Bulk Deformation

Processes
ME 355 - Introduction to
Manufacturing Processes
 Deformation Processes
n Permanent (plastic) deformation of a
material under tension, compression,
shear or a combination of loads.
n Types of Deformation
n Bulk Deformation
n Sheet Metal Work
 Deformation Processes
n Bulk Deformation -
Significant change in n Sheet Metal Work -
surface area, Initial Material
thickness and cross Thickness stays the
section reduced, and same (hopefully).
overall geometry n Bending
changed. n Shearing
n Forging
n Rolling
n Extrusion
n Drawing
 Forging
n Metal is pressed into
a die and takes on the
shape of the die
n Sequential Process -
Force
typically multiple
pressing steps
Billet
involved

Force

Open Die Forging

 Forging
Advantages/Disadvantages
n Process Advantages n Process
n Closing of voids Disadvantages
n Reduced Machining n Possible scale
n Improved physical inclusions
properties of starting n High Tooling Cost
material n Not economical for
short production runs
 Forging Process Variables
n Independent n Dependent Variables
Variables n Force and Power
n Material n Resulting Material
n Starting Geometry Properties
n Tool Geometry n Exit Temperature
n Lubrication n Surface Finish
n Starting Temperature n Dimensional Precision
n Speed of Deformation n Material Flow Details
n Amount of
Deformation
 Force Calculation for Open-
Die Forging - Friction Free
1. Calculate the volume of the 5. Calculate the Flow
part Stress
2. Determine the final part cold - working : s f = Ke n
dimensions
hot - working : s f = C &
e m
3. Determine the true strain:
ho 6. Calculate Force
e = ln( ) Force = s f Ai
hi
4. For Hot working - 7. Energy Calculation
determine the strain rate Work = Ú F ⋅ dh
v Work
e&= DT =
Vrc
h
 Friction Correction Factor
n Determine correction
factor through the use
of theoretical
calculations, or charts

pavg = s f Qa
 Rectangular Workpiece
n Plane Strain condition
n Constrained by the material in the wider
dimension
n End result is that the applied stress required
will be greater than the material flow stress
p p = 1.15s f

n Apply similar friction correction factor

 Hot Work vs. Cold Work
n Hot Work n Cold Work
n Recrystallization n NO Recrystallization
takes place n Less than 0.3 Tm
n > 0.5 * Tm n Residual Stresses
n Requires less force n Strain Hardened
n Less residual n Better Surface Finish
stresses n Less Common
n Greater deformation n Anisotropic Material
possible Properties
n Dimensional
Variation
n Poor Surface Finish
n Oxidation of
Surfaces
 Upset Forging
• Grip a bar—heat the
end—forge into desired shape
• Product examples
• Bolts
• Nails
• Engine valves
Open Die Forging
Force

Billet

Friction
Force
 Open Die Forging Defects
n Fracture -
n exhausted ductility
n Intergranular fracture
in hot working
n Barreling - Friction
n Solution -
n limited deformation per
step
n Process anneal
between steps
Seamless Ring Forging
n Most processes are
not purely defined.
This is a hybrid
process -
n Forge Welding
n Rolling
n Open Die Forging
Impression Die Forging

Note the presence of Flash!

 Impression Die Forging

n Isothermal Forging n Non-isothermal Forging

n Die at workpiece n Die cooler than workpiece
temperature (~200º C for Al)
n Reduced temp cycling of n Less complex part
die geometry
n Very slow forging speeds n Less expensive process
possible
n Complex, thin walled parts
possible
 Impression Die Forging
n Form 3-D complex geometry
n Material Flow
n Flash present
n Parting Line - grain flow
n Fillet corners - flow
n Draft angle to allow
removal from die
n Undercuts and complex
parts - segmented dies
 The role of Flash – Impression
Forging
n Flash controls the
ability to fill the die
cavity
n The size of the land
controls the friction,
which controls the
inward force that fills
the cavity
n Allows for incoming
billet size variation
Closed Die Forging
Closed Die Forging - Coining
n Complex 3-D geometry
n No Flash
n Requires very tight process control
 Defects - Impression Die
and Closed Die Forging
n Cracking
Cracking
n End Grains
n Laps
n Incomplete die fill
n Anisotropy
Non-homogeneous Properties

n This is good and

bad.
n Generally - reduced
fatigue life
n Can actually increase
in some cases.
n Increased strength
n Increased wear
resistance
n ANISOTROPY
Rolling
 Rolling
n One of the first primary processes to convert raw
material into a finished product.
n Starting material (Ingots) are rolled into blooms,
billets, or slabs by feeding material through
successive pairs of rolls.
n Bloom - square or rectangular cross section with a thickness
greater than 6” and a width no greater than 2x’s the
thickness
n Billets - square or circular cross section - - smaller than a
bloom
n Slabs - rectangular in shape (width is greater than 2x’s the
thickness), slabs are rolled into plate, sheet, and strips.
Rolling
Rolling
 Rolled Threads
n Superior to
machined
n Grain structure
promotes longer
life over machined
threads
Complexities
in rolling
n Bending of rolls
 Rolling
Defects
n Waviness
n Improper roller speeds
n Zipper cracks
n Too much rolling in
center
n Edge cracks
n Too much rolling on
outside
n Alligator
n Too much induced
tensile stress in the
part, or defects
Extrusion
 Extrusion
n A plastic deformation process in which metal is
forces under pressure to flow through a single,
or series of dies until the desired shape is
produced.
n Advantages
n Wide variety of shapes
n High production rates
n Improved microstructure and physical properties
n Close tolerances are possible
n Economical
n Design flexibility
Direct Extrusion

n Billet is forced out of

die into desired
shape
n Dies are machined
to the desired cross-
section
n Good process for
long 2 _ D parts
n Controlling friction is
the key to the
process
 Controlling Friction in
Extrusion
n Friction controls
the process
n Surface
Characteristics
n Forces required
n Material capability
n Die Design
n Die Wear
 Complex Extrusion

n Aluminum almost exclusively

n Hollow shapes possible and common
Dry Extrusion
n Aluminum
n The dead metal zone
is used to produce the
part surface (sheared
from bulk material)
n Parts are smooth with
good surface finish
 Extrusion – Process Control
n Major process control parameters:
n Temperature
n Extrusion Speed

n Die Design
Drawing
 Summary
n Bulk Deformation is
extremely common
n Most products require
multiple
steps/processes
n Example – Railroad
Wheels