foods

Article
What Drives Customer Satisfaction, Loyalty, and
Happiness in Fast-Food Restaurants in China?
Perceived Price, Service Quality, Food Quality,
Physical Environment Quality, and the Moderating
Role of Gender
Yongping Zhong and Hee Cheol Moon *
Department of International Trade, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu,
Daejeon 34134, Korea; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 8 March 2020; Accepted: 3 April 2020; Published: 8 April 2020


Abstract: The fast-food service industry has been growing rapidly across China over the last few
decades. In accordance with the rising consumption level in the country, Chinese customers care
increasingly about their food choices. The purpose of this study is to investigate the factors that can
influence customer satisfaction, loyalty, and happiness, with a particular focus on the moderating
role of gender. Data were collected through an online survey completed by customers who visited
Western fast-food restaurants (KFC, McDonalds, etc.) in China. The structural equation model was
applied to test 12 hypotheses. Results showed that perceived price, food, service, and physical
environment quality positively affected customer satisfaction. Perceived price can significantly
influence customers’ judgement of the quality dimensions of a restaurant. Moreover, customer
satisfaction and happiness can lead to a sense of loyalty. Happiness functions as a mediator between
satisfaction and loyalty. Nonetheless, our findings indicated that customers’ perceptions of food
quality based on price and satisfaction levels based on service quality differ significantly between
the genders, which demonstrated that gender moderation exists in food consumption. This study
will contribute to a better understanding of managerial and theoretical perspectives, which will be
beneficial for subsequent research.

Keywords: food consumption; food service industry; satisfaction; loyalty; happiness; perceived price;
service quality; food quality; physical environment quality; moderating role of gender

1. Introduction
China, a huge emerging market with great potential, has been growing very fast since joining the
WTO (World Trade Organization) in the early 2000s. Over the past few decades, the consumption level
of the middle class has been increasing. Meanwhile, Western fast-food chains are expanding rapidly,
and eating in a Western fast food restaurant has become a trend among the younger generations [1].
As a result, competition within the catering industry has become more and more fierce. Today, Western
fast-food giants are facing challenges from local restaurants that have expanded dramatically across
China in recent years. In addition, with the improvement in living conditions, Chinese customers care
increasingly about what, how, and where they eat, so competition between Western companies and
local companies is inevitable. In order to compete with local food restaurants and generate greater
profit, Western fast-food companies must pay more attention to price, service quality, food quality,
and physical environment. Of these four factors, price is the most critically influential. Price may

Foods 2020, 9, 460; doi:10.3390/foods9040460 www.mdpi.com/journal/foods

Foods 2020, 9, 460 2 of 19

reflect service quality and even change customers’ purchasing behavior [2]. It can influence customers’
perception of restaurant quality [3]. These quality dimensions (service, food, and physical environment)
of a restaurant are crucial determinants of customer satisfaction [4]. Maintaining customer satisfaction
is very important because it can lead to repeat customers and increased sales [5,6]. A great amount
of research in the service marketing field has focused solely on customer satisfaction and loyalty.
However, there have been insufficient comprehensive studies conducted to establish how happiness
and life satisfaction are related to consumer buying patterns [7]. However, happiness is assumed
to constitute a higher level of customer satisfaction [8] and can improve people’s quality of life [9].
The concept of happiness has recently aroused increased attention from scientists working in various
fields. Through a good dining experience, customers may improve their life quality and increase their
happiness. A delightful dining experience can entice customers to revisit a restaurant. Investigating
the role of happiness is significantly necessary for the food service industry.
According to international studies of addictive shopping, female customers contribute 70% of
product sales [10], while in China, based on 2018 World Bank data [11], females accounted for 48.7% of
the total population. Recently, female purchasing power has been increasing. Understanding gender
differences is crucial for a country’s economic and social policy and strategies from a macro perspective,
and it is also important in terms of company success from a micro perspective [12]. Individual customer
characteristics can be used as marketing segments which allow companies to adjust and maintain
specific strategies based on customer needs. Such demographic features can provide companies
with more information for market segmentation to achieve better market penetration, while gender
is always one of the most common marketing segments [13]. Gender differences have commonly
been studied in psychological contexts, but how gender can affect customer perceptions and attitudes
toward a restaurant is relatively less developed in service-marketing. It appears that studies of gender
differences related to food consumption and dining experience have been very limited, but ignoring
gender differences in food consumption may cause management problems.
Examining how perceived price, service quality, food quality, and physical environment quality
can influence customer behavior, testing the implications of perceived price on restaurant quality
dimensions, and studying the relationships in the proposed model will contribute to understanding the
food service industry in China. This study intends to narrow down theoretical and practical gaps by
developing an integrated model with a special focus on gender effects. If Western fast-food companies
can understand customer behavior better, set more specific market segmentation, and launch marketing
strategies targeting different genders, they are more likely to keep customers satisfied, happy, and
loyal. This study consists of five parts: introduction, literature review and hypotheses, methodology,
results, and discussions and conclusion.

2. Literature Review and Hypotheses

2.1. The Effect of Perceived Price, Food, Service, and Physical Environment Quality on Customer Satisfaction
Price refers to the amount of money that customers spend on a product or service. Generally
speaking, price is the value that customers give up as an exchange for the benefits of using a product
or service [14]. Price plays an important role in generating consumer satisfaction, as customers always
evaluate the value of a service by its price [15]. Campbell (1999) [16] indicated that price fairness
significantly impacts brand image; as a consequence, perceived price unfairness may cause negative
behaviors, such as negative word of mouth and switching brands. Rothenberger (2015) [17] also
suggested that customers’ negative perception toward unfair prices can cause dissatisfaction, decreased
repurchasing behavior, negative word of mouth, and complaints.
Food quality is very significant in determining customer satisfaction and loyalty. Generally, food
quality refers to several aspects including food presentation, taste, menu diversity, healthiness, and
freshness [18]. A high level of food quality is a key marketing strategy which can satisfy and retain
customers, and provide a happy purchasing experience for them. Food quality can have a considerable
Foods 2020, 9, 460 3 of 19

effect on customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions [19]. Several studies indicated that food
quality can positively influence customer satisfaction [20–22].
Customers’ decisions and purchasing behaviors are closely related to their evaluation of the overall
experience of a service or product [23]. Service quality can significantly affect customer satisfaction
and loyalty, which is critical to a company’s success. High levels of service quality may lead to
high customer satisfaction [24], but if the service performance fails to match customers’ expectations,
dissatisfaction will occur [25].
Physical environment of a hotel or restaurant can strengthen the brand image of a company, reshape
customers’ perceptions, and directly influence customer satisfaction [26]. According to Hanaysha
(2016) [18], all tangible and intangible elements inside and outside of the restaurant are included in the
concept of physical environment, including temperature, lighting, scent, noise, atmosphere, and music.
He also suggested that a well-maintained physical environment can serve to maintain a restaurant’s
existing customer base as well as attract new customers.
Customers’ perception of product, atmospherics, and service are closely related to their emotions
(both positive and negative), and behavioral intentions based on the consumption experience in the
restaurants [22,27]. Ambient elements (such as sound, smell, taste, touch), design elements (such
as store decoration and layout), and social elements (such as interaction with member staff) can
extensively impact customers behavior [22]. Lim (2010) [28] also indicated that a high food and service
quality, along with a comfortable atmosphere, are very important to a restaurant because it may
contribute to a higher satisfaction level and even influence customers’ subsequent behavior in the food
service industry.
Based on the literature presented above, the following hypotheses are proposed:

Hypothesis 1 (H1). Perceived price has positive effects on customer satisfaction.

Hypothesis 2 (H2). Food quality has positive effects on customer satisfaction.

Hypothesis 3 (H3). Service quality has positive effects on customer satisfaction.

Hypothesis 4 (H4). Physical environment has positive effects on customer satisfaction.

2.2. The Effect of Perceived Price on Food, Service, and Physical Environment Quality
Price is the value that customers sacrifice to obtain a product or service [14,29]. Price includes
information for evaluating the level of service which may influence customers’ purchasing behavior [2].
According to Ryu and Han (2010) [4], perceived price moderates the correlations between quality
dimensions (food quality, service quality, and physical environment quality) and satisfaction, which
means if the perceived price is reasonable, this may increase the customer satisfaction level regarding
food, service, and physical environment quality. Price can influence customers’ value expectations of a
restaurant [30]. Customers are not only affected by the actual price of a product or service stated on the
price tag, but also affected by their own perceptions which are shaped in a comparative and subjective
way [31]. The actual price will not increase the quality of a product or service, but it definitely will
influence the subjective value [32]. When evaluating the quality of a product or service, the higher
the price, the higher the quality the customers expect, because higher prices add equal value to the
quality [33]. Even though the price perceived by the customers will effectively change customers’
expectations of food, service, and physical environment quality from a restaurant, little empirical
research has tested how perceived price can influence customers’ judgement of restaurant quality
directly, and the internal relationships between perceived price and quality dimensions remain unclear.
Therefore, in this study, instead of investigating whether price moderates the relationships between
these three quality dimensions and customer satisfaction, as Ryu and Han (2010) [4] sought to do, we
Foods 2020, 9, 460 4 of 19

intend to study how perceived price can directly and positively affect these quality dimensions. And
the following hypotheses are proposed:

Hypothesis 5 (H5). Perceived price has positive effects on food quality.

Hypothesis 6 (H6). Perceived price has positive effects on service quality.

Hypothesis 7 (H7). Perceived price has positive effects on physical environment quality.

2.3. Customer Satisfaction, Loyalty, and Happiness

Customer satisfaction can be defined as an overall assessment of a product or service based on
the experience of purchasing and consuming it over time [34]. Service and product quality, pricing
strategy, and store characteristics are the main factors that can affect customer satisfaction. Companies
can achieve customer satisfaction and loyalty by providing good-quality products and services [6].
Satisfied customers tend to repurchase products and become loyal customers, and they are positively
engaged in giving recommendations to other customers and less sensitive to price [34]. Moreover,
once customers are satisfied with a product or brand, they are more likely to recommend the brand to
others, and are more likely to repeatedly purchase that product instead of switching to other alternative
brands [35].
Dick and Basu (1994) [36] noted that customer loyalty can be categorized in three ways: service
loyalty, brand loyalty, and store loyalty. Other scholars, such as Bowen and Chen (2001) [37],
stated that behavior (consistent, repetitive purchasing action), attitude (emotional and psychological
connections), composite (a mixture of the two measures above, loyalty measured by customer
preferences, repurchasing, word of mouth, and inclination to switch to other brands) are the three
key elements in defining loyalty. Customers’ experience can be connected not only with functional
dimension, but also other dimensions, such as sensorial, emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and relational
aspects [22]. Repurchasing intentions are critically influenced by product satisfaction, and if satisfaction
level increases, customer retention is a greater possibility [38]. In other words, satisfaction will lead to
loyalty, and customer loyalty is a derivative of customer satisfaction [34].
During food consumption, an exceptional dining experience will not only make customers satisfied
but also happy. Happiness is a positive judgment from the subjective perspective of an individual
who feels satisfied with his current situation, and consumer happiness refers to the emotions of
consumers which are related to consumption activities [39]. Additionally, customer happiness is
defined as conceptions of customers based on the extent to which their well-being and quality of life
quality are improved [9]. The purpose of service marketing is shifted from making customers satisfied
to increasing their happiness, which reaches beyond the concept of satisfaction [40]. Happiness is
considered as a higher level of customer satisfaction [8]. Satisfaction accompanied by concrete activities
that relate to life domains can enhance customer happiness [41]. For example, consumers engaged
in materialistic consumption implicitly believe that this kind of consumption may increase their
self-esteem [42]. Nicolao, Irwin, and Goodman (2009) [43] suggested that many experiential purchases
involve activities with other people including friends and family, and positive social interaction is a
major source of happiness. In other words, the purchasing experience can bring customers happiness,
and in order to achieve greater happiness, customers may repeatedly engage in consumption activities.
Happiness could lead satisfied customers to be more loyal, but none of the previous studies have tested
if happiness plays a mediating role between satisfaction and loyalty, so the relationship between these
factors remains uncertain. In this study, in order to understand the connections between these three
variables more deeply, we will test the mediation effect of happiness.
Therefore, based on preceding studies, the following hypotheses are proposed:

Hypothesis 8 (H8). Customer satisfaction has positive effects on customer loyalty.

Foods 2020, 9, 460 5 of 19

Hypothesis 9 (H9). Customer satisfaction has positive effects on happiness.

Hypothesis 10 (H10). Happiness has positive effects on customer loyalty.

Hypothesis 11 (H11). Happiness mediates the relationship between satisfaction, loyalty, and happiness.

2.4. Gender Differences

Gender is considered to be critically influential in the purchasing process. Gender as a marketing
segment is a decisive factor in terms of market penetration. As more and more women are becoming
more powerful and active in purchasing activities, ignoring gender differences when devising marketing
strategies may bring problems. In some studies, women tend to be relatively more emotional [44], while
men are considered to be relatively more aggressive and autonomous [45]. Argyle and Henderson
(1984) [46] pointed out that female customers generally tend to give higher ratings for performance
than males. In addition, females may intend to have affiliation with people and place more emphasis
on social interactions when they are served by others [47]. Furthermore, gender differences can lead to
different food choices. Some studies have shown that unlike most males, females pay more attention
to food and they are more concerned about food choices [48,49]. Gender differences are closely related
to how male and female customers will evaluate a restaurant’s quality, and can have implications for
their subsequent behavior. Studying the moderating effects of gender on customers’ dining experience
and food consumption is very necessary as it may contribute to a better understanding of different
gender groups, which will also minimize research gaps within prior studies and reduce market
segmentation problems.

2.4.1. Perceived Price, Restaurant Quality Dimensions, and Gender

Referring to previous literature, evidence of how gender influences peoples’ conception of fairness
toward perceived price seems to be complicated. Some scholars, for example, Snipes, Thomson, and
Oswald (2006) [50], indicate that male customers are inclined to assign higher scores for fairness.
Additionally, according to Beldona and Namasivayam (2006) [51], who studied demand-based pricing
and gender differences in perceived fairness, females tend to rate lower for perceived fairness, which
means that they are more likely to perceive a price as unfair. Others argued differently; for example,
Adams (1965) [52] claimed that females are more likely to be sensitive when it comes to fairness under
similar contexts, while Lee and Farh (1999) [53] pointed out that there are not any gender differences
in justice-outcome relationships and any actual differences observed may result from contextual and
study design factors. However, previous studies presented contradictory arguments, and most of
them mainly focused on the differences in judgements of fairness according to gender, but insufficient
studies have investigated how gender differences may moderate the relationship between perceived
price and quality dimensions of a restaurant. Thus, it remains unclear whether gender is a factor that
moderates the correlations between perceived price and customers’ judgements of the attributes of
a restaurant.
Some prior studies mentioned gender differences in evaluating product quality and physical
environment quality, and suggested that males and females vary in terms of fashion consumption,
with female customers being more sensitive to product quality and physical elements of product
attributes [54]. Gender differences also play an important role in food consumption. Some studies have
indicated that female and male customers generally have different requirements for food, suggesting
that females place more emphasis on attributes of food quality, such as taste, presentation, and menu
variety, but males place more emphasis on portions [55,56]. Buda, Sengupta, and Elkhouly (2006) [57]
noted that gender and education have implications for service quality dimensions that include tangible
elements, such as physical facilities and equipment. Holbrook (1986) [58] also indicated that females
are more sensitive to visual and romantic elements than males. Still, studies related to how gender
Foods 2020, 9, 460 6 of 19

can influence customers’ judgement of food quality and physical environment of a restaurant remain
comparatively limited in quantity.
The literature related to gender effects on service quality tends also to be very complicated.
Some studies have found that female customers tend to give lower ratings for service quality than
males [50,59,60]. However, some other scholars have differing views toward service quality based
on gender. For example, Peter and Olson’s (1999) study [61] suggested that female customers can
be more sensitive than males with regard to relational aspects of a service. Moreover, Ndhlovu and
Senguder’s (2002) study [62] found that male and female customers’ perceptions do not significantly
differ regarding hotel staff service.

2.4.2. Satisfaction, Loyalty, Happiness, and Gender

Based on the American Customer Satisfaction Survey Index, female customers’ satisfaction level
is generally higher than that of males [63], which can be explained by the fact that females tend to
have more communal concerns and are more in need of connections and harmonious relationships
with other people [64]. Additionally, men have a higher tendency than women to take risks, and are
expected to be involved socially in risky behavior. Male tend to be less worried about switching brands
and trying new things, so they may be less likely to become loyal to a provider [65], but compared to
males, females are more likely to revisit a restaurant if they are satisfied [66].
Some psychological studies have indicated that gender does not influence people’s perception
of happiness. According to Chui and Wong (2016) [67], female happiness and life satisfaction are
related to family and other social ties, but male happiness may be more closely connected with feelings
(self-concept). They investigated the effects of gender on happiness and life satisfaction in Hong Kong,
but found that gender is relatively uninfluential vis-a-vis happiness. Happiness has been researched
within other social science fields for a long time, but in the service-marketing field, no study has
investigated whether gender plays a significant role in shaping customers behaviors toward happiness.
Therefore, in order to fill this research gap and investigate if gender moderates the relationship
between these variables (perceived price, service quality, food quality, physical environment quality,
customer satisfaction, loyalty, and happiness), we would like to propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 12 (H12). Gender moderates the relationships between perceived price, service quality, food quality,
physical environment quality, customer satisfaction, loyalty, and happiness.

3. Methodology

3.1. Questionnaire
The questionnaire was divided into 7 parts, each part investigates one market factor: perceived
price (PP), food quality (FQ), service quality (SQ), physical environment quality (PQ), customer
satisfaction (SA), customer loyalty (LY), and happiness (HA). A 5-point Likert-type scale that ranged
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was adopted in this study and which was used
previously by Kasiri et al. (2017) [68] to measure service quality, customer satisfaction, and loyalty.
Hanaysha (2016) [18] also used s 5-point Likert-type scale to measure food quality, price fairness,
physical environment, and satisfaction. Twenty-three items (see Table 1) were used to measure the
aforementioned 7 factors. Most of the items were adapted from previous studies, but considering the
limited literature relating to happiness, this variable was measured using two items from Gong and Yi
(2018) [9] and a self-developed item.
Foods 2020, 9, 460 7 of 19

Table 1. Questionnaire and sources.

Variable Observed Variables Items Source

PP1 The price of the fast food is reasonable.
Perceived Price (PP) PP2 Based on the food, the price here is fair. Adapted from [18,69,70]
PP3 The price of the fast food is affordable.
FQ1 The food smells good.
FQ2 The food is delicious.
Food Quality (FQ) Adapted from [5,18]
FQ3 The food is fresh.
FQ4 The food looks attractive to me.
SQ1 Staff members are friendly.
SQ2 Staff members are very helpful.
Service Quality (SQ) Adapted from [5,21]
SQ3 Staff members serve quickly and promptly.
SQ4 I feel comfortable with staff members’ service.
PQ2 The restaurant environment is clean.
Physical Environment PQ3 The lighting in the restaurant is comfortable. Adapted from [5,18]
Quality (PQ) The temperature in the restaurant is
PQ4
comfortable.
The overall experience of this fast-food
SA1
restaurant is satisfying.
Adapted from [5,18]
Satisfaction (SA) I think my decision to visit this restaurant was
SA2
a wise one.
SA3 This restaurant meets most of my expectations.
LY1 I will continue to visit this restaurant.
LY2 I will recommend this restaurant to others. Adapted from [5,9]
Loyalty (LY)
I will say positive things about this restaurant
LY3
to others.
I think visiting this fast-food restaurant will
HA1
contribute to customer happiness. Adapted from [9]
Happiness (HA) By visiting this restaurant, customers’ quality
HA2
of life will be improved.
This restaurant provides a happy and enjoyable
HA3 Self-developed
dining experience for my family and friends.

3.2. Data Collection

Data were mainly collected from Western fast-food restaurants (KFC, McDonalds, etc.) in China.
Before beginning research, the questionnaire was translated into Chinese by the authors in order
to make sure that participants fully understood the research content. The questionnaires were sent
to potential participants through a Chinese survey website, which is operated by Tencent company,
aiming to act as a social platform for online survey. The data were randomly collected online during
September of 2019. In total, 325 volunteers participated in this study. However, as fast-food is more
popular among the young generations and they have more access to the internet, the majority of the
respondents were aged 21–40. Most of the participants took about 10 minutes to complete the survey,
but only 305 of them completed the questionnaires properly. Questionnaires that contained incomplete
or inappropriate answers were excluded from analysis.
The descriptive data (see Table 2) show that 41.3% of the participants were male and 58.7% were
female. Approximately 63.0% of respondents were from the age group 21–30 years old, followed
by 20.3% aged 31–40, 13.1% aged 20 and under, 3.3% aged 41–50, and only 0.3% of the respondents
were above 50. The educational backgrounds of respondents were quite varied; most of them had
undergraduate degrees (50.8%) or graduate degrees and above (22%). Of these participants, 20.6% of
them visited fast-food restaurants 1–2 times every 6 months and 13.1% visited 2 times every 3 months.
Most respondents visited fast-food restaurants quite often, as 19% of them would do so once per month,
26.2% 2–3 times monthly, 16.1% 1–3 times weekly, and 4.9% more than 3 times weekly. The monthly
income of the majority was more than 3000 RMB; 24.3% of them earned 5001–8000 RMB per month,
followed by 3001–5000 RMB (23.6%) and more than 8000 RMB (15.4%).
Foods 2020, 9, 460 8 of 19

Table 2. Sample profile.

Variable Frequency Percent %

Male 126 41.3
Gender
Female 179 58.7
20 and under 40 13.1
21–30 192 63.0
Age 31–40 62 20.3
41–50 10 3.3
above 50 1 0.3
below high school 13 4.3
high school/vocational
31 10.2
Education school/technical school
junior college 39 12.8
undergraduate 155 50.8
graduate and above 67 22.0
1–2 times every 6 months 63 20.6
2 times every 3 months 40 13.1
Frequency of Visiting once a month 58 19.0
Fast-Food Restaurants 2–3 times a month 80 26.2
1–3 times a week 49 16.1
more than 3 times a week 15 4.9
less or equal to 1000 RMB 29 9.5
1001–1500 RMB 32 10.5
1501–2000 RMB 30 9.8
Monthly Income 2001–3000 RMB 21 6.9
3001–5000 RMB 72 23.6
5001–8000 RMB 74 24.3
more than 8000 RMB 47 15.4
total 305 100.0

4. Analysis and Results

In order to test the proposed hypotheses, this study adopted a PLS-SEM (Partial least
squares–structural equation modeling) approach [71–74]. The PLS-SEM method has been used
widely in management research in recent years [75–78]. PLS has minimal restrictions for sample size
and residual distributions [79]. In general, PLS is suitable for explaining complicated relationships
because it can avoid inadmissible solutions and factor indeterminacy [80]. In this study, because 7
variables were included to study complicated relationships between these variables and moderating
effects, the PLS-SEM method was deemed to be relatively suitable and beneficial for the research
purpose. The study utilized structural equation modeling (SEM) using SmartPLS3.2.8 software. Partial
least squares (PLS) were used with a 5000-subsample bootstrapping procedure, which was suggested
by Hair et al. (2016) [81]. In addition, SPSS 24 was used during data analysis for exploratory factor
analysis and descriptive analysis.

4.1. Exploratory Factor Analysis

The exploratory factor analysis used SPSS 24. In this study, exploratory factor analysis is conducted
to reduce data to a smaller set of summary variables and to explore the potential theoretical structure
of the phenomena, which can also examine the relationship between different variables. Based on
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett’s test results (Table 3a), the sampling adequacy was 0.944
and the significant level was below 0.001, indicating the data were suitable for exploratory factor
analysis. Principal component analysis (extraction method) and Equamax with Kaiser normalization
(rotation method) were used to extract factors, which were suggested by Maroco, A. L. and Maroco, J.
to investigate customer satisfaction and loyalty [82]. Equamax is a combination of the varimax method
Foods 2020, 9, 460 9 of 19

and the quartimax method, which can simplify the factors and the variables. This method can minimize
the number of variables that load heavily on an item and the number of items needed for explaining a
variable. Based on this method, factors, LY3, SA3, PQ1 were excluded from the next-step analysis after
the exploratory factor analysis due to cross-loading problems (see Table 3b). The remaining 23 items
were applied in further analysis as follows.

Table 3. (a) KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin) and Bartlett’s Test. (b) Rotated component matrix.
(a)
KMO and Bartlett’s Test
KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square Df Sig.
0.944
4095.278 253 0.000

(b)
Rotated Component Matrix a
Component
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
SQ1 0.782
SQ3 0.757
SQ2 0.683
SQ4 0.682
PP1 0.828
PP2 0.816
PP3 0.788
FQ1 0.761
FQ4 0.707
FQ2 0.682
FQ3 0.546
HA2 0.782
HA3 0.666
HA1 0.657
PQ3 0.757
PQ4 0.741
PQ2 0.721
LY1 0.752
LY4 0.630
LY2 0.610
SA4 0.663
SA2 0.661
SA1 0.639
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Equamax
with Kaiser Normalization.
Df: degrees of freedom; Sig.: Significance. Factor loadings below 0.5 were not shown. a Rotation converged in
15 iterations.

4.2. SEM Model Analysis

The fitness of the model was evaluated by the root mean square residual (SRMR) and normed fit
index (NFI). If SRMR is less than 0.08, it indicates a reasonable fit [83]. The SRMR of this model was
0.052, which indicates good model fitness. Bentler and Bonett (1980) [84] suggested that the NFI value
should range from 0 to 1, but the closer the NFI is to 1, the better the fitness is. As the NFI was 0.826 in
this model, it represented reasonable model fitness.
Cronbach’s Alpha was included to assess the reliability of each construct. The overall Cronbach’s
Alpha values for each construct was above 0.7, which means that Cronbach’s Alpha values were
Foods 2020, 9, 460 10 of 19

within the acceptable level [85] and indicate a high level of internal consistency of each variable (see
Table 4). If the rho A value is more than 0.7, it means a regular fit [86]; thus, rho_A value of this model
was within the acceptable level. The outer factor loadings were above 0.5 (see Table 4), which were
consistent with the recommended level [87] and showed good convergent validity. In order to test
the PLS-SEM models, AVE (average variance extracted) and CR (construct reliability) were evaluated.
In the measurement model, the recommended AVE level was above 0.5 and the CR level was above
0.7, which matches Bagozzi and Yi’s (1988) [88] suggestion indicating good construct reliability (see
Table 4). The discriminant validity was evaluated in adherence with Fornell and Larcker’s (1981) [89]
theories where AVE’s square root of each construct should exceed the correlation value and results
showed good discriminant validity (see Table 5).

Table 4. Outer loading, construct reliability, and validity results.

Cronbach’s Composite Average Variance

Variables Outer Loadings (CFA) rho_A
Alpha Reliability Extracted (AVE)
PP1 0.868
perceived
PP2 0.884 0.852 0.853 0.91 0.771
price
PP3 0.883
FQ1 0.827
FQ2 0.863
food quality 0.85 0.85 0.899 0.69
FQ3 0.799
FQ4 0.832
SQ1 0.804
service SQ2 0.849
0.846 0.851 0.896 0.684
quality SQ3 0.821
SQ4 0.832
physical PQ2 0.844
environment PQ3 0.861 0.791 0.793 0.878 0.706
quality PQ4 0.815
SA1 0.859
satisfaction SA2 0.882 0.822 0.824 0.894 0.738
SA4 0.835
LY1 0.835
loyalty LY2 0.884 0.825 0.826 0.895 0.741
LY4 0.862
HA1 0.876
happiness HA2 0.880 0.854 0.855 0.911 0.774
HA3 0.885

Table 5. Discriminant validity.

FQ HA LY PP PQ SA SQ
food quality 0.831
happiness 0.615 0.88
loyalty 0.591 0.696 0.861
perceived price 0.525 0.513 0.458 0.878
physical environment quality 0.594 0.533 0.539 0.365 0.84
satisfaction 0.669 0.692 0.71 0.546 0.613 0.859
service quality 0.609 0.51 0.544 0.411 0.506 0.566 0.827

4.3. Hypotheses Test Results

As shown in Table 6, 10 hypotheses were statistically significant. Perceived price (β = 0.228,
p < 0.001), food quality (β = 0.288, p < 0.001), service quality (β = 0.155, p < 0.01), and physical
environment quality (β = 0.280, p < 0.001) were positively related to customer satisfaction, supporting
H1, H2, H3, and H4. The findings for H5, H6, and H7 demonstrated that perceived price had positive
Foods 2020, 9, 460 11 of 19

effects
Foods on
2020, 9, xfood quality
FOR PEER (β =
REVIEW 0.525, p < 0.001), service quality (β = 0.411, p < 0.001), and physical11 of 19
environment (β = 0.365, p < 0.001), which supported H5, H6, and H7. The data also indicated that
could positively
customer influence
satisfaction couldcustomer loyalty
positively 0.438, p < loyalty
(β = customer
influence (β =happiness
0.001) and 0.438, p <(β andphappiness
= 0.692,
0.001) < 0.001);
(β = 0.692,
therefore, < 0.001);
H8p and H9 was supported.
therefore, Furthermore,
H8 and the coefficient
H9 was supported. between happiness
Furthermore, and customer
the coefficient between
happiness and customer loyalty was 0.393 (p <
loyalty was 0.393 (p < 0.001), which indicated that happiness could positively impact loyalty, so H10
0.001), which indicated that happiness could positively
was supported
impact loyalty, (Figure
so H10 1).
was supported (Figure 1).

Table
Table6.
6.Hypotheses
Hypothesestest
testresults.
results.

Hypotheses
Hypotheses ββ STDEV
STDEV T Statistics
T p Values Result
p Values Result
H1 perceived price → satisfaction 0.228 0.054 Statistics
4.255 0.000 accepted
H2 H1 foodperceived
quality price
→ satisfaction
→ satisfaction 0.288
0.228 0.068
0.054 4.253
4.255 0.000 accepted
0.000 accepted
H3 H2 food quality → satisfaction
service quality → satisfaction 0.288
0.155 0.068
0.058 4.253
2.663 0.000
0.008 accepted
accepted
H3 service quality → satisfaction 0.155 0.058 2.663 0.008 accepted
H4 H4 physical environment
physical environmentquality →→satisfaction
quality satisfaction 0.280
0.280 0.054
0.054 5.209
5.209 0.000
0.000 accepted
accepted
H5 H5 perceived priceprice
perceived →→ food
foodquality
quality 0.525
0.525 0.052
0.052 10.037
10.037 0.000 accepted
0.000 accepted
H6 H6 perceived priceprice
perceived → → service quality
service quality 0.411
0.411 0.053
0.053 7.809
7.809 0.000 accepted
0.000 accepted
H7 perceived
H7 price price
perceived → physical
→ physicalenvironment
environmentquality
quality 0.365
0.365 0.046
0.046 7.942
7.942 0.000 accepted
0.000 accepted
H8 satisfaction → loyalty 0.438 0.061 7.178 0.000
H8 satisfaction → loyalty 0.438 0.061 7.178 0.000 accepted
accepted
H9 satisfaction → happiness 0.692 0.03 23.138 0.000 accepted
H9 H10 satisfaction → happiness
happiness → loyalty 0.692
0.393 0.03
0.065 23.138
6.063 0.000
0.000 accepted
accepted
H10 happiness → loyalty 0.393 0.065 6.063 0.000 accepted
Note: STDEV: Standard Deviation
Note: STDEV: Standard Deviation

Figure 1. PLS-SEM (Partial least squares - structural equation modeling) whole group results (note: **
Figure 1. PLS-SEM (Partial least squares - structural equation modeling) whole group results (note: **
p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001).
p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001).
4.4. Moderating Effects of Gender
4.4. Moderating Effects of Gender
Multigroup analysis with parametric testing was performed in PLS to test the gender moderating
Multigroup
effects of 10 paths analysis
(see Tablewith parametric
7, Figure testing
2). Two out of tenwas
pathsperformed
(H3 and H5) inproved
PLS to test the
to differ gender
significantly
moderating effects of 10 paths (see Table 7, Figure 2). Two out of ten paths
between two groups (p < 0.1). Gender moderated the relationship between service quality and (H3 and H5) proved to
differ significantly
satisfaction between
with male two groups
customers (β =(p0.071,
f < 0.1).βGender
m moderated
= 0.283, p < 0.1),the
due relationship betweenhaving
to service quality servicea
quality and satisfaction with male customers (β f = 0.071, βm = 0.283, p < 0.1), due to service quality
stronger influence on male customers than female customers. Gender also had moderating effects on
having a strongerbetween
the relationship influence on male price
perceived customers thanquality
and food female(β customers.
f = 0.414, βGender alsop had
m = 0.631, moderating
< 0.05). In terms
effects on the relationship
of evaluating food quality,between perceived tended
female customers price and food
to be lessquality (βby
affected f = 0.414, 0.631, p < 0.05).
β = males.
m
price than
In terms of evaluating food quality, female customers tended to be less affected by price than males.
 Path
Hypotheses p-Values STDEV Coefficients-
Coefficients (β)
diff
(F) (M) (F) (M) (F) (M) p-Value
perceived price →
H1 0.222 0.224 0.000 0.012 0.058 0.089 0.980
Foods 2020, 9, 460 satisfaction 12 of 19
food quality →
H2 0.329 0.230 0.000 0.036 0.083 0.111 0.465
satisfaction
service quality → Table 7. PLS-SEM multigroup analysis results.
H3 0.071 0.283 0.332 0.002 0.073 0.090 0.064 *
satisfaction
Hypotheses Path Coefficients (β) p-Values STDEV Path Coefficients-Diff
physical environment
H4 0.340 0.209 0.000 0.015 (F) 0.071(M) 0.089 0.247
quality → satisfaction (F) (M) (F) (M) p-Value
H1 perceived price → satisfaction 0.222 0.224 0.000 0.012 0.058 0.089 0.980
perceived price → food 0.329
H2H5 food quality → satisfaction 0.414 0.631 0.000
0.230 0.000 0.0360.000 0.0830.065
0.111 0.067 0.024 *
0.465
H3 service quality quality
→ satisfaction 0.071 0.283 0.332 0.002 0.073 0.090 0.064 *
perceived
physical environmentprice →
quality
H4H6 → satisfaction 0.347
0.340 0.503 0.000
0.209 0.000 0.0150.000 0.0710.064
0.089 0.076 0.2470.118
service quality
H5 perceived price → food quality 0.414 0.631 0.000 0.000 0.065 0.067 0.024 *
perceived
perceived price →price →
service
H6 0.347 0.503 0.000 0.000 0.064 0.076 0.118
H7 physical environment
quality 0.343 0.403 0.000 0.000 0.064 0.061 0.512
H7
perceived pricequality
→ physical
0.343 0.403 0.000 0.000 0.064 0.061 0.512
environment quality
H8H8 satisfaction → loyalty
satisfaction → loyalty 0.520
0.520 0.341
0.341 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.0850.085
0.079 0.079 0.1390.139
H9 satisfaction
satisfaction →
→ happiness 0.668 0.721 0.000 0.000 0.041 0.044 0.390
H9 0.668 0.721 0.000
0.000 0.0000.000 0.0800.041 0.044 0.2070.390
H10 happiness
happiness → loyalty 0.321 0.479 0.095
H10 happiness → loyalty
Note: 0.321 Standard
* p < 0.1; STDEV: 0.479Deviation;
0.000F = female,
0.000 M = 0.080
male. 0.095 0.207
Note: * p < 0.1; STDEV: Standard Deviation; F = female, M = male.

Figure 2. PLS-SEM results for female and male customers (note: *p < 0.1; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001;
Figure 2. PLS-SEM results for female and male customers (note: *p < 0.1; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; F =
F = female; M = male).
female; M = male).
Statistically gender did not moderate the relationship between perceived price and other factors
Statistically
for path H1, H6, andgender
H7,did
butnot moderate
male the relationship
customers, with slightlybetween
higherperceived price
coefficients on and other factors
the paths, were
for path H1, H6, and H7, but male customers, with slightly higher coefficients
more likely to be influenced by perceived price during the evaluation of satisfaction level on the paths,(βwere
f =
more β
0.222, likely to be influenced
m = 0.224), by perceived
service quality price
(βf = 0.347, βmduring the evaluation
= 0.503), and physicalof satisfaction
environment level (β = (β
quality
f 0.222,
f =
β m = 0.224), service quality (βf = 0.347, βm = 0.503), and physical environment quality (βf = 0.343, βm =
0.343, β = 0.403). Meanwhile, gender moderating effects were not significant for paths H2 and H4,
m
0.403).
but Meanwhile,
female customers’ gender moderating
satisfaction level effects were not to
was influenced significant
a slightlyfor paths extent
greater H2 andbyH4,food butquality
female
customers’
(βf = 0.329, βsatisfaction levelphysical
m = 0.230) and was influenced to a slightly
environment greater
quality (β extent
f = 0.340, βmby food quality
= 0.209). (βgender
Finally,
f = 0.329, βm
did
= 0.230)
not and physical
moderate environment
the relationship between quality (β = 0.340,
f
satisfaction, β =and
m
loyalty, 0.209). Finally,
happiness gender
(H8, did H10),
H9, and not moderate
but the
the relationship between satisfaction, loyalty, and happiness (H8, H9, and H10),
path coefficient of H8 indicates that female customers were more likely to become loyal customers but the path
if
coefficient
satisfied, withof aH8 indicates
slightly thatrelationship
stronger female customers
betweenwere more likely
satisfaction to become
and loyalty loyal customers
(βf = 0.520, βm = 0.341).if
satisfied,
Even with
though a slightly
the stronger relationship
path coefficients of H9 and H10 between satisfaction
were not and loyalty
significantly (βfthe
different, = 0.520,
data β
m = 0.341).
suggested
that if male customers were satisfied, they would have a slightly higher probability of becoming happy
(βf = 0.668, βm = 0.721); consequently, if they were happy, they would be more inclined to be loyal
than females (βf = 0.321, βm = 0.479).
Foods 2020, 9, 460 13 of 19

4.5. Happiness Mediation Test

In order to investigate the mediating role of happiness, we conducted a mediating test to see if
happiness could act as a mediator between satisfaction and loyalty. As shown in Table 8 (bootstrapping
data from PLS), the indirect effects (p < 0.001), direct effects (p < 0.001), and total effects (p < 0.001) were
significant for the whole group, which indicates that happiness mediated the relationship between
satisfaction and loyalty, so H11 was supported.

Table 8. Mediating effect results.

Stage Effects
Group
1st (SA→HA) 2nd (HA→LY) Indirect Effects Direct Effects Total Effects
whole group 0.692 *** 0.393 *** 0.272 *** 0.438 *** 0.710 ***
female 0.668 *** 0.321 *** 0.215 *** 0.520 *** 0.735 ***
male 0.721 *** 0.479 *** 0.345 *** 0.341 *** 0.686 ***
Note: *** p < 0.001.

5. Discussions and Conclusions

5.1. Discussions and Theoretical Implications

The purpose of this study was to investigate how the determinants (perceived price, service
quality, food quality, physical environment quality) could influence customer satisfaction, loyalty, and
happiness with a special focus on moderating effects of gender. One of the important findings was that
quality dimensions of a restaurant and perceived price had positive effects on customer satisfaction.
These findings are consistent with Hanaysha (2016) [18], and Qin and Prybutok’s (2009) [21] research
into fast-food restaurants.
Moreover, we found that a reasonable price could positively and directly affect customers’
perceptions toward quality of a restaurant. The result is partly consistent with Ryu and Han’s (2010) [4]
research, in which they argued that perceived price plays a moderating role in acting between customers’
satisfaction and quality dimensions (food, service, and physical environment quality). However, in
this study, we proposed a new model and verified that perceived price as an independent variable (not
a moderator) could not only directly affect customer satisfaction, but also the quality dimensions of a
restaurant. With regards to previous studies, there has been insufficient empirical research testing how
strongly perceived price can impact customers’ perceptions of restaurant quality dimensions, and their
internal relationships remains unclear. This study may contribute to a better understanding of the
implications of perceived price in the food service industry and fill research gaps accordingly.
The results also showed that satisfaction could have positive effects on loyalty. This was consistent
with several previous studies [4–6]. In addition, the results revealed that satisfaction was positively
related to customer happiness, which is similar to Gong and Yi’s (2018) [9] findings in their recent
research. However, they also suggested that loyalty could positively affect happiness, but in this study,
we found that, conversely, happiness could positively influence loyalty. This may be explained by
the fact that being involved in purchase activities can bring happiness to customers [42,43], a happy
shopping experience can lead to repurchasing. Furthermore, we found that happiness could function
as a mediator between satisfaction and loyalty. This new finding confirmed that satisfied customers
may become loyal when they are happy with the dining experience. Happiness, an essential factor
in increasing customers’ quality of life, reaches beyond the concept of satisfaction. Compared to the
definitions of satisfaction that are relatively well established by scholars, there have been very few
studies related to happiness, and the current literature still exhibits some inconsistencies in defining
customer happiness [90]. As most of the literature related to happiness comes from other social science
fields, such as psychology, the effects of happiness in the marketing field remained undeveloped.
Investigating the role of happiness is likely to contribute to a better understanding of the concept
within marketing research.
Foods 2020, 9, 460 14 of 19

Additionally, the results revealed the moderating role of gender, which can moderate the
relationship between perceived price and food quality, with males displaying a stronger relationship
than females. Most previous studies only focused on gender difference in judgements of fairness [50–53],
and no study examined how gender difference can influence customers’ evaluations of food quality
based on perceived price. In this study, however, we found that females tended to be less influenced by
price when evaluating the food quality of a restaurant. Moreover, the results revealed that gender can
also moderate the relationship between service quality and satisfaction, with a stronger relationship
existing among males. This result opposes the findings of Ma, QU, and Eliwa (2014) [6] who found
that services had a stronger effect on satisfaction among female customers than male customers in
American fine-dining restaurants. However, under different contexts, the moderating effects of gender
may vary between countries, it may explain why the effects of service quality on satisfaction were not
so strong comparatively among female customers in our findings. There have been insufficient studies
investigating gender differences in food consumption and dining experience. Therefore, this study’s
research into how gender can affect customers’ evaluations of a restaurant’s quality dimensions and
how gender can affect customers’ emotions and behaviors may fulfil such theoretical needs.

5.2. Managerial Implications

For these fast-food franchise giants, they might need to make efforts to improve restaurant quality
dimensions (food, service, and physical environment quality), since these are very influential to
customers’ behavior. Managers should place more emphasis on the freshness, taste, and presentation
of the food. Staff members should be well trained to be professional. It is also very important to keep
the restaurant clean and comfortable. However, setting an appropriate price strategy is of critical
importance, as we found that perceived price will not only directly affect customers’ satisfaction level
but also their expectations of food, service, and physical environment quality. Thus, price should be
reasonable compared to the quality. Moreover, for managers, it should be acknowledged that happiness
is something that extends beyond notions of satisfaction and can moderate the relationship between
satisfaction and loyalty. Satisfied and happy customers have strong propensities to becomes loyal and
be more willing to revisit the restaurant and recommend it to other customers. It is very necessary for
managers to continuously adopt various strategies to meet customer needs, and let customers not only
to feel satisfied but also happy in order to encourage loyalty. Consequently, by maintaining these loyal
customers, companies that struggled for customer retention could generate greater profit.
Considering gender differences, sometimes marketers should regard females and males as different
segmentations, meaning that they may need to adjust their marketing strategies based on gender.
Compared to female customers, males are more likely to be influenced by price when they evaluate
food quality, so for products targeting male customers, price fairness should be considered more
carefully than for other products. In addition, as male customers are more sensitive to service quality,
and their satisfaction level is more likely to be affected by service quality, it is important to understand
the needs of male customers in detail and focus more on the service attributes that male customers
care about the most, especially in the service industry. Both female and male customers are influential
decision-makers in food consumption. Therefore, their needs are equally important. Awareness of
gender differences can contribute to a better understanding of female and male customer needs and
behaviors, which may lead to improved market segmentation and increased market shares.

5.3. Limitations and Future Research

This study has a few limitations. Firstly, for purposes of sampling process convenience, the
majority of participants were young people. It would have been preferable if samples represented
more varied age groups. Secondly, this study only focused on Western fast-food restaurants in China,
and as such, some of the findings from this study may not accord with those derived from studies of
other countries or other types of restaurants. Thirdly, only four antecedents (price, food, service, and
physical environment quality) of satisfaction were investigated in this study, but there may be more
Foods 2020, 9, 460 15 of 19

variables that could be included based on other literature. Fourth, we investigated the moderating
role of gender and the mediating role of happiness, but other moderators or mediators may exist in
addition to these.
We would like to suggest that future studies should gather surveys from a larger scale in order to
include more participants of differing age and background. Moreover, considering the diversity of
countries and restaurant types, future research could be conducted not only in the fast-food industry
but across a wider range of restaurants and countries. This study only tested four antecedents, but
there may be more factors, such as location or delivery service, which could act as antecedents of
customer behaviors. Last but not least, besides the moderating effects of gender, alternatively, country
or age may moderate the proposed relationships. In addition, other mediators between customer
satisfaction and loyalty, such as brand image and perceived switching cost, could be further examined.
Future studies may include more variables in order to extend this model and gain further insight.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.Z. and H.C.M.; methodology, Y.Z.; formal analysis, Y.Z. and H.C.M.;
investigation, Y.Z.; resources, Y.Z.; data curation, Y.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.Z.; writing—review
and editing, Y.Z. and H.C.M.; supervision, H.C.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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