Rates of Reaction Notes

RATES OF REACTION

MEASURING THE RATES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

During the course of a chemical reaction the concentration of the reactants decrease
, while simultaneously the concentration(s) of the product(s) increase, [i.e. the reactants
are continually being converted to products].

The rate of reactions is given by either (or both)

 Rate of reaction = a change in the concentration of reactants.

time taken for the change

 Rate of reaction = a change in the concentration of products.

time taken for the change

* NB – The following factors are also dependent on concentration and so concentration

can be assessed/by measuring the factors:

 Volume changes for gaseous systems.

 pH changes for aqueous solutions.

 Colour Intensity

 Pressure changes in gaseous systems

Reaction rate can be followed by monitoring concentration changes.

NB - The word reaction is sometimes abbreviated ‘RXn’

CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR CHEMICAL REACTIONS TO OCCUR .

Chemical reactions take place if the following three conditions must occur

1. The particles (molecules/formula units) of the reactants must collide with each
other.
2. The particles (molecules/formula units) of the reactants must collide with each
other with a certain amount of energy that is greater than the activation energy
of the reaction.
 Rates of Reaction Notes

Activation energy – is a certain minimum amount of energy required for the

bonds within reactants particles (molecules/formula units) to break and become
sufficiently energize for them to form products.

3. The particles (molecules/formula units) of the reactants must collide with each
other with the correct orientation (position). as illustrated by Figure [G] (i)

Particle (molecules/formula units) collisions which are sufficiently energetic

would be most effective if the colliding particles approached each other in such a
way that the energy released on collision can be passed on directly to the bonds to
be broken.

Reactants Intermediate Products

Figure [G] (i) The Ideal Particle Orientation for Colliding Reactant Particles

Collisions of the reactant particles in any other orientation (position) WILL NOT
result in the formation of products as illustrated by Figure [G] (ii)

+
+

Reactants Reactants

Figure [G] (ii) No Reaction occurs when Particle Orientation are wrong in
relation to each other
 Rates of Reaction Notes

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE RATES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

 Concentration of the Reactants

 Particle Size/Surface Area of the Reactants
 Temperature at which a reaction is carried out.
 Catalyst used by a reaction.
 Pressure under which gaseous systems are carried out.
 Light used for some reactions.

The Effect of Concentration of the Reactants on the Rates of Reactions.

An increase in the concentration is usually in reference to the reactants and means there
are more reactant molecules/particles in a given volume.

X volume with a small # of X volume with a Large # of

Reactant particles Reactant particles

Increase concentration
Of reactants

2 mol dm-3 P

1 mol dm-3
vol. of
cm3 H2
0.5 mol dm-3

X cm3
Of H2 Rate of Reaction α concentration of reactants

t1 t2 t3 t / minutes
 Rates of Reaction Notes

NB - X cm3 of H2 is given off at t1, t2, t3 depending on the concentration of the acid.
Hence the Rate of a reaction = 1/ t

The Variables observed during a experiment

(i) Controlled (constant) variables:-

 Size (mass) of Mg ribbon (5 cm pieces).
 Volume and type of acid (20 cm3 HCl)
 Temperature at which experiment are carried out (r.t.p.)

(ii) Manipulate (Independent) variables:-

 Concentration of the acid (2 mol dm-3 , 1 mol dm-3 , 0.5 mol dm-3 HCl)

(iii) Responding (Dependent) variables :-

 Volume of H2 liberated/evolved over time

The Effect of Particle Size/Surface Area of the Reactants on the Rates of Reactions.

The rate of a chemical reaction involving a solid reactant is increased by increasing the
state of subdivision (the surface area) of the solid, while a decrease in the state of
subdivision (the surface area) of a solid reactant has the opposite effect.

In such reactions collisions occur between moving molecules and the solid reactant(s).

It then follows that the greater the state of subdivision of the reactants [i.e. the smaller
the particles of the solid reactant(s)] the greater the surface area available for collisions
and by extension results in an increase reaction rate.

powder

cut up cut up

The Effect of Temperature at which a reaction is carried out has on the Rates of
Reactions.

low Velocities of Reactant particles high Velocities of Reactant particles

At lower temperature At higher temperature
 Rates of Reaction Notes

The faster the Reactants particles move, the more collisions between will occur.

The rate of a chemical reaction is increased by increasing the temperature of the

reactants. Given that an increase in the temperature causes the kinetic energy of the
reactant particles to also increase - thus the particles of the reactants collide more
frequently with one another (the minor effect).
And these collisions which occur are more energetic i.e. more reactant particles possess
energy greater than the activation energy and thus are more likely to result in the
formation of products (the major effect).

 NB – For some chemical reactions inclusive [of some biological reactions up to

about 40oC] the reactions rate increase approximately two times for every 10oC
rise in temperature.

60oC P

40oC
vol. of
cm3 H2
30oC

X cm3
Of H2 Rate of Reaction α Temperature

t1 t2 t3 t / minutes

The Effect of a Catalyst used by a reaction on the Rates of Reactions.

A catalyst is a substance that alters (speeds up or slows) a chemical reaction but is not
used up itself in the reaction.

The rates of many chemical as well as biological reactions can be sped up by the addition
of small amounts of catalyst.
 Rates of Reaction Notes

As a Rule Catalysts :

* do not appear in the chemical equations.

Also
* do not take part in the reaction but are chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction
– (However most Solid catalyst may undergo physical changes).

A Catalyst’s function in a reaction seems to be that of lowering the activation energy

required by the reactants to react for a given reaction, thereby ensuring that many more
energetically successful collisions by the reactant particles occur.

Enzymes – are protein molecules produce in the cells of living organisms which are used
to speed up chemical reactions in the cells of living organisms while they themselves are
not used up.
Enzymes are often described as being biological catalyst due to their ability to speed up
chemical reactions in the cells of living organisms while they themselves are not used up.
In addition to this, enzymes are high specialized in that they can only perform their
function under very particular conditions of pH, temperature etc.

*NB – Most enzymes being made of protein can only function over a very narrow
temperature range since they are usually rendered inoperative/are denatured at high
temperatures.
Catalysts provide a different and easier route (way) for the reactant(s) to form products.

Below are some of the widely used in Industry ;

CATALYST INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES

Born – Haber Process – used in the
Iron manufacture of Ammonia.
Contact Process – used in the production
Vanadium(V) Oxide of sulphur trioxide in manufacture of
Sulphuric acid.
Platinum and Rhodium Oxidation – used in the Oxidation of
Ammonia in the manufacture of Nitric acid.
Nickel Hydrogenation Process – used in the
hydrogenation of unsaturated oils to form
fats in the manufacture of margarine.
Aluminium oxide Cracking – used in the Catalytic Cracking
of Petroleum into short chain alkanes and a
alkene.
Enzyme in yeast Fermentation – used in the manufacture of
alcohol in alcoholic beverages.
Enzyme Isomerase Is used to convert glucose to high fructose
syrup which is way more sweeter
 Rates of Reaction Notes

The Effect of Light on the Rates of Reactions

Light does not affect the rates of the majority of the chemical reactions in existence.
However one of those light affected reactions which many may regard as the most
important of all, is that of photosynthesis.

Reactions that are initiated or accelerated (promoted) by light are referred to as

Photochemical Reactions.

Photography
The principle on which Photography is base has to do with the interaction between light
and silver halides in particular AgBr. Photograph film is a transparent plastic strip
coated with emulsion (a layer of gelatin throughout which are spread many millions of
tiny crystals of silver halides in particular silver bromide (AgBr). The emulsion used is
similar for both black – white and colour film. In the case of colour film there are three
layers of emulsion with each layer of emulsion containing a different dye.
When light hits a silver bromide crystal, silver cations Ag+ accept an electron from the
bromide ion Br – and silver atoms are produced.

Ag+ + e – → Ag

The bromine atom produced in the process is trapped in the gelatin. The more light that
falls on the photographic film the greater the amount of silver deposited.

INTERPRETING RATES OF REACTION AND GRAPHS

vol/cm3

t / minutes
 Rates of Reaction Notes

P
Loss in
mass/g

t / minutes

Zone P – has the steepest gradient (slope) .This is because the rate of a chemical reaction
is always fastest at the beginning of a chemical reaction, when the reactant particles are at
their highest concentration.

Zone Q – has a slight gradient (slope).This is because the chemical reaction is gradually
slowing down as the reactant particles are being used up (reactant concentration levels
are being depleted)

Zone R – here the graph levels off i.e. zero gradient (no slope) .This is because the rate
of a chemical reaction has stopped (i.e. no more gas is being given off) as the limiting
reagent has been used up.

 NB - The limiting reagent is the reactant which is used up (depleted) first. Take
for example,. If excess alkali is added to an acid, the acid will be the limiting
reagent.
 Also the limiting reagent as the name implies will always determine the extent to
which a chemical reaction will go or progress.

INTERPRETING RATES OF REACTION AND GRAPHS

 Rates of Reaction Notes

vol/cm3

t / minutes

Experiments X and Y have two different gradients but both graphs meet at point P.
Reason: This is because both reactions were carried out under different reaction
conditions. However the same mass or volume of the reactants were used hence the
same volume of gas is collected at the end of each experiment.

vol/cm3

t / minutes

Experiments X and Y have the same gradient but half the volume of gas is collected in
experiment Y.
Reason: This is because they were carried out under the same reaction conditions.
However half the mass of reactants was used in experiment Y, hence half the volume
of gas is obtained.
 Rates of Reaction Notes

vol/cm3
Y

t / minutes

Experiments X and Y have two different gradients and different volumes of gas are
collected.
Reason: This is because both reactions are carried out under different reaction
conditions and different masses of reactants were used.