated badly because of your reaction to sexual harassment

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If you’re treated badly or less favorably because of your reaction to sexual harassment, you may
have a claim under the Equality Act. The Act says this is also harassment. You’re protected if
you reject or submit to the harassment.

The person who treats you less favorably can be the person who actually harassed you, but it can
also be someone else.

Example

Your colleague makes sexual advances towards you and you say no. Your colleague then starts
to bully you. Or you submit to their advances and they spread nasty rumors about you. This is
unlawful and you could take action under the Equality Act.

 The Glass Ceiling: How women are blocked from getting to the
top
What causes the "glass ceiling?" It is an unofficially acknowledged barrier to advancement in a
profession, especially affecting women and members of minorities. Here is what women
executives think.

 Job Segregation Runs Rampant

Just as the overall labor market remains sharply segregated by sex, women executives are
concentrated into certain types of jobs - mostly staff and support jobs - that offer little
opportunity for getting to the top. A 1986 Wall Street Journal survey found "The highest ranking
women in most industries are in non-operating areas such as personnel, public relations, or,
occasionally, finance specialties that seldom lead to the most powerful top-management posts."
Women are locked out of jobs in the "business mainstream," the route taken by CEOs and
presidents. But even when women can get a line job, it is not likely to be "in a crucial part of the
business" or the type of job that can "mark them as leaders."

 Old-Boy Network Still Strong

According to one executive recruiter, the biggest barrier to women in top management levels is
the "bunch of guys sitting together around a table" making all the decisions. In short, when

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deciding who to promote into management, male corporate leaders tend to select people as much
like themselves as possible - so it is no surprise that women are frequently not even considered at
promotion time. Instead, the men at the top look to former colleagues and old school ties; in both
areas, women have been virtually absent.

Women executives are frequently excluded from social activities and often describe the
"clubbiness" among the men that exists at the top. The corporate executive suites are "the
ultimate boys' clubs."

Even on a more formal level, women report there are "certain kinds of meetings" they don't get
invited to because they are not seen as policy makers. Corporate women don't travel on business
as frequently as men, according to surveys by Korn/Ferry Intemational (1982) and Wall Street
Joumal/Gallup (1984). Studies confirm these differences in status and the different treatment of
women. One study found that among executives at the same level, men "managed greater
numbers of people, had more freedom to hire and fire, and had more direct control of the
company's assets" than women (Harlan and Weiss).

 Sex Discrimination Is Pervasive

In the Wall Street Journal/Gallup survey, women managers were asked what they consider to be
the most serious obstacle in their business careers. Only 3% cited "family responsibilities," but
half named reasons related to their gender, including: "male chauvinism, attitudes toward a
female boss, slow advancement for women, and the simple fact of being a woman." In the survey
by Korn/Ferry International, executive women were asked to name the greatest obstacle they had
to overcome to achieve success; the most frequent response was simply "being a woman" (40%).
In a recent poll of 12,000 workers by the Los Angeles Times, two-thirds reported sex
discrimination; 60% saw signs of racism.

More than 80% of the executive women in the Wall Street Journal/Gallup study said they believe
there are disadvantages to being a woman in the business world. Men, they say, "don't take them
seriously." In the same survey, 61% of the women executives reported having been mistaken for
a secretary at a business meeting; 25% said they had been thwarted on their way up the ladder by
male attitudes toward women. A significant majority - 70% - believed they are paid less than
men of equal ability.

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  Sexual Harassment Is Widespread
Sexual harassment remains a serious problem for women in the managerial ranks. In a 1988
survey of Fortune 500 executives by Working Woman magazine, 90% of large corporations
reported sexual harassment complaints by women employees. The survey found that "more than
a third of the companies had been sued by victims, a quarter had been sued repeatedly." But,
according to the same study, only 20% of offenders lose their jobs; 4 in 5 are merely
reprimanded.

Sexual harassment "puts a woman in her place," so a corporate environment that tolerates sexual
harassment intimidates and demoralizes women executives. Many women hesitate to speak out,
fearing it will jeopardize their careers.

 Enforcement of Anti-Discrimination Laws Is Lax

The Reagan and Bush Administrations have gutted the federal government's commitment to
affirmative action. As a result, equality has dropped off the corporate agenda. A 1983 survey of
800 business leaders by Sirota & Alpen Associates found that out of 25 human resource
priorities, affirmative action for women and minorities ranked 23rd.

With an increasingly conservative majority, the Supreme Court has issued a series of seven
decisions on equal employment opportunity laws that make it harder for women and minorities
to successfully wage discrimination lawsuits. Collectively, these decisions represent a major shift
in employment laws put in place during the past 25 years. According to the Civil Rights
Monitor, the Court!s latest decisions "make it harder for women and minorities to prove
discrimination, make it easier for those opposed to civil rights consent decrees to challenge them,
narrow the coverage of civil rights statutes, and limit the award of attorney's fees" (Civil Rights
Monitor).

Finally, men in corporate management tend not to perceive discrimination as a real problem,
thereby making it virtually impossible to implement effective remedies. According to an
exhaustive study by John P. Fernandez, white men consistently ranked problems encountered by
women executives as insignificant compared to how women ranked them. So without constant
pressure from the outside and strong legal remedies, the very real problems of race and sex
discrimination in the executive suite may never be adequately addressed.

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  Work Related Attitudes

Job Satisfaction:

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Working Environment

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 Maladjustment

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 Juvenile delinquency is also known as teenage crime. It is like any crime that
human beings commit but this crime differs because they are committed by young
people. Before coming of age girls and boys have less understanding of the world.

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 Parents, friends and teachers are all responsible along with the juvenile who commit a
crime. This is why courts do not punish the teenagers like they punish the adults when
they commit a crime. There are separate juvenile courts and the purpose of juvenile
punishment is to help the teenager understand the importance of staying away from
crimes. 
There are various theories of juvenile delinquency and various researchers have reported
different reasons of delinquency. Most of the delinquent teenagers belong from low
social, economic or psychological background. Some of the most common  causes of
juvenile delinquency are as follows. 

 Economic problems in family

Often the cause of juvenile delinquency is economic problems in family. Youth belonging from
poor economical status easily get involved in criminal activities. They want to improve their
status and for this purpose they use negative path, in this regard often people do not support
teenagers who belong from poor status and they go for criminal activities.

 Psychological problems in family

Psychological problems in parents or siblings can also be a risk factor of juvenile delinquency.
Mental illnesses or other psychological problems like depression, frustration, aggression or hyper
behavior showed by the parents can make the child feel deprived and inferior among friends.
Sometimes children adopt depression and anger from parents or elder siblings.

 Social problems in family

In many families parents or elder siblings are involved in various social problems. There can be
various problems like gender discrimination, age discrimination, racial discrimination, child
labor or voilation of animal rights. Children and youth learn what they see in their family, in
many rich families parents do not feel shame in child labor and children could not understand
that child labor is against society and against morality. Social problems cause stress and due to
stress teens get involved in voilence.

 Moral problems in family

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 Morality is the most important concen among teens today. Teens should know how to respect
family and other people. They should give the due respect to everyone they know and meet.
Some parents do not take care of their elders, and it is a known fact that such children who see
their parents disrespecting their elders, their children never respect their parents and elder
siblings.

 Parenting style
Parenting style also matters and many researchers say that it is one of the biggest reason why
teens commit crime. Parents are some time very harsh and they punish their children for small
issues. Children start disrespecting their parents and they become voilent.

 Social concerns
Teenage boys and girls go through several social problems when they are not well socialized
human beings. Some teens are very harsh and rude to talk and they cannot control their anger or
aggression as it is in their nature. Most of the gender biased boys talk to the opposite sex like
they are slaves and they do not respect them. Their voilence and aggression make them commit
crimes that other boys will never do.

 Psychological concerns
Psychological and mental concerns are also important when talking about juvenile delinquency.
Mental disability is another big cause of juvenile delinquency. Mentally ill boys or girls can
commit any crime without knowing the consequences of it. Statistics show that mental illnesses
are one of the biggest reason behind juvenile delinquency in America and other developed
countries.

 Drug use
Drug use has become widespread among teenage boys and girls. Drugs use is prohibited by laws
in many societies. Drug use in youth can be dangerous as they can commit voilent crimes when
they take drugs.

 Physical concerns

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 Physical disabilities can also cause juvenile delinquency. Juveniles that are physically or
mentally handicap usually want to take revenge from other people for their complexes. They
want to achieve success in life using negative means.

 Gangs
Youth can easily become part of a gang or clicque during their age they think it appropriate to be
powerful and to be part of a large group. Often strong groups and gangs are ones that are
indulged in negative actions. Peer group influence can be positive and it can be negative.

 Abusive behavior
Abusive behavior is the first step towards commiting crimes. When teens become part of a
clicque that is abusive and that does not know how to behave the teen also get involved in
negative means.

 Peer group rejection

Sometimes youth do not get acceptance in any group as they do not have a strong personality and
due to peer group rejection they commit crimes.

 Labeling
Labeling can destroy the personality of the youth and make the teen a criminal forever. Labeling
means that society labels a teen criminal once he commits a crime, though this is his first time
but due to the tagging he will percieve himself a criminal. He will repeat similar crime or other
crimes in future. He will no longer feel any embarrasement in commiting crimes.

Solutions to Solve/Prevent the Problem

Family and society should not give up hope when it comes to the causes of juvenile delinquency.
There are many preventative measures and possible solutions to teenage crime. Sometimes one
method is not enough. Often it takes a combination of different measures to successfully make a
difference in an adolescent's life.

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 1. Be a Model

Family plays a huge part in how a teenager views society and what is right or wrong. How
members treat each other and those around them influences a young person's attitude and
outlook. Parents, siblings, and other family members have a responsibility to be a role model for
developing adolescents. These youth look to them to teach them how to behave and interact with
others. They are also the moral backbone of the family and influence teens on what are
acceptable ways of thinking and acting.

2. Know Your Kids

Take the initiative to learn about your child's circle of friends, get to know their teachers and find
out more about the people they interact with on a regular basis. Teenagers are still developing
mentally and are easily influenced. They need parent’s guidance to figure out the difference of
good or bad. Causes of juvenile delinquency include lack of parent responsibility to teach them
moral behavior.

3. Talk with Teenagers

Parents should speak to teenagers about society, sexual development, peer pressure, positive and
negative relationships and other aspects of life that can either lead them in the right direction or
steer them down the wrong path. They should have an open line of communication so that their
teenage child feels comfortable approaching them with questions or concerns, both negative and
positive. Also let them know that there are consequences for illegal behavior and committing
crimes.

4. Maintain a Good Relationship

When parents have a friendly relationship with their teenager, it can help prevent the causes for
juvenile delinquency. A healthy relationship allows their child to feel free to discuss anything
with their parents. Sometimes one parent is better at this than the other, but this is okay. As long
as the teen has a parent he can turn to, it will very beneficial.

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 5. Limit Media Access

It may be hard, but is very important. Not only can teenagers learn illegal behavior or have
access to inappropriate material, they can also fall prey to online predators. Sometimes when a
teenager is a victim of a crime, he/she will commit the same crime as an attempt to overcome the
stress or guilt.

It will take a lot of control and supervision and it must be handled in a way that a teen does not
think his/her privacy has been violated. Often the best thing to do is just be straight forward in
the beginning, laying out the rules right away so there are no justifiable objections later.

6. Seek Professional Help

Parents also need to realize it is okay to seek professional help when needed. Guidance
counselors at school can help. There are professional psychologists and psychiatrists who
specialize in adolescent and family issues. Some social workers are trained to deal with teenage
problems. There are several therapy groups for juvenile delinquents. There are also community
and government resources available to families who cannot afford these services.

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  Alcohol, drugs and crime

When we think of the links between drugs and crime we usually think about dependent users of
drugs like heroin and crack cocaine who commit crimes such as theft, burglary, fraud and
shoplifting to get money to buy drugs. However, drugs and crime are also linked in a number of
other ways including:

 People who use or supply illegal drugs getting caught –People who commit violent
offences while under the influence of drugs, particularly alcohol. Drunkenness is
associated with a majority of murders, manslaughters and stabbings and half of domestic
assaults.
 Alcohol and drug-related driving offences.
 Violence involving drug dealers who may clash with rival gangs or be violent towards
drug users who owe them money.

Some research studies have found that a lot of acquisitive crime (stealing) is committed by
dependent users of heroin and crack cocaine trying to pay for their drugs. Some show a high
proportion of people arrested for a range of offences testing positive for drug use. It has been
suggested that one third to over a half of all acquisitive crime is related to illegal drug use.

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Cost of drug-related crime

Examples of users needing £15,000 to £30,000 a year to fund drug habits have often been given.
To make such amounts of money from stolen goods police often suggest multiplying by three –
on the basis that stolen goods will fetch about one third of their normal value. There are
estimates of around 306,000 heroin and / or crack users in England, with around 200,000 of them
in treatment in any one year. That is a lot of theft, burglary, fraud or shoplifting if all are stealing
to pay for things. This has led some people to suggest that up to half of all acquisitive crime is
drug-related and that the market value of goods stolen involved could be between £2-2.5 billion
each year.

This can all seem very frightening and has often been sensationalized in the media. The picture
given may be exaggerated for a number of reasons:

 Many people who are dependent on drugs like heroin and crack cocaine were involved in
criminal activity before becoming dependent on drugs, so the drug use may not be the
cause of the crime.
 Poverty, unemployment and social exclusion are often underlying factors rather than the
drug use itself.
 Many people commit crimes in order to feed, clothe and house themselves and their
families.
 Some users have jobs, benefits or other forms of income that are used to purchase drugs.
 Many users do not use large amounts of street drugs all the time. Dosage and frequency
of use may go up or down and they may also have access to other substitute drugs, such
as heroin users being prescribed methadone.
 Most people who use illegal drugs (the majority are non-problematic users) do not
commit crimes to get money to pay for the drugs.

The fact that acquisitive crime is focused on poorer, inner city areas makes for a lot of stress and
difficulty for people who live there. However, understanding the relationship between drugs and
crime is about keeping matters in perspective rather than falling for media scare stories.

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