Chapter 1 Introduction to the World of Computers

History of computers

To better understand how computers influence the lives of people, we will have to start
from the history, from their invention to the present day. Early computers did not involve
complex technologies as the ones that are used today; neither did they employ the use of
monitors or chips that are common today.

The early computers were not that small as those used today and they were commonly used
to help in working out complex calculations in mathematics that proved tedious to be done
manually. This is why the first machine was called by some as a calculator and others as a
computer because it was used for making calculations.

Blaise Pascal is credited with the first digital machine that could add and subtract. Many
versions of calculators and computers borrowed from his ideas. And as time went by, many
developed more needs, which lead to modifications to bring about new and more efficient
computers.

What is a computer?

A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the ability
to store, retrieve, and process data. You may already know that you can use a computer
to type documents, send email, play games, and browse the Web. You can also use it to
edit or create spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos.

The uses of Computer

Computers are a common phenomenon in the lives of people in today’s world. Computers
are very vital especially to those people who run businesses, industries and other
organizations. Today, almost everything that people engage in makes use of a computer.
Take for instance, the transport sector: vehicles, trains, airplanes, and even traffic lights on
our roads are controlled by computers.

In hospitals, most of the equipment’s use or are run by computers. Look at space
exploration; it was all made possible with the advent of computer technology. In the job
sector, many of the jobs require knowledge in computers because they mostly involve the
use of computers.

In short, these machines have become so important and embedded in the lives of humans,
they have hugely impacted on the whole society to the extent that it will be very hard to
survive now, without them. This article discusses the influence of computers on the everyday
life of human beings.

One can guess what will exactly happen if the world had no computers. Many of the cures
found with help of computer technology would not have been developed without computer
technology, meaning that many people would have died from diseases that are now
curable. In the entertainment industry, many of the movies and even songs will not be in
use without computers because most of the graphics used and the animations we see are
only possible with the help of a computer.

In the field of medicine, pharmacies, will find it hard in determining the type of medication
to give to the many patients. Computers have also played a role in the development of
democracy in the world. Today votes are counted using computers and this has greatly
reduced incidences of vote rigging and consequently reduced conflicts that would
otherwise arise from the same.

And as we have already seen, no one would have known anything about space because
space explorations become possible only with the help of computer technology. However,
the use of computers has generated public discourses whereby people have emerged with
different views, some supporting their use and others criticizing them.

Positive Impacts of computers

Computer influence in the life of man became widely felt during World War II where
computers were used to calculate and track the movements and also strategize the way
military attacks were done. It is therefore clear, that computers and its influence on man
have a long history.

Its invention involved hard work dedication and determination, and in the end it paid off.
The world was and is still being changed by computers. Man has been able to see into the
future and plan ahead because of computers. Life today has been made easier with the help
of computers, although some people may disagree with this, but am sure many will agree
with me.

Those who disagree say that computers have taken away the role of man, which is not
wrong at all, but we must also acknowledge the fact what was seen as impossible initially,
become possible because of computers.

As we mentioned in the introduction, computers are useful in the running of the affairs of
many companies today. Companies nowadays use a lot of data that can only be securely
stored with the help of computers. This data is then used in operations that are computer
run. Without computers companies will find it difficult store thousands of records that are
made on a daily basis.

Take for instance, what will happen to a customer checking his or her balance, or one who
just want to have information on transactions made. In such a case, it will take long to go
through all the transactions to get a particular one.

The invention of computers made this easier, bank employees today give customers their
balances, transaction information, and other services just by tapping the computer
keyboard. This would not be possible without computers.

Today individuals can store all information be it personal or that of a business nature in a
computer. It is even made better by being able to make frequent updates and modifications
to the information. This same information can be easily retrieved whenever it is needed by
sending it via email or by printing it.

All this have been made possible with the use of computers. Life is easier and enjoyable;
individuals now can comfortably entertain themselves at home by watching TV with their
families or they can work from the comfort of their home thanks to computer technology.

Computers feature in the everyday life of people. Today one can use a computer even
without being aware of it: people use their credit cards when buying items from stores; this
has become a common practice that few know that the transaction is processed through
computer technology.

It is the computer which process customer information that is fed to it through the credit
card, it detects the transaction, and it then pays the bill by subtracting the amount from the
credit card. Getting cash has also been made easier and faster, an individual simply walks to
an ATM machine to withdraw any amount of cash he requires. ATM machines operate using
computer technology.

The use of credit cards as one of the practical benefits of using computers. Today, individual
do not need to physically visit shopping stores to buy items. All one needs to be connected
on the internet and by using a computer one can pay for items using the credit card.

These can then be delivered at the door step. The era where people used to queue in
crowded stores to buy items, or wasting time in line waiting to buy tickets is over. Today,
travelers can buy tickets and make travel arrangements via the internet at any time thanks
to the advent of computer technology.

In communication

Through the computer, man now has the most effective means of communication. The
internet has made the world a global village.

Today people carry with them phones, which are basically small computers, others carry
laptops, all these have made the internet most effective and affordable medium of
communication for people to contact their friends, their families, contact business people,
from anywhere in the world

Businesses are using computer technology to keep records and track their accounts and the
flow of money. In the area of entertainment, computers have not been left behind either.

Action and science fiction movies use computers to incorporated visual effects that make
them look real. Computer games, a common entertainer especially to teenagers, have been
made more entertaining with the use of advanced computer technology.

In Education

The education sector has also been greatly influenced by computer technology. Much of the
school work is done with the aid of a computer.

If students are given assignments all they have to do is search for the solution on the
internet using Google. The assignments can then be neatly presented thanks to computer
software that is made specifically for such purposes.
Today most high schools have made it mandatory for students to type out their work before
presenting it for marking. This is made possible through computers.

Teachers have also found computer technology very useful as they can use it to track
student performance. They use computers to give out instructions.

Computers have also made online learning possible. Today teachers and students do not
need to be physically present in class in order to be taught.

Online teaching has allowed students to attend class from any place at any time without any
inconveniences.

In the medical sector

Another very crucial sector in the life of man that computers have greatly influenced and
continues to influence is the health sector. It was already mentioned in the introduction that
hospitals and pharmacies employ the use of computers in serving people.

Computers are used in pharmacies to help pharmacists determine what type and amount of
medication patients should get. Patient data and their health progress are recorded using
computers in many hospitals.

 The issue of equipment status and placement in hospitals is recorded and tracked down
using computers.

Research done by scientists, doctors, and many other people in the search to find cures for
many diseases and medical complications is facilitated through computer technology. Many
of the diseases that were known to be dangerous such as malaria are now treatable thanks
to computer interventions.

Computers replacing man

Many of the opponents of computer technology have argued against the use of computers
basing their arguments on the fact that computers are replacing man when carrying out the
basic activities that are naturally human in nature.
However, it should be noted that there are situations that call for extraordinary
interventions. In many industries, machines have replaced human labor. Use of machines is
usually very cheap when compared to human labor.

In addition, machines give consistent results in terms of quality. There are other instances
where the skills needed to perform a certain task are too high for an ordinary person to do.

This is usually experienced in cases of surgery where man’s intervention alone is not
sufficient. However, machines that are computer operated have made complex surgeries
successful.

There are also cases where the tasks that are to be performed may be too dangerous for a
normal human being. Such situations have been experienced during disasters such as
people being trapped underground during mining.

It is usually dangerous to use people in such situations, and even where people are used,
the rescue is usually delayed.

Robotic machines that are computer operated have always helped in such situations and
people have been saved.

It is not also possible to send people in space duration space explorations, but computer
machines such as robots have been effectively used to make exploration outside our world.

Negative impacts

Despite all these good things that computers have done to humans, their opponents also
have some vital points that should not just be ignored.

There are many things that computers do leaving many people wondering whether they are
really helping the society, or they are just being used to deprive man his God given ability to
function according to societal ethics.

Take for instance in the workplace and even at home; computers have permeated in every
activity done by an individual thereby compromising personal privacy.
Computers have been used to expose people to unauthorized access to personal
information. There is some personal information, which if exposed can impact negatively to
someone’s life.

Today the world does not care about ethics to the extent that it is very difficult for one to
clearly differentiate between what is and is not authentic or trustful. Computers have taken
up every aspect of human life, from house chores in the home to practices carried out in the
social spheres.

This has seen people lose their human element to machines. Industries and organizations
have replaced human labor for the cheap and more effective machine labor.

This means that people have lost jobs thanks to the advances made in the computer
technology. Children using computers grow up with difficulties of differentiating between
reality and fiction.

People depend on computers to do tasks. Students generate solutions to assignments using

computers; teachers on the other hand use computers to mark assignments. Doctors in
hospitals depend on machines to make patient diagnoses, to perform surgeries and to
determine type of medications.

In the entertainment industry, computer technology has been used to modify sound to
make people think that person singing is indeed great, but the truth of the matter is that it
is simply the computer. This has taken away the really function of a musician in the music
sector.

In the world of technology today, we live as a worried lot. The issue of hacking is very
common and even statistics confirm that huge amounts of money are lost every year
through hacking.

Therefore, as much as people pride themselves that they are computer literate, they deeply
worried that they may be the next victim to practices such as hacking.

Conflict with religious beliefs

There is also the problem of trying to imitate God. It is believed that in 20 years’ time, man
will come up with another form of life, a man made being.
This will not only affect how man will be viewed in terms of his intelligence, but it will also
break the long held view that God is the sole provider of life.

Computers have made it possible to create artificial intelligence where machines are given
artificial intelligence so that they can behave and act like man. This when viewed from the
religious point of view creates conflicts in human beliefs.

It has been long held that man was created in the image of God. Creating a machine in the
image of money will distort the way people conceive of God. Using artificial methods to
come up with new forms of life with man like intelligence will make man equate himself to
God.

This carries the risk of changing the beliefs that mankind has held for millions of years. If this
happens, the very computer technology will help by the use of mass media to distribute and
convince people to change their beliefs and conceptions of God.

Conclusion

We have seen that computer have and will continue to influence our lives. The advent of the
computers has changed man as much as it has the world he lives in.

It is true that many of the things that seemed impossible have been made possible with
computer technology.

Medical technologies have led to discoveries in medicine, which have in turn saved many
lives. Communication is now easy and fast. The world has been transformed into a virtual
village.

Computers have made education accessible to all. In the entertainment sector, people are
more satisfied. Crime surveillance is better and effective.

However, we should be ware not to imitate God. As much as computers have positively
influenced our lives, it is a live bomb that is waiting to explode.

We should tread carefully not to be overwhelmed by its sophistication.

Many technologies have come with intensities that have seen them surpass their
productivity levels thereby destroying themselves in the process. This seems like one such
technology.

Advantages of using a computer

There are many advantages of using computers. However, the following are some of the
most important ones to know:

1.Provides access to more information

2.Completes tasks that might be impossible for humans to complete

3.Saves time

4.Automates repetitive tasks

5.Allows for greater productivity

6.Allows for better communication and connections

7.Entertainment

Disadvantages of using a computer

Unfortunately, computers also have some disadvantages. These disadvantages include:

1.Social risks: Computers provide humans access to social media, which can be addictive,
make people less happy, lead to jealousy, and get in the way of real-world friendships. In
fact, a study found that of 1 500 Facebook users interviewed, 62% said Facebook
occasionally made them feel like they are not good enough, and 60% said that comparing
themselves to other people on Facebook made them jealous.

2.Health risks: research has shown that excessive computer use can result in several
medical problems, including back pain, eyestrain, obesity, carpal tunnel
syndrome (CTS) and repetitive strain injury (RSI). However, with good ergonomic
practices, many of these health risks could be reduced or removed.

New words:

RSI (REPETITIVE STRAIN INJURY) – a painful inflammation of the tendons that often
results from overuse. A tendon is tissue that attaches muscle to the bone

Ergonomics – the study of how humans interact with fabricated objects, the goal is to
create an environment that is well suited to the users’ physical needs.

3.Security risks: Computer security risk can be created by malware, that is, bad software,
that can attack your computer system, destroy your files, steal your data, or allow an
attacker to gain access to your system without your knowledge. Computers are
programmed to follow instructions, and sometimes people program computers to act in a
way that harms a user.

4.High cost: Computers are expensive. Even the most affordable computers are still very
expensive for the average person in South Africa. Since computers empower people, the
high cost of computers puts pressure on people who are not able to afford them, and
places them at a disadvantage.

5.Distractions/disruptions: If you have ever spent hours browsing the internet or watching
videos on YouTube, then you know how distracting computers can be! Because of their high
entertainment value, it is easy for computers to distract people and stop them from being
productive.

6.Environmental impact: Computers use a lot of electricity and in most cases the

generation of electricity is harmful to the environment because of the carbon emissions.
This has a huge impact on our planet.

Computers in Your Life                                                                  

Computer today are used in virtually every aspect of most individuals’ lives; at home, at
school and at work.

Why Learn About Computers? 

Computer literacy:  knowing about and understanding computers and their uses is essential
skill today for everyone.

Computers in the Home

As reference:  retrieving information, obtaining news, viewing recipes, shopping online and
exchanging email.

As productivity tool:  home computers are frequently used for editing and managing digital
photos and home videos, creating word related documents, paying bills, and other
productivity tasks         

Computers in Education

Entertainment:  home computer and gaming consoles are becoming a central hub for
entertainment, such as the delivery of photos, videos, music, games, TV shows, instant
messages, and social networking updates.

Computers are used to facilitate distance learning; an alternative to traditional classroom

learning in which students participate at their own pace, from their current location instead
of physically going to class.

Computers on the Job

Decision making:  many individuals today use a computer to help them make on-the-job
decisions.

Productivity:  many individual today use a computer to perform on-the-job tasks efficiently
and accurately.

Off-site communications:  many individual use portable computers or mobile devices to

record data, access data, or communicate with others when they are out of the office.

Authentication:  many individuals are required to use authentication systems to punch in

and out of work, access facilities, or log on to company
computers.                                                                  
Computers on the Go

Restaurant iPad Ordering System:  iPad or other device to place a pickup order at your
eatery.

Portable devices:  many people today carry a portable computer or smartphone with them
at all times or when they travel in order to remain in touch with others and  to access
Internet resources.

Consumer kiosks:  Electronic kiosks are widely available to view conference or gift registry
information, print photo graphics, order products or services, and more.

Mobile payment system:  allow individual to pay for purchase using a smartphone or other
device.

Consumer authentication systems:  allows only authorized members, such as theme park
annual pass holders, and access to facilities.

What Is a Computer and What Does It Do?

Computer is a programmable, electronic device that accepts data, performs operations on

that data, present the results, and stores the data or results.

The Four Basic Computer Operations

From keeping in touch with friends to performing financial transactions, these days we rely
on computers for just about everything.

With PCs as advanced as they are, it's easy to forget the fundamentals that have made
modern technology possible. Computers do all the things they do because they are able to
perform four basic operations.

Input

As smart as computers are, they still input from humans to tell them what to do and provide
data to process. Computers today accept input from a variety of devices. The two you are
probably most familiar with include the keyboard and mouse.
Processing

Computers have the innate ability to process data using a central processing unit (CPU).
Also known as the processor, this device is the brain of the PC.

CPU's perform two basic types of tasks: arithmetic operations and logical operations.
Arithmetic operations involve basic math like addition and subtraction, while logical
operations compare two numbers.

Output

Once a computer receives and processes data, it outputs it as information. In computing,

information refers to any data presented in a useful form. The most common output devices
include monitors, printers, and speakers.

Storage

Computers would not be as useful as they are if they were unable to remember anything.
The fourth basic operation, storage, allows the computer to recall previously entered data
and store information. This includes documents, music, log files, software, and the operating
system (OS)

Data, Information and Data Processing

So far, we have spoken a lot about computers receiving data, manipulating the data, and
then turning data into useful information. But what exactly is data and how does it differ
from information?

Data 
Can be defined as unprocessed numbers, or facts. Without first processing or changing
data, it is meaningless.

For example, your school might have data on the names, surnames, addresses, contact
details, as well as the results of every class test, assignment, test, and exam of all current and
past learners stored on a computer somewhere.
While this data is important to store, it could be hundreds or even thousands of pages long
and very difficult to interpret.

Information 

Can be defined as facts and numbers that have been organized / processed so that it is
useful / meaningful to people. For example, if your mathematics teacher wanted to see how
well your current class is performing compared to last year’s class, she might ask your
school’s database administrator to process the available data into averages for the two
years.

 In that way, all those thousands of pages of data are processed into two numbers that can
be compared easily.

Similarly, the report you receive at the end of each school year takes all the data that
teachers have collected during the year and turns that data into a single report that you can
use to measure your performance.

Figure 1.2  Data is unprocessed facts while information is organized

One of the main functions of a computer is to take unprocessed data (data that is useless to
humans) and then turn it into something that is meaningful and easy to understand for
humans.

Properties of Information

 Accuracy – ratio of correct information to the total amount of information

produced over a period of time.
 Timeliness – immediate response time of the information system such that
information has not lost its freshness and value.
 Conciseness – extent of getting or exacting those items of information that are
needed.
 Completeness – integrating of facts available at scattered points to suit the
needs of the user.
 Relevancy - property of information that meets the needs of the user at a
certain period of time.

What do we mean by data processing?

Data processing is the conversion of data into usable and desired form. This conversion or
“processing” is carried out using a predefined sequence of operations either manually or
automatically.

 Most of the processing is done by using computers and thus done automatically. The
output or “processed” data can be obtained in various forms. Example of these forms
include image, graph, table, vector file, audio, charts or any other desired format. The form
obtained depends on the software or method of data processing used.

Data processing is basically synchronizing all the data entered into the software in order to
filter out the most useful information out of it. This is a very important task for any company
as it helps them in extracting most relevant content for later use. Every important sector, be
that banks, school, colleges or big companies, almost all requires this processing of data.
This processing is performed in order to store the most refined information in their systems
for later use. Manual processing is very time consuming and require you to engage too
many people to do so. This is really not a feasible task when you have data in bulk.

Nowadays industry people depend on strong and well efficient software tools to help in
processing all that data. This helps them in achieving greater accuracy and enhance their
efficiency.

With the proper processing of data, more and more information can be sorted. This help in
getting a clearer view of matter and have a better understanding of it. This can lead to
better productivity and more profits for the various business fields.

The advancement in areas such as data security, machine leaning, data science, network
security etc. requires a focused approach for reliable, accurate & cost effective data
processing.

 All the businesses, especially those which require real time data processing need reliable &
efficient data center. These data center houses the critical infrastructure and provide robust
processing of data required to keep services running.

Fundamentals of data processing & how data is processed

Processing of data is required by any activity which requires a collection of data. This data
collected needs to be stored, sorted, processed, analyzed and presented. This complete
process can be divided into 6 simple primary stages which are:

1. Data collection
2. Storage of data
3. Sorting of data
4. Processing of data
5. Data analysis
6. Data presentation and conclusions

Once the data is collected the need for data entry emerges for storage of data. Storage can
be done in physical form by use of papers, in notebooks or in any other physical form. With
the emergence and growing emphasis on Computer System, Big Data & Data Mining the
data collection is large and data storage is done in data center.
A number of operations need to be performed on this stored data for meaningful analysis
and presentation. The data stored in digital form facilitates data sharing, access control,
security controls and its processing.

Having the raw data and processed data into digital form enables the user to perform a
large number of operations in small time and allows conversion into different types. The
user can thus select the output which best suits the requirement.

This continuous use and processing of data follow cycle called as data processing
cycle and information processing cycle. These cycles might provide instant results or take
time depending upon the need of processing data. Complexity in this field is increasing
which is creating a need for advanced techniques.

Storage of data is followed by sorting and filtering. This stage is profoundly affected by the
format in which data is stored. This further depends on the software used. General day and
non- complex data can be stored as text files, tables or a combination of both in Microsoft
Excel or similar software.

As the task becomes complex which requires performing specific and specialized
operations. They require different data processing tools and software which is meant to
cater to the peculiar needs.

Storing, sorting, filtering and processing of data can be done by single software or a

combination of software whichever feasible and required. Such a processing thus carried
out by software is done as per the predefined set of operations.

 Most of the modern-day software allows users to perform different actions based on the
analysis or study to be carried out. It provides the output file in various formats.

Different types of output files obtained as “processed” data

Plain text file – These constitute the simplest form or processed data. Most of these files
are user readable and easy to comprehend. Very negligible or no further processing is these
type of files. These are exported as notepad or WordPad files.

Table/ spreadsheet – This file format is most suitable for numeric data. Having digits in
rows and columns allows the user to perform various operations. For ex, filtering & sorting
in ascending/descending order to make it easy to understand and use. Various
mathematical operations can be applied when using this file output.

Charts & Graphs – Option to get the output in the form of charts and graphs is handy and
now forms standard features in most of the software. This option is beneficial when dealing
with numerical values reflecting trends and growth/decline. There are ample charts and
graphs are available to match diverse requirements. At times there exists situation when
there is a need to have a user-defined option. In case no inbuilt chart or graph is available
then the option to create own charts, i.e., custom charts/graphs come handy.

Maps/Vector or image file – When dealing with spatial data the option to export the
processed data into maps, vector and image files is of great use. Having the information on
maps is of particular use for urban planners who work on different types of maps. Image
files are obtained when dealing with graphics and do not constitute any human readable
input.

Other formats/ raw files – These are the software specific file formats which can be used
and processed by specialized software. These output files may not be a complete product
and require further processing. Thus there will need to perform steps multiple times.

Overview of an ICT system in organizations

Information is useful in an organization because it will speed up the decision-making

process, and help the business to improve their business service offering.

For example, supermarkets and chain stores use ICT systems for a variety of reasons. Let’s
look at an example of a Point of sale (POS) system, paying special attention to the processes
of receiving, storing, conveying, and manipulating data.

Example of a point of sale system process:

From the cashier and customer’s perspective, a supermarket’s ICT system is a standalone
computer, called a cash register. However, it consists of much more than that.

Most products have a barcode, which is a pattern of narrow and wide stripes that is read by
a barcode reader.
The barcode consists of information about the product such as, availability in store,
quantities, orders, etc.

The scan reader will scan the barcode optically and convert the stripes into numerical data,
which is then transferred automatically to the checkout computer (cash register).

The barcode reader sometimes beeps after scanning an item to signal to the cashier that
the item is now identified.

Look at the IPO table below to see how this process works:

Figure 1.3 An example of a POS sale system process

Methods of processing

1. Manual Processing: In this method data is processed manually without the use of a
machine, tool or electronic device. Data is processed manually, and all the
calculations and logical operations are performed manually on the data.

2. Mechanical processing – This is done by use of a mechanical device or very simple

electronic devices like calculator and typewriters. When the need for processing is
simple, this method can be adopted.

3. Electronic processing – This is the modern technique to process data. Electronic

Data processing is the fastest and best available method with the highest reliability
and accuracy. The technology used is latest as this method uses computers usually
located in data center and employed in most of the agencies. The use of software
 forms integral part of this type. The computer is also known as electronic data
processing machine.

Data Processing Cycles

ORIGINATION – the process of collecting the original or initial data; a SOURCE DOCUMENT
(the original recording of data) is created .

INPUT -  the preparation of initial data for processing .

PROCESS – changing of data usually combining with other data to produce information.

STORAGE – keeping the processed data for future use or for further processing.

OUTPUT – the generated results of the preceding steps.

DISTRIBUTION – the giving away of the output data to interested parties; a REPORT
DOCUMENT (recording of output data) is generated .

Data Processing Operations

  Classifying - identifying and arranging items with like characteristics into

groups or classes.
  Sorting - arranging or re-arranging data in a pre-determined sequence to
facilitate processing.
 Calculating - arithmetic manipulation of the data.
  Summarizing - condensing or shifting data so that the resulting output reports
will be concise and effective.
 Communicating - printing the information in a usable form and communicating
it to the user.
 Storing - placing similar data into files for future reference.
  Retrieving - recovering stored data and/or information when needed.
 Reproducing - copying or duplicating data.

Processing types on the basis of process/steps performed

There are various types of data processing, some of the most popular types are as follows:
 1. Batch Processing
2. Real-time processing
3. Online Processing
4. Multiprocessing
5. Time-sharing

Batch processing

Is a general term used for frequently used programs that are executed with minimum
human interaction. Batch process jobs can run without any end-user interaction or can be
scheduled to start up on their own as resources permit.

Batch jobs are designed so that all input data is preselected through scripts or command-
line parameters. The major benefits of using batch processes are:

 The ability to share computer resources among users and programs

 The ability to shifting job processing time to other resources that are less busy
 The ability to avoid idling computer resources with manual intervention and
supervision
 The amortization of computer cost

Real-time data processing

Is the execution of data in a short time period, providing near-instantaneous output. The
processing is done as the data is inputted, so it needs a continuous stream of input data in
order to provide a continuous output.

 Good examples of real-time data processing systems are bank ATM's, traffic control

systems and modern computer systems such as the PC and mobile devices.

In contrast, a batch data processing system collects data and then processes all the data in
bulk in a later time, which also means output is received at a later time.

Real-time data processing is also known as stream processing.

A real-time data processing system is able to take input of rapidly changing data and then
provide output near instantaneously so that change over time is readily seen in such a
system.

For example, a radar system depends on a continuous flow of input data which is processed
by a computer to reveal the location of various aircraft flying within the range of the radar
and then display it on a screen so that anyone looking at the screen can know the actual
location of an aircraft at that moment.

Real-time data processing is also called stream processing because of the continuous
stream of input data required to yield output for that moment.

Good examples are e-commerce order processing, online booking and reservations,

and credit card real-time fraud detection. The biggest benefit of real-time data
processing is instantaneous results from input data that ensures everything is up to date.
Batch processing, on the other hand, means that data is no longer timely.
   

Figure 1.4 Batch Process Vs Real-time Processing

Online Processing

Online processing is an automated way to enter and process data or reports continuously as
use as the source documents are available.

A good example of online processing is bar code scanning.

When you buy a shirt at Target, the bar code gets scanned at the register. This shirt (source
document) is immediately updated in Target’s inventory system as being sold.
 It is also updated in cost and sales reports. The online processing system continuously
updates the entire accounting system.

Multiprocessing 

Is an ability of a computer to use two or more processors for computer operations. With

multiple processors, the computer performance can be significantly increased.

On a standard home computer, not all standard applications use two or more processors in

a computer. Therefore, multiple processors may not be fully used and the user may not
notice a speed increase.

Time-sharing

Is the distribution of a computing resource to many users via multiprogramming or

multitasking. This was introduced in the 1960s when computers were still too expensive to
be prolific, so the solution was to allow many users to make use of one computer by
affording each one time-shares, a specific amount of time that a user could access the
computer.

 This allowed many people to use a computer, which most people could not afford, without
actually owning one. This is now only a historical way of using computers as there is no
need to queue up users since modern computers, even the smallest ones, are able to cater
to multiple users because of fast processors and multi-tasking operating systems.

The time-sharing practice was developed out of the realization that just a single user
making use of the computer was very inefficient and that a large group using it was not.

The reason for this was the interaction pattern of an individual wherein the user enters large
bursts of information followed by long pauses mostly due to the user thinking of his/her
next move or doing something else.

But if more users were to use the computer at the same time, it would mean that the pauses
of the user could be filled by the activities of another user, so given a large enough user
base, the process could become very efficient in that many users would be able to make use
of the computer at the same time and there would be little down time for the computer.
Users were able to access the same computer through different terminals and were
prompted when it was their turn.

Batch processing was used to lessen the time delay between the execution of one program
or user and the next, but a completely multi-user system was a completely different concept
that required user states to be saved in the machine itself.

The first time-sharing project was implemented by John McCarthy in the closing months of
1957 using a modified IBM 704 and later a modified IBM 7090. The first commercially
successful time-sharing system was the Dartmouth Time Sharing System.

 Lesson 2: ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF USING COMPUTERS

CHAPTER 2: Evolution of Computing

History of Computers: A Brief Timeline

The computer was born not for entertainment or email but out of a need to solve a serious
number-crunching crisis. By 1880, the U.S. population had grown so large that it took more
than seven years to tabulate the U.S. Census results. The government sought a faster way to
get the job done, giving rise to punch-card based computers that took up entire rooms.
Today, we carry more computing power on our smartphones than was available in these
early models. The following brief history of computing is a timeline of how computers
evolved from their humble beginnings to the machines of today that surf the Internet, play
games and stream multimedia in addition to crunching numbers.
 
1801: In France, Joseph Marie Jacquard invents a loom that uses punched wooden cards to
automatically weave fabric designs. Early computers would use similar punch cards.

1822: English mathematician Charles Babbage conceives of a steam-driven calculating machine that
would be able to compute tables of numbers. The project, funded by the English government, is a failure.
More than a century later, however, the world's first computer was actually built.

1890: Herman Hollerith designs a punch card system to calculate the 1880 census, accomplishing the task
in just three years and saving the government $5 million. He establishes a company that would ultimately
become International Business Machines (IBM).
 
1936: Alan Turing presents the notion of a universal machine, later called the Turing machine, capable of
computing anything that is computable. The central concept of the modern computer was based on his
ideas.
 
1937: J.V. Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State University, attempts to build
the first computer without gears, cams, belts or shafts.
 
1939: Hewlett-Packard is founded by David Packard and Bill Hewlett in a Palo Alto, California, garage,
according to the Computer History Museum. 
 
1941: Atanasoff and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, design a computer that can solve 29 equations
simultaneously. This marks the first time a computer is able to store information on its main memory.
 
1943-1944: Two University of Pennsylvania professors, John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, build the
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). Considered the grandfather of digital computers,
it fills a 20-foot by 40-foot room and has 18,000 vacuum tubes.
 
1946: Mauchly and Presper leave the University of Pennsylvania and receive funding from the Census
Bureau to build the UNIVAC, the first commercial computer for business and government applications.
 
1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories invent the transistor. They
discovered how to make an electric switch with solid materials and no need for a vacuum. 
 
1953: Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which eventually becomes known as COBOL.
Thomas Johnson Watson Jr., son of IBM CEO Thomas Johnson Watson Sr., conceives the IBM 701 EDPM
to help the United Nations keep tabs on Korea during the war.
 
1954: The FORTRAN programming language, an acronym for FORmula TRANslation, is developed by a
team of programmers at IBM led by John Backus, according to the University of Michigan.
 
1958: Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce unveil the integrated circuit, known as the computer chip. Kilby was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000 for his work.
 
1964: Douglas Engelbart shows a prototype of the modern computer, with a mouse and a graphical user
interface (GUI). This marks the evolution of the computer from a specialized machine for scientists and
mathematicians to technology that is more accessible to the general public.

1969: A group of developers at Bell Labs produce UNIX, an operating system that addressed compatibility
issues. Written in the C programming language, UNIX was portable across multiple platforms and became
the operating system of choice among mainframes at large companies and government entities. Due to
the slow nature of the system, it never quite gained traction among home PC users.

1970: The newly formed Intel unveils the Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access Memory (DRAM) chip.
 
1971: Alan Shugart leads a team of IBM engineers who invent the "floppy disk," allowing data to be
shared among computers.
 
1973: Robert Metcalfe, a member of the research staff for Xerox, develops Ethernet for connecting
multiple computers and other hardware.
 
1974-1977: A number of personal computers hit the market, including Scelbi & Mark-8 Altair, IBM 5100,
Radio Shack's TRS-80 affectionately known as the "Trash 80" and the Commodore PET.
 
1975: The January issue of Popular Electronics magazine features the Altair 8080, described as the
"world's first minicomputer kit to rival commercial models." Two "computer geeks," Paul Allen and Bill
Gates, offer to write software for the Altair, using the new BASIC language. On April 4, after the success of
this first endeavor, the two childhood friends form their own software company, Microsoft. 
 
1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak start Apple Computers on April Fool's Day and roll out the Apple I,
the first computer with a single-circuit board, according to Stanford University. 
 
1977: Radio Shack's initial production run of the TRS-80 was just 3,000. It sold like crazy. For the first time,
non-geeks could write programs and make a computer do what they wished.

1977: Jobs and Wozniak incorporate Apple and show the Apple II at the first West Coast Computer Faire.
It offers color graphics and incorporates an audio cassette drive for storage.
 
1978: Accountants rejoice at the introduction of VisiCalc, the first computerized spreadsheet program.
 
1979: Word processing becomes a reality as MicroPro International releases WordStar. "The defining
change was to add margins and word wrap," said creator Rob Barnaby in email to Mike Petrie in 2000.
"Additional changes included getting rid of command mode and adding a print function. 

1981: The first IBM personal computer, code-named "Acorn," is introduced. It uses Microsoft's MS-DOS
operating system. It has an Intel chip, two floppy disks and an optional color monitor. Sears & Roebuck
and Computerland sell the machines, marking the first time a computer is available through outside
distributors. It also popularizes the term PC.
 
1983: Apple's Lisa is the first personal computer with a GUI. It also features a drop-down menu and icons.
It flops but eventually evolves into the Macintosh. The Gavilan SC is the first portable computer with the
familiar flip form factor and the first to be marketed as a "laptop."
 
1985: Microsoft announces Windows, according to Encyclopedia Britannica. This was the company's
response to Apple's GUI. Commodore unveils the Amiga 1000, which features advanced audio and video
capabilities.
 
1985: The first dot-com domain name is registered on March 15, years before the World Wide Web would
mark the formal beginning of Internet history. 

The Symbolics Computer Company, a small Massachusetts computer manufacturer, registers

Symbolics.com. More than two years later, only 100 dot-coms had been registered.
 
1986: Compaq brings the Deskpro 386 to market. Its 32-bit architecture provides as speed comparable to
mainframes.
 
1990: Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN, the high-energy physics laboratory in Geneva, develops
HyperText Markup Language (HTML), giving rise to the World Wide Web.
 
1993: The Pentium microprocessor advances the use of graphics and music on PCs.
 
1994: PCs become gaming machines as "Command & Conquer," "Alone in the Dark 2," "Theme Park,"
"Magic Carpet," "Descent" and "Little Big Adventure" are among the games to hit the market.
 
1996: Sergey Brin and Larry Page develop the Google search engine at Stanford University.
 
1997: Microsoft invests $150 million in Apple, which was struggling at the time, ending Apple's court case
against Microsoft in which it alleged that Microsoft copied the "look and feel" of its operating system.
 
1999: The term Wi-Fi becomes part of the computing language and users begin connecting to the
Internet without wires.
 
2001: Apple unveils the Mac OS X operating system, which provides protected memory architecture and
pre-emptive multi-tasking, among other benefits. Not to be outdone, Microsoft rolls out Windows XP,
which has a significantly redesigned GUI.
 
2003: The first 64-bit processor, AMD's Athlon 64, becomes available to the consumer market.
 
2004: Mozilla's Firefox 1.0 challenges Microsoft's Internet Explorer, the dominant Web browser. Facebook,
a social networking site, launches.
 
2005: YouTube, a video sharing service, is founded. Google acquires Android, a Linux-based mobile
phone operating system.
 
2006: Apple introduces the MacBook Pro, its first Intel-based, dual-core mobile computer, as well as an
Intel-based iMac. Nintendo's Wii game console hits the market.
 
2007: The iPhone brings many computer functions to the smartphone.
 
2009: Microsoft launches Windows 7, which offers the ability to pin applications to the taskbar and
advances in touch and handwriting recognition, among other features.
 
2010: Apple unveils the iPad, changing the way consumers view media and jumpstarting the dormant
tablet computer segment.
 
2011: Google releases the Chromebook, a laptop that runs the Google Chrome OS.
 
2012: Facebook gains 1 billion users on October 4.
 
2015: Apple releases the Apple Watch. Microsoft releases Windows 10.
 
2016: The first reprogrammable quantum computer was created. "Until now, there hasn't been any
quantum-computing platform that had the capability to program new algorithms into their system.
They're usually each tailored to attack a particular algorithm," said study lead author Shantanu Debnath, a
quantum physicist and optical engineer at the University of Maryland, College Park.
 
2017: The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is developing a new "Molecular
Informatics" program that uses molecules as computers. "Chemistry offers a rich set of properties that we
may be able to harness for rapid, scalable information storage and processing," Anne Fischer, program
manager in DARPA's Defense Sciences Office, said in a statement.
 
"Millions of molecules exist, and each molecule has a unique three-dimensional atomic structure as well
as variables such as shape, size, or even color. This richness provides a vast design space for exploring
novel and multi-value ways to encode and process data beyond the 0s and 1s of current logic-based,
digital architectures." [Computers of the Future May Be Minuscule Molecular Machines]
 
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
CHAPTER 3: KEY Components of Computer System, Operating System

Components of Computer System

Computers are made up of many different parts, such as a Motherboard, CPU, RAM,

and hard drive. Each of these parts are made up of smaller parts, called components.

For example, a motherboard includes electrical connectors, a printed circuit board (PCB),
capacitors, resistors, and transformers. All these components work together to make the
motherboard function with the other parts of the computer. The CPU includes components
such as integrated circuits, switches, and extremely small transistors. These components
process information and perform calculations.

Generally speaking, a component is a element of a larger group. Therefore, the larger parts
of a computer, such as the CPU and hard drive, can also be referred to as computer
components. Technically, however, the components are the smaller parts that make up
these devices.

1. Computer Chassis/Computer Case, Computer Box

The main part of a desktop computer.

A computer case, also known as a computer chassis, tower, system unit, cabinet, base

unit, or simply  the case, is the enclosure that contains most of the components of
a computer .

Figure 1. Computer Chassis

2. Power supply unit (or PSU) converts mains AC to low-voltage regulated DC power for

the internal components of a computer. Modern personal computers universally use
switched-mode power supplies. Some power supplies have a manual switch for selecting
input voltage, while others automatically adapt to the mains voltage.
 Figure 1.2 The Power Supply Unit

3. Motherboard is a printed circuit board containing the principal components of a

computer or other device, with connectors into which other circuit boards can be slotted.

Figure 1.3 The Motherboard

4. Random Access Memory (RAM) is a storage in a computing device where the operating
system (OS), application programs and data in current use are kept so they can be quickly
reached by the device's processor,  But this is only a temporary storage.

Figure 1.4 Random Access Memory

5. Central Processing Unit (CPU) is an electronic circuitry within a computer that carries
out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical,
control and input/output  operations specified by the instructions.

Figure 1.5 Central Processing Unit

6. Hard drive/Hard Disk Drive/ HDD is a permanent storage memory of the computer

where saved files remain even when the computer is turned off.

Figure 1.6 Hard Disk Drive

7. Monitor is a device used to display video and graphical information generated by the
computers graphics adapter, allowing the user to interact with the computer.

Figure 1.7 LCD Monitor

 8. Keyboard is an input device used to enter characters and functions into the computer
system by pressing buttons, or keys.

Figure 1.8 Keyboard

9. Mouse is a device used to move a little cursor around the screen, clicking and dragging
as you go.

Figure 1.9 Wireless mouse

Hardware and Software

What is a Hardware?

Abbreviated as HW, hardware is best described as any physical component of a computer

system that contains a circuit board, ICs, or other electronics. A perfect example of hardware
is the screen on which you are viewing this page. Whether it be a monitor, tablet,
or smartphone, it is hardware.
Without any hardware, your computer would not exist, and software could not be used. The
picture is a Logitech webcam, an example of an external hardware peripheral. This hardware
device allows users to take videos or pictures, and transmit them over the Internet.

External hardware examples

Below is a list of external hardware or hardware found outside a computer.

 Flat-panel, monitor, and LCD
 Gamepad
 Joystick
 Keyboard
 Microphone
 Mouse
 Printer
 Projector
 Scanner
 Speakers
 USB thumb drive

Internal hardware examples

Below is a list of internal hardware or hardware found inside a computer.

 CPU (central processing unit).

 Drive (e.g., Blu-ray, CD-ROM, DVD, floppy drive, hard drive, and SSD).
 Fan (heat sink)
 Modem
 Motherboard
 Network card
 Power supply
 RAM
 Sound card
 Video card
What is the most common hardware included with a
computer?
Below is a list of the most common hardware you'd likely find inside a computer or
connected to a computer today (desktop computer or laptop).

 Processor (CPU)
 One or more fans and heat sink
 Motherboard that most likely has an integrated video card, sound card, and network
card.
 For most desktop computers (especially gaming computers), a separate video card is
used.
 RAM
 Hard drive
 Power supply
 Cables that connect internal components and external peripherals.
 Keyboard
 Mouse or touchpad with a laptop.
 Flat-panel, monitor, or TV for desktop computers and LCD as part of a laptop.

What are hardware upgrades?

A hardware upgrade is any new hardware better than that which it replaced or additional
hardware that improves performance. An example of a common hardware upgrade is
a RAM upgrade, where the user increases the computer's total memory. Another example is
a video card upgrade, which is the act of removing an old video card and replacing it with a
newer, more powerful model.

Where can I buy computer hardware?

There many locations to buy computer hardware today. Many local computer retail stores
and repair shops have hardware available in stock that can be purchased immediately.
However, for more options and lower prices in most cases, it is generally better to buy
hardware online.
What is a Software?

Sometimes abbreviated as SW and S/W, software is a collection of instructions that enable

the user to interact with a computer, its hardware, or perform tasks. Without software, most
computers would be useless. For example, without your Internet browser software, you
could not surf the Internet or read this page. Without an operating system, the browser
could not run on your computer. The picture shows a Microsoft Excel box, an example of a
spreadsheet software program.

There are Two types of Software's

1. Application Software-  is a program or group of programs designed for end users. 

2. System Software- is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer's

hardware and application programs.

Difference between application software & System software.

System software- Manages and operates computer hardware thereby providing a platform

for other application software.

Application software- It gives power to user, to perform either single or multiple task.

Examples and types of software

Below is a list of the different kinds of software a computer may have installed with
examples of related programs. Click any of the links below for additional information.

Although application software is thought of as a program, it can be anything that runs on a

computer. The table below also includes a program column to clarify any software that is
not a program.

Software Examples Program?

Antivirus AVG, Housecall, McAfee, and Norton. Yes
Audio / Music program iTunes and WinAmp. Yes
Communication Discord, Skype, and Ventrilo Yes
Database Access, MySQL, and SQL. Yes
Device drivers Computer drivers. No
E-mail Outlook and Thunderbird. Yes
Game Madden NFL football, Quake, and World of Warcraft. Yes
Internet browser Firefox, Google Chrome, and Internet Explorer. Yes
Movie player VLC and Windows Media Player. Yes
Operating system Android, iOS, Linux, macOS, and Windows. No
Photo / Graphics
Adobe Photoshop and CorelDRAW. Yes
program
Presentation PowerPoint Yes
Programming language C++, HTML, Java, Perl, PHP, Python, and Visual Basic. Yes
Simulation Flight simulator and SimCity. Yes
Spreadsheet Excel Yes
Compression, Disk Cleanup, encryption, registry cleaner,
Utility No
and screen saver.
Word processor Microsoft Word Yes

How do you get software?

Software can be purchased at a retail computer store or online and come in a box
containing all the disks (floppy diskette, CD, DVD, or Blu-ray), manuals, warranty, and other
documentation.

Software can also be downloaded to a computer over the Internet. Once downloaded, setup
files are run to start the installation process on your computer.

Free software

There are also a lot of free software programs available that are separated into different
categories.

 Shareware or trial software is software that gives you a few days to try the software
before you have to buy the program. After the trial time expires, you'll be asked to
enter a code or register the product before you can continue to use it.
  Freeware is completely free software that never requires payment, as long as it is not
modified.
 Open source software is similar to freeware. Not only is the program free, but
the source code is also available to everyone.

How do you use computer software?

Once the software is installed on the computer hard drive, the program can be used at any
time. On a Windows computer, a program icon is added to the Start menu or Start screen,
depending on your version of Windows.

How to maintain software

After the software is installed on your computer, it may need to be updated to fix any found
errors. Updating a program can be done using software patches. Once updates are installed,
any problems that may have been experienced in the program will no longer occur.

How is software created and how does it work?

A computer programmer (or several computer programmers) write the instructions using
a programming language, defining how the software should operate on structured data.
The program may then be interpreted, or compiled into machine code.

When I save a document, is that file also considered

software?
When you create or edit a file using software, a Microsoft Word document, for instance, or a
Photoshop image that file is considered a software "resource" or "asset." However, the file
itself is not considered "software" even though it is an essential part of what your software is
doing.

Device driver
More commonly known as a driver, a device driver or hardware driver is a group
of files that enable one or more hardware devices to communicate with the
computer's operating system. Without drivers, the computer would not be able to send and
receive data correctly to hardware devices, such as a printer.

What devices need drivers?

Hardware devices that are unknown by the operating system or that have features that are
unknown by the operating system all require drivers. Below is a list of hardware devices
and peripherals that require drivers.

 Card reader
 Controller
 Modem
 Motherboard chipset
 Network card
 Printer
 Scanner
 Sound card
 Tape drive
 USB devices
 Video card

What devices may not need drivers

Today's operating systems have a lot of generic drivers that allow hardware to work at a
basic level without needing drivers or software. However, if that device has features
unknown to the operating system, it will not work without drivers. For example, you could
plug any keyboard into a computer and expect it to work. However, if that keyboard has
any special keys or features, they will not work until the drivers are installed.

 CPU
 Disc drive
 Fan
 Hard drive
 Heat sink
  Joystick
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Monitor
 Power supply
 RAM
 Speakers
 Thumb drive
 UPS

Note:
The operating systems generic driver may not be updated as often as the drivers from a
hardware manufacturer or computer manufacturer.

What happens if a driver is not installed?

If the appropriate driver is not installed, the device may not function properly, if at all. With
some devices, the device may work, but all of its features may not work. For example, a
computer mouse usually works without drivers, but if it has more buttons than the
traditional mouse, those extra buttons will not work until the drivers are installed.

For Microsoft Windows users, missing drivers may cause a driver conflict or an error that is
shown in the Device Manager. If problems or conflicts are encountered with drivers,
the computer manufacturer or hardware manufacturer releases a driver update to fix the
problems. If updated drivers are available, those drivers need to be installed to replace the
existing driver code.

Can a driver make my computer do more?

Installing a driver only makes the hardware installed in the computer function properly. If
the correct driver is not installed, installing the latest driver for the hardware can take full
advantage of the device. However, you cannot install a driver for hardware not installed in
the computer and expect it to make your computer faster or more capable. In other words,
installing video card drivers for a video card that's not installed in the computer does not
give your computer all the capabilities of that video card. In this example, you'd need the
video card hardware as well as the video card drivers to be installed.
Operating system
An operating system or OS is a software installed on a computer's hard drive that enables
the computer hardware to communicate and operate with the computer software. Without
a computer operating system, a computer and software programs would be useless.

When computers were first introduced, the user interacted with them using a command
line interface, which required commands. Today, almost every computer is using
a GUI (Graphical User Interface) operating system that's easy to use and operate.

Some people may refer to an OS as "operating software." Although this is a valid term, it is
more appropriate to refer to this software as an "operating system."

Examples of computer operating systems

Below is a list of examples of different computer operating systems over the evolution of
computers.

Microsoft Windows

Microsoft Windows is the most common and used operating system on computers today,
with Microsoft Windows 10 being the most recently released version of Windows. The
operating system is used PC and IBM compatible computers.

Apple macOS

With Apple computers, macOS is the primary operating system used with Apple desktop

and laptop computers.

Android

Android in an operating system used with smartphones and tablets. Today, Android is the

most popular operating system worldwide because of how many smartphones use
a variant of the Android operating system.
Apple iOS

The Apple iOS operating system used is the operating system used with the
Apple iPhone and iPads.

Linux

Linux is a free and open source operating system used with PC and IBM compatible
computers. Because the operating system is open source, it is used to create many variants
of Linux, including Ubuntu, Debian, Red Hat, and Slackware. See our Linux page for a full
listing of variants listed on our site with further information about the operating system.

Chromium / Chrome OS

Chrome OS is an operating system used with Google Chromebooks.

Other operating systems

The following list contains operating systems that either do not fit into the previous
categories or are considered legacy.

AIX and AIXL

AmigaOS
BSD NEXTSTEP
CP/M OS/2 Tru64 Unix
DUnix OSF/1 Ultrix
DYNIX/ptx OxygenOS Unisys
Fuchsia SCO Unix
Goobuntu Sun Solaris UnixWare
HP-UX Symbian WatchOS
IRIX System 7 Xenix
ISIS System V
MINIX
MS-DOS

Where is the operating system stored on a computer?

With most computers, the operating system is stored on the primary hard drive inside the
computer. Computers operating systems can also be installed and loaded from
an external hard drive, disc drive, or flash drive.

What is the history of operating systems?

Over the history of computers there have been many operating systems and versions. To
help make going through the history of operating systems easier we've broken the
computer operating system history into the following pages.

 Apple operating system history.

 Microsoft Windows history.
 MS-DOS history.
 Unix and Linux history.

Functions of Operating System

An Operating System acts as a communication bridge (interface) between the user and
computer hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to provide a platform on which
a user can execute programs in a convenient and efficient manner.

An operating system is a piece of software that manages the allocation of computer

hardware. The coordination of the hardware must be appropriate to ensure the correct
working of the computer system and to prevent user programs from interfering with the
proper working of the system.

Example: Just like a boss gives order to his employee, in the similar way we request or pass
our orders to the Operating System. The main goal of the Operating System is to thus make
the computer environment more convenient to use and the secondary goal is to use the
resources in the most efficient manner.

Important functions of an operating System:

Security –
1. The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar
other techniques. it also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data.

2. Control over system performance –

Monitors overall system health to help improve performance. records the response
time between service requests and system response to have a complete view of the
system health. This can help improve performance by providing important
information needed to troubleshoot problems.

3. Job accounting –
Operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks and users,
this information can be used to track resource usage for a particular user or group of
user.

4. Error detecting aids –

Operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and avoid the
malfunctioning of computer system.

5. Coordination between other software and users –

Operating systems also coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers, assemblers
and other software to the various users of the computer systems.

6. Memory Management –
The operating system manages the Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory
is made up of a large array of bytes or words where each byte or word is assigned a
certain address. Main memory is a fast storage and it can be accessed directly by the
CPU. For a program to be executed, it should be first loaded in the main memory. An
Operating System performs the following activities for memory management:
 It keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., which bytes of memory are used by which
user program. The memory addresses that have already been allocated and the
memory addresses of the memory that has not yet been used. In multi
programming, the OS decides the order in which process are granted access to
memory, and for how long. It Allocates the memory to a process when the process
requests it and deallocates the memory when the process has terminated or is
performing an I/O operation.

7. Processor Management –
In a multi programming environment, the OS decides the order in which processes
have access to the processor, and how much processing time each process has. This
function of OS is called process scheduling. An Operating System performs the
following activities for processor management.

Keeps tracks of the status of processes. The program which perform this task is
known as traffic controller. Allocates the CPU that is processor to a process. De-
allocates processor when a process is no more required.

8. Device Management –
An OS manages device communication via their respective drivers. It performs the
following activities for device management. Keeps tracks of all devices connected to
system. designates a program responsible for every device known as the
Input/Output controller. Decides which process gets access to a certain device and
for how long. Allocates devices in an effective and efficient way. Deallocates devices
when they are no longer required.

9. File Management –
A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation and usage.
These directories may contain other directories and other files. An Operating System
carries out the following file management activities. It keeps track of where
 information is stored, user access settings and status of every file and more… These
facilities are collectively known as the file system.

Moreover, Operating System also provides certain services to the computer system in one
form or the other.
The Operating System provides certain services to the users which can be listed in the
following manner:

1. Program Execution: The Operating System is responsible for execution of all types
of programs whether it be user programs or system programs. The Operating System
utilises various resources available for the efficient running of all types of
functionalities.
2. Handling Input/Output Operations: The Operating System is responsible for
handling all sort of inputs, i.e, from keyboard, mouse, desktop, etc. The Operating
System does all interfacing in the most appropriate manner regrading all kind of
Inputs and Outputs.
For example, there is difference in nature of all types of peripheral devices such as
mouse or keyboard, then Operating System is responsible for handling data between
them.
3. Manipulation of File System: The Operating System is responsible for making of
decisions regarding the storage of all types of data or files, i.e, floppy disk/hard
disk/pen drive, etc. The Operating System decides as how should the data should be
manipulated and stored.
4. Error Detection and Handling: The Operating System is responsible for detection of
any types of error or bugs that can occur while any task. The well secured OS
sometimes also acts as countermeasure for preventing any sort of breach to the
Computer System from any external source and probably handling them.
5. Resource Allocation: The Operating System ensures the proper use of all the
resources available by deciding which resource to be used by whom for how much
time. All the decisions are taken by the Operating System.
6. Accounting: The Operating System tracks an account of all the functionalities taking
place in the computer system at a time. All the details such as the types of errors
occurred are recorded by the Operating System.
7. Information and Resource Protection: The Operating System is responsible for
using all the information and resources available on the machine in the most
protected way. The Operating System must foil an attempt from any external
resource to hamper any sort of data or information.
Input device

An input device is any hardware device that sends data to a computer, allowing you to interact
with and control it.

The most commonly used or primary input devices on a computer are the keyboard and mouse.
However, there are other devices that input data into a computer.

Types of input devices

Audio conversion device

Barcode reader

Biometrics (e.g., fingerprint scanner).

Business card reader

Digital camera and digital camcorder.

EEG (electroencephalography)

Finger (with touch screen or Windows Touch).

Gamepad, joystick, paddle, steering wheel, and Microsoft Kinect.

Gesture recognition

Graphics tablet

Keyboard

Light gun

Light pen

Magnetic ink (like the ink found on checks).

Magnetic stripe reader

Medical imaging devices (e.g., X-ray, CAT scan, and ultrasound images).

Microphone (using voice speech recognition or biometric verification).

MIDI keyboard

MICR

Mouse, touchpad, or other pointing devices.

OMR (optical mark reader)

Paddle

Pen or stylus

Punch card reader

Remote

Scanner

Sensors (e.g., heat and orientation sensors).

Sonar imaging devices

Stylus (with touch screen).

Touch screen

Voice (using voice speech recognition or biometric verification).

Video capture device

VR helmet and gloves

Webcam

Yoke

Note:
Although OMR cards and punch cards contain data, they are not considered input devices by
themselves. It is the readers that interpret the cards that are considered an input device.

Tip:

Drives such as a CD-ROM, DVD, floppy diskette drive, and USB flash drive are also considered
storage devices.

What are the input devices of my computer?

Every computer comes with a keyboard and a mouse (touchpad with laptop), which are considered
input devices. As far as other input devices, it depends on what was included with your computer
and what's connected to the computer. The best method of determining all of the input devices
your computer has is to go through the list above.

What does an input device send to a computer?

What an input device sends (inputs) to a computer depends on the device. Additionally, all input
devices send data from the device over a cable or wireless transmission to the computer. For
example, as you move a computer mouse, the data sent to the computer is the X-Y axis movements
used to display the mouse cursor on the screen. You can see a live example of this on our x-axis
definition.

Why does a computer need an input device?

Today, input devices are important because they are what allows you to interact with and add new
information to a computer. For example, if a computer had no input devices, it could run by itself
but there would be no way to change its settings, fix errors, or other various user interactions.
Also, if you wanted to add new information to the computer (e.g., text, command, document,
picture, etc.), you wouldn't be able to do so without an input device.
Output device

An output device is any peripheral that receives data from a computer, usually for display,
projection, or physical reproduction.

For example, an inkjet printer, an output device that make a hard copy of anything shown on the
monitor. Monitors and printers are two of the most commonly used output devices used with a
computer.

Types of output devices

The following list contains many different examples of output devices. For further information
about the output device, select any of the listings with blue text.

3D Printer

Braille embosser

Braille reader

COM (Computer Output Microfilm)

Flat-panel

GPS

Headphones

Monitor

Plotter

Printer (dot matrix printer, inkjet printer, and laser printer)

Projector

Sound card
Speakers

SGD (Speech-generating device)

TV

Video card

What are the output devices of my computer?

Every computer has a monitor, an audio adapter, and a GPU (either onboard or discrete). Each of
these is an output device. A printer is also very commonly used with computers. Depending on the
type of computer and how the computer is used, other output devices may be used with a
computer. The best method of determining all of the output devices your computer has is to go
through the list above.

Why do computers need output devices?

A computer can still work without an output device. However, you'd have no way of determining
what the computer is doing. By using an output device, you can view and get the results of input
from a computer.

How does an output device work?

An output device works by receiving a signal from the computer and using that signal to perform a
task to display the output. For example, below is a basic list of the steps of how an output device
works.

On a computer keyboard (input device), if you type "H", it sends (inputs) a signal to the computer.

The computer processes the input and once completed, sends a signal to a monitor (output device).

The monitor receives the signal and displays (outputs) the "H" to the screen.
If supported, that "H" could also be printed (outputted) to a printer, which is another example of
an output device.

If no output device was connected to the computer and it was functional, you could still type "H"
on the keyboard, and it would still be processed. However, you'd be unable to see what happened
or confirm the input with no output device.

Note: An output device does not send anything back to the computer. So, in the case of the
monitor, a computer sends a signal without knowing if it was received. If an output device sends
information back to the computer, it's considered an input/output device.

Storage device
Alternatively referred to as digital storage, storage, storage media, or storage medium,
a storage device is any hardware capable of holding information either temporarily or
permanently.

There are two types of storage devices used with computers: a primary storage device, such
as RAM, and a secondary storage device, such as a hard drive. Secondary storage can
be removable, internal, or external.

Examples of computer storage

Magnetic storage devices

Today, magnetic storage is one of the most common types of storage used with computers.
This technology is found mostly on extremely large HDDs or hybrid hard drives.

 Floppy diskette
 Hard drive
 Magnetic strip
 SuperDisk
 Tape cassette
 Zip diskette
Optical storage devices

Another common type of storage is optical storage, which uses lasers and lights as its
method of reading and writing data.

 Blu-ray disc
 CD-ROM disc
 CD-R and CD-RW disc.
 DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-RW, and DVD+RW disc.

Flash memory devices

Flash memory has replaced most magnetic and optical media as it becomes cheaper
because it is the more efficient and reliable solution.

 USB flash drive, jump drive, or thumb drive.

 CF (CompactFlash)
 M.2
 Memory card
 MMC
 NVMe
 SDHC Card
 SmartMedia Card
 Sony Memory Stick
 SD card
 SSD
 xD-Picture Card

Online and cloud

Storing data online and in cloud storage is becoming popular as people need to access their
data from more than one device.

 Cloud storage
 Network media
Paper storage

Early computers had no method of using any of the technologies above for storing
information and had to rely on paper. Today, these forms of storage are rarely used or
found. In the picture is an example of a woman entering data to a punch card using a punch
card machine.

 OMR
 Punch card

Note: A hard copy is considered a form of paper storage, although it cannot be easily used
to input data back into a computer without the aid of OCR.

Why is storage needed in a computer?

Without a storage device, a computer cannot save or remember any settings or information
and would be considered a dumb terminal.

Although a computer can run with no storage device, it would only be able to view
information, unless it was connected to another computer that had storage capabilities.
Even a task, such as browsing the Internet, requires information to be stored on your
computer.

Why so many different storage devices?

As computers advance, the technologies used to store data do too, right along with higher
requirements for storage space. Because people need more and more space, want it faster,
cheaper, and want to take it with them, new technologies have to be invented. When new
storage devices are designed, as people upgrade to those new devices, the older devices
are no longer needed and stop being used.

For example, when punch cards were first used in early computers, the magnetic media
used for floppy disks was not available. After floppy diskettes were released, they were
replaced by CD-ROM drives, which were replaced by DVD drives, which were replaced by
flash drives. The first hard disk drive from IBM cost $50,000, was only 5 MB, big, and
cumbersome. Today, we have smartphones that have hundreds of times the capacity at a
much smaller price that we can carry in our pocket.

Each advancement of storage devices gives a computer the ability to store more data, as
well as save and access data faster.

What is a storage location?

When saving anything on a computer, it may ask for a storage location, which is the
location information is saved. By default, most information is saved to your computer hard
drive. If you want to move the information to another computer, save it to a removable
storage device, such as a USB flash drive.

Which storage devices are used today?

Most of the storage devices mentioned above are no longer used with today's computers.
Most computers today primarily use an SSD to store information, as well as the ability to use
USB flash drives and access to cloud storage. Most desktop computers and some laptops
include a disc drive that is capable of reading and writing CDs and DVDs.

What storage device has the largest capacity?

For most computers, the largest storage device is the hard drive or SSD. However,
networked computers may also have access to larger storage with large tape drives, cloud
computing, or NAS devices. Below is a list of storage devices from the smallest capacity to
the largest capacity.

Note: Many storage devices have been available in many different capacities. For example,
over the evolution of the hard drive, their storage capacity has increased from 5 MB to
several terabytes in size. Therefore, the list below is only meant to provide a general idea of
the size difference between each storage device, from smallest to largest storage capacity.
There are exceptions to the list.

1. Punch card
2. Floppy diskette
 3. Zip disk
4. CD
5. DVD
6. Blu-ray disc
7. Flash jump drive
8. Hard drive / SSD
9. Tape drive
10. NAS / Cloud Storage

Are storage devices input and output devices?

No. Although these devices do send and receive information, they are not considered
an input device or output device. It is more proper to refer to any device capable of storing
and reading information as a storage device, disk, disc, drive, or media.

How do you access storage devices?

Accessing a storage device on your computer depends on the operating system your
computer is using and how it's being used. For example, with Microsoft Windows, you can
use a file manager to access the files on any storage device. Microsoft Windows
uses Explorer as its default file manager. With Apple computers, Finder is considered the
default file manager.

What is the latest storage device?

One of the most recent storage device technologies to be introduced is NVMe,
with SSDs and cloud storage also being recently developed storage devices. Also, older
technologies, like hard disk drives and tape drives, are always developing new techniques to
allow for the devices to store more data.