In piezoelectric stress sensors, a piezoelectric effect is applied.

This effect occurs when an electric charge Q

is established in the dielectric crystal, or when a mechanical force (e.g., stress, pressure) is applied to the
crystal. Such stress causes a mechanical deformation of the crystal. The electric voltage Vx is proportional to
the charge: Vx = Q/Cs , where Cs is the electrical capacity of the sensor with metallic plates, and the dielectric
crystal is an insulator between them, as shown in figure.. The sensor is an electric condensator with capacity
Cs. A piezoelectric sensor can be modeled as a voltage generator with high internal
resistance. Amplification of voltages from this sensor requires an amplifier with very high input resistance,
for example amplifiers with MOSFET transistors at their input. Another option is the use of a charge
amplifier: an operational amplifier with a capacitor in the feedback path, as shown in figure 2. The
advantage of this approach is a transfer that is independent of cable impedance and input impedance of the
amplifier. An electronic circuit with a piezoelectric gauge and a CMOS operational amplifier is shown in
Figure 2

Quartz, Rochelle salt, and certain ceramic materials are used as dielectric crystals in piezoelectric gauges.
Piezoelectric gauges are used only for dynamic measurements of pressure. Piezoelectric microphones are a
similar application. Because of resistance leakage between two terminals of a piezoelectric gauge, meas
urements of static pressure are not carried out. The electric condensator Cs (sensor) is discharged by the
leakage resistance, so the voltage caused by static pressure is not static itself. The upper limit of
measurement by piezoelectric gauges is 30 MPa. The frequency range is from 1 Hz to approximately 50
kHz.

Piezoelectric sensors are also applied to measure acceleration a. In an accelerometer sensor, a known mass
m is attached to a piezoelectric crystal. As the sensor moves, the mass creates a force (Fy = m ´ a) acting on
the piezoelectric crystal, as shown in Figure 3.8. The force Fy generates an electrical charge Q and voltage
Va, proportional to the acceleration value a. Of course, to measure the voltage Va, we need a charge amplifier
with a very high input impedance.

There are passive and active accelerometer sensors. Passive accelerometers generate a small electrical
voltage that must be amplified by a charge amplifier. An active accelerometer is more complicated. It is
composed of an accelerator sensor, a charge amplifier, a source of an excitation constant current, and a
lowpass filter. In fact, the active accelerator is a signal conditioner with an accelerator sensor

The well-known inverse piezoelectric effect consists of mechanically deforming (e.g., to the extension) the
piezoelectric crystal, on which is applied the electric voltage. For example, the piezoelectric actuator
manufactured by Physik Instrumente becomes 2 mm longer with the applied voltage of 1,500V.

CAPACITIVE GAUGES
Capacitive gauges are also used for pressure measurements. The capacity between the condensator plates is a
function of the plates distance x and, indirectly, a function of pressure or stress, as shown in Figure 3.6 and
(3.7).

where
ex = permittivity
S = surface of condensator plates
x = distance between the plates
p = pressure
k1 = processing coefficient of capacitive gauge
An example of applying the capacitive gauge is the pressure transducer of type SMAR-LD301
(manufactured by Introl), with a chosen measuring range from p1 = 125 Pa to p2 = 40 MPa, and a
standardized output signal from 4 to 20 mA.

Electro-Pneumatic Transducer Work:

Electro-pneumatic transducers convert a current or voltage input into proportional output

pressure. They are often paired with valves, pneumatic relays, and flow regulators in process
control applications.
 
Electro-pneumatic (also known as E/P or I/P) transducers typically accept a standard current
loop, often 4-20 mA, or a 0-5V or 0-10V voltage signal. As in all transducers, the device's
output values must be calibrated with the input range to ensure accurate output pressure.
Important calibration specifications include zero, the lowest possible pressure matched to the
lowest input value, and span, the numerical value between the minimum and maximum
output. Adding the span to the zero value yields the maximum output pressure for a calibrated
device.
 
Analog E/P transducers were common in most pneumatically controlled automation
systems during the mid- to late-20th century. Digital pressure controllers are now standard in
most applications, although analog devices are still commercially available. This guide covers
both types.
 
 
Analog Transducers
 
Analog transducers contain a coil that, when magnetized by an input signal, creates a force
imbalance on a piloted diaphragm. A typical device has three stages of varying pressures: an
atmospheric pressure stage containing the coil, magnet, and input; a supply pressure stage
consisting of a supply valve; and an output stage involving the regulated pressure produced as
a result of the diaphragm's motion on the supply. The image at right shows each stage by
means of color-coding.
 
E/P transducers like the one pictured use the piloted diaphragm to vent excess supply pressure
through an exhaust valve to provide a proportional output pressure. Some transducers include
an intermediary boost stage involving a second diaphragm and a valve seat to increase the
regulated output pressure beyond the maximum supply pressure. Analog devices are capable
of relatively low pressure outputs, typically up to 40 psig, when compared to newer digital
regulators.
 
Analog transducer calibration involves the manipulation of two screws to adjust the zero and
span values. If properly calibrated and maintained they are reasonably accurate, achieving
repeatability of around 0.5% with 1% linearity and hysteresis. Digital regulators improve on
these specifications and provide electronic feedback.
 
 
Digital Regulators
 
Electronic pressure regulators (EPR) are effectively modern electro-pneumatic transducers
and are referred to as electronic pressure controllers, electronic pressure valves, or electronic
pressure transducers. EPRs require a power supply and a digital or analog set-point signal,
and employ a push valve and a vent valve to regulate output pressure. These devices often
include a feedback signal to increase accuracy and repeatability and may incorporate a bleed
valve for venting low gas volumes. An EPR's maximum output pressure is greater than
an analog device's, typically falling between 600 and 1000 psig.
 
Two-loop EPRs are specialized devices that incorporate a second pressure transmitter
connected directly to the process. These are often used when pressure must be maintained in a
remote location or when the quality of an existing transmitter exceeds that of the transmitter
within the EPR. The external feedback signal results in improved accuracy and process
efficiency.
 
Specifications
 
Transducers are specified using three values related to their static (constant-
temperature) accuracy: repeatability, hysteresis, and linearity.
 
 
Repeatability refers to a transducer's ability to reproduce an output when the same input is
repeatedly applied under identical conditions.
 
Hysteresis is the difference between two output readings when the first value is taken during
a period of increasing temperature and the second is taken with decreasing temperature. It
represents the device's ability to give the same or similar outputs before and after a
temperature cycle.
 
Linearity specifies the deviation of a calibration curve from a specified straight line.
Tactile sensors
In general, tactile sensors are used to sense the contact of fingertips of a robot with an object.
They are also used in manufacturing of ‘touch display’ screens of visual display units (VDUs)
of CNC machine tools. Figure 2.4.9 shows the construction of piezo-electric polyvinylidene
fluoride (PVDF) based tactile sensor. It has two PVDF layers separated by a soft film which
transmits the vibrations. An alternating current is applied to lower PVDF layer which
generates vibrations due to reverse piezoelectric effect. These vibrations are transmitted to the
upper PVDF layer via soft film. These vibrations cause alternating voltage across the upper
PVDF layer. When some pressure is applied on the upper PVDF layer the vibrations gets
affected and the output voltage changes. This triggers a switch or an action in robots or touch
displays.
Infrared Thermometer

Basics 

Infrared thermometers measure temperature from a distance. This distance can be many
miles or a fraction of an inch. Infrared thermometers are often used in circumstances when
other sorts of thermometers are not practical. If an object is very fragile or dangerous to be
near, for example, an infrared thermometer is a good way to get a temperature from a safe
distance.

Infrared thermometers work based on a phenomenon called black body radiation. Anything
at a temperature above absolute zero has molecules inside of it moving around. The higher
the temperature, the faster the molecules move. As they move, the molecules emit infrared
radiation--a type of electromagnetic radiation below the visible spectrum of light. As they
get hotter, they emit more infrared, and even start to emit visible light. That is why heated
metal can glow red or even white. Infrared thermometers detect and measure this radiation.

WORKING PRINCILE
Infrared light works like visible light--it can be focused, reflected or absorbed. Infrared
thermometers usually use a lens to focus infrared light from one object onto a detector
called a thermopile. The thermopile absorbs the infrared radiation and turns it into heat.
The more infrared energy, the hotter the thermopile gets. This heat is turned into
electricity. The electricity is sent to a detector, which uses it to determine the temperature
of whatever the thermometer is pointed at. The more electricity, the hotter the object is.

Uses
Ear thermometers are infrared thermometers. The ear drum has about the same temperature
as the inside of the body, but it is very sensitive. Touching the ear drum could damage it,
so an infrared thermometer measures its temperature from close by--less than an inch
away. Infrared thermometers are also used by fire fighters to detect "hot spots" where the
fire is burning fiercely. They are even used in manufacturing. Infrared thermometers can
help control the machines that put together delicate, temperature sensitive products like
electronics to make sure the components are not accidentally damaged.

Thermistor
A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type of resistor whose electrical
resistance varies with changes in temperature. Although all resistors’ resistance will fluctuate
slightly with temperature, a thermistor is particularly sensitive to temperature changes.

Thermistors act as a passive component in a circuit. They are an accurate, cheap, and robust
way to measure temperature. While they do not work well in extremely hot or cold
temperatures, they are the sensor of choice for many different applications. They are ideal
when a precise temperature reading is required. The circuit symbol for a thermistor is shown
below:

Uses of Thermistors
Thermistors have a variety of applications. They are widely used as a way to measure
temperature as a thermistor thermometer in many different liquid and ambient air
environments. Some of the most common uses of thermistors include:
 Digital thermometers (thermostats)
 Automotive applications (to measure oil and coolant temperatures in cars & trucks)
 Household appliances (like microwaves, fridges, and ovens)
 Circuit protection (i.e. surge protection)
 Rechargeable batteries (ensure the correct battery temperature is maintained)
 To measure the thermal conductivity of electrical materials
 Useful in many basic electronic circuits (e.g. as part of a beginner Arduino starter kit)
 Temperature compensation (i.e. maintain resistance to compensate for effects caused
by changes in temperature in another part of the circuit)
 Used in wheatstone bridge circuits
working principle

The working principle of a thermistor is that its resistance is dependent on its temperature.
We can measure the resistance of a thermistor using an ohmmeter. If we know the exact
relationship between how changes in the temperature will affect the resistance of the
thermistor – then by measuring the thermistor’s resistance we can derive its temperature.

How much the resistance changes depends on the type of material used in the thermistor. The
relationship between a thermistor’s temperature and resistance is non-linear. A typical
thermistor graph is shown below:

If we had a thermistor with the above temperature graph, we could simply line up the
resistance measured by the ohmmeter with the temperature indicated on the graph. By
drawing a horizontal line across from the resistance on the y-axis, and drawing a vertical line
down from where this horizontal line intersects with the graph, we can hence derive the
temperature of the thermistor.

Thermistor Types
There are two types of thermistors:
 Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor
 Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistor

NTC Thermistor
In an NTC thermistor, when the temperature increases, resistance decreases. And when
temperature decreases, resistance increases. Hence in an NTC thermistor temperature and
resistance are inversely proportional. These are the most common type of themistor.

:PTC Thermistor

A PTC thermistor has the reverse relationship between temperature and resistance. When
temperature increases, the resistance increases. And when temperature decreases, resistance
 decreases. Hence in a PTC thermistor temperature and resistance are inversely proportional.

Although PTC thermistors are not as common as NTC thermistors, they are frequently used as
a form of circuit protection. Similar to the function of fuses, PTC thermistors can act as
current-limiting device.

When current passes through a device it will cause a small amount of resistive heating. If the
current is large enough to generate more heat than the device can lose to its surroundings then
the device heats up. In a PTC thermistor, this heating up will also cause its resistance will
increase. This creates a self-reinforcing effect that drives the resistance upwards, therefore
limiting the current. In this way, it acts as a current limiting device – protecting the circuit.

Thermistor Construction
To make a thermistor, two or more semiconductor powders made of metallic oxides are
mixed with a binder to form a slurry. Small drops of this slurry are formed over the lead
wires. For drying purpose, we have to put it into a sintering furnace. During this process, that
slurry will shrink onto the lead wires to make an electrical connection. This processed
metallic oxide is sealed by putting a glass coating on it. This glass coating gives a waterproof
property to the thermistors – helping to improve their stability

There are different shapes and sizes of thermistors available in the market. Smaller
thermistors are in the form of beads of diameter from 0.15 millimeters to 1.5 millimeters.
Thermistors may also be in the form of disks and washers made by pressing the thermistor
material under high pressure into flat cylindrical shapes with diameter from 3 millimeters to
25 millimeters.

The typical size of a thermistor is 0.125mm to 1.5 mm. Commercially available thermistors
have nominal values of 1K, 2K, 10K, 20K, 100K, etc. This value indicates the resistance
value at a temperature of 25oC.

Thermistors are available in different models: bead type, rod type, disc type, etc. The major
advantages of thermistors are their small size and relatively low cost.

This size advantage means that the time constant of thermistors operated in sheaths is small,
although the size reduction also decreases its heat dissipation capability and so makes the
self-heating effect greater. This effect can permanently damage the thermistor.

To prevent this, thermistors have to be operated at low levels of electric current compared to
resistance thermometer – resulting in lower measurement sensitivity.

Thermistor 
The thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies with the temperature. The resistance is
measured by passing the small measured direct current, and this current causes the voltage drop
across the resistance.
 The resistance thermometer is categorized into two types.
*Negative Temperature Coefficient – Used for sensing the temperature.
*Position Temperature Coefficient – Used for controlling the current.
Resistance Thermometer 

The resistance of metal varies with the temperature. And this property of the metal is used for
measuring the temperature. The resistance thermometer uses the platinum as the sensing
element and hence measures the surrounding temperature

The best thing for being sad, is to learn something. That's the only thing that never fails.
You may grow old and trembling in your anatomies, you may lie awake at night listening
to the disorder of your veins, you may miss your only love, you may see the world about
you devastated by evil lunatics, or know your honour trampled in the sewers of baser
minds. There is only one thing for it then — to learn. Learn why the world wags and what
wags it. That is the only thing which the mind can never exhaust, never alienate, never be
tortured by, never fear or distrust, and never dream of regretting. Learning is the only
thing for you. Look what a lot of things there are to learn.”