Architecture

Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton "architect",

from ἀρχι- "chief" and τέκτων "creator") is both the process and the product
of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or other structures.[3] Architectural works, in the
material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical
civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.[4]

Contents

 1Definitions
 2Theory of architecture
o 2.1Historic treatises
o 2.2Modern concepts
 3History
o 3.1Origins and vernacular architecture
o 3.2Prehistoric architecture
o 3.3Ancient architecture
o 3.4Asian architecture
o 3.5Islamic architecture
o 3.6Middle Ages
o 3.7Renaissance and the architect
o 3.8Early modern and the industrial age
o 3.9Modernism
o 3.10Postmodernism
o 3.11Architecture today
 4Other types of architecture
o 4.1Landscape architecture
o 4.2Interior architecture
o 4.3Naval architecture
o 4.4Urban design
o 4.5Metaphorical "architectures"
 5See also
 6Notes
 7References
 8External links

Definitions
Architecture can mean:

 A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures.[5]

 The art and science of designing buildings and (some) nonbuilding structures.[5]
 The style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures.
[5]

 A unifying or coherent form or structure.[6]

 Knowledge of art, science, technology, and humanity.[5]
 The design activity of the architect,[5] from the macro-level (urban design, landscape
architecture) to the micro-level (construction details and furniture). The practice of
 the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering professional services in
connection with the design and construction of buildings, or built environments.[7]

Theory of architecture
Main article: Architectural theory
Main article: Philosophy of architecture
The philosophy of architecture is a branch of philosophy of art, dealing with aesthetic value of
architecture, its semantics and relations with development of culture. Many philosophers and
theoreticians from Plato to Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze, Robert Venturi and Ludwig
Wittgenstein have concerned themselves with the nature of architecture and whether or not
architecture is distinguished from building.[8]

Historic treatises
The earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is De architectura by the Roman
architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century AD.[9] According to Vitruvius, a good building should
satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas,[10][11] commonly known by the original
translation – firmness, commodity and delight. An equivalent in modern English would be:

 Durability – a building should stand up robustly and remain in good condition

 Utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used
 Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing
According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as
possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De re
aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament also played a
part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure,
the Golden mean.
The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than
something applied superficially, and was based on universal, recognisable truths. The notion of
style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of Vasari.[12] By the 18th
century, his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects had been translated
into Italian, French, Spanish, and English.
In the early 19th century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the
titled suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an idealized
image of neo-medieval world. Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only "true Christian
form of architecture."
The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, published
1849, was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Architecture was the "art
which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men ... that the sight of them" contributes
"to his mental health, power, and pleasure".[13] For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding
significance. His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it
is in some way "adorned". For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building
needed string courses or rustication, at the very least.[13]
On the difference between the ideals of architecture and mere construction, the renowned 20th-
century architect Le Corbusier wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these
materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly
you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is
Architecture".[14]
Le Corbusier's contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said "Architecture starts when you
carefully put two bricks together. There it begins."[15]
The National Congress of Brazil, designed by Oscar Niemeyer

Modern concepts
The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding
precept to architectural design: "Form follows function".
While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to
functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism, it had the effect of introducing the
concept of "function" in place of Vitruvius' "utility". "Function" came to be seen as encompassing
all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also
aesthetic, psychological and cultural.
Nunzia Rondanini stated, "Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the
functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular
way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming
that, in and of itself, it will promote social development.'
To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art's sake is not only reactionary; it
can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere
instrumentality".[16]
Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building
design
are Rationalism, Empiricism, Structuralism, Poststructuralism, Deconstruction and Phenomenolo
gy.
In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both
structure and function, the consideration of sustainability, hence sustainable architecture. To
satisfy the contemporary ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is
environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural
and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-
sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste management, and lighting.

History
Main article: History of architecture

Origins and vernacular architecture

Main article: Vernacular architecture
Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and
means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and
knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building became a craft,
and "architecture" is the name given to the most highly formalized and respected versions of that
craft. It is widely assumed that architectural success was the product of a process of trial and
error, with progressively less trial and more replication as the results of the process proved
increasingly satisfactory. What is termed vernacular architecture continues to be produced in
many parts of the world.
 

Vernacular architecture in Norway: wood and elevated-level

 

In Lesotho: rondavel stones.

 

Yola hut -Tagoat Co. Wexford Ireland

Prehistoric architecture
Early human settlements were mostly rural. Expending economies resulted in the creation
of urban areas which in some cases grew and evolved very rapidly, such as that of Çatal
Höyük in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro of the Indus Valley Civilization in modern-day Pakistan.
Neolithic settlements and "cities" include Göbekli Tepe and Çatalhöyük in Turkey, Jericho in the
Levant, Mehrgarh in Pakistan, Knap of Howar and Skara Brae, Orkney Islands, Scotland, and
the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture settlements in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine.

Ancient architecture
In many ancient civilizations such as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture and
urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, and many
ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolically the political
power of the ruler, the ruling elite, or the state itself.
The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and
the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building
types emerged. Architectural "style" developed in the form of the Classical orders. Roman
architecture was influenced by Greek architecture as they incorporated many Greek elements
into their building practices.[17]
Texts on architecture have been written since ancient time. These texts provided both general
advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the
writings of the 1st-century BCE Roman Architect Vitruvius. Some of the most important early
examples of canonic architecture are religious.

The Pyramids at Giza in Egypt

 

Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan
 

The Parthenon in Athens, Greece.
 

Roman aqueduct in Segovia, Spain.

Asian architecture
The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines from that of Europe;
Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different
characteristics. Indian and Chinese architecture have had great influence on the surrounding
regions, while Japanese architecture has not. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great
regional diversity. Hindu temple architecture, which developed from around the 5th century CE, is
in theory governed by concepts laid down in the Shastras, and is concerned with expressing the
macrocosm and the microcosm. In many Asian countries, pantheistic religion led to architectural
forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape.
In many parts of Asia, even the grandest houses were relatively lightweight structures mainly
using wood until recent times, and there are few survivals of great age. Buddhism was
associated with a move to stone and brick religious structures, probably beginning as rock-cut
architecture, which has often survived very well.
Early Asian writings on architecture include the Kao Gong Ji of China from the 7th–5th centuries
BCE; the Shilpa Shastras of ancient India; Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri
Lanka and Araniko of Nepal .

Gyeongbokgung Palace in Seoul, South Korea.

 

Kinkaku-ji (Golden Pavilion), Kyoto, Japan.

Islamic architecture
Main article: Islamic architecture
Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, incorporating architectural forms from the
ancient Middle East and Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the religious and social
needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, Turkey, North Africa,
the Indian Sub-continent and in parts of Europe, such as Spain, Albania, and the Balkan States,
as the result of the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. [18][19]

Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem.

 
 

Taj Mahal in Agra, India.
 

Alhambra, Granada, Spain.
 

Shah Mosque in Isfahan, Iran
 

Stari Most, 16th-c. Ottoman bridge & UNESCO site in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Middle Ages
In Europe during the Medieval period, guilds were formed by craftsmen to organize their trades
and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of
architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are
sometimes described in contemporary documents.
The major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and cathedrals. From about
900 CE onward, the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge
across Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic.
Also, a significant part of the Middle Ages architectural heritage is numerous fortifications across
the continent. From Balkans to Spain, and from Malta to Estonia, these buildings represent an
important part of European heritage.

Notre Dame de Paris, France.

 

The Tower of London, England.
 

Doge's Palace, Venice, Italy.

Renaissance and the architect

Main article: Renaissance architecture
In Renaissance Europe, from about 1400 onwards, there was a revival of Classical learning
accompanied by the development of Renaissance humanism, which placed greater emphasis on
the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the Medieval period. Buildings
were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio – and the cult
of the individual had begun. There was still no dividing line
between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related vocations, and the appellation was
often one of regional preference.
A revival of the Classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and
engineering, which affected the proportions and structure of buildings. At this stage, it was still
possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within
the scope of the generalist.
 

St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, Italy.

 

Palazzo Farnese, Rome, Italy.

 

Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy.

Early modern and the industrial age

With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology,
architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to concentrate
on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical aspects of building
design. There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy
clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical
prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo
Gothic or Scottish baronial styles. Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example
at École des Beaux-Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings
and little to context and feasibility.
Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption.
Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the
province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production.
Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. Housebuilders could use current
architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural
journals.
 

Palais Garnier, Paris, France.

 

Pont Alexandre III Paris, France.

 

Congeso Nacional Palace, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Modernism
Main article: Modern architecture
Around the beginning of the 20th century, general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist
architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as
precursors to Modern architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in
1907 to produce better quality machine-made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial
design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar,
Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural bounds prior set throughout history, viewing the
creation of a building as the ultimate synthesis—the apex—of art, craft, and technology.
When modern architecture was first practised, it was an avant-garde movement with moral,
philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I, pioneering modernist
architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and
economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected
the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly
declining aristocratic order. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to
pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functional details. Buildings
displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces
instead of hiding them behind decorative forms. Architects such as Frank Lloyd
Wright developed organic architecture, in which the form was defined by its environment and
purpose, with an aim to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with
prime examples being Robie House and Fallingwater.
Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create
beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques,
trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and
methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame construction, which
gave birth to high-rise superstructures. Fazlur Rahman Khan's development of the tube
structure was a technological break-through in building ever higher. By mid-century, Modernism
had morphed into the International Style, an aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the Twin
Towers of New York's World Trade Center designed by Minoru Yamasaki.

The Bauhaus school building in Dessau, Germany.

 

Guggenheim Museum, New York City, United States.

 

Cathedral of Brasília, Brazil.
 

Willis Tower, Chicago, United States

Postmodernism
Main article: Postmodern architecture
Many architects resisted modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of historical
styles. As the first generation of modernists began to die after World War II, the second
generation of architects including Paul Rudolph, Marcel Breuer, and Eero Saarinen tried to
expand the aesthetics of modernism with Brutalism, buildings with expressive sculptural façades
made of unfinished concrete. But an even new younger postwar generation critiqued modernism
and Brutalism for being too austere, standardized, monotone, and not taking into account the
richness of human experience offered in historical buildings across time and in different places
and cultures.
One such reaction to the cold aesthetic of modernism and Brutalism is the school of metaphoric
architecture, which includes such things as biomorphism and zoomorphic architecture, both
using nature as the primary source of inspiration and design. While it is considered by some to
be merely an aspect of postmodernism, others consider it to be a school in its own right and a
later development of expressionist architecture.[20]
Beginning in the late 1950s and 1960s, architectural phenomenology emerged as an important
movement in the early reaction against modernism, with architects like Charles Moore in the
United States, Christian Norberg-Schulz in Norway, and Ernesto Nathan Rogers and Vittorio
Gregotti, Michele Valori, Bruno Zevi in Italy, who collectively popularized an interest in a new
contemporary architecture aimed at expanding human experience using historical buildings as
models and precedents.[21] Postmodernism produced a style that combined contemporary building
technology and cheap materials, with the aesthetics of older pre-modern and non-modern styles,
from high classical architecture to popular or vernacular regional building styles. Robert
Venturi famously defined postmodern architecture as a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building
which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside), and upheld it against
modernist and brutalist "ducks" (buildings with unnecessarily expressive tectonic forms).[22]

The Dancing House, Prague, Czech Republic.

 

Sydney Opera House, Australia.

 


 The Petronas Tower in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Architecture today
Main article: Contemporary architecture
Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems,
services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with
specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods.
Moreover, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect [Notes 1] from the 'project'
architect who ensures that the project meets the required standards and deals with matters of
liability.[Notes 2] The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become
increasingly complicated, and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability,
sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws. A large structure can no longer be
the design of one person but must be the work of many. Modernism and Postmodernism have
been criticised by some members of the architectural profession who feel that successful
architecture is not a personal, philosophical, or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it has to
consider everyday needs of people and use technology to create liveable environments, with the
design process being informed by studies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences.
Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with a profound effect on the
architectural profession. Many developers, those who support the financing of buildings, have
become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design, rather than
solutions based primarily on immediate cost. Major examples of this can be found in passive
solar building design, greener roof designs, biodegradable materials, and more attention to a
structure's energy usage. This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools
to focus more on the environment. There has been an acceleration in the number of buildings
that seek to meet green building sustainable design principles. Sustainable practices that were at
the core of vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration for environmentally and
socially sustainable contemporary techniques.[23] The U.S. Green Building
Council's LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been
instrumental in this.[24][quantify]
Concurrently, the recent movements of New Urbanism, metaphoric architecture and New
Classical Architecture promote a sustainable approach towards construction that appreciates and
develops smart growth, architectural tradition and classical design.[25][26] This in contrast
to modernist and globally uniform architecture, as well as leaning against solitary housing
estates and suburban sprawl.[27] Glass curtain walls, which were the hallmark of the ultra modern
urban life in many countries surfaced even in developing countries like Nigeria where
international styles had been represented since the mid 20th Century mostly because of the
leanings of foreign-trained architects.[28]

Beijing National Stadium, China.

 
 

London City Hall, England.

 

Auditorio de Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain.