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 A COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR

OF THE

ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE;
IN WHICH

ITS F0E3IS AEE ILLUSTRATED

BT THOSE OF THE

SANSKRIT, GREEK, LATIN, GOTHIC, OLD SAXON, OLD FRIESIC,

OLD NORSE, AND OLD HIGH -GERMAN.

By FEANCIS A. MARCH, LL.D.,

PEOFESSOE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPAEATIVB PHILOLOGY IN LAFAYETTE
" METHOn OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE
COLLEGE, ACTUOE OF

NEW YORK:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
FRANKLIN SQUARE.

187 I.
 ^//^.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year i86g, by

FRANCIS A. MARCH,
In tlie Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of

Pennsylvania.
 \3\

PREFACE.
The Anglo-Saxon language has been studied at Lafayette
College for many years in the light of modern philology. It
seemed necessary to print, for the use of its students, general
laws of phonology and syntax, with tables of analogous para-
digms, prefixes, and idioms. In preparing this outline
sufiixes,
for the press, love of the work has led me to fill it up into a
Comparative Grammar. Other Comparative Grammars have
discussed several languages, each for the illustration of all, and
of language in general this book is an Anglo-Saxon Gram-
;

mar, and uses forms of other tongues and general laws of lan-
guage only so far as they illustrate the Anglo-Saxon.
The hope has, however, been cherished that the methods of
Comparative Grammar might be exemplified more fully than
they have yet been for our students, in connection with the
early forms of our mother tongue, and that in this way the
Anglo-Saxon might be associated with the modern Science of
Language, and share its honors.
If this hope should be answered, the book may serve as an
introduction to the masters in whose light it has grown up —
to Jacob GEiiiir, the greatest genius among the grammarians,
whose imagination and heart are as cpiick as his reason and
industry, and make his histories of speech as inspiring as poet-
—
ry to Francis Bopp, impersonation of pure science, who never
spreads his wings, butwho pursues his thread of thought with
unfailing sagacity he loses it in the islands of the Pacific
till
— to Geokge Curtius, master of the new and the old, surest
— —
and safest of guides to Pott to Kuun and his collaborators.
Special students of Anglo-Saxon must spend their days and
nights with GREiisf, whose Glossary of Anglo-Saxon Poetry
firstmade possible a thorough treatment of its grammar, and
to whom this work is every where indebted. Maetzner, and
KocHj and IIeyne liavc also been my constant companions.

1839133
 iv PREFACE.

Schleicher, Rumpelt, and IIoltzman I have used most in

phonology and etymology, Becker in syntax.
There are a good many Anglo-Saxon Grammars. The Lat-
in Grammar of -Cleric, written in Anglo-Saxon, is a valuable
Anglo-Saxon Grammar, Other grammars, to the time of Rask,
are mainly arrangements of the declensions and inflections on
the ground of external resemblances, with outlines of syntax.
Some of them are learned works. Rask classified on the basis
of the supposed stems, but with mistaken views. The real re-
lations of the Anglo-Saxon inflections were fixed by Bopp in
fixing those of the Gothic. In German, Anglo-Saxon has a
place in the Comparative Grammars of Grimm, Heyne, and

others, and in the great English Grammars of Maetzner and

Koch. The English still use Rask Hadley, in "Webster's Dic-
;

tionary, goes with Grimm. It is pleasant to remember that

1^ Jefferson, who started this study in our colleges in his Uni-

vei^ity"o"f Virginia,
made an Anglo-Saxon Grammar.
Labor has not been spared to fit this book for use. The ex
amples have been translated; the citations made easy to verify;
leading rules and groups of facts have been brought together;
indexes have been made the resources of the printer freely
;

used to make every thing distinct. Paradigms and the histor-

ical discussion of them are kept on opposite pages, so that they

may lie before the eye together. The type has sometimes been
varied for that purpose, and spaces filled with matter not strict-

ly in the plan, such as the changes from Anglo-Saxon to En-

glish.
I wish to thank William G. MEDLicoTT,Esq., of Longmeadow,
•
Massachusetts ;
he let me take from his precious collection, and
use at my o^^ti home, Anglo-Saxon texts not elsewhere to be
had for love or money. And, finally, all those who find this
book of value should join me in thanks to the Trustees and
Faculty of Lafayette College, who were the first to unite
in one Professorship the study of the English language and

Comparative Philology, and who have set apart time for these
studies, and funds for the necessaiy apparatus to pursue them.

Frakcis a. March.
Easton, October 25, 1 809.
 CONTENTS
S«tion Page

1, IxTRODUCTiox — Historical. . 1

PARI" I.
PHONOLOGY.
Section Page Section Papj

General View. 35. Assimilation 22

10. 4 36. Dissimilation 24
Alphabet
13. Punctuation 5 37. Compensation 25
14. Sounds 5 Accentual Changes.
15. Accent 6 38. Gravitation 2G
16. Classes of Vowels C 38. Progression 2G
1 7. Classes of Consonants 7 38. Precession 26
18. Indo-European Vowel System.. 8 39. Ablaut 28
19. Consonant System 8 40. Mimetic Changes 28
20. Changes of Sound 9 EtjTnologic Changes.
20. Laws of Letter Change 10 41. Shifting 28
Special Discussions. Figuration*.
21. Classic Anglo-Saxon 11 43. Aphieresis SO
22. Voice 11 44. Apocope 31
23. Vowels — Anglo-Saxon 11 45. Elision 31
26. Northumbrian 14 46. Syncope 31
27. Consonants — Anglo-Saxon 15 47. Ecthlipsis 31
31. Northumbrian 18 48. Prothesis 31
Variatiox. 49. Epithesis 31
32. Euphonic Changes 19 50. Epenthesis 31
.32. Umlaut 19 51. Metathesis 32
33. Breaking 20 Contraction.
34. Assibilation 20 52. SynjEresis 32

PART 11.

ETYMOLOGY.
.IS. Definitions 33 64. Declension 3G
59. Classification 34 67. Gender 37
Nouns. Strong Nouns.
60. Case Endings .34 69. Declension 1. 38
VI CONTENTS.
^'ection rage Section

88. Declension 2 44 1G3. Personal Endings 82

Ueclcnsion o 48 Paradi'jms.
'J I. Northumbrian 41)
Strong Verb.
Weak Nouns. IGl. Indicative Tenses 82
P5. Declension 4 50 1G9. Subjunctive Tenses 8G
Northumbrian /< 1 172. Imperative 8S
100. Irregular Nouns r>2 173. Infinitive 88
101. TroperNames 54 173. Participle 88
102. Decay of Case Endings 55 176. Potential 88
Adjectives. 177. Other Periphrastic 89
104. Declension Indefinite 50 178. Passive Voice 90
1 05. Declension Definite 58 Weak Verb.
106. Varying Forms 58 183. Active Voice 92
119. Participles CI 187. Passive Voice 91
121. Northumbrian CI 188. Varying Presents 94
132 Comparison C2 189. Syncopated Imperfects 95
130. Pronocxs GO 190. Syncopated Participle 95
138. Numerals 73 Weak and Strong.
Verb. 191. Umlaut in the Present 96
149. Definitions 77 192. Assimilation 96
157. Conjugations: 78 197. Varying Imperfects 98
158. From_A.blaut 79 198. Summary of Variations 98
1.59. From Contraction 80 199. Table of Varying Verbs 99
1G0. From Composition 81 212. Irregular Verbs 112
IGl. Tense Stems 82 225. Northumbrian 117
1G2. Mode Suffixes 82 22C. Weathering of Endings 118

Derivation,
227. Definitions 118 253. Preposition 130
228. Suffixes 119 253.
230. Stems by Variation 122 2G0. Particles 132
231. Formation of Substantives .... 123 262. Conjunctions 133
240. Adjectives 125 2G3. Interjections 133
24G. A'erb . 12G 2G4. Composition 134
251. Adverb 128 2G8. Forms to express Gender 135

PART III.
SYNTAX
272. Simple Combinations 137 Accusative :

278. Sentences, Clauses 139 290. In Objective Combinations... 145

285. Figures of Syntax 141 293. In Quasi-predicative 147
Nouns. 295. In Adverbial 148
Uses of Case Endings. Dative :

286. Agreement 142 297. In Objective Combinations. ... 148

288. Nominative 144 302. In Adverbial Combinations... 151
289. Vocative 144 .301. In Quasi-predicative 152
 CONTENTS. Vll

Section Page Section PagB

306. Instrumental 153 406. Kinds of Verbs 186
Genitive : 407. Voice 187
310. In Attributive Combinations.. 153 411. Tense 187
314. In Predicative Combinations. . 1 55 Mode :

315. In Objective Combinations 155 420. Indicative 190

322. In Adverbial Combinations... 158 421. Subjunctive 191
Uses of Prepositions. In Subordinate Clauses,
327. Eules 158 422. By Attraction 191
330. Table of. 159 423. In Substantive Clauses..., 192
Adjectives. 427. In Adjective Clauses 193 ,

301. Agreement 172 428. In Adverbial Clauses 193

362. Strong or Weak 173 435. Potential 195
Pkonouns. 444. Imperative 190
366. Personal 174 445. Infinitive 197
367. Possessive 175 450. Gerund 198
368. Article 175 455. Participles 200
374. Demonstratives 177 460. Verbals , 201
377. Interrogative 178 461. Interjections - 202
379. Relative 178 Conjunctions.
386. Indefinite 180 402. Co-ordinate 202
393. Numerals 181 467. Subordinate : 205
395. Adverbs 182 468. In Substantive Clauses 206
399. Particles 184 470. In Adjective Clauses 207
Verbs. 471. In Adverbial Clauses 207
Uses of the Verb Forms. 478. Conjunctions omitted 208
401. Agreement 185 482. Principal Rules of Syntax . .. 209

arrangement.
483. General Laws 214 493. Adverbial Combinations 219
484. Predicative Combinations 214 Clauses :

487. Attributive Combinations 216 495. Co-ordinate 220

491. Objective Combinations 218 495. Subordinate 220

PART IV.
PROSODY.
496. 222 503. Alliteration 223
Rhythm
498. Feet 222 509. Common Narrative Verse 225
499. Verse 222 511. Riming Verses 226
501. Caesura 223 512. Long Narrative Verse 227
502. Rime 223 514. Alliterative Prose 228

Indexes of Words and Subjects 229

 ANGLO-SAXON TEXTS
CITED IN THIS WORK, AVITH THE LESS OBVIOUS ABBRE-
VIATIONS.

Adrianus and Ritheus, Ettmiiller, 30. Domes dxg, Grein, i., 195=The Day of Judg-
jEdeUrirht, jEdelred, jEdelstdn, Alfred, LL., ment, Ex. 445.
Laws in Schmid. Durham Book. See Xorthumbrian.
JEdeUt&n, Alfred, verses about, Grein, i.,

352, 35T. Eddfjdr,Eddmund, Eddwine, LL. Laws in

jElfric, Grammar, in Somner's Dictionary. Schmid.
jElfric, Colloquy, in Ttiorpe's Analecta. Eddgdr, Eddmund, Poems, Grein, i., 355.
Alniosen, Grein, ii.,350=;Religious Poem, Ex. Ecnbert, Confessionale et Poenitentiale, in
46T. Laws of England. B. Thorpe, for the Rec-
Analecta Aiigh-Saxmiica. B.Thorpe. Lon- ord Commission, 1840.
don, 1S46. Elene, Grein, ii., 105 Vera, ii., 1.
;

Andreds, Grein, ii., 9 Verc, i., 1.

; Ettmiiller, Ang.-Sax. poetse atque scriptorea
Apollonms of Tyre. B. Thorpe. London, prosaici. Quedl. et Lipsise, 1850.
1834. Ex.=iCodex Exoniensis, page and line.
Azarias, Grein, i., 115 ; Ex. 1S5. Exod,::=Exodus, Thwaites.

St. B.= St, Basil, Hexamerou. Kev. H. W. Feeder Idrcpidds, Grein, ii., 347=A Father's
Norman. London, 1S49. Instruction, Ex. 300.
Bid. = Beda, Ilistoriae ecclesiast. Anglorum. Fata Apostolorum, Grein, ii., 7 Verc, ii., 94. ;

Smith. Cantab., 1T22. De Fide Catholica, Thorpe's Analecta, 03 ;

Bid. ^= Beda, Historic ecclesiast. Anglorum. Horn., i., 274.

Whelocus. Cantab., 1644. Pinnsburg Ueberfall in, Grein, i., 341.
B.=-Beovmlf, Grein, i., 255.
JSo«f.=Boe</«'M.sdeConsolationePhilosophiae. Genesii, Thwaites.
Cardale. London, 1829. JWet. =;Metra in Gnomici versus, Grein, ii., 339, 346.
Grein. Grein, Bibliothek der angelsiichsischen poc-
BotHchaft des Gemahls, GveiD,i., 246 Frag- = sie in kritisch bearbeiteten Texten und mit
ments, Ex. 472-475. vollstiindigem Glossar herausgegeben von
Bijrhtnoth, Grein, i., 343. C. W. M. Grein, Dr. Phil. Cassel and Goet-
tingcn, 1857-1864.
C.=Caed7non. One figure denotes the line in Graff, E. G., Althochdeutscher Sprachschatz,
Grein two, the page and line in Thorpe.
; etymol. und grammatisch bearbeitet. Ber-
London, 1832. lin, 1834+.
Ch.=Chaucer. Wright. Percy Society. Lon- St. Gregorius, Thorpe's Analecta, 44 ; Horn.,
don, 1847. ii., 116.
Ckrint (Cynewulf's), Grein, 149 = To Jesus Gnd.=GMl&c, Grein, ii., 71=The Legend of
Christ, Ex. 1-103. St. Guthlac, Ex. 104, 107.
CAr. = Chronicle, Anglo-Saxon. B. Thorpe. Sf. G.=Life of Guthlac. Goodwin. London,
London, 1S61. 1848.
Cnut, LL. Laws in Schmid.
Codex Diplomatieim An^i.-Hax. J. M. Kem- neptateuch, Thwaites.
ble, for the English Historical Society. C Uickcs, Ling.Vett. Septentrionalium Thesau-
vols. Loudini, 1839-1848. rus. Oxon., 1703-1705.
Codex Exoniensia. B. Thorpe, for the Society Hlodare, LL. Laws in Schmid.
of Antiquaries of London. London, 1842. Hollenfahrt, Chri.tti, Grein, i., 191=The Har-
Codex Vercellensis. J. M. Kemble, for the ^El- rowing of Hell, Ex. 4.'>9.
fric Society. London, 1843-56. JJom.=Homilies of .^Elfric. B. Thorpe, for
Colloquium. JEUric, in Thorpe's Analecta. the .(Elfric Society. London, 1844.
Crseftds 7nanj!(J, Grein, i., 204 On the En- = Hymns, Grein, ii., 280.
dowments and Pursuits of men, Ex. 293.
C&dhert, Thorpe's Analecta, .Vi Hom., ii., ; Ine, LL. Laws in Schmid.
132.
Cyrus, Thorpe's Analecta, 88 ; Oros., ii., 4, 5. i/o6,Thwaites; Horn., ii., 446.
John, Thiu'pe or Northumbrian.
Daniel, Grein, i., 94. Josue, Thwaites.
Deiirs Klape, Grein, i., 249=Dcor the Scald's Judith, Grein, i., 120 Thwaites ; ; Thorpe's
Complaint, Ex. 377. Analecta, 141 ; il^ttmiillcr, 140.
Deuteronomy, Thwaites. Juliana, Grein, ii., 62 ;
Ex. 242.
 Klaije dcr Fmu, Grcin, i., 245=Thc Exile's R. (?.=Robcrt of Gloucester. Th. Heamc.
Complaint, Ex. 441. London, 1810.
Klipstein, L. F., Analecta Ang.-Sax. 2 vols. liebhuhn, Grein, i., 237 =A Fragment, Ex.
New York, 1S66. 365.
Kveia, Das heiligc, Grein, ii., 14.3:=The Holy Reimlied, Grein, ii., 137=Riming Poem, Ex.
Kood.Verc, ii., 815. 352.
Riehthofen, K. von., Altfriesisches Wijrter-
Layamon, Brut Madden. 3 vols. London, buch. Goettiugeu, 1840.
1S47. Riddles =z liaetsel, Grein, ii., 369; Ex.470,
LL.z=Laws in Sclnnui, q. v., or Thorpe. An- etc.
cient Laws and Institutes of England, etc. uud angelsiichsisches Lesebuch.
Rierjer, Alt-
2 vols. For the Kecord Commission, 1840. Giesseu, 1861.
Lcechdoms, etc. Rev. O. Cockayne. 3 vols. Ruine, Grein, i., 248=The Ruin, Ex. 476.
London, 1864-66. Runenlied, Grein, ii., 351.
Bi mannii Im.^e, Grein, ii., 142=:A Fragment,
moral and religious, Verc, ii., 79. Salomon und Saturn, Grein, ii, 354; J. M.
Leo, H., Alt- una Angelsiichsische Sprach- Kemble, for the iElfric Society. London,
proben. Halle, 1838. 1848.
Luc=Lc.=Luke. Thorpe or Northumbrian. Satan (Crist und Satan), Grein, i., 129.
Schmui, Die Gesetze der Augelsachseu. Leip-
Mrc. =Marc. Thorpe or Northumbrian. zig, 1858.
Matthew. Thorpe, North., or Kemble. Cam- Screadunga Ang.-Sax., K. G. Bouterwek. El-
bridge, 1S5S. berfeldte, 185S.
llenologium, Grein, ii., 1, or Hickes. Seafarer (Seefahrer), Grein, i., 241, Ex. 306.
J/cf.=Alfred's Meters of Boethius, Grein, Ii., Seelen, Reden der, Grein, i., 198=:A departed
295. Soul's address to the Body, Ex. 367.
3[6d mannd, Grein, i., 210=Monitory Poem, Somner, Dictionarium Sax.-Lat.-Angl. Ac-
Ex. 313. cesserunt jElfriei abbatis grammatica Lat.-
Sax. Oxonii, 1659.
Seat, St., Life of, in the Hist, and Antiq. of St. B.—St. Basil. See Basil.
Eynesbury and St. Neot's. G. C. Gorham, St. G. See Guthldc.
London, 1820.
j^'icodevnis, Gospel of, Thwaites's Hepta- Thorpe, B., The Anglo-Saxon version of the
teuch. Holy Gospels. London, 1842. See also
Northumbrian Gospels. C. G. Bouterwek. Analecta and LL.
Gutersloh, 185T. Surtees, 1854-1863. Thwaites, Edw., Heptateuchus, Liber Job, et
Numbers, Thwaites. evangelium Nicodemi, Historiaj Juditli
fragmentum. Oxonias, 1698.
Orm.^Ormulum, K. M. White. 2 vols. Ox- Traveler's Song—V Idsid— The Scop's Tale,
ford, 1852. Grein, i., 251, Ex. 318.
Oros.=^0rosiiis, Bosworlh. London, 1859.
Vercellensis Codex. See Codex Verc.
Panther, Grein, 1., 233 Ex. 355. ;

Pharao, Grein, ii., 350=A Fragment, Ex. 468. Mannii pyrde, Grein, i., 207=On the various
Phoenix, Grein, i., 215; Ex. 19T. Fortunes of Men, Ex. 327.
Psalms, Grein, ii., 147.
Thorpe. Oxonii, 1835. Walfisch, Grein, i., 235-Wbale, Ex. 360.
Spelman. Londini, 1640. Wanderer, Grein, i., 2ob Ex. 286.;

Surtees Society. London, 1843-44. ir;d= Vidsid. See Traveler's Song.

P. T. S.=Popular Treatises of Science. T. Wuivier der Kchr'ipfung, Grein, i., 213 = The
Wright. London, 1841. Wonders of the Creation, Ex. 346.

V prefixed, marks a root — prefixed, marks a suffix;

; -suffixed, marks a prefix or stem;
-(- suffixed to the number of a page or section means and the following, elsewhere -\- means
< or > placed between two words when one is derived from the other,
torji'ther icith; is
the angle pointing to the derived word < may be read .from, > tohence; = means equiv-
:

alent tn; means akin to;

: over words indicates that they are to be treated in some
re-
spect as one.

LANGUAGES OFTENEST MENTIONED. See page 3.

yl
.-.?.=Anglo-Saxon. Irish. O. A'.=01d Norse.
Celtic. Italian. O. S.=01d Saxon.
Danish. /:,.=Low. P. /S'.=Parent Speech.
Dutch. Latin. Romaic.
English. Lettic. Romanic.
French. Lithuanic. Sanskrit.
Friesic. >f.=Middle. Saxon.
German. Norman. Scandinavian.
Gothic. Norse. Semi-Saxon.
Greek. 0.=01d. Slavonic.
//.—High. O. Fri^s.=0]d Friesic. Swedish.
Indo-European. 0. H. G.=01d High German. Welsh.
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Compendium der ver-
Cassel and Giittingen, 1S62. gleichendeu Grammatik der Indo-Germaii-
Grimm, ^.—Deutsche Grammatik. Gottin- ischen Sprachen. Weimar, 1802; 2d ed.,
gen, 1819-1840. 1806.
—
Grimm, ^A— Gesch. der deutschen Sprache, Schmeller,J. A. Heliand odcr die altsiichs-
Leipzig, 1853. ische Evangelien-Harnionie. Mit Worter-
Guent, ^.—English Rhythms. Lond., 1838. buch und Grammatik. Mon., Stuttg., et
—
Uadley, J. A Greek Grammar for Schools Tubinga;,1840.
and Colleges. New York, 1864. Schubert, //.— A.-S. Arte Met. Berlin, 1S70.
Uadley, J.— A brief History of the English Somner. See Anglo-Saxon Texts.
Language, in Webster's Dictionary, edition Whitney, ]V. Z>.— Language and the Study of
of 1S65. Language. New York, 1867.
JIaldeman, S. S. — Analytic —
Orthography. Wilson, 11. H. Sanskrit Grammar for early
Philadelphia, 1860. Students. Lo-;don, 1841.
 INTRODUCTION.

1, During tho fifth and sixth centuries, England was conquer-

ed and peopled by pagans (Saxons, Angles, Jutes, etc.) from the

shores of the North Sea the center of emigration was near the
;

mouth of the Elbe. The conquerors spoke many dialects, but

most of them were Low German. Missionaries were sent from
Rome (A.D. 59V) to convert thcra to Christianity. The Roman
alphabetic Avriting was thus introduced, and, under the influence
of learned native ecclesiastics, a single tongue gradually came into
use as a literary language through the whole natiou. The chief
seat of learning down to the middle of the eighth century was
amonor the Amiles of Korthumberland. The lanc-uage was lona;
called Englisc (English), but is now called Anglo-Saxon. Its Au-

gustan ago was the reign of Alfred the Great, king of the West
Saxons (A-D. 871-901). ^It continued to be written till the col-
loquial dialects, through the influence
of the Anglo-iSTorman, had

diverged so far from it as to make it unintelligible to the people ;

then, under the cultivation of the "Wycliflate translators of the Bi-

ble, and of Chaucer and his fellows, there grcAV out of these dia-
lects a —
new classic language the English.'
2, The spelling in the manuscripts is irregular, but the North-
umbrian is the only well-marked dialect of the Anglo-Saxon, as
old as its classic (10th century), which has yet been ex-
period
plored. The Gospels and some other works have been printed in
it. The common Anglo-Saxon is sometimes called West-Saxon.
3. After the period of pure Anglo-Saxon, there Avas Avritten an
irregular dialect called Semi-Saxon. It has few strange Avords,

but the inflections and syntax are broken up (12th century).

4. The former inhabitants of Britain Avere Celts, so unlike the

invaders in race and speech, and so despised and hated, that they
did not mix. There are in the Anglo-Saxon a handful of Celtic
common names, and a good many geographical names the rela- :

tion of the Celtic language to tlie Anglo-Saxon>is like that of llio

lanfun^-os of the aborigines of America to our present English.
A
2 INTRODUCTION.

5. The Anglo-Saxon Avas shaped to litevavy \ise by men wlio

wrote and spoke Latin, and thought it an ideal language and a ;

large jjart of the literature is translated or imitated from Latin

authors. It is not to be doubted, therefore, that the Latin exer-
cised a great influence on the Anglo-Saxon if it did not lead to
:

tliointroduction of wholly new forms, either of etymology or

syntax, it led to the extended and imiform use of those forms
which arc like the Latin, and to the disuse of others, so as to
draw the grammars near each otlier. There arc a considerable
number of words from the Latin, mostly conuected with the
Cliurcli three or four through the Celts from the elder Romans.
;

G, There arc many words in Anglo-Saxon more like the words

of the same sense ia Scandinavian than like any w*ords which we

fmd in the Germanic languages but the remains of the early dia-
;

lects arc so scant that it is hard to tell how far such words were
borrowed from or modified by the Scandinavians. Before A.D.
900 many Danes had settled in England. Danish kings afterward
ruled it (A.D. 1013-1042). Their laws, however, arc in Anglo-
Saxon. The Danes were illiterate, and learned the Anglo-Saxon.
Of course their pronunciation was peculiar, and they quickened
and modified phonetic decay. It is probable that they affected
the spoken dialects which have come up as English more than the
Avritten literary language which Ave call Anglo-Saxon.
7. The other languages sprung from the dialects of Low Ger-

man tribes are Friesic, Old Saxon, and, later, Dutch (and Flem-
ish), and Piatt Deutsch. The talk in the harbors of Antwerj),
Bremen, and Hamburg is said to be often mistaken by English
sailors for corrupt English. These Low, German languages arc
akin to the High German on one side, and to the Scandina-
vian on the other. These all, with the Moeso-Gothic, constitute
the Teutonic class of languages. This stands parallel with the
Lithuanic, the Slavonic, and the Celtic, and Avith the Italic, the
Hellenic, the Iranic, and the Indie, all of Avhich belong to
the

Indo-European family of languages. The parent speech of this

is lost, and has left no literary monuments. Its seat has

family
been supposed to have been on the heights of Central Asia. The
at the head
Sanskrit, an ancient language of India, takes its place
of the flimily. Theoretical roots and forms of inflection are given
as those of the Parent on the ground
by grammarians S]:)eech,
that they are such as might have produced the surviving roots
and forms by knoAvn laws of change.
 INTRODUCTION.

8. The following stem shows the order in which these classes

branched, aud their relative age and remoteness from each other.
At the right is given the approximate date of the oldest literary
remains. The lanQ;ua2;es earlier than these remains are made out
like the Parent Speech ;
that is,
roots and forms are taken for the

language at which
each period,
will give the roots and forms of
all the
languages which branch
from it, but not those peculiar to
the other Ian2;ua2;es.

A. Indo-European. Parent Speech.

1. Indie. B.C. 1500. Sanskrit Vedas.
2. Iranic. B.C. 1000. Bactrian Avesta.
o
O. Hellenic. Before B.C. 800. Greek.
4. Italic. B.C. 200. Latin.
Teutonic. 4th Century. JIoeso-Gothic
Bible.
G. Celtic. 8th Century.
7. Slavonic. Dth Century. Bulgarian
Bible.
8. Lithuanic. IGth Century.

9. The following stem shows the manner in which the lan-

guages of the Teutonic class branch after separating from the

Slavonic. The Gothic (Moeso-Gothic) died without issue the ;

Low German is nearer akin to it than the High German is. The
branches of the Scandinavian (Swedish,
L k. Danish, Norwegian) are not represented.

A. Teutonic. Theoretic.
a. Gothic. 4th Century.
/). Germanic. Theoretic.
r. Scandinavian. 13th Century.
d. High German. 8th Century.
e. Low German. Theoretic.
f. Friesic. 14th Century.
fj. Saxon. Tlieoretic.
k. Anglo-Saxon. 8th Century.
i. Old Saxon. 9th Century.
/.-. Piatt Deutsch. Uth Century.
/, Dutch. 13th Ccntuiy.
 PAET I.

PHONOLOGY.

10. Alphabet.
— The Anglo-Saxon alphabet has twenty-four
letters. All but three are Roman characters: the variations from
the common form are cacographic fancies. P \> (lliorn), and pP
(wen), are runes. D
d (edh) is a crossed d, used for the older J),
oftcnest in the middle and at the end of words.

Old Foniif.
 SOUNDS OF LETTERS. 5

11. Abbreviations.
—The
~
most common ave ^ = and, fj =])oet
(that), X
= oitcte (or), and for an omitted m or n ; as, l;)a=]iam.
12. An Accent (-^) is found in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts,
.but innone so regularly used as to make it an objective part of
an Anglo-Saxon text. It is found oftenest over a long vowel ;

sometimes over a vowel of peculiar sound, not long seldom, ex- ;

cept over syllables having stress of voice. Sometimes it

seems to
mark nothing but stress. JVIost of the English editors represent
it by an acute accent the Germans generally print Anglo-Saxon
;

with a circumflex over all single long vowels in the stem of

words, and an acute over the diphthongs, as bruder, freond. In
tl\is book, to guide the studies of beginners, a circumflex is
nsed
over long vowels and diphthongs, and the acute accent (') over
all

vow^els only to denote stress. For accented consonants, see § 19.

13. Punctuation. —
The Anglo-Saxons used one dot (.) at
the end of each clause, or each hemistich of a poem, and some-
times tliree dots ( :• ) at the end of a sentence. Modern point-
inji is Gfcncrallv used in lu'inted text.

14. Sounds of Letters. — Voicels:

a like
Q PHONOLOGY.— CLASSES OF VOWELS.

15. Accent. —The primary accent in pronuncialiou is on the

first syUablc of every Avord :
brod'-cr, brother ; un'-ctld, uncouth.
The first syllable is mostly the root, or a prefix defining it but prefixes :

of verbs and particles are relational. See ^ 41, 4.

Proof of accent comes from alliteration, rhyme, the mark (^ 12), progres-
sion, and other phonetic changes.

Exception 1. Proper prefixes in verbs and particles take no primary accent;

sucli are &, an, and, a't, be, bi, cd, for, ful, ge, geond, in, mis, oil, of, ofer, on,
or, to, |nirh, un, under, pid, pider, ymb, ymbe an-gin'nan, begin; aet-gad'ere,
:

together; on-gean', again. So some parasyntheta onsseg'ednes, sacn^cc. ;

But parasyntheta from nouns, pronouns, or adjectives, retain their ac-

(a.)
cent: and'-sparian< and'sparu, answer; in'-peardlice< in'-peard, adj., I'n-
ward; ed'nipian< ed'nipe, renewed. Such are all verbs in and-, ed-, or-,
found in Anglo-Saxon poetry ; many adverbs in tai-, etc.

(i.) Many editors print as compounds adverbs + verbs, both of which re-
tain their accent. Such are those with aefter, bi, big, efen, eft, fore, ford,
from, fram, hider, mid, nider, gegn, geS,n, gen, to, up, iit,pel.
Exception 2. The inseparable prefixes S-, be- (bi-), for-, ge-, are unaccent-
ed :
a-lys'-ing, redemption ; be-gang', course. (Parasyntheta from verbs.)
A secondary accent
may on the tone syllable of the lighter
fall

part of a compound or on a suffix: o'-fer-cum^-an, overcome ; heof-

on-steor'-ra, star of heaveyi ,' h'^r' end' e^hevn-'mg ;
leas' ttng',]y'mg.

16. Phonology. — Classes of Vowels.

Peimart Vowels: — a (guttural), i
(palatal), u (labial).
SiiOET Vowels :— a, re, e, i, o, u, y. {Open., a, ce, e, o ; close., i, u, y.)

Long Vowels — :
a, ^, e, i, 0, il, }'•

Diphthongs — ea :
(ia), eo (io), io. {Dialectic, ai, ei, en, oe, 6e, oi.)
Breakings: — {g-sc-row), ea (ia), eo (io), ie, ea (ia), eo (io), ie.

{h-l-r-roio),
ea (ia)< a, eo (io)< i, ie.
a-umlaut. i-iimlaut. u-unilaut.

Umlaut: — from i, u, n, u, ca, eo, a, o, u, ea, eo, n, i,

to e, o. e, y, y, y, a', e, y, t, f. (o)ea, eo.

Pjrogeession— Precession — :

Descending. 1st term.

a-series: — e
Ascending.

— e
u-series — e o
u
i-series:
:
i, a,
i
u
a?, o

eo,
la
a, ^e, c

xl
6

ca

Contraction: — from ca+a, a-j-a, ca-fu, co-fa, eo-fe, co-|-u,

{Reduplication, to o, a, ca, eo, c6, c6,
^52.) fj.Q,^^ j_l_j^^ u-fa, n-fa, u-f-i, u + o, u-j-6,
to eu, o, o, u, o, 6.
 CLASSES OF CONSONANTS.

Summary of Phonetic Groups.

A-Gkoup.
Weaker. Stronger.
8 IS, Indo-European Voicel System.
1
•

n ai au
Parent Speech A
1 ai uu
A A
i u e o
Sanskrit. . . .
i ai an
< V «t, ft, 01 OU, £U, OV
Hellenic. . . .
V au, jju

ai, SQ ) au, 6 )

Italic
"i ci, i, e J

i II oi, oe, H tl

i, ai u, an ci ill
Gothic. ....-< ai, au )
A A
/
{ t',
O ei ai au
\ For short vowels, see Summary of Phonetic Groups, p. 7,
Ancrlo-Saxon For long vowels, see next table.
(

Teutonic Long 'Votoels. [Short voicels unsJdfted.)

Gothic u ai aa ei in, il?
Old Saxon ... a u e 6 i iu, ie, 11
-n A
e
A
o
AAa A
a
A *_J^
rriesic e, i la, tl
Anglo-Saxox . ffi o a cti i eo, }% ^
English ee oo u, oa ca i ee, ou
Old Norse ... a u ei au i io, \', \L

Old II. German a no 6, ei 6, ou i iu, io, tl

German a u e, ei o, au ei eu, ie, au

Indo-European Consonant System

19.

Parent Speech g gh t d dh k p h bh
Sanskrit k, kh, k', 9 g, g' gh, h
. t, th d dh p, ph 1) bh
Hellenic c 7. .
x .T . C S^ TT ft (j)

Italic c, q g h(g) t d d(f, b) ]) b f(b)

Goth. & A.-S. h(g) k(c) g l5(d), d t d f 1) 1)

O. II. German h(g) k(ch) g(k) d z t f(v, b) f b(p).

P. Speech n n ra r 1 V
Sanskrit .
ri, ii n, n m r 1
j s, sh=s'(s')
Hellenic .
7 r A' P X /
Italic . . . n n m r 1
J
V
G.&A.-S. n(g) n ni r 1 1, J-
'^
s(z),
r U, V, p
lO.II.G. u . n ni V 1
s(r) w
Grimni's Lav\
From Parent Speech to Anglo-Saxon, or from Anglo-Saxon to Old H.
1.

Gei~man,or from Old H. German to Parent Speech. Change each smooth

—
mute to its rough, rough to middle, middle to smooth.
2. From Anglo-Saxon io Parent Speech, or from Parent Speech to Old
H. German, or from Old H. German to Anglo-Saxon. — Change each
smooth mute to its middle, middle to rough, rough to smooth.
 CHANGES OP SOUND. 9

20. Changes of Sound.

I. Variation exchange of one sound with another,
:

Evphonic: through the influence of other sounds

1. in

the same word or phrase :

fa)'
^ ^
Qualitative through influence of the kind of
: .

, ^ „ , .
, ^ ( Assimilation.
sound which follows or precedes. .'{
. . .
.

^ Dissimilation.
, s ^. ^ ^1. /I T c 1
•

(rj) Ciiange
of vowel through influence ot z,

w, or a in the following syllable . . . Umlaut.

(6) Change of vowel through influence of con-
sonants Breaking.
(c) Change of consonant through influence
of z, y Assibilation.
influence
(J) Cliangc of consonant through
of other consonants,

(b) Quantitative through the : weight of sound

which follows or precedes Compensation.
(a) Change of quantity or quality.

(h) Change of accent.

2. Accentual: through influence of accent Gravitation.
in a certain
(a) Strengtliening accented syllables
way Progression.
(b) Weakening unaccented syllables Precession.
Here also may be placed as appendix.
Changes in root vowels which, in the Teutonic

languages, have come to distinguish tenses of

the verb Ablaut.

3. Mimetic: through influence of other like words:

(a) Conforming to other words, in declension, con-

jugation, etc Conformation.

(b) Simulating etymological relations Simulation.
(c) Sundering, bifurcation, dimorphism.
4. uninfluenced by other sounds in the
Etymologic
same language ..... LmUverscMehing. Shifting.

II. Figuration: change of form without change of sense, by dropping, add-

ing, or changing the order of sounds.

1. Dropping- Apothesis.
(a) Beginning a word Aphaeresis.
(b) Ending Apocope.
(c) Witiiin :

(rt) Vowel before a vovrel Elision.

{Ji) Vowel before a consonant Syncope.
(c) Consonant or syllable Ecthlipsis.
2. Adding: Prosthesis.
(a) Beginning a word
Prothesic.
(b) Ending I'anujofjc. Epithesis.
(c) Within Epenthesis.
.",.
C/tin/ging I lie urdtr of letters Metathesis.
10 LAWS OF LETTER CHANGE.
IIL Contraction: drawing together vowel sounds to avoid the hiatus,

1. Complete:
(a) Witliin a word Synaeresis.
(b) Between words Crasis.
2. Iiico»ij)lctc: a partial rhythmic union, so that the two
vowels sen'e as one syllable in poetry :

(a) Witliin a word Synizesis.

(b) Between words Syualcepha.

Z,aws of Letter Change.

1. A vowel may assimilate a vowel by "umlaut. § 32.
2. A vowel may change to its
breaking before I, r, h, or p,
m, f, and after c (sc), f/,
or j). § 33.
3. Between two vowels a surd may change to a sonant or a
mute to a continuous. § 35, 3,
4. If a surd follows a sonant, gemination of the surd is

producecl. § 35, A.
5. If a surd precedes a sonant, the sonant is changed to a
surd of the same organ. § 35, Jj.
G. A mute before another consonant may change to a con-
tinuous of the same organ. § 35, 4, h.
7. Before n a surd or m^ite may change to its cognate nasal.
§ 35, 4, c.

8. A vowel may change to a consonant of the same organ

to avoid the hiatus. § 36.
9. Between two vowels a continuous
may change to a
mute. § 36, 2.
10. One of two contiguous mutes may change to a continu-
ous, one of two continuous to a mute. § 36, 3, 4,
11. A consonant may be dropped and the preceding vowel
lengthened by compensation. § 37.
12. A vowel
may be dropped and the preceding consonant
doubled by
compensation. § 37, 2.
13. Gemination, when final or next to a consonant, is simpli-
fied or dissimilated. § 27, 5.
14. Apothesis found of a syllable of inflection, and of an
is

unaccented stem vowel final before a vowel before /, ??,

; ;

f?, ct, St; c, //, ?», 7?, and other consonants. § 44-46.
0'

15. Ecthlipsis is found of d, ct, s, st, before st; of n before d,

/, s ; of c7, r/, /», /, p, mostly between vowels or before a
liquid. § 47.
 VOICE— SHORT VOWELS. H
Epithesis, epenthesis, aud metathesis
16. are used foi-

euphony. § 49-61.
17. Synaeresis may occur after ccthli2)sis of ^ or /i,
or the

change of to u. § 52. p

21. Every is an ideal

classic the folks at home do not
speech ;

speak it. We have

no direct description of the pronunciation of
with
Anglo-Saxon but we have Greek text Avritteu phonetically
;

and know that they

Anglo-Saxon characters (Hickes, Pref., xii.-f ),
were sounded nearly like the corresponding letters in the Latin
of the missionaries. These characters represent only the most
There must have
striking varieties of sound, and those vaguely.
been very great diversity in the folkspeech. The view given in
to a practical manual.
^ 14 general or ideal, as seems suited
is

An examination of the laws of the language, and its relations to

other languages, Avill suggest further remarks.
22. Voice.—Breath made sonant by vibrations of the vocal
is

chords —ligaments which may be stretched across the wind-pipe.

The quality of a vowel depends on the general shape of the cav-
column of air. For a, the tongue lies
ity containing the vibrating
flat ; for i, Ave breathe or blow into a narrow-necked bottle ;
for

U, into a bottle without a neck.

23. Short Vowels. —The simple vowels are «, i, u. Pure a
may be gradually changed to i, if the tongue be slowly raised to-
ward the palate ;
to i«, if the lips be slowly closed. Between a
and ^ are a?, e; between a and it, is o; between i and w is y.
The vowel sounds shade into each other like colors.
In any word or stem the same short vowel is found in all the
Teutonic tongues, and any changes are explained by umlaut,
the language.
breaking, or other phonetic laws working within
a, ee.
—
In Anglo-Saxon a is found before a single consonant
followed by a, o, u, e<a/ before m, «, and in some foreign words.
Before m, n, it also suffers assimilation to o: man'^mon; before
a consonant combination beginning with I, r, A, it breaks to ea :
aealm, psalm before a syllable containing i or e
; ^, i-umlaut <
changes it to e: liladan hle{de)st, to load; u-umlaut changes it
to ea : bealii^ bale ;
in other situations, words having a in other

languages show a regular shifting of « to m ; thus, in monosyl-

lables ending in a single consonant: ^a?e, back; in polysyllables
before a single consonant followed by c: bwcere, baker; before
12 LONG VOWELS.

consonant combinations, especially those beginning -with or 8 : f

crix'fl, craft. In the folkspeech the sound of « must liave varied

through the shades of sound from a in father nearly to a m fiat

on the one side, and to o in hot on the otlicr. Accented d often
changes in English to the sound of a in name, through progres-
sion, i-umlaut, or shifting viacian mdken > make.
:
>
e. — This is i-umlaut of «; temia^i, iMnc ; a-umlaut of ^ Jielp- .•

rtn<root MI}), help; or a light toneless sound which may be the

ghost of any sound out of which the blood has ebbed through
gravitation gife, Gothic gibos, gibdi, giba, gift.
: The same word
is sometimes written with le and e, or ea and e: dseg^ cleg, day;

seaJi, sch, saw. In the folkspeech the sounds varied from nearly
a drawling dci (as in ddrth, earth), through e in met, to the light
sound of German final e, French mute e.
i.
—Tliis simple sound holds its ground well but a-umlaut ;

sometimes changes it to e : p(fect, weaves, pi. pefad; u-umlaut

and breaking both change it to eo : Urn, limb, pi. leonm ; feohte,
fight. It exchanges in Avriting with y, and sometimes with ea:

miht, myJit, meaJit, might. Perhaps an .a-element was in some

Avords creeping in, as in English long i (=a+z), cniht, Northum-
brian cnaiht, knight.
O. —
This is ti'eated as u-umlaut of a, or a-umlaut of n, or an
assimilation of a by in or n : roclor, Old Saxon raclur, heaven ;

curon, coren<icora7i, chose, chosen; comb, comb. In folkspeech

it varied from o in not to nearly u in fall.

U, y.
—Like -i,
u holds its ground. It changes in writing with
o on one side, and and probably varied in folk-
y on the other ;

speech from xt in nut to nearly the French %i. y is i-umlaut of u

and ea, sometimes u-umlaut of i, exchanging with eo. It was a
favorite letter with the jjenmen, and is often found for /, and
sometimes for e, w : cyni?ig, king; eald, ylclest, old, oldest;
ceorl > cyrlisc, churlish ; lyden, leclen, Latin ; gyst-sele, gvest-sele,

guest-hall.
24. Long" —
Vowels. Two like short vowels uttered as one
sound make a long vowel: aa=:u, ii = i, uui=ti.
Long vowels are produced by compensation, progression, and
contraction.

A long sound is, however, different in quality as well as quantity from

its short. The anticipation of the double utterance affects the position of
the organs. A given long vowel may, in fact, arise from the coming togetli-
er of unlike vowels: tiuCjiuv from npuoitiv; nor do two like vowels alwa3's
 LONG VOWELS. 13

give their long Greek :

te
give n, oo give ov. The Anglo-Saxon long vow-
els vary in kind (quality) from their short a prolonged is not exactly a, nor
;

e prolonged exactly e. We
give the long mark, therefore, whenever the
the vowel may be unaccent-
quality of sound is that of the long letter, though
ed, and the sound obscure.

is found in accent (§ 12) and gemination in the

Proof of length
manuscripts presumptive evidence is also found in the origin
;

and relations of vowels, and the analogy of other languages.

That a letter is not accented is no proof that it is not long ;
but when one
is abundantly marked in good manuscripts, it must be held long. The pro-
nouns me, J)e, he are abundantly marked, and therefore we give them as
long, though analogy is perhaps against it. These words, however alliterate
in poetry, fall in with a general law as to accented open syllables which has
a plain physiological basis, and the corresponding words are long in English,
and were long in Latin.

Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long, except enclitics and

proclitics, which
are really affixes or prefixes to other words.
a corresponds in part to Gothic ^, in part to Gothic di, and
has oftenest passed into English 6 : Gothic hdim-, Anglo-Saxon
ham, home, Gemi. helm; in pa, a, etc., it is progression of a. It
varied through d in far, toall, Ger. mahnen, nearly to 6 in hoine.
2b corresponds to the same Gothic letters as d, but comes into

English with the sonud oi ee : Gothic sdi-, Anglo-Saxon sie, sea,

German see. It is i-umlaut of d, and simple shifting also, whicli
may be stopped by a following m, n: hdte, hvbt{e)st, hivt{e(i), call,
callest, calleth.
e is i-umlaut of 6: f6t,fet{e), foot, feet; simple shifting of
edyto-: heran, hear. It springs also from contraction of old re-

duplications, from lengthening of open monosyllables me, me : ;

/i^, he; J)^, thee; and

from compensation: peii<ipcgn, thane:
fj^<.fjer, ye; pe<^pec, thee; and other
here also such
perhaps
pronouns. It likes in or n after it, and in such cases may stand

for an original a or A. It varied in folkspeech from nearly e in

there to ey in they, with the final y-sound {ee) pretty plain. It

goes over to ee completely in English. (Progression.)

i corresponcls to the i of other languages. It has risen in

English under the accent to the sound of d + i (§ 38, 1) hUun,

:

bite drifan, drive.

;
It exchanges in the writing with -g, and

must have sounded much like it.

6 corresponds to Gothic 6. It springs from contraction of
three a -elements, or two «- elements and a ?<- element: fa.
i-i- Dli'IlTliONGS.— NOKTIIUMBKIAN VOWELS.

hmi^/o/i, catch; gefcohan^gefeon^ \'c']o\cc', from progression:

mona, Old IT. German 'mCtno, moon sona. Mid. II. German sun, ;

soon. It liad the sound of o in t07ie, with a tendency in a labial

direction, Avhich has brought it to English oo. § 08, 1.

U corresponds to 'd in other dialects. It is often strengthened
from i( under the accent: 7>?1, thou; w^, now sometimes springs ;

from compensation onild, Gothic mtwps, mouth. It changes in

:

English under the accent to ou : hiis, house. (Progression.)

y is i-umlaut of of co, and ofeil: nms, mi)s{e), mouse, mice;
•?"?,

< root ledg^ lie < root hear, hear. § 38, 1.

lijge
25, Diphthongs.
;

—hf/r{i)an
Two unlike vowels heard in one syllable
make a diphthong. The forms ca (la), eo (io), ie, are generally
called breakings ; ed, id, eo, io, ie, are often true diphthongs, and
then they differ etymologically from breakings. For Breakings,
sec § 33.
ea, ia. = Gothic dii > a'* > ht > ed. It is found in many po-*'
sitions: final; before r, li, m, n, p fred, lord; tedr, tear; hedh,
:

high ; dream, dream ; ledn, loan ; bredp, brow. It is also found

as a <7-.sc-breaking of d
gedfon, gave scedn, shone. It is an
: ;

unstable combination, tending to d English or to e English > >

ee, as more or less of the c-sound works in. The prevailing set is,
on the whole, to e: stedp, step-cir\, steep.
ed, io = Gothic in. It is also an assimilation of i, %, by p or
I: treop, Gothic triva, tree feol. Old H. German fUa, mud ; ap- ;

parently also by Ji, g ; but in these cases a change of h, g, to p

may be supposed plhan '^ped7i, depart frig, freo, free. It is
:
;

a peculiar progression from i final (perhaps here also a labial

sound is to be added) Ijeo, Old 11. German hi, bee. It often
:

also springs from contraction, especially of the reduplication, ex-

changing with ^. It exchanges in writing with id. It is found

often for ed. It changes to iX: sxipan, sup; silcan, suck. It
must have had a peculiar sound or sounds an unstable combi- —
nation, tending to w > English ic in si(2) on the one side, and to
^> English ee on the other. The prevailing set is, on the whole,
to H. A similar sound is produced by (7-sc-breaking from 6: seed,
shoe ;
but the e is lighter,
ie isused for ed, ed.
26. Northumbrian Vowels.— a is often used where An-
glo-Saxon has ea, sometimes where it has e, i, eo, u.
SB interchanges with ea: ml, eall, all, all ;
vn for e is abundant;
e for a? frequent ; oe for e frequent. Assimilation of if^o < \oe.
 CONSONANTS. 15

icu < loi^ is found tcosa, Anglo-Saxon pesan, to be ; tcictta, Au-

:

gloSaxon pitan, to know; also id<iil: 5 ?<{/*, Anglo-Saxon siJf,

self; sulfer^ Anglo-Saxon seolfor, Gothic silubr, silver.
a is often wi'itteu aa/ it exchanges with <'ey is a i)rogression
of «, ea, before liquids. © is found written aae. e is seldom
used sometimes for eo (lautverschiebung), oft-
i-.umlaut of o, is
ener for Gothic t^, oftenest for eel.
ic, 6e is i-umlaut of 0, or
represents Anglo-Saxon ^ not umlaut.
ea interchanges Avith eo, a favorite sound which displaces
sometimes Anglo-Saxon e, i. ea interchanges Avith eo. io for
eo is frequent ;
ea for le. There are found ai for z, ei for e or
ic, eu for eop, and oi.

27. Consonants. —The stream of breath is stopped in speech

in threemain ways by contact bctAveen: the root of the tongue

and the palate (a round surface against a hollow one), the tip of
the tongue and the teeth (a sharp against a flat surface), and the
upper and lower lips (two flat surfaces). If a sonant breath be

stopped, the sonant letters, g guttural, d dental, h labial, are j^ro-

duced. If we blow instead of breathe, a slight change is made

tlu'oughout the vocal organs viz., the glottis is thrown open, the
:

chords no longer sound, and the shape which the organs take at
the places where they meet and part is varied hence the smooth, :

surd letters, c{k) guttural, t dental, ^j) labial. These are mutes.
If the breath be not wholly stopped, continuous letters, i guttu-
ral (palatal), d
and Enghsh Z dental, (English v) and 7? labial, are
made; the stream be blown, h guttui-al, /), 5, dental,/, ///>,
or, if
labial. If, when the breath is stopped, the
veil be raised Vv'hich

separates the nose from the pharynx, the resonance of the nasal
cavity gives n in ng guttural, n dental, m labial I and r are ;

trills.Each consonant stands for two sounds: viz., the closing

of the organs, c^^/ and the opening of the organs, ^;a. For a
fourth kind of stop, see Assibilation, § 34.
1. A stop of the first kind, which will pass for a g, may be made any

where from the very root of the tongue forward to the middle of the mouth.
Some nations make their g in one place, some in another. Further for-
ward it becomes impossible to stop with a humped tongue, and the tip comes
into play. This may be touched, so as to make a d, any where from the
front .(/-stop, or even further back, to the meeting of the teeth. Just where

g and d run into each other is i consonant (English ?/).

Some tribes count
gutturals and dentals as all one. The Sandwich Isla,nders have to be taught
to tell c from and possiI)ly the
if,
Roman populace may have had a similar
habit. Sec Assibilation, § 34.
10 GUTTURALS.

2. h,p, pronounced as spirants, but are, liistorically, representa-

ct,f. are
tives of c/j, til, were once pronounced as separate letters (c.
dh, ph, which
g., ch as kh in icork-housc), and hence are called rough or aspirate mutes,
a name retained in historical grammar bv their representatives. See Table,
SS
17.

3. r is described as a trill ot the uvula in the Northumberland burr, and

of the tip of the tongue in English and German ^ as a trill of the side ;

edges of the tongue No trill is heard in English in America. In r the tip

of the tongue is raised and moved slightly vviiilc the breath is poured over
It. In I the tip is raised to the dental stop, and the breath issues freely be-
tween its sides and the cheeks.
4. Gemination is the doubling of a consonant. Physiologically it arises
from an analysis of a consonant by whirli the sound made in closing the stop
is united with the foregoing vowel, and t'mt made by opening is united witii
the following vowel. Or it arises from combining two complete consonants,
i. e., shutting and opening the organs twice : bac^--/iitclien. The last is sel-

dom heard in English. Historically it springs from gravitation (^ 38) or a.s-

similation (^ 35). most common with liquids and s. A real gemination

It is

can not occur at the beginning or the end of a word, nor before a second
mute, nor is it easy after a long vowel. For the orthographic rule in Anglo-
Saxon, see ^ 20, Rule 13. Double o-is written eg, double/, bb.
5. Dissimilated Gcminaiioji. — When gemination of a nasal (nz, v) v.'oulJ
occur before / or r, the trill calls for so much breath that we drop the nasn!
veil,and that changes the latter half of m into b, of n into d. In some
other cases a continuous consonant or vowel is dissimilated for force of utter-
ance or are found
:
ss'^st, iwiiymp, nii^nt, t^ig, %i
p~^vp, ; spindcl
<Cspinl ; timber<^timr, Goth, timrjan. ^^28,36,81.

28. Gutturals {Palatals) c, g, h, i, n.

: c has given place in
English before <3, ?, y, to h (a graphic change merely) or to ch

(Assibilation, § 34).
This cJi appears in late manuscripts, and tlio
assibilation was doubtless begun in the folkspeech earlier; but
the new sound does not show in the alliteration, and should not
be given for Anglo-Saxon c. The assibilation of sc> English sA,
is excluded for similar reasons, ct^ht, § 3G ; ciycc, § 37;
cg = gg, § 37 ; 5C a;, §
51. =
g conies into English as g in go, give ; as clg in edge (Assibi-
lation, § 34) ;
as y in youth. It stands in the place of J (= En-

glish y) of other languages

in three places: (1.) Beginning the fol-
lowing Avords: gc, ye; fjeta\ gcr., year; gedra, yore; geoc, yoke;
geogud, youth ; geol, yule ; geond, yond geong, young ; ; gcsc,

yes ; gist, yeast ; git, yet. Compare Sanskrit juvan, Latin juvc-
nis, Gothic jugg, German jung, Norse <ingr, Anglo-Saxon geong,
iimg, English young.
 DENTALS. 17

"Within Avords in the place of i {=j) before a vowel in in-

(2.)
flection nerian :
tierc/aji, to save= inserted hijie h>Jige, love ;
: = ;

ge inserted eardian eardigecm,

: to till. =
(3.) Final
for i: hii hig^ they.
—
All these changes seem natural if g in these words be pronounced as the

English y. it is certain that these words were at all times often so pro-

nounced we find lung in Anglo-Saxon as well as geong, nerian as well as

:

nergan. But words like geong alliterate abundantly in Anglo-Saxon poe-

try with words beginning with g hard,
and not with other kinds of words be-
while in Norse the words beginning
ginning with io, ia, or another vowel ;

with i, J, alliterate only with vowels. It seems certain, therefore, that this
than like e or before a vowel, which was
ge sounded more like a hard g i

nearly the English g. It is better to accept the fact that a guttural breath-

ing was inserted between the vowels of lujie by those

who wrote lufige, than
to soften out the to try to simplify the phonology
g g and j run into each ;

other. Words in hard in Anglo-Saxon run into y in Old English, and re-
g
turn to g in
English forgitan, foryctcn, forget gifan, yeven, give geat,
: ; ;

1/ate, gate, etc. These are dialectical variations, but real differences of
sound. In Anglo-Saxon g had such sounds as in modern German.

h represents the guttural rough (ch) and the simple breathing.

They were both in the folkspeech originally both are now given ;

in the dialects of guttural is not, however, recog-

England. The
nized as separate in alliteration or otherwise in the literature of
the Anglo-Saxons any more than in the English, and may be omit-
ted from the literary, though not from the comparative grammar
of both. It is sounded in initial hi, /m, hr. hyg, h yp, § 35,
3 ; < ; <
A ^, § 35, 4, J ht ct, § 36, 3 ; h dropped, Apocope, § 44 ;

Ecthlipsis, § 4Y. x producing breaking = hs.

i consonant goes into g, from the most forward utterances of
which it is distinguished by being not so tight a stop. It is found

sometimes, especially in foreign proper names, alliterating with g,

and should then be pronounced like g.
n in nc, ng (Goth, Greek gg), is the English guttural nasal.
29. Dentals {Lingucds) :
t, d, J), ct, s, I, r, n. t<dd, § 3C,
5 ; < td, § 35, JB; st < sd ; < d, Assimilation, § 35.
t

d for d between two vowels seems to indicate a disinclination

to begin a syllable with d: ld<ld; dd<Cdi, ^ 31 : d and J) are
not uniformly used in any of the manuscripts; there were cer-
tainly two sounds, as in English, The uniform use of7> beginning-
words and d elsewhere is calligraphic, not orthographic. The
real yet be made out; compare §§ 194, a; 41, (3),
sounds may
English surds indicate A.-Sax, surds, unless they spring from other
B
18 LABIALS.—NORTHUMBRIAN CO>SONANTS.

dialects than those Avhicli had most influenced the' Anglo-Saxon.

Assimilation by ?, § 35 breaking by /, r, § 32.
;

r<5, § 41 ; apocope of?*, § 44; metathesis of r, § 51.

S and but see § 189, b. n, Ecthlipsis, § 47.
z undistinguished,

oO. Labials b,f\p, m. p begins only words of foreign

: ^^,

origin, b changes to /in the middle and end of words, except

nib and bb < bi. The Old Saxon, Friesic, and Norse have the
same tendency to change the middle mute labial b to the contin^
nous /"in the middle of words, i. e., not to close the mouth tight-
ly between two vowels. The Old Saxon and Friesic have both
surd and sonant continuous forms,/ and English v. This Anglo-
Saxon /"is written u {v) sometimes {/diicade, B., 1799), and it has
changed in English to v : heauoci, heafod, head ; heo/on, heaven ;
pulf, pidfds, wolf, wolves. The folkspeech had a sonant contin-
uous labial, and it may be distinguished in the weak verbs. See
§ 189, b. The runic p is like the English lo, but must have varied
in the dialects as now in England. In 'm\t'ia\ pi, pr (often
it does
parasitic), and end of words, it must have been spoken
at the
with a nearer approach to closing the mouth. Bede represents it
in Latin by vm, thS Normans by gu / the parasitic v, g plainly in-
dicate a vigorous uttei'ance. It changes to u when final and pre-
ceded by a consonant bealu, genitive becdpes, bale. Latin u and
:

11were the same letter; the present separation of them was com-
pleted only in the 18th century, w is of German origin ; it had
come into common use in Semi-Saxon. Assimilation ofp and w,
§ 35, 2 ;
mm < mi, § 37, 2.
31. Northumbrian Consonants:
(1.) Gutturals. —C
and g interchange: finger, fincer, finger;
dringes, he drinks; cc and p: getreuad getiyccad / c h, = ^
c^ch, see h. g assimilates a preceding e or e to ei: deign,
Anglo-Saxon pegii, thane weig, Anglo-Saxon peg, way in such
; ;

cases there may be ecthlipsis of g : maiden, Anglo-Saxon onveg-

den, maiden or ^ > h : fifteUi, Anglo-Saxon fiftig, fifty g <ip :
; ;

driga, Anglo-Saxon pripa, three; g and i consonant have the

same relations as in Anglo-Saxon, h. — Prothesis of A is found
in hecdd, old, etc. ;
often before / and r : hlddla, to lead ; hroue,
row; apothesis in Z((/e, Anglo-Saxon /iZcT/", loaf, etc. Ecthlipsis
between vowels the rule, and occurs elsewhere,
is c^ h and
g^ h, with a change of the h to ch, are common at the end of
words: Anglo-Saxon mec^ meh, mech, me; occasional within
words: micil, mihil, m.ichll, much. Bcda uses ct for ht.
 EUPHONIC CHANGES.— UMLAUT. 19

(2.) Dextals. — t for d is found: Jieafot^ head; apocope in

second singular of verbs :
slvcpes dx% sleepst thou. Apocope of
d is common: hselen <.hpelend, savior; assimilation of Id: ma-

iiigfallice, manifold. There is no p; d and d interchange:

dagds^ dagds, days ; Ecthlipsis of d
brodor, brodor, brother.
occurs when the pronoun thou, agglutinates with its verb:
dit,

sjjrecestu for sprecest d\i^ thou speakest.

d final changes to s:
ci(oedas<,ci(oedad,thej say. dyz: bezere, ha^tist. Liquids.
—
Apocope of n is the rule in the infinitive, and frequent elsewhere;
ecthlipsisbefore d,f, s, as in Anglo-Saxon. Metathesis of r is
more common than in
Anglo-Saxon ecthlipsis occurs in bg- ;

gen < byrgen, tomb epenthesis in efern, evening, and its com-
;

pounds. Metathesis of 1 and of n occurs, s d, see over. <

(3.)
Labials. —b suffers apocope: f?»;;?, dumb, etc. ; b<f:
feber,Anglo-Saxon fefor., fever, f >
w and ub : dioid, dioubol.,

Anglo-Saxon deofol^ devil, where u is perhaps English v. For

p are written n, nu, before n, and sometimes oe, is
lo. Initial p
left unwritten tilfz=indf,\;o\f; oeg =icoeg^ -way. Prothesis is
:

found tcoxo, ox ; and epenthesis smmder, sunder. Initial /m,

: :

su, do not contract with a following vowel, as in Anglo-Saxon,

except the parts of ciana, cnman, come. Ecthlipsis of to occurs
before oe : coed., quoth ;
and between two vowels ;
final it be-

comes a vowel, or drops, or changes to g.

The manuscripts are late, and the whole aspect of the dialect
indicates a revolutionary period of speech.

EUPIIOXIC CHANGES.
VAEIATION.
32. Umlaut is a change of vowel through the influence of

a, «>^, or i(,
in the following syllable.

The
conception of a sound tends to put the vocal organs in a position to
utter it. We
conceive the later sounds in a word wliile yet speaking the
former hence the tendency to utter a sound between the two.
;
No umlaut
shows in Gothic. Old II. German has most a-umlaut ; Norse, u-umlaut.

(1.) 2i-umlaut. —The conception of a coming a affects the ut-

terance of i, so as to produce the intermediate sound ey so it

changes u to o: helpan <.voot hilp, help; boga<iroot bug, how.

It sometimes changes i to eo : nid, neodan, neath ; leqfad., live.
iX,
 EUPHONIC CHANGES.—ASSIBILATION. 21

1. Historical. —These sounds are not recognized in the Parent Speech,

Latin, Greek, Gothic, or other most ancient alphabets ; and hence, though

they are now found almost all the world over, they are generally represented
by combinations of the earlier letters, and treated as compound consonants.
They seem as a matter of fact to have been contrivances to take the place
of certain difficult combinations of the simpler sounds. Among the Indo-
European languages, the Slavonic have most assibilation ;
the descendants
of the Latin come next.
It was common in the folkspeech of Rome ci interchanges with ti be-
;

fore a, o, zi, in the oldest remains of Latin. It is not certain whether this
springs from a dialectic adoption of the imperfect articulation common every
where among children, or from some peculiarity of the Roman populace, e.^-.,
one like that of the Sandwich Islanders (^ 27, 1). When the Germans were
Romanic regions, the chaos of language favored the assibi-
sifted over the

and they spread in various modifications over Europe, as far as the

lations,
Romanic speech had influence.
The English has the following :

Dentals. — ti^ tsh: Anglo-Saxon /(?izan> English /eic/j ; Latin qiies-

Z/on/j> English question.

Latin ?2aiMra >
English nature. (English u=zi-\-u.)
ti>5/i: Latin nationis'^'EngMsh nation.
Qi^dzh: Latin soZJ£?arJM5> English soldier; Latin modula-
i/o?ii5> English modulation.

si>sA; Ijdiim pensionis'y- YingWsh. pension ; Latin 5ecw?*u5>

English sure.
si (=zy )^zh: Latin thesaurus > English treasure.

zi > zh :
Anglo-Saxon grasian >• English graze '^grazier.
Gutturals. — ci^tsh: Latin ca5/?-wm ^ Anglo-Saxon ceasto- > English
Chester {Win-cheste)-) ; Anglo-Saxon yecian,yei2a?i]> En-
glish fetch.

ci^ sh: Latin occa?2?/5> English ocean. c^ s : Latin ct-

t77/5> English civil.

sce>5/i.- Anglo-Saxon scacan'^ sceacan^FjUgVish shake.

sci >s : Latin scientia > English science.
* gi>^/cA; Anglo-Saxon ecg (stem e^g-i) ^English edge; Latin
"•encn5> English gender.
gi>y: Goi\\\c gards Anglo-Saxon ,§-ea?-(i> English
: T/ort?.

i^dzh: Latin iocus > Italian gioco > English jo/ic.

The beginnings of the following arc in Anglo-Saxon sc before a and o :

has often changed to see in the oldest manuscripts sceacan for scacan, shake.
:

The sound of sh for sc in O. H. German first appears in the eleventh cen-

tury, and afterward rules in High German. As for the Low German, sh is
22 EUPHONIC CHANGES.—ASSIMILATION.

not yet in Dutch, but in Phitt-Dcutsch it has become common as in Englisli.

There is no indication in the alhtcration that see is pronounced sh, nor can
it be received as current literary speech. In the Anglo-Saxon of the, elev-
enth century, ch for c begins to appear: chihK^cild, child. This is also

outside of the literary speech, and springs from foreign (French) influence.
The other changes are still later, and more purely Romanic in their source.
The German assibilation is sh, and that is later than classic Anglo-Saxon.
only
<

2. Physiological. —
{a.) Assibilation of Dentals. t-|-i: Hon in qucs-
—
tio7i. Trying to sound io as one syllabic tends to change i to y. In t the

tip of the tongue is pressed to the upper gum, and the voice blown
in y the ;

tipof the tongue is dropped to the lower gum, and the middle is humped up
toward the palate, and the voice breathed. In tsh the tip is inverted and
turned up to tlie hard palate, and the voice blown. This is a compromise in
—
two points of view, as to the place of the stop (between the f-stop and the
y-stop), and as kind of stop (inverted tongue against hard palate
to the a —
roundish against a flatish surface see ^ 27) but it is not a mechanical re-
; ;

sult of an attempt to go rapidly through t-\-i/: it is a quite new way to make

a sound which the ear will accept as a substitute for the two. The explana-
same, except that the voice in cl and in dzh is
tion of d-{- i {soldier) is the
breathed instead of blown. The explanation of s + ^ {pension), and of s-j-i

{grazier), is the same as and d-{-i, except that in these last

that of t-\- i
the stop is not complete either in blowing s and sh, or breathing z and z?i.
In the change of see to sh, the c goes to h, and only gives strength to the
compromise oi s-\-y.
{b.) The English Assibilation of Gutturals, as though dentals, springs
from defective articulation. The root of the tongue never works as easily
as the more flexible tip. Children say, and Anglo-Saxon children said, tan
for can, tin for cin ; and chin (tshm) is a not unnatural compromise between
tin and cin. When the organs are placed for y, or i, or e, the back of the
mouth makes the narrow neck of a bottle, ^ 22, and it is hard to raise the
root to make a c (k) stop. Hence c
(k) before y, i, e, is always unstable ;

and hence a child will learn to say can before cin, and will be more likely
to compromise on chin than chan. The most natural result, however, of the
difficulty of making this stop is to make an imperfect stop,
and give the aspi-
rate h, ch, instead of c(k), and this tendency has prevailed in the Germanic

tongues. From this aspirate a foreign influence easily leads to the assibi-
lated palatals sh, zh, etc. Aphaeresis of </ takes place in geard^ yard,
compare § 28 a parasitic d (dj) precedes i, j in Latin words possibly a
;
:

guttural g preceded in Italian the present sound of gi as dzh, in gioco<C

Latin iocus, joke ;
Giove <C Latin love, Jove. Latin proper names of this
sort alliterate abundantly in Anglo-Saxon poetry with words g hard. ^ 28.
in

35. Assimilation is the act by which letters make each other

alike. breaking and umlaut, as well as assibilation.
It includes
Other chano-es of this kind are called assimilation in a narrower
sense.
 EUrilONIC CHANGES.— ASSIMILATION. 23

(1.) A vowel may assimilate with a vowel, (a.) Umlaut, § 32.

(b.) The vowels become the same peorod, pered, crowd pu- :
;

diipe, vidiia^ widow; pelerds, peolords,

Gothic vairilo, lips; nal-

las, nsellces<. needles <Cne + ecdles^

not at all.

(2.) A
consonant assimilates a vowel. Consonants of each or-
gan tend to change adjacent vowels to the vowel of that organ.
Labials put the moutli in such a position that it turns vow-
(a.)
el sound to or toward ic. The strongest is p. It produces
a change of pa, pa, (pe), pi, pi, ap, ip,
to o; 6; (po, u) ; peo ; pu, u ; cap ; eop :

cpam, epdmon > com, comon, came Northumbrian posa, Anglo- ;

Saxon pesan, to be pita ypeota, wise man piht ypu/it, whit

; ; ;

dedp, dew ; Compare § 52. Before m

tredp, Gothic triva, tree.
(n), sometimes a>o, iyeo ;
before f {p, b), ayea, iyeo: camb>

comb; himyheom ; e(://or>Latin apei\ho^v; g}fa> geofa, giver ;

compare § 32 -am'>-um, %1\,b. Note also the diphthongs, § 25.

;

The gutturals c (sc), g, place the organs so as to call out a

parasitic «-sound (breaking, § 33),
while h, and the Unguals 1

and r, especially when followed by another consonant, had a burr

(•ili-sound), which brought a preceding i to eo (§ 23), Northum-
brian u: silfysulf, § 26. For i> eu before A, g, see § 25.

In Latin I brings in u most,

— ?;?,b,p,f, sometimes: nebula, vi(l>i\r] ;

spatula, (TTrardXr} ; Hecuba, 'Ek(1j3i]. The dentals bring in z : machina, fii]-

Xavrj ; Masimssa, Maaavdaaris. The r likes e before it :

camera, Kajidpa ;

cineris<icinis.

(3.)
A vowel assimilates a consonant, (a.) Assibilation, §
34.

{p.)
Between two vowels a surd may change to a sonant, or
a mute to a continuous h>g, s>r, d=pyd, gyp, hpyp, byf:
;

sloh, slogon, I slew, they slew ceds, curon, chose cptved, cpscdon,
; ;

dwell ; habban, hafact, have, haveth

quoth bUgian, bitpian, to
;
;

for seah, ssege, sdpe, saw, § 197.

(4.)
A
consonant assimilates a consonant. This occurs in An-
o-lo-Saxon mainly when, by composition, inflection, or apothesis,
two consonants are brought together which can not be easily
in the same The most common case is the
syllable.
pronounced
comino- to<^ether of a surd and sonant. One can not breathe and
blow at once.

(a.)
When surd and sonant letters are brought together, the
surd assimilates the sonant.
2i EUPHONIC CHANGES.— DISSIMILATION.

A. If the surd follows the sonant, a gemination of the surd is

produced. In this way Jf, ss, ss, are sometimes produced from
bf, ds, ds: qfna}i<CLai\n ob-{-fero, of-
fer ;
bliss < bltds, blids, bliss. And by simplifying gemination
( § 27, 5 ),
dst > 5^, dst > st cpidst > epist, quothest
: hledst > ;

hlest^ loadest.

Exception (1). dp is often written</(/, according to the ortho-

graphic rule that d is always to be used for p within a word :

od pe, oppe, odde, or. (2). ndst changes to 7itst, according to the
analogy of case J?, through the influence of the n, which supports
the d; gs >
cs=x^ a favorite letter ; tns ns, § 130, c. >
B. If the surd precedes the sonant, the sonant is changed to
the nearest surd of its own organ. Thus,
cd, hd, 7?c?, fd, sr, sd, sd, td,
to ct, M, pt^ ft., ss, st, st, tt: socde^soete^sohte {^ SQ),

sought; stqyde "> stqyte, evecied ; dnf{e)dy 194;

drift, dr'iveth, ^
pisreypisse, of this ; cysde'yeyste, kissed c^sd^cpst, chooseth ;
;

gretde > grette, greeted. After this analogy, gs'^cs = x, ndst >
?itst: agse'^axe, ashes; stendst^stentst, standest.
And by simplifying gemination (§ 27, 5), final td'yt, std^st:
blttd~ybltt, sacrificeth; hirstd^biTSt,\>wc^i^\X\', and after a con-
sonant: ehtde^ehte, persecuted. In st^ssin piste^pisse,\{\?,t,
the s is strong enough to take an explosive over to its continuous.

(5.) An explosive consonant before

another consonant may
change to a continuous of the same organ.

1. The explosive is a complete stop, and hence it is not easy to make any
sound but s after it in the same syllable.
2. This fact may work Assimilation or Dissimilation, § 36, 3.

gd^hd ; gstyhst :
beige, bllhst, bilhd, to be angry; ng stands.
cs<hs: dcsie^ dhsie, VLsk ; cd>hd: seedy sehd, seeks, Hask.
(c.)
n a surd or
Before an explosive may change to its cognate
nasal; fn^7nn, gn^ng: nefne^ nemne, unless; stefn'ystemn,
stem; gefrignciWy gefringan, Xo inquire. Compare («) and (J)
above. The veil is raised for the n an instant too soon, §§ 27, 28.
36. Dissimilation. —
(l.) A vowel may change to a conso-
nant to avoid the hiatus with another vowel; «'></, u^p : ne-
riany-nergcm, to save; lirfian^lif/iga?i, lirftgean, to love; hecdu,
genitive bealpes, bealiipes, baleful. ComjJare § 27, 5.
(2.) Between two vowels
a continuous sometimes changes to a
mute ;
d > d: prdd, pridon, I writhed, they writhed, ?
§ 35, 3, b.
 EUPHONIC CHANGES.— COMPENSATION. 25

(3.) The former explosive sometimes changes to a contiuuous

of tlic same organ. § 35, 4, h, 2. hdyfd., ctyht, (jtyht, ttyst:
habba7i, hcefd€,\ia.ye,ha.d', soctey so hte, sought; dgaji, dhte^ own,
owned; motdeymotteyinoste, must; jnttey piste, wist.
(4.) One of two continuous may
become explosive; hsyx —
cs? (§ 28, h) feax. Old H. German fcihs, hair
: Idyld: beald, ;

Gothic hcdps, bold ; let seldom occurs fekt, falleth swld, house. :
;

(5.)
The former sonant becomes a surd in ddy{tdy)t (§ 35,
B) in the third singular of Acrbs (Conformation) stenddy stoit, :

standeth.
Successive syllables.
(6.)
—
In Latin and English, -al and -ar in-
to I or r from successive syllables stellar, solar,
terchange keep :

liberal, literal; so coerulean<,coelum. The former assibilation is

often smoothed in America: iwonunciation, § 34. The former
aspirate is not smoothed in Teutonic as it is in Greek.
87. Compensation. —
dropped and the (l.) A consonant is

preceding vowel lengthened at the same time. 1. Before d,/, s,

with ecthlipsis of n, a change of a, e, i, u, y, to 6, e, i, H, i) : tod.

Old H. German zand, Latin dent-h, tooth soft, Old 11. German ;

scnfti, soft (jos,

Old H. German Jeans, goose oder, other ; sod,
; ;

sooth ; hosu, company so genedan, sptd, sid,fif, ilser, cUde, Ude,

;

mUd, hUsl, '^d. 2. With ecthlipsis of g, mostly before n: pa>gn^

psen, wain pegnypen, thane ; ; regnig'yremg, rainy pign'ypin, ;

food fsegr yfier,

;
fair ; ssogde > svcde, said ligd
; > Ud, lieth ;
see

iddeyeode, went. With apocope of c, tneC^me, me

3. g, h, r: ;

pecypB, thee; higyheo {?), they; feohyfeo, fee; ge {<Cger),

ye; me (<j«er), to me; pe {<:^per),to thee; pe (<7;>er), Ave.
(2.) A consonant isdoubled and a following vowel dropped at
the same time ;
i is dropped with gemination of a preceding b, c,
d,f, g, I, rn, n, s : habian~^ habban, have recian^reccan, to rule;
;

bidiaW^biddan, to \i\^; spefian'^ sp)ebban, to sleep; ligian^lic-

gan, to teliaWytellan, to tell fremia^i'^fremman, to frame ;
lie ; ;

clgnian. >
chjnnan, to clang cnysian cnyssan, to knock. ; >
(3.)
After a long root syllable neuter -?« drops, and i of stem
-ia weakens to e, or drops : secia?i > secean, s^can, to seek.

Speech naturally runs in pulses; a certain length of time and a certain

1.

volume of sound is pleasantcst between the pauses or accentual beats. The

tendency of speech to preserve this rhythm by lengthening the remaining let-
ters when one is dropped, or shortening all letters when a new letter is added,
is called Compensation, and the name is extended to all adjustments of quanti-
ty and accent which restore the rhythm after the adding or dropping of letters.
pronunciation of Latin according to the English method, an
•2. In the ac-
26 EUPHONIC CHANGES,— GRAVITATION.

cented vowel in any syllabic before tbe penult is shortened in sound, no mat-
ter what may have been its original quantity while such a vowel in the pe-
;

nult has the long sound. The same law prevails in the Homauic portion of
English: brief, briefer, brev'-ity ; admire, admi'-rcr, mir'-acle, mirac-
ulous. The whole body of words conform to what was the fact in the larger
number of Latin words. It shows that a long accented syllable followed by
two unaccented is more than the natural length of the rhythm. This force
of compensation is not so plain in the Anglo-Saxon portion of English, and
we do not know enough of the pronunciation of Anglo-Saxon to trace its ef-
fects with accuracy. A
word with an affix sometimes has a lighter vowel than
the kindred word without one: /c^?i, servant, /»;^nc«, maid-servant ; bera,
bear, hiren, bearish ;
but the change may be (almost) always explained from
assimilation of some kind. Unaccented syllables show compensation. § 46.
3. When more
voice than two short syllables follows an accented syllable,
the old accent often moves forward, or a second accent is given admire, :

admird'-tion; 7nir'-acle,mirac'-ulous ; Icg'-ible, leg'-ibil'-ity. This law

is to be seen most clearly in the Romanic portion of English.

4. Compensation acts in connection with Gravitation. ^ 38.

38. Gravitation is the tendency of sounds to accentual cen-

ters. It is seen in the lengthening of accented syllables, and the
lightening and final disappearance of unaccented syllables. It

goes on in all languages.

A. Vowels. —Rule I. Progression.

—Under the accent the
simple vowels «, ?', u, lengthen by prefixing a and d.

Mixed vowels and breakings move to their latter element diphthongs ed, ;

eb, and all whose former vowel is long, move to their former vowel e {a-\~i), :

>z; (a+M)>z<; y (M-}-i)>i; ea^d,

6; eo, eo'^u, 6; diphth. ca>e,
ea,
etc. ;eo<?, ea<iau, often go to e, ^^ 203, 204, 41, 33.
(fl.) Accentual effort opens to the a-shape the neck of the bottle shaped for i or ii, § 22;

too much a weakens to u or i; aaa^aati, 6, etc. eo<i, ea, are in unstable equilibrium.
;

Rule II. —In

an unaccented syllable the progres-
Precession.
sion of simple vowels is reversed also a goes to o, ti, or i, then
;

to ey i goes to e ; ii to o and e/ & disappears.

(1.)
In the Parent Speech were the following series:

a, a-\-a=d, d-\-a=da. i, ai, di. u, aic, du.

In An2;lo-Saxon the followintj series are found:

a-series :
 EUPHONIC CHANGES.— GEAVITATIOX. 27

scdn'y shone ; \/sci?i^ scmmi, seem, sbiue, shone ; \/ lug^ leogan,

ledg, lie, lied; }/ siic^ si1.can, sedc, suck, sucked; se«i> shine
(English t—d-\-i); mils^mouse (English ou d-\-xi)\ ^et/>teeth —
(ee=^) i?wf ; >
tooth (oo =?:?) ; /iyr«n>hear (eaz=i) w?ys>mice ;

(^>C>d4-«); ieaM>buld; e«^>all; sceotow> shoot; hedm^

beam; 5eo>bee.
Descending: y/hif'^luf'ode, luf'dde, luf'ude, luf'ede, loved;
pidgcd^ptdgil, pidgel, Avide spread landsceap, landscipe, land- ;

scape; Apri'lis^ A'preUs, K^\A\ (Gothic ?n«m, Old H. German

mari) mere, mere (sea); (Sanskrit madhn) meodit'^meodo'^ Old
English mede'^mead. Here also belong many forms of verbs
now accented, but formerly unaccented hhide, bunden<^ }/ hand, :

bind, bound; for a fuller exjilanation of which, see Ablaut, 158;

also nearly all the affixes of declension and conjugation, for which
see Etymology, as referred to in the Index.

(2.) The changes in the Anglo-Saxon series may be compared with Rules
I. and II. and changes in other languages given on page 8, ^ 18 «>tP, o, :

lautverschiebung as in Greek and Latin ; dyie, e, same ; da^dii (Rule I.)

><3 (Greek and Latin); ai>t, Rule I.

(Greek); (Latin); di>d, Rule I.

aic'^H (Rule I., Latin) aiiy-hc (Rule I. Greek fv)~^e6 by a-umlaut in

;

stems of verbs and nouns, and by conformation elsewhere (^ 32, 40), San-
skrit has 6, Friesic ia ; du a^ a' > > >
'a metathesis to breaking to con-
form with e6 (Friesic d) . The descending
series already shows itself in San-
skrit in changing u and i; i and u to e was not yet in Gothic. See
a to

^ 23, e. In Latin and the Romanic part of English, a in open syllables

goes to i ; before r, to e ; in close syllables, to e ; before I, io u; e often
goes to i, but before r or in close syllables it remains ; facio, efficio, efficient ;

pater, Jupiter; pario, aperio, aperient; damno, condemno, condemn; salto,

exsuUo,e\\i\i; lego,dUigo,*\'\\\gGni\ z?i/e?-o, infer ; correctum, coxxeci. (Lat-
in accent originally on the prefix. ^41, 4.)
(3.) The changes from Anglo-Saxon to English take a new start, and are

wholly analogous to the original series of the Parent Speech.

(4.) The first lengthening of i and u by progression is called guna (mas-
culine strength), a term of Sanskrit grammar; the second is called vriddhi
feminine increment).
(5.) The various kinds of assimilation and sound-shifting work together
with progression the result of the whole upon the vowel system of the An-
;

glo-Saxon is shown in the summary on page 7.

B. From Gravitation also springs («) the gemination of a con-

sonant ending an accented syllable the common cases have been :

mentioned under Compensation (§ 37) ; {h) also the dropping of

consonants in unaccented syllables, and some Aveakenings, § 41, b.
28 EUniONIC CHANGES.— MIMETIC CHANGES.— SHIFTING.

39. Ablaut. — See Etymology.

40. Mimetic Changes arc those occurring through the in-
fluence of other words, g 158.

1. Conformation.
—The words of all languages show a disposition to con-
form in inflection to the majority. The Anglo-Saxon nouns have gone over
to a single declension in English and the strong verbs, one after another,
;

go over to the inflection of the weak.

2. Simidation. —The feigning a connection with words of similar sound is

an important fact in English and other modern languages asparagus~> spar- :

row grass. It probably had just as full play in ancient speech, but its effects
can not be so surely traced. See carc-crn, ^ 229 frx, ^ 254. ;

3. Bifurcation is the separation of a word into two borne, born ; truth,

:

troth; ivake, ivatch ; flour, jlowcr ; balsam, balm. There are hundreds of
words in English produced by this kind of fissiparous generation. Where it
isproduced by a foreign word coming into English in different ways, it has
been called Dimorphism ration, reason. :

4. The law
of contrast also operates to sunder different words of similar
sound, especially if one of the words have odious associations: grocer <.
grosser; cucumber < cowcumber ; boiKbile.
41. Shifting {Lautverschiehimg) is a change of sound not due
to other sounds in the language. Changes in climate or modes
of life, mixing nations of different stocks, ease of utterance, and
more obscure causes, affect the adjustment of the vocal organs to
the mind, and so shift the speech of nations. The current corre-
sponding sounds in several of the Indo-European languages are
given on page 8.

(1.) Vowels. —
Tiiere was a gradual weakening of the vowels in
the ancient languages. The Sanskrit a shifts to a, t, o, in Greek,
and to «, 6, «*, 0, ii., in Latin ; ic shifts to o / i to e. Ease of ut-
terance and consonant assimilation work together for close vowels.
This movement modified by assimilation, compensation, and gravitation,
is

but in long periods the shifting is plain ; a weakened vowel can seldom be
found in Sanskrit where the full form is in Greek or Latin. The short vow-
els are not found to shift in comparing one Teutonic tongue with another.
The movement of the long vowels is found on page 8. Within the Anglo-
Saxon we have referred to this shifting in speaking of «>«?,«>(?,«!> '<£,
tc > g, ed >
e, CO >
^, ea>e, eo>e.

(2.) Consonants to Vowels. In the — table, ^*> 2, v>w, are noted in

Anglo-Saxon; they occur also in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, etc. ^]>ti and ;

/> ^ are common in the Romanic languages Latin collum'^ French col^ :

cou, neck ; Latin planus > Italian piano, plane. Compare § 35, 2, b. The
movement is sometimes reversed, as when a nation moves northward, or
northern peoples mix with a vowel-speaking race :
Anglo-Saxon (/<Ci- ^ 34.
 EUPHONIC CHANGES— SHIFTING. 29

(3.) Consonants to Consonants. — Regular shifting is to weak-

er consonants gutturals to palatals, labials, dentals ; smooth to
:

middle ; rough to middle. Surd to sonant, mute to continuous,

§ 35, 3, h.
A. Shifting to a co-ordinate consonant. —(a.) One smooth mute
to another :
\vKoq., Latin liqyus, wolf, (i.) One middle to another :

ykvKVQ (metathesis), Latin dulcis, sweet, (c.) Rough to rough.

{d.) Spirant to spirant geseah, gesepen, saw, seen (§ 35, 3, J) j/jut,

:
;

Latin semi, (e.) Liquid to liquid : Latin asimcs, Gothic asilus,

Anglo-Saxon esol, ass ;
German kind, Anglo-Saxon did, child ;
Latin pnmum, Anglo-Saxon jiluina, plum. These shiftings are
occasional, or dialectic.
B. Shifting to another consonant of the same class :
(«.) Grimm's Law, lautverschiebung by eminence (see § 19).
With the progress of the Teutonic tribes northwestward they
came to use for each smooth mute the corresponding rough, for a

rough the corresponding middle, for a middle the corresponding

smooth. This first shift is believed to have been completed dur-
ing the third century and here the Gothic, the Anglo-Saxon and
;

other Low Germanic, and the Scandinavian languages rested.

The High German went on, and shifted in the same way a sec-
ond time so that since the seventh century it stands in the same
;

relation to the other Teutonic languages that they do to the rest

of the Indo-European family.
Guttukals : (c) (h) k
? (h) >ch >g : Lat. caput, A.-Sax. heaf
od, head, O. II. Ger. houpit ; ch (h) > g> k Lat. homo, A.-Sax. :

guma, man, O. II. Ger. komo ; g > k (c) > ch (h) Lat. ego, A.- :

Sax. ic, I, O. H. Ger. ih. — Dentals t >th, dh>d Lat. tres, : :

A.-Sax. prt, three, O. H. Ger. drt ; d > t > th ? (z) Lat. dentis, :

A.-Sax. tod, tooth, O. H. Ger. zand ; th (Lat. f >d>t Lat. :

tior. — Labials
) 0»/p,

fera, A.-Sax. deor, deer > O. H. Ger. p > f > b? :

(f):
A.-Sax.
\^viX.
pedis, fof, foot, O. K. Ger. fuoz; b>p>f:
Lat. cannabis, A.-Sax. henep, hemp, O.H. Ger. hanaf; f >b>p :

Lat. rater, A.-Sax, broder, brother, O. H. Ger. p^^uodar.

f
(a.) The changeof rmigh, mutes to middle is a regular weakening in Bactrian, Slavonic,
Lithuanic, Celtic,and not infrequent in Greek and Latin. That of smooth to roiujih (the
use of parasitic h) is occasional in Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, and abundant in Old
Irish. That oi middle to svvmth is a strengthening peculiar to the Teutonic, and an enig-
ma. Americans seem to hear foreigners use it freely in talking English. Germans and
Celts use more surd breath and less sonant than wc. Their h, d are heard as k, p, t,
r/,

"
their k, as aspirates.
p, t K(h)ill the poys," says Fluellen (Hen. V., iv., 7). This suggests
the hypothesis that Celts adopted the speech of invading Teutons, that their Celtic pronun-
ciation of it as heard by the Teutons became current, and that climatic influences and al-
30 riGUKATIOX.— AriliERESIS.
literation made the chaugo thorough. The Teutonic instinct for preserving distinctions
helped, when the rough weakened to middle, they would incline to change the old
ssince,
middles to preserve the correlation. There are many exceptions to Grimm's Law: 1. A
letter is often lixed by combination with another: d in 7u1, Id; t in at, ht,ft. 2. Rough kh,

ph, often early changed to continuous h, /, and rested, § 27, 2. The whole shifting of the
High German gutturals and labials is thus disturbed. The corresponding letters, as oftcnest
found, may be seen in 5 19.

Other cases of shifting may be

{b.) i > g, h > g", strengthen-
ings in Anglo-Saxon and elsewhere g ; > h, d > s, S > r, d> 1,

b>f >v, common

Aveakenings. Most of the cases in Anglo-
Saxon have been referred to in §§ 35, 36.
(4.) Accent.
—
There are three systems of accentuation 1st, :

the grammatical, in Avhich the accent is given to that syllabic

which last modifies the general notion, i. e., to the affixes and pre-
fixes of inflection
; 2d, the rhythmical, in which the accented syl-
lable isdetermined by the number and quantity of the syllables
in the word ; 3d, the logical, in which the accented syllable is the
firstof those expressing the main notion, i, e., the root syllable or
a prefix of composition defining it. The earliest Indo-European
languages are least straitened by any one system ; but the first is
in its greatest vigor ;
the Sanskrit acute may be given to any
part of a word. The Greek and Latin came under the rhythmical
influence, and in the classical time used the acute only on one of
the three last syllables. The Teutonic languages became alto-

gether This shifting of accent is a fundamental fact

logical, § 15.
in the explanation of Ablaut and many other phonetic facts in

Anglo-Saxon and all other Indo-European languages.

FIGURATION.
42. The dropping of sounds is mostly connected with gravita-
tion (§ 38). Adding of sounds without change of sense is rare;
but the shifting of accent (§ 41, 4), or the handing over a word
to a race with different habits of speech, or even the bringing to-

gether by syncope or ecthlipsis of difficult combinations of let-

ters occasionally calls for euiDhonic additions. Prosthesis is most-

ly gemination (§ 27, 4), -or parasitic (§ 33),

or conformation with
similar words in which the added letter is significant. Metathesis
is mostly euphonic and dialectic.
43. Aphaeresis is found of unaccented e, ge ; of c in en; of
h in Jd, hn, hr, and elsewhere; of 7;* m pi, pr, pu :
hisceop < Lat.
episcojms, bishop ; pistol < Lat. ejnstola, epistle ; gelic > like ;

geclddod > yclad > clad ;

cneO > knee ; hl(1f> loaf; hnappung
 APOCOPE.— SYNCOPE.—rEOTHESIS.—EPENTHESIS. gl

> napping ; hrwfn > raven (§ 31) ; yyini < Lat. hymnus, hymn ;

plisj) > lisp

protan, ;
root.
44. Apocope is found of all syllables of inflection. The vow-
els go to e and r in the pronouns, and ^, A, m, n, s,
and drop ;
c

may droj"). See Declension and Conjugation.

45. Elision is found of the stem vowel e, i, and of final e Avhen
two words arc drawn together: scceany secan, seek; pergkmy
pe?*(7rtn, damn clyniany dynncm, clang; hiitan <ihe-\-'dtan^'\:)\xi',
;

nun <,ne+ cin^ x\oi\q; nahban < ne -\- hahhan, uol have; nies<.
ne -\-pces, was not.
4G. Syncope is found of an unaccented stem vowel before
/, n, r ; less often before f?, </, st ; sometimes before e, y, ???, p,
and other consonants ; oftenest when the consonant is followed
by a syllable of inflection :
engel^ englds, angel, angels ; Jieofon^
heofnes, heaven, heaven's ; pmter, pintres^ winter, winter's ;

dctn{e)de, deemed; hicf{e)st, licef{e)cU hast, hath; miinec^ mitnc,

monk ; hdllg, hulges, holy ; mdd{u)m, gem ; pid{e)pe^ widow ;

cpiOciic, quick (?). Syncope often brings on

ecthlipsis.
47. Ecthlipsis is found of d, d, s, st, before st ; of n before

d,f, s; of d, g, A, ?",p, mostly between vowels or before a liquid:

/i^e(f?)5^,
loadest ; cpi{d) st, qwothest; e?/(5)s^, choosest; bi7'{st)st,
burstest ;
for n, //,§ 37 fedper (Gothic fidvor), four ;
; pegn >
pen, thane freogan'y freon, to love; te6han'> tedn, tug; ner{i)-
;

est, savest; niUcm~;>ne-\-pillcm, to be itnwilliug. Mostly assim-

ilation and gemination.
48. Prothesis is found i consonant (y), and p by blun- of h,
der (§ 31).Apparent prothesis of h, g, ge, n, s, is found in An-

glo-Saxon or English, but probably springs from conformation

with the many words beginning with be-, by, ge-, together, an,
an, its, out :
meltan, smeltan, melt, smelt nadder, adder Ned, ; ;

Edward ; Nanny, Anna. So in the French espace < Lat. spa- :

tium, space; conforming with words beginning with Latin ex-:

eclore, exclure < Lat. exclaudo, excludo, exclude. Real prothesis
is pretty common in Greek: 6(ppvc (Sanskrit bhri(), brow; uTrtip,
star,
49. Epithesisfound of e; of b after m; of d, t, after oi, I,
is

r ; of ts, after Those of e and n are con-

and n
after a vowel.
formations of declension and inflection, whidi see: lam{b), lamb;
tyran(t); len(d); moul(d); aftbr(d); niids(t) ; betpnx{t) ,\>QU\\xt ;

-s{t) second singular

of verbs. See § 27, 5.
50. Epenthesis is found of a vowel between two consonants,
e.g., e before ry c, o, v, before ;;v, ??, /> ,•
of g, n, p, between
 9
OJj METATHESIS.—CONTRACTION.

vowels ;
of d after «, I
(especially followed by I or r) ;
of t after
s; of n before </, s, d ; of/ between a consonaut and following ej
of r before s, M,^), and after t, d, g ; of /> between and ?, r, or m
a short vowel; of2> between m and ?i, s, or t: meter <^'L^i. mc-
trum, meter ; bosom Jos»^, bosom ; gllsnian < glisten ; beal{o)- >
pcs, bale's ; meoliic <
meolc, milk (Latin midgeo^ Greek ajutXyw,
Sanskrit J?;?-.7') ; li/fi{g)cm, love ; gife{n)d, gifts' ; i?^«w bugan, >
biipan, inhabit (§§ 221, 224, e) ; punor y Jmnder, thunder; bal{d)-
sam^ balsam ; glisnia^i > glisten ; niJdegale, nightingale ; e(n)-
sample; Sarmende K'Lz.t. Sarmatw ; myrt(l)e ;
ct?cfe > could ;

has, hoarse ; spadii^ swarth ; co(r)poral < French capordl Kcajy,

chief; chal(d)ron; ir^c7/7«ma > bride-
cart(r)idge; part(r)idge;
groom ; timber (Gothic tiinrjan), t'lmhev ] ^zemo/ > nimble ; sco-
llmbos<Liiit. scolgmos, a thistle; nemney- nem2)ne (Chaucer),
name; glim(p)se; > empty. § 27, 5, 33. e»ie^/^
51. Metathesis
found of Iipywh, spy^ys, gnyng, ??«>
is

5W, 5C>cK, sgyx; of a vowel with a following I or r when a

mute precedes of a vowel with a preceding I or r when a mute
;

precedes /ip% white (graphic only) ; pvesjw, psejyse, Avasp peg7i,

: ;

peng, thane clmisian, chesnicm, cleanse ; Jisc yfix, fish ; dscian,

;

dxian, ask; axe (Gothic azgo), ashes; beorJit, JryA^, bright tdel, ;

idle (graphic) grves^ gxrs, grass ; osle, cusel (rare) ; so iriian,

;

rinnan, run.

CONTRACTION.
In the Teutonic languages the hiatus is not generally avoid-
52.
ed by contraction, but by elision or epenthesis ; or it stands.
is found in Anglo-Saxon after
(1.) Synreresis ecthlipsis of g or
h, and the assimilation of p to w.
When
unlike vowels meet, a mixed sound is produced in which
the open vowel predominates a, o, 6, with another vowel be- :

come 6/ II, e, lengthen the preceding vowel i drops; a-{-a=d; ;

ii-\-a=^o ^' t-{-a=:ed {I breaks): fdhany-fon, take; gefeohany-

gefeon, rejoice ; gefeohe > gefeo ; teolian > teon, tug ; freogan >
freon, love; cpdmony cudmony comon, come; fvegeryfm',
fair ; sdply said, soul epic > cuic > cue, quick sleahan > sledn,
; ;

slay cpam > com > com, come pihan ypedn, grow.
; ;

(2.) The reduplicati'on contracts with

the root of verbs; w-\-d,
&-\-ed, di+o, give eo, which shifts to S; vb-\-a, m-[-ea, x-]-sb, con-
form. See Inflection, § 159.
(3.) For traces of synizesis, synaloopha, and other contractions
in Anglo-Saxon poetry, see §§ 509, 510.
 PART II.

ETYMOLOGY.
I. DEFINITIONS.
53. Etymology treats of the structure and history of words.
It inchides classitication, inflection, and derivation.
54. A Word is an elementary integer of speech. It has a
mixed nature : it is thought on one side, and sound on the other.
55. Notional and Relational. —An analysis of the words
of the Indo-European languages gives two kinds of significant
sounds: (1) those co7inoting qualities: e. g., of acts, as eat, sit,
go, Jcnow, love; of substances, as icet, red, quick; (2) those con-
noting relations: e.g., of space, time, subject, object; as here,
there, then, me, he. The first are called notional ; the second,
relational.
56. Radicles are elementary relational parts of words. They
are generally single sounds —
oftenest a consonant sound. The
labials connote subjective relations oftenest; the dentals, object-
ive and demonstrative ;
the gutturals, interrogative ; the nasals
often connote negation ; the vowels, oftenest simple limitation.
Radicles are found (1) as the essential part of words which de-
note relation (prepositions and adverbs) tz-p, up ^a-l, by o-f,
:
; ;

of; xa-id, with; a3-t, at; t-o, to; l>tCr, there; 2>a3?me, then ;
sp-<^, so ; hp-icr, where ; hp-a3wne, when ; (2) of words which de-
note persons or things directly as having the relation connoted
by the radicle (substantive pronouns) m-^, me \)-ii., thou \\-c,
:
; ;

he ; B-eo, of Avords Avhich define, as having certain re-

she ; (3)
lations, objects denoted by other words (adjective pronouns) :

VHrin, mine;
thine; \fixit, that; sp-27c, such; hp-a??, what;
J)-?«,

(4) united to roots to form stems, see § 58 (5) united to stems ;

of nouns or pronouns as factors of relation (case-endings or ad-

verbial affixes) :
smides, smith's ; leafas, leaves; JdxQ., him pwr,;

there ; payinan, thence ;

sec § GO ; (6) united to stems of verbs
as factors of relation (inflection endings): com, am; li/Jiast,
lovest ; lifflad, loveth.
57. A Root is an elementary notional svllablo. A few arc
C
34 CLASSiriCATlON.— DlXLEXyiON UF NOUNS.

formed by onomatojic from noises hrlng, ring ; ; has, hoarse ;

a
few from sounds naturally exjiressive of feeling: hleah-tor, laugh-
ter ; jyop, whoop ;
or vocal gesture :
st, whist ;
s?a-nd ; some are
a growth from the radicles, and descriptive primarily of being or
motion in the direction or mode connoted by the radicle 2nnian, :

to go in to put out; ?/;>pan, to ojoe?i (=:raise v})) ; /aran,

; ilti^u,
to larc {=go fort/i) ; most roots are the expression of an adjust-
ment of the mind and vocal organs to each other, according to
which the mind in a certain state tends to put the vocal organs in
a given state.

The diffusion of the roots and radicles through all the Indo-European lan-
guages, and their perpetuation from the earliest ages through such complete
changes of the superficial appearance of these languages, shows that there
must be some stable adjustment of mind to organs in this family of nations.
A comparison with other races shows that it is an extension and modification
of a less definite adjustment belonging to the original constitution of man.

58. A
Stem is that part of a noun to which the historical case-
endings, or of a verb to which the personal endings and tense
signs were affixed. Sometimes it is a root, but generally it is
formed from the root by one or more relational suffixes -^/man, :

think>stem mem, man; -y/sM, bear > stem su-nu, son; -\//wy*, stem
hifia > Ivfian, to love, lufigende, lover. For case-endings, see
§ 60.

II. CLASSIFICATION.
59. The parts of speech are the Noun (Adjective), Pronoun
(Article, Numeral), Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and
Interjection.

III. NOUNS.
DECLENSIOX.

GO. A noun has different forms (cases) in different relations in

the sentence. The variable final letters of a noun are its case-

endings ;
the rest is its theme.
61. The case-endings in Anglo-Saxon mark the relations of

(1.) Six cases nominative, genitive, dative,

:
accusative, vo-
cative, instrumeyital.
(2.) Three numbers: singular (one object), lylural (more
than one), dual (two).
 CASE -ENDINGS. 35

(3.) Three genders masculine, feminine, netiter.

:

62. In the Parent Speech there is only one set of case-endings,

as follows :

SiMGULAE. Plural. Dual. Englibu Equivalent.

Nominative.... s )
—Nominative (no
[ sas \
Vocative (Stem)) (
« —Nominative In-
sign).

dependent.
Accusative am ams
[

J
— Objective (no

Genitive as saxus )
—Possessive or
sign).
's,
„„„ of with the oh-
aus
Locative i svas j
—in with the ob-
jective.

Dative ai )
—to or for with
jective.

the objective.
Ablative at
|'bhjams^
) ( . .
—from or out of
> thjams Avith objective.
Instrumental (1) a )
\.\.i„ )
)
byor withwitli
Instrumental (2) bhi f S objective.

63. The endings are formed from the radicles (^ 56), and are plainly con-
nected with pronouns and prepositions in Sanskrit and other languages.
(a.) The nominative s is connected with the demonstrative and article : ,

Sanskrit sa, sa, tat ; Greek 6, »), to ; Anglo-Saxon se, seo, p&t. It is us^d
only with masculine and feminine nouns, and is a quasi article, as if, in An-
glo-Saxon, se cyning (the king) were written cyning-se^ njnings. (For
the use of the article to mark a subject, see Greek Grammars Crosby, ^ 487, :

4; Hadley, ^ 535.) A neuter t (tat) is early found.

(6.) The accusative 7n appears in the Sanskrit mdm, ma, me ama, this, ;

etc. a vivid conception of any suffering object is expressed by the same

;

sound which is used for one's self as suffering object.

(c.) The genitive s is connected with the demonstrative sa, Anglo-Saxon
se,and marks personality like the s of the nominative. The prepositions
and adverbs of this radicle oftenest mean tcith, together: Sanskrit safia,
sam, sa, etc., corresponding in use with Greek avv, Latin con, Anglo-Saxon
ge. So the genitive smarks a personal adjunct, then any adjunct. The
original form was perhaps .yam, which shows in the plural.
(d.) The locative i appears as in in the pronoun (Sanskrit tasm-in, in

that), and is connected with the preposition in; tiie plural svas is formed
on another pronoun Sanskrit sva, Latin se, Greek f self
:
,

(e.) The is connected with abhi, by, as appears from the pro-
dative ai
noun, Sanskrit tu-hhjam, Latin ti-hi, to thee, and from the plural bhjams.
(f.) The ablative t is connected with the demonstrative ta, the, and its
force in prepositions and adverbs may be seen in Sanskrit, Gothic, Anglo-
36 PHONETIC DECAY.

Saxon ut, out of; the Uinbrian tu, to, out of; Latin -tus {cwlilus, from
heaven). Variations of the dental radicle are also found in Latin -de, undc,
whence ; indc, tlience ;
Greek -6n', from, etc.

(g.) The instrumental tt is from the demonstrative radicle a, and bhi from
the labial radicle: Sanskrit l)hi ; Greek -^i Anglo-Saxon bi, hy (^ 63, c). ;

(/j.) The plural sign is s, and is to be connected in sense with the prepo-
sition sam, together icith, mentioned in connection with the genitive. This
is strengthened by insertion of the pronominal am in the genitive sdms, and

the dative and ablative b/rjdms. The dual is a lengthening of the plural.
(i.) The genitive singular and nominative plural are head-cases.
04. Phonetic Decay. — Sounds whose meaning is not vividly felt

come under the influence of gravitation (^ 38) :

they weaken, blend, and at
lastslough away. When tribes speaking different dialects mix, the casc-
cndings are half caught, and decay is quickened. By this process the Lido-
European languages have been losing their inflections. As it goes on, di-
versity of declension arises, two causes of which may be mentioned :

(1.) Different
—
Endings of the Stem. Some stems end in a vowel, others
in a consonant. Under the operation of euphonic laws each stem has its
own effect on the endings. The Comparative Grammars discuss the effect
of many different stems (Schleicher gives fifteen sets of paradigms). In the
Teutonic languages the vowel stems have held the original case-endings
most firmly, and are called strong the stems in n are called "weak other ; ;

consonant stems conform 40), or are irregular.

(J^

(2.) Gender. — (a.) Names applied io females use long vowels and liquids;
they melt away the strong consonant endings, and attain vowel or liquid end-

ings. Again, all words having such endings tend to assume the habits of fem-
inine names throughout, and become grammatically of the feminine gender.
The separation of neuter from masculine is not so thorough-going.
(5.)
No special form is needed to distinguish inanimate things as acting, or as ad-
dressed hence the nominative and vocative are not distinguished from the
;

accusative. We
take inanimate things in the lump; hence neuters tend to
use no plural sign, or to use an ending like the feminine singular, as an ab-
stract or collective form Greek, Latin, -ci; Anglo-Saxon, -n, etc.
: Latin
neuters plural frequently become feminine singular in the Romance lan-
guages Greek neuters plural take a singular verb. The neuter is a mascu-
;

line with the activity out; the Sanskrit grammarians call it kliva, eunuch.

(c.) Gender has two aspects (1) it represents a tendency to use different
:

sounds for relations to males from those used for similar relations to females,
or to inanimate things ; (2) it represents the tendency to couple together
words (nouns, adjectives, and pronouns) agreeing in their terminations.
From the first point of view there can be but three genders many lan- ;

guages have but two some have none. From the second point of view
;

there may be as many genders as there are sets of terminations some lan- ;

guages have none; some, e.g., the Congoes and Caffirs, have many.
(</.) There was originally no sound as a sign of gender in the Indo-Euro-

pean Parent Speech. It is denoted, however, in the earliest remains by long

 DECLENSIONS.— RULES FOR GENDER. 37

vowels, especially il,Jd'^i, for feminine nouns; by -t in the nominative for

some neuters, and indirectly by other case-endings. It has been a constant
force, showing itself more and more through all the changes of the language,
and in the Anglo-Saxon affords a natural subdivision of the case-endinjis.
Co. There are two classes of Declensions of Anglo-Saxon nouns:
(L) Strong: those which have sprung from vowel stems.
(2.) Weak that which has sprung from stems in an.
:

There are four declensions distinguished by the endings of the

Genitive Singular :
38 DECLENSION FIRST.— A-STEMS.

6. Neuter arc names of wife, child ;

diminutives ; many general names ;

and words made an object of thought p'lf, wife hearn, cild, child mwgden,
:
; ;

maiden; ^r.Tj, grass; q/e<, fruit; corn, corn; ^oW, gold.

7. Epicene Nouns have one grammatical gender, but are used for both

sexes. Such names of mammalia are masculine, except of a few little timid
ones :
mus, mouse (feminine)
large and fierce birds are masculine ; others
;

feminine, especially singing birds nihtegale, nightingale ; large fishes are

:

masculine, small feminine ; insects are feminine.

G8. Cases alike. — (l.) The nominative and vocative are al-

ways alike.

(2.) The nominative, accusative, and vocative are alike in all

plurals, and in the singular of all neuters and sti'ong masculines.
{2>.) The a or ena.
genitive plural ends always in
(4). The dative and instrumental plural end always in um
{on). The instramentals are etymologically datives, except -^, -^,
DECLENSION I.

Stem in a. Genitive singular in es.

CO. Here belong Masculines, —monosyllables, derivatives in

I, m, r,p^ic'^Oy
?^, nd, els, rd, d, d, t, sty oc, h, ng, e, ere ; Neu-
ters,
—monosyllables, often with be- or (/e- prefixed, derivatives
in I, n, r,2?ytcyo, d, t, h, e, incle.

70. — I. Case-endings from stem a -{-relational suffixes. Nom-

inative in — .

Masculine. Neuter.
Stem. pulfa, icolf. scipa, ship.
Theme pulf, scip.
Singular. —
Nominative . .
pulf, a loolf. scip.
Genitive pulfes, of a xcolf, icolfs. scipes.
Dative pulfe, to or for a icolf scipe.
Accusative .... pulf, a wolf. scip.
Vocative pulf, 0, toolf. scip.
"

Instrumental. .
pulf^, bj/ or with a wolf. scipe.
Plural. —
Nominative . .
pulfds, loolves. scipw.
Genitive pulfc?, oficolves. scipa.
Dative pulft«», to or for wolves. scip^^m.
Accusative . . .
pulfas, zuolves. scipt^
Vocative pulf(?5, 0, wolves. sci^u.
Instrumental. .
pulf«;«, by or loitJi, icolves. scipwm.
 COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY. 39
Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Old Saxon. Old Norse.

(J ( a9va, iTTTTO, equo, vulfa, wulfa, ulfa,

\ho}'se. horse. horse, wolf. wolf. wolf.

SiNGCLAR. —
Nominative., a^va-s Vn-To-f equu-s vulf-s wulf ulf-r

(tTTTro-to ) ^ „
^"^^"^
( wulba-s )
"^^"^
Genitive a9va-sja ^1"'
j ..TTTrov f 1 wulbe-s f

Dative dijva-j-a (Vtti^ equo vulfa wulba, e ulfi

Accusative... a9va-m 'iinro-v equu-m vulf wulf ulf

Vocative a9va 'iTrire eque vulf (^Xomin.) (Nomin.')

Instrumental a9va. 'nrTru-tpi. {Ablat.) {Dative.) -svulbu (^Dative.)
Plural. —
Nominative.. a9va-sas (tttto-i equ (e-i-s), i vulfo-s \vulb6-s, u-s ulfa-r

( equu-m ) ,„» n « » »i^

Genitive "^'ulf'-' "wulbo, a ulfa
a9va-n-ara 'Itttj-wv
\_
j(.equo-rum
i

(ulfu-m
Dative... a9ve-bhja3 (Locat.) equi-s vulfa-m -wulbo-n, u-n 1 „ „,

Accusative... 'iniro-vQ equos vulfa-ns wulf6-s, a-s ulfa

a9va-n(s)

The Old High German has loulf, wulfcs, iculfa, wulf,tviilfu ; ividfd,wulfo,
wulfwn, wulfd. The Old Friesic has fisk,fisk-is {-es),Jis/c-a (-?', -e),
Jisk; fisk-ar {-a), fiska, fisk-um {-on, -em),jisk-ar {-a).
For Parent speech, add the endings in ^ 62 to the stem.
VI. Changes in Endings, ^^ 38, G4. (a.) The stem-vowel -a in Gothic
and Antrlo-Saxon
O does not blend with the terminations as in Latin and Greek,
but drops. This declension is thus become analogous to the Latin and Greek
consonant declension (Third) compare the singular genitive and plural
;

nominative, and see iroiinv, homcn, § 95, a, and proper names, ^ lOl, h.
{b.) Case-endings. For original forms, see ^ 62.
Singular.
—
Nominative -s is weathered, ^^ 62, 64. Genitive -as'^-es,
Dative -aj>-a>-e, precession, 1^ 38 sometimes -e>
precession, ^ 38. ;
— ;

ham, home dceg, day.

;
Accusative -flm> §^ 62, 64. Instrumental
— ,

-a^e, § 18, or a-hhi^ Lithuanic, Slavonic -a-mi'^ 0. H. G. -11, Goth, e

(in hvc, sve,l>e, hvadre, etc.)> A.
S. -e, §^ 62, 63, 251, IL, b.
—
Plural. Nominative a-s{a)s^ -as has farther precession to -a5> -es> -s
in lateA. -Saxon and English. Genitive -(5)am(5)> -a, ^ 64. Dative
as in
.bhja(m)sy -rajas'^ -mus'^ -mr\> -m; bJi^m nasalizing the labial
Lith. and S\diW.-mus,-mu; -am> -w??z, labial assimilation,^ 35, 2, a; pre-
cession to -on, -en is found. Accusative -ans'^ -as, compensation, ^ 37.

(c.) This declension

has best preserved the original case-endings, and has
transmitted to English the possessive and plural signs.

72. Neuters from masculines in this declension in having no proper

differ

plural sign, ^ 64.

Their plural ending is -a in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and
Gothic °-u in O. Sax.,0. Fries., and A. -Sax. in O. H. Ger. and O. Nor. ;
—
(a.) The earlier -a is
sometimes found in A. -Sax. (North.) -0 is com- ;

mon sometimes the -u drops, precession, § 38 fidcra (w), wings brimo («),
;
; ;

waters :
gebcdu, gcbcd, prayers.
For -ra, -ru, in wgra, eggs, see § 82.
40 STRONG NOUNS.—DECLENSION I.

73. STRONG NOUNS.—DECLENSION I

2. Long monosyllables. 3. Shifting. 4. U-umlant. 5. Gemination.

Stem .... j'orda, n. daga, m. fata, n hiida, n. terra, m. spella, n.

word. day. vat. slope. tower. speech.

Theme diri /did tor
—pord fwt
. .
.

spel
Singular.
N.,A.,<!^V. pord da-g fxt hlid tor spel
Gen pordcs dwges fxtes hlides torres spelles
Dat porde da'ge fxle hlide torre spelle
Inst porde hlide torre
dwge
Plural. — fivte spclle

N.,A.,6fV. pord dagks fatn hleoda (-1-) tor7-As spel

Gen porddi. dagk fatk hleodk {-i-) torrk spellk
D. ^ Inst... pordum hleodam
dagum fatnm (-i-) torrmxi spellum

7. Stem in
G. Syncope. 8. Stem in -ha.
-ga.
Stem. tungola, m. bedga, m. mearha, m.
. . .

tungola, n. m.
hoJia,
star. star ring. horse. hough.
Theme. . .

mearh
Singular. —tungol tungol beag Iwh

N.,A.,dfV. tung-ol,-ul,-el,-l he dig), h

mear{h),g,- hoh, ho
Gen tung-oles, -ules, -eles, -les hedges meares hos
Dat tung-ole, -ule, -ele, -le hedge meare ho
Inst tung-ole, -ule, -ele, -le meare
Plural. — hedge ho

\ d-V ^""5'"^^^^' -w^as, -elks, -Iks bcdgks mearas hos

^ *'
A ' ^ i^'
'\n.tung-ol\i,-ol, -ul,-el,-l
Gen tung-olk, -ulk, -elk, -Ik meark hok
hedgk
D. <5j-
1.
tung-olam, -ulam, -clum, -lum hedgum mearxim hoam

i). Stem in
-pa. 10. Stem+er.
Stem .... hearpa, m., grove. cneopa, n.,knee. <Tga, egg.
Theme. hearu • .

cneop
Singular. — mg, plur. seger

N.,A., V. hear-u, -o
df-
cneop, cneo
Gen bear-pes,-upes,-opes,-epes cneo-pes, -s
Dat hear-pe, -upe, -ope, -epe cneo-pe,
—
Inst hear-pe, -upe, -ope, -epe —
cneo-pe, wge
Plural. —
N.,A., V. bear-pks,-upks,-opks,-epks -
<Sf cneo-pu, -p, leg-er-u, -ru
Gen bear-pk, -upk, -opk, -epk cneo-pk, cned xg-er-k, -rk
D. <5f
I. .... bear-pnm, -vpnm, -op\im, cneo-pwm, -um, -m seg-ex-Mia, -rum
-ep\xm.
 STRONG NOUNS.—DECLENSION I.
41

V4. (1. Common forms.) Like />M//decline strong masculines not here-
after otherwise described :
dd, oath ; d&l, part ; stdn, stone ;
cyning, king ;

recels, frankincense hldford, lord S7idp, snow, etc.

; Like scip decline ;

strong neuters not hereafter otherwise described col, coal dor, door gcat, :
; ;

gate gebod, bebod, bidding gebed, prayer gebrec, crash ; gemet, measure
; ; ; ;

gefeoht, fight, etc.

(a.) Derivatives in -ad, -ed, -els sometimes drop plural -as: monad, months; hxled,
heroes fxtels, bags so those in -r and -nd, §§ 87, 100.
; ;

(6.) For datives in -d, genitives in ^ena, see §5 93, 94, 83, c.
(c.) Stem -e- is sometimes inserted conforming with stems in -ia: fisceas<ifiscds,
fishes, § 85.

(rf.) Themes in -sc may suffer metathesis, especially in the plural :

Jisc, fiscds^fixds,
fishes ; tmc, tvuxds, tusks, § 51.

75. (2. neuter, § 37, 3.) Like pord decline neu-

Long monosyllables,
ter monosyllables long by nature or position ban, bone beam, infant fyr, :
; ;

fire; god, good; ^or5, horse leaf, leaf; lead, song; speord, sword; pif, ;

wife, etc.

— ^
V6. (3. Shifting, 23, 41.) Like d.rg or fxt decline monosyllables
with root x<^a: masculine crxft, craft; gxst, guest; hpxl, whale; mxg,
son fvzd, path
; stxf, staff; neuter bxc, back
; bxd, bath fxc, space
— ; ; ;

frxd, fringe ; blxd, blade

crxt, cart. ;

(«.) The shifting of fi to « is stopped in the plural by the assimilating force of the
a or M of the ending, § 35, 1.
77. (4. U-umlaut, ^ 32, 3). Like hint decline brim, water; gehlid,
inclosure ; /i'm,limb, etc. This umlaut is only occasional.
78. (5. Gemination, ^ 27, 5.) Stems having gemination simplify it

according to Rule 13, § 20 ; bil, billes, ax, etc.

79. (6. Syncope, ^ 46, 37.) Syncopated may be words ending in an
unaccented short vowel before a single consonant masculine ensel, anfrel :
— ;

caldor, elder; dryhten, lord; monad, month; heorot, stag, etc.;

— neuter
setel, throne evil sign beacen, tdcen, token leder, leather pundor,
—yfel,
; ; ; ; ;

wonder, etc. ; masc. and neut. heafod,, head ; segen, sign, etc.
80. (7-8. Stems in -ga and -ha.) For g'^h and h'^g, see ^^ \\,Z,b,
118. For ecthlipsis of h, see § 47. For contraction hods^hos, see § 52.
Like mearh decline feorh, plur. neut. /eo?-A, beings, etc. Like hoh decline
fcoh, n. fee, pi. n. fco ; hreuh, pleoh, etc. ;
and with a similar contraction,
stems in a long vowel :
ed, eds, river ; 5;£', sxs, sea, etc. See § 100.
81. (9. Stems in
-pa.)
Like bearu decline ealu, n., ale ; mealu, n., meal ;

etc. Like cneop decline treop, n., tree peop, m., servant, etc. ;

(a). After a consonant p final shifts to m>o,- and before a vowel may have quasi-

gemination in vp; this m may then have precession to o>c. Similar are Sanskrit
«imave8<jsunu, son ;
O. II. Ger. palawe8<^palu, bale.

82. (10.) Stems strengthened by -er, ^ 228.) Like xg decline cealf,

calf; ctld, child ; lamb, lamb.
{a.) A similar interchange of stem -a with -era is found in O. H. Ger. -ira, kelb, kclb-
ir, calf, O. Fris. kind-er-a, children, horn-ar, horns. The -cr sometimes comes into the
singular :
lamher, a lamb.
42 STRONG NOUNS.—DECLENSION I.

83. — II. Case -endings from 84. —

III. Case -endings from
stem -ia-}-i'clatioual suffixes. stem -1+ relational suffixes.
Stem .
hirdia, ni., ricia, u., byri, m., foti, m., mani, m,,
shepherd. realm. son. foot. man.
Theme bird. ric. byr fot man
Singular. —
JVbm. Lirde rice byre fut man
Gen. . hirdes rices byres fotes mannes
Dat.. hirde rice byre fet, fote men
Ace hirde rice byre f6t man
Voc. liirde rice byre fot man
Inst. . hirde rice byre fet, fot^ men.
Plueal
JVom. hirdas YXCIO byre, -ds fot, futas men
Gen. . hirc^c^ ricc^ byre* f6t(<l manned
Bat. . hirdtwi Yicum hyrum f6tic7n vaa.nm(7n
Ace. hirdas byre, -ds fet, fotas men
Voc. . hirdas xicu byre, -ds fet, fotas men
Inst. . hirdtwn Yicicm hynwi fotum mannum

83, a. Latin, O. Lat. Gothic. Gothic. Gothic. O. Sax. O. Norse.

Stem filio, m., harja, ni., hairdja, m., kunja, n., hirdja, m., herja, m.,
son. army. shepherd. land. shepJierd. army.
Sing. — t

A'bm....filiu-s, fili(s) harji-s hairdei-s kuni hirdi her-r

Gen. ... filii, fili harji-s hairdei-s kunji-s hird-je-s, -eas her-s
Dat filio harja hairdja kunja hird-je, -ea her-i

Ace fili-um, f ili-m hari hairdi kuni hirdi her

Voc fili hari hairdi kuni hirdi

Inst..... hirdju
Plural. —
iV. ^-F. filii harj6-s hairjo-s kunja hird-j6-s(neut.-i)herja-r
Gen filiorum, filium harje hairdje kunjc hird-j6, -eo herja
D. d; I., filiis harja-ni hairdja-m kunja-m hird-ju-n herju-m
Ace filios harja-ns hairdja-ns kunja hird-jo-s(neut.-i) herja

When a single short syllable precedes the stem -ja, Gothic masculines
follow harja, otherwise hairdja. The O. H. German has hirti, hirtes, hirta,
hirti, hirtu ; hirta, hirto, hirtum, hirta; neuter kunni, kunnies (kunnes),

kunnje {kunne), kunni, kunnju {kunnu) ; kunni, kunnjo {kunneo, kunno).

kunnjum (kunnum), kunni. The O. Friesic retains of this declension only
a nominative e<Cja- For changes in endings, see ^^ 71, 72, 85.
8 1, a. The comparative grammar of the i-stems is reserved for the fem-
inine forms, §^ 88, 89. The plural -as conforms with the a-stems.
 STEMS IN lA, R, ND. 43

85. {Stem in ia.)

—Like hirde decline masculines in -e and -ere:

bere, barley ; ele, oil ; ege, awe

spenge, ; ende, end ; mece, sword ;

friendship fiscere^ fisher ; huntere., hunter.

sponge ; freond-scipe^ ;

Like rice decline strong neuters in -e and diminutives in -incle :

pite, punishment ; yrfe, heritage ;
lid incle, a little joint ; rdpincle,
a little rope, etc. Most neuters originally in ia conform with
pord, or are now masculine.

(a.) The -e of the singular nominative, accusative, and vocative is by

precession from -id. In the earlier forms a stem -e<C-i is occasionally

found elsewhere :
hirdeds'^hirdas, hirdea^hirdd, hirdeum^hirdum ; me-
ced'^mecd, etc. The i has sometimes a quasi - gemination to ig, ige, the

g or ge representing an opening of the organs from the f-position (^ 28, 2 ;

27, 5) : here (Gothic harjis), herigds, herigeds, hergds, etc., hosts.

{b.) Many words originally in -ia, which have dropped the nominative -e,

and a:re declined like pulf, are seen to have i-umlaut or other assimilation
when compared with other languages rec<Crece (Old H. German rouch), :

smoke; so some i-stems :

gxst, gest, gyst, gist ; ^ilur. gystds, giestds, etc. ;

gastd, etc., guest (Gothic gasts; plur. gastcis, ^ 89).

86. {Stem in i. §§ 89-91.)

—Few remains are found of mascu-
lines in -i. Byre ; bite, bite ; dryre, fall ; hete, hate ; sele, hall, oc-
cur ; cyme, coming, has a plural ;
some t«-stems conform :
pine,
friend ; hsele, man Like byre decline
; hyge, mind ; mere, sea.
leode, men, and compounds of -pare (called by Grein fern. plur.
of leod, people, pan<, state, but which seem quasi-adjectives like
Latin liomani) burhpare, citizens Cant-pare, Kentish folks
:
; ;

names of peoples Dene, Danes Momdne, Romans. :

—
Umlaut. IjWQfot decline tod, tooth; and see § 91.
;

87. {Stems in -r and -nd.)

SixGULAR, — r-stem. nd-stem.
J\^07n.,A.,&V. hvodoY. feond.
Gen brodor. feondes.
Dat. <& Inst. . . . breder. feonde.
Plural. —
]Srom.,A.,<&iV. brodru, brodor. fj-nd, feond, -as.
Gen brodra. feonda.
Dat. & Inst... . brodrum. feondum.

The changes 6 to ^,a to e, and eo to p, are i-umlaut concealed. ^ 32, 2.

These irregulars conform to the f-stems. ^ 91, 4, 5. For others, see § 100.
The Gothic has hropar,brupr-s,hropr,brd])ar ; plur. (like w-stems) brop-

ju-s, bropr-Ci brdj/r-u-m, bropr-ii-ns. The other Teutonic tongues show pe-
culiar forms (often undeclined) in their r- and ?j</-stems. See ^ 100, f.
44 DECLENSION II. (FEMININES).

Stem in a or i. Genitive sincrulai" i" ©•

88. — I. Case endings iVoni II. - — Case-endings from stem

stem a+relational suftixes. i-f relational suffixes.

Stem .... Sifa,gift. dffidi, deed.

Theme.. .
gif. dffid.

SiXGULAK. —
JVoTiiinative .
gift«.
dffid.

Genitive .... gife. dffide.

Dative gife. dffide.

Accusative . .

gUu, gife. dffid, dffide.

Vocative hi.
gif« dffid.

Instrumental. aifc. d&de.

Plural. —
Kominative . .
gif(?, gif,2. dtede, dffid^,
Genitive . .
gifa, giiend. djedfl
Dative. . . .
gifum. djedwm.
Accusative . . .

gif(?, gife. dffide, d«dd.

Vocative S^^^i 8^^^' da;de, dffid<^.
Instrimiental. gi^wn. dsedi^w?.

88.— 1(a). Sniifknt. G reck. Latin. Gothic. Old Saxon, 01(1 Norse.

a^va, Xwpa. equa, giba, geba, giafa,

Stem.
1 mare. room. mare. sift- wft.
Singular. —
Nominative.. a9va, Xojpa equa giba geba giof
equa-es ~i

Genitive - gebo >

a9va-j-as \ojpa-Q equa-i ,-
gibo-s giafa-r
geba )
equae )

equal ) gebo )
Dative a9vai "^
. gibai gi6f(u)
a9va-j-ai ) equ» ) gebu )

Accusative... a9va-ra X^Jpa-v equa-m giba geba giof

Vocative a9ve Xiopa equa giba (Nomin.') (Nomin.')
Instrumental a9va-j-a {Dat.) {Ahlat.) {Dat.) (Dative.') (Dative.)
Pldkal. —
a9va-sas equas
Nominative . .
X^pai gibci-s geba giafa-r
acva-s equa-s

Genitive I equa-rum gibo gcbo-n-o giafa

XojpoJv
( a9va-n-am i

/ r . N ( equa-bus
^ ") ., « ( gebu-n ( gicifu-m
Dative a9va-blijas (Local.) < > gibo-m
( equis ) ( gebo-n ( giiifo-ni

Accusative... a9va-s X''^P"'C equa-s gibo-s geba giafa-r

The Old High German hd.s geba, g'ebd {a),geb6 geba, geba g'ebo (a),(u), ;

gebono, g'cbom, gcbo (a). The 0. Friesic has siug.jeve; T^\nT.jeva,jevend

{jevd),jevum {on),jcva.
 STRONG FEMININES. 45

To the 1st class belong all femiuiues in v. They are few

(b.) :

fa7'ii,^onvney ; l>.ffu,\ove; sceamu, shame ; scohc, school pracii, ]

revenge compounds in -paru {burh-paric, state, etc.).

j

(c.) For the Parent Speech, add the endings in § 62 to the stem. Grav-
itation has carried away all the consonants from the Anglo-Saxon case-end-
ings except the m of the dative
a nasalizing of the original bh plural, which is

(^ 71, b) 71 in
gifend is euphonic epenthesis (^ 50), as in Sanskrit, a con-
;

formation with the weak form in an ; in gifum (gifdm) assimilates the a m

(^ 35, 2, a). The plural -d suffered precession in late Anglo-Saxon to -a,
then to -e, which in English drops. The original -d is retained in the para-
digms as the classic sound.
Plural -e is a conformation with the ^-stems, influenced also
(</.) perhaps
by the Latin. In the sixth century, Latin se^=e ; -m, -s were silent.

(e.) Root a sometimes suffers shifting to a?, or even i-umlaut to e, before

-e : 5acu, strife, genitive ssece ; pracu,TeYenge,ddiii\eprace,prxce,prece,
etc. ^^41,32.
(/.) Here also are placed nouns in -0<i-ti undeclinable in the singular,

from adjectives yld-u, -o, : -e (eld, age), plur. yldu, -o, -e, yldd, yldum ; plural
nom. and ace. in a is found :
yldd (Grein),yrwirfff, miseries. So arfe/o, nobil-
ity ; brmdo, breadth, etc. The plural is rare. Similar words in Gothic are
weak :
manag-eins (multitude), -ein, -ein, -ei, plur. manag-cins, -eino, -eim,
-eins. O. H. German has -in for -ein; O. Saxon has strong forms. The
A. -Saxon words conform with the a-stems. ^ 40, 1.

{g.) For duru, door ; ^e,law leo, bee ea, river sx, sea
; ; ; ;
forms from
j'a-stems, etc., see ^ 100 ; for Northumbrian forms, see page 49.

89.— (88, II.) Stem in i.

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Old Saxon. Old Norae.
( anstai, ansti, asti,
^vi, ofi, ovi,
1 love. love. love.
slieep. sheep. sheep.
Singular. —
Xom rtvi-3 ovi-s anst-s anst ast
oft-c
Gen avj-as opt-oc ovi-s anstai-s ansti, ensti ast-ar

Dat Loco^-i Loc. oy\ anstai ansti, ensti ast-u

tivj-ai

Ace avi-m ove-m anst anst ast

i)\i-v
Yoc ave oRi (Norn) anst (Nam.') (Nom.)
Inst avj-a (Dative.) Ahl. oyiid) (Dative.) (Dative.) (Dative.)
Pliirai.. —
Nom. & Yoc. dvaj-as ("fi-fc ovu-s anstci-s ansti, ensti asti-r

Gen avi-n-am opt'-wi'

ovi-um anste anstjo, enste-6 ust-a

Dat avi-bhjas Zoc. ("fi-fft ovi-lms ansti-m anstju-n, enstjn-n ast-um

Ace avi-s ovc-s ansti-ns ansti, ensti asti
opi-ac

The O. High German has anst, ensti anst, ensti anst, anst ; ensti, enstj-o
cnsteo, ensti-m, ensti. The Old Friesic has ned, nede, nede, nede ; neda,
ncda, ncd-d, ncdi-m<.ncdem, -urn, -on, ncda. Masc. and neut. /-stems were
common in the older tongues but few masc. survive in A. -Sax. ^^ 64, d ; 86.
;
46 DECLENSION II.— I-STEMS.

90—11. C ase-endings < stem i + rel. suffixes. Nomiuative in — .

Stem . 1. dc-edi, deed. 2. pynni,/*«?j. 3. beadpi, battle.

Theme d<ed. pynn. beadp (u, o), beadup.

Singular
I^om. . djed. beadu (o).
Gen. . . diwde. pynne. beadpe, beadupe.
Dot. . . d&dc. pynnc. beadpe, beadupe.
j dffid, pyn. beadu (o),
Ace. . .
j j
( d^de. ( pynne. ( beadpe, beadupe.
Vbc. . . died, pyn- beadu (o).
Inst. . . d^de. pynne. beadpe, beadupe.
Plural.—
JVbm. . dffide {a). pynne (a), beadpe (a), beadupe (a).
Gen. . . dffidfl pynna. beadpd, beadupa.
Dot, . . d^di«?2. \yyi\num. beadpt<m, beadupto?z.
Ace. . . d&de ((?). pynne («).beadpe (a), beadupe (d).
Vbc. . . d&de («). pyune (d). beadpe (a), beadupe (a).
Inst. . .
'pymnan. headpum, beadup^^m.

Stem, 4. boci, Joo/w 5. mftsi, mouse. 6. ceasteri, city.

Theme boo. mfts. ceaster, ceastr.

Singular
]Vb?n. . b6c. mils, ceaster.
Gen. . boce. muse, ceastre.
Bat. . bee. mys. ceastre.
ceaster.
j
Ace. . boc mils.
{
ceastve.
Vbc. . boc. m<is. ceaster.
list. . bee. rays. ceastre.

Plural.
bee. mys. ceastre {d).
Gen. . hoed. mA^d. ceastrtl
Dat. . hocum. ratiswm. ceastrt^m.
Ace. . bee. m^s. ceastre {d).
Vbc. . bee. mys. ceastre (d).
Inst. . hocum. ixiAmmi. ceastrt^?^.

91. To the 2d class belong all ferainines ending in a consonant:

they arc simple monosyllables; derivatives in -e?, -e?i, -er ; -ung ;

 STRONG NOUNS (FEMININES). 47

->ils, -nes; -es ; -oc ; -od, -ud^ d; p-; nearly all strong feminines
conform.

(a.) The feminines of the first Sanskrit declension are a-stems and
2-stems.

{b.) of stem i in the singular nominative, accusative, and

The apocope
vocative, the effect of gravitation (^ 38). That short roots retain the stem
is

vowel {gifu, etc.). while long roots drop it {daid, etc.), shows compensation
(^ 37). Compare the feminine of the strong adjectives.

(c.) The
singular accusative -e, the plural nominative, accusative, and
vocative -c?, and dative -nin<^-im., are conformations with the 1st class.
SS 40, 1.

A. (1. Common Form.) — Like dsbd decline words of this de-

clension ending in a syllable long by nature or position dr, honor ; :

Mn^ prayer ; Mr, lore ; rod, cross ; pund, wound ; pyrd, fate ; ge-
sammmg, assembly ;
so also ides, woman, and some other words
in a short syllable.

(a.) like hoc and mils (4, 5), and like da, cleo (^ 100).
Except words
(b.) Many have sometimes -d in the dative some originally -u stems : re-

taining it, others conforming

—
words in -ung oftenest. § 93, i.

B. (2.
—
Geinination) Like pyn decline words of this declen-
sion ending short in a consonant ben, wound ; hlis, bliss ; hen, :

lien hyrgen, sepulcher gpnen, care prtnis, trinity, etc.

—Like headu
; ; ;

(3. Semivowel Gemination.) decline feminines in

p>t« (§ 30) :
gearu, gear ; sccadu, shadow, but sceade, sceadd are
found; rsesu, providence; seonu, sinew.
(a.) Except syncopated forms like ceaster, and a few like d&d.
{b.) For the simplification of gemination pynny-pyn, see § 20, Rule 13.

(c.) The vp is made in

II of closing the organs to^ (^ 27, 5). It may
suffer precession to o>e (^ 38). Final ^>i< is shifting (§ 30 ; 41, 2).

C. (4, 5.
—
Umlaut.) Like boc decline broc, breeches ; gds, goose.
Like mils decline Ms, louse ; for cit, cow ; burh, borough ; tur/,
turf, see § 100. Note also dohtor, speoster, moder.
(a.) The changes in the roots of boc, mus, etc., are i-umlaut concealed;

bec<bdci (Old Saxon boci), ^ 32, 2.

D. (6.
—
Syncope.) Like ceaster decline syncopated words of
this declension they end in an unaccented vowel before I, n, r,
:

or sometimes other single consonants (§ 40) sapel, soul ; stefen, :

voice ; lifer, liver Unsyncopated forms occur.

; meoluc, milk.
E. For forms from ?a-stems hand, hand niht, night piht, ; ; ;

whit, see § 100. For Northumbrian forms, see page 49.

48 DECLEIS'SIUN III. (U-STEMS).

92. STRONG NOUNS (MASCULINES).

I. Jlcacl-cases in a Voiccl. — Genitive iu a. (Declension III.)

Case-endings < stem ii + relational suffixes. Xominative in u.

Feminine hand (hand) is added.
Stem 1. sunu, son. 2. handu, hand.
Theme sun. hand.

No'minative. . sun?/. hand.

Genitive sund hand^.
Dative sunc2, sunz^ liandt:?, hand.
Accusative . . . sunz^ hand.
Vocative sun?^ hand.
Instrumental. suna. handa, hand.
Plukal. —
nominative. . &\xmi (o), sunc^. handa.
'
Genitive \ ^ [• handd.
( Bunewa. )

Dative &\\\nan. handtwr.

Accusative... suni< (o), suna. handa.
Vocative sun?< (o), sun<?. liandd.
Instrumental. ^mnim. handwm.
93. To
the third declension belong suniij pudu^vioo^', magu,
servant and bregu, prince ; headu-, fight ; heoru, sword
:
lagxi^ ;

lake; meodu, mead; salu, hall; sidu, custom, and a few others,
found mostly in the singular nominative and accusative, and in

composition.
(a.) This declension corresponds to the Latin second in so far as it con-
tains those masculine nouns which have their head-cases in a vowel, and so
is a complement of declension second. In its original stem it
corresponds to
the Latin fourth. ^ 101, b.
Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gotliic. Old Saxon. Old Noree.
f sunu, vtKv, fructu, siuiu, sunu, sonu,
btcm ) /> -^
( son, corpse. ji-uit. son. son, son.
Singular. —
Nominative.. sunii-s vtKv-g fructu-s sxmu-s sunu, -o £on-r

^ . . « , . ,. A
sunau-s
fsun(u)-o)
Genitive sunv-as viKv-oc fructu-s S . ,- sona-r
( sunje-s )

Dative from ( sunau ) , (fructu-i)

J (sunu, -o,)>•
< . , . r v(Kv-i ^ > smiau -< . sjtii
Locative... (. sunav-i) ( fructu) (,
sunje )

Accusative. . . sunii-m v'tKV-v fructu-m sunu sunu, -o son

Vocative sA'no vtKV (Nomin,) sunau, -u (^Nomin.) (Nomin.)
Instrumental. sunii-n-a (Dat.) {Ablat,') (^Dative.} sunju {Dative.)
 STRONG NOUNS (MASCULINES). 49
Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Old Saxon. Old Norse.
„ ( sunu,' vtKv, fructu, sunu, ' sunu,' sonu.
Stem i . .

Plural. — <- son. corpse. Jruit. son. son. son.

. .
fsunav-as) ,
c .'
-.-^
Nominative, -j , . ^ viKv-ic, iructu-s suniu-s .,
sum syni-r
.1
( sunv-as )

Genitive sunii'-n-am vncv-uv fructu-um suniv-e sunj-o, -eo son-a

Dative sunu-bhjas (^Locat.') fructi-bus sunu-m sunu-n sonu-m
. . ( sunu'-n ) , ^ .
Accusative.. ^, ^ , r viKv-ag Iructu-s sunu-ns sum sonu
(. sunv-as ) ^

The Old High German has sunu (0), suncs, sunju (sunu), sunu (0), sunju
(sunu) suni, sunjo, siinim (sunum), sunt (u).
; The li-declension is near-
ly extinct. O. Fries, sun-u (0), -a -a, -u ; -ar (-a), -a, -um, -ar (-a).

(b.) Gravitation has carried away all the consonants from the Anglo-Saxon
case-endings, except the -in of the dative plural, which is a nasalizing of the
original bh. ^ 38.
(c.) The Gothic du of the genitive and dative singular is a' progression
from u (sunu-as'^sundu-as^sundus),^ 38, 1. The Anglo-Saxon a nearly
resembles it, and is retained in the paradigms as the classic sound, though it
suffered precession in later times.

(d.) The instrumental sund, handd are dative forms.

(e.) The plural -u^-0 is precession : it is found also in the singular.
1.
§38,
(/.) The plural -d and -end conform to the second declension.
(g.) Note the umlaut and shifting in the Old Norse 5>r, v^O, U^i/. :

(h.) Handconforms almost wholly to the first declension.

(i.) Some words originally w-stems retain the forms of this declension in

single cases, especially in the singular dative -a, and plural nominative, ac-
cusative, and vocative -u: feldd, field fordd, ford sumord, summer; pin- ; ;

trd, pintru, winter dura, door. Some words of other stems conform in the
;

same cases :
peoruldd, world
gehrodru, brothers dohlru, daughters ; ; ;
mo-
dru, mothers gespeostru, sisters feminines in -ung.
; ;

(k.) For irregular forms o?pudu, magu, hand, etc., see § 100.

94. NoRTUUMBPvIAX.
Feminines, Declension II. In words of the First Class -a is found for
—
Common Anglo-Saxon -u or -e. Feminines sometimes have -es in the geni-
tive singular and -as in the plural, and then may pass for masculines.

Singular. — Norn, geffl.

Plural. — Nom. ge^ds.
Gen.. geks(aes). Gen., gefena.
Dat.. gefa. Dat.. gefwm.

Masculines, Declen. I. and III. —Here a for u is found : suria for sunu ;

also the complete descending series o(H: sicno, sune, sun, sun. §1 38, 1.

Nouns strong in Common Anglo-Saxon often have weak forms or mixed

weak forms in Northumbrian. The genitive -end abounds.
strong and
D
50 DECLENSION IV .—AN-STEMS.

05. WEAK NOUNS.

Case-endings < stem an + relational suffixes. — Genitive in an
(Declension IV.)
1. Masculines. 2. Feminines. 3. Neuters. Contracts.
hanan, tungan, eagan, taan,
Stem .

•1 code. tongue. eye. toe.

Theme ban. tung. eag. ta.
SlJJGULAK.-
Noin. bana. tunge. cage. tae, ta.
Gen. . banavi. tungan. e^i^an. taan, tan.
Bat. . hana>i. tungaw. eagan. taan, tan.
Ace. . banaw. tunga?^. eage. taan, tan.
Voc. . bana. tunge. eage. tae, ta.
Inst. . bana;?. tungaw. taan, tan.
eagan.
Plural. —
Nom. bana/i. tungan. eagan. taan, tan.
Gen. . banewa. tungewd. eagend. iaend, tana.
Dat. .
Iwn^uni. eag?(!/n. taum.
Ace. . banaw. tungan. eagan. taan, tan.
Voc. . bana?*. tungan. eaccan. taan, tan.
Inst. . ban?<m. tungwm. eag?«n. imcni.

To the weak
declension belong certain monosyllable themes
and derivative themes in -ig, -I, -m, -n, -r, -s, -p, all adding -a or
-e in the nominative.

(a.) Stems in -an are of the third declension in Latin and Greek.
 WEAK NOUNS. 51

(b.) The singular case-endings are sloughed off; and,

in the nominative,

n of the stem. In the genitive plural, d has held its ground, and gravitation
has modified the stem : a>e> — :
arena, drnd, honor. The dative has

ecthlipsis of
n
(^ 47), and assimilative precession
of to icm (^ 35, 2, a). am
(c.) Feminines in Gothic strengthen to o the a of the stem -an through-
and the d of the case-ending of the genitive plural. In Anglo-Saxon
out,
all genders agree ;
but feminines in the nominative, and neuters in the nom-

inative, accusative, and vocative, for final a take e (Precession, ^ .38).

(d.) The stem in a)l was mostly masculine, but has been going over to
the feminines in the Teutonic tongues (^ 67, 2).

(e.) The same peculiar gravitation which has brought the short fl-stems
to the form of consonant stems in declension first, has here produced a new

declension by sloughing away the endings and stem. This new declension
has been adopted by the Teutonic nations as their favorite for secondary
formations having the force of an adjective used as a noun, and for definite
in the Teutonic tongues a historical and logical im-
adjectives ; and it has
portance coordinate with the strong forms.
In English the Norman -s join-
ed with -5 of the Anglo-Saxon first to kill it, and oxen, with the irregular
children, brethren, is almost its only memorial in current speech.

96. Like hana decline all weak nouns in -a : bana, deatli ;

cempa, soldier ; c^rcyx^, drop ; ffiana, man; himta, huntei'; mona,

moon ; oxa, ox ; prcccca, exile ; nafela, navel ; hodnia^ covering ;

geongra, disciple; egesa^ awe; rwspa, general; gemaca, mate.

Some remains of stems in -icai arc found preccea =precca, ag- :

Idbcea^ monster, etc.

97. Like tunge decline all weak noims in -e: byrne, mail;
eorde, earth ; heorte, heart ; sunne, sun ; sgrce, sark ; puce, Aveek ;
hlsefdige, lady ; f&mne, woman ; ^iscdre, snake ; pudupe, widow.
(a.) Except the four
neuters (§ 98).

(6.) Now
and then forms are found in -can for -an, either remains of

stems in -ian, or conforming to such stems :

cyrice, cyricean, church.

98. Like edge decline edre, ear ; lunge, lungs clype, clew. ;

99. Like tCt decline bed,hee,bedn, etc.; and masculine /reaa>

fred, freaan yfredn, lord ; tpeoa > iped, tpeoan > tpeon^ doubt.

ISToRTiiuMBRiAN. — (
WeoJc Kouns. )

Final -n and -in drop. The a of -an often suffers precession in the
masculines to O or c, in the feminines and neuters to %i, 0,
or e. Nouns
weak in Common Anglo-Saxon have often strong forms, or mixed strong
and weak in Northumbrian : noma (nama), name, genitive nojna, names.

By comparing pages 49, 61, it will be seen that the Northumbrian

forms
older than the Common Anglo-Saxon and
vary irregularly between forms
others modified by gravitation and conformation almost as much as the En-

glish. See page 1'.).

52 IRREGULAR NOUNS.

100. IRREGULAR NOUNS.

Such arc Avithout case-endings (Indeclinable), or without
certain cases (Defective) or they vary in gender (Hetekogk- ;

NEOUs), in stem (Metaplasts), in case-endings (Heteroclites) ;

or they arc remains of dead declensions {Meliquicc, Relics) or ;

are disguised by iihouctic changes (Cryptoclites) The same .

noun may belong to several of these classes.

(a.) Indeclinable are many nouns in -li^O (^ 88,/) :

wdclu, f. no-

bility; h:ctu, f. heat; hccVutu, f.

highth, etc. ;
and w, f. law; bco, hi, f. bee,
declined.
pi.

(i.) Defective. —Without tlie pkiral are most proper, abstract, and ma-
terial names :
Mlfred ; s^ren^rfw, f.
strength ^oZc?, n. gold.
;
Sometimes
the plural has a change of meaning A, rites gifla (w), nuptials leode, :
; ;

men? -pare, men 1 Without the singular are file ni, n. wings; frds, m.
men ; frwlpe, f. ornaments ;
gearpe, f.
trappings ; geatpc, f.
equipment ; ge-
brdctor(u), m. brothers gespeostor, f. sisters
; ; gespeoru, n. hills ;
getimbru,
n. building ; lendenu, n. loins niddus, men ; ; -paran, -paras, -pare, m. citi-

zens pel eras (-o), m. f.

lips.

(c.)
;

Heterogeneous. — Masculine and Neuter are deufol, devil ; dogor,

day; feorh, life frid, peace; gcpanc, mind ; God, m., plur. godas, m.,
;

godu, n. God, idols ; gyrii, distress heafod, n. head, plur. sometimes heaf-
;

dus,xa..; Aeajo,heap hilt,\d\i\ holt, \\o\i; nrceJ, house tung o I, star p&l,
; ; ;

weel pesten, waste pam, spot polcen, cloud brim, sea cealf, calf
; ; ; ; ;

Feminine and Neuter are sebylgd, offense xdelu, sing, f., plur. n. nobil- ;

ity safest, envy

; gepeaht, counsel gift, dower grin, snare liget, light-
; ; ; ;

ning peostor, n., peostru, f. darkness; pwd, pwde, weeds; piht, whit.
;

Masculine and Feminine are ierist, resurrection bend, bond hearg, ; ;

grove; list, art; nedhpest,{. m. vicinage; ^a;, sea ; luck; str&l, arrow;
siel,

sper, column ; peard, watch ; pelerds {-a), lips ; leod, f. a people, plur. m. ?

leode, men
paru, f. state, plur. -pare, m. ? citizens (^ 86) est, love.
; ;

Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter are pred, throe pxstm, growth. ;

(d.) Metaplasts.
—
Forms from stems in -la, -lan, mix with others:
plencu, pomp, plur. gen. plcnced ; c&g, f. key, plur. nom. c&gid ; fisc, m.
f.

nom. fisceds ; Ixce, m. leech, plur. nom. Iwceds; clrice, f. church,

fish, plur.

plur. nom. ciricean. From w-stems duru, pudu, magu, like sunu {^ 92), :

also gen. dure ? pudes, plur. nom. pudds, magds ; hand, etc. (^ 93, i). To
some stems -cr is added wg, egg; cealf calf; cild, child (^ 82). Stems
:

with and without quasi-gemination (^^ 81,91) sceadu, f. shadow, dat. scea- :

dvpc, sceadc ; fri, freo, m. freeman, plur. nom. frige, freo. Metathesis :

fisc, m. fish, plur. nom. fixds. Many conforming regulars, and heteroclites,
are metaplastic
(e.)Heteroclites. —
Many beterogeneous strong nouns (1) with ]\Iascu-
line and Neuter endings: God, m. God, plur. m. Godds, n. Godu; heafod,
n. head, plur. n. heafodu, plur. m. hcafdds. (2) With Feminine and Neu-
 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 53

ter endings n. &festes, pi. nom. f. xfeste ; gift, f. dower,

:
skfest, envy, gen.

plur. nom. f.
gifld, n. giftu; grin, snare, inst. grine, grine, plur.
nom. grind,
grinu.
is (3) With Masculine and Feminine :
hend, bond, plur. nom. bendds,
-a, -e ; sx, sea, gen. s&s, ssb; pelcrds, -a, lips. Many themes have both
weak and strong forms :
heofon, heofon-e, heaven ; sunn-u, sunn-c, sun ;

-par-ds, -par-an, men ;

but such are given as different words. Some mix :

cwg, key, gen. avgan, dat. c&ge, plur. nom. cxgid, dat. cxgum.
f.

(/.) Relics of the r-stem are brodor, hrother (^ 87); modor, mother;
Jy/j^or, daughter iy^cos^o?-, sister gebrudor, gcbrudru (dual ?), brothers
; ; ;

gespeostor, sisters ; fasdcr, father, sing, indecl. has also gen. and pi. forms of
Declension Third ;
of the ?ic?-stem are fcond, fiend (^ 87) frcond, friend ; ;

and (compound) participial nouns ymb-sittend, neighbors, plur. nom. fold- :

;

buend, farmers; i)lur. nom. sometimes in -ds, gen. -rd, like adjectives; of
other consonant stems neaht, f. night, gen. nihte, nihtes, generally adverb-
:

ial, plur. nom. niht ; piht, f. whit, plur. nom. (piht, Grimm) pihtd, pihtu,

pihte; burg, f. borough, gen. byrg, bi/rig; man, man (^ 84).

{g.) Cryptoclites.
—
The most common obscure forms spring from
1. Concealed umlaut. See, for paradigms, Jtic, book 7/im5, mouse (^ 90) ; ;

brodcr, brother fcond, fiend {^ 87)

man, m.an like are
fot, foot ; (^ 84) ; ; ;

brbc, breeches gos, goose tod, tooth ;lus, louse mus, mouse cu, f. cow,
; ; ; ;

gen. cits (Rask), dat. cy, ace. cu, plur. nom. cy, eye {cus, Rask), gen. cund,
dat. cum ; burg, burh, f. borough, gen. byrig, burge, dat. byrig, byrg, plur.
nom. byrig, gen. burgd, dat. burgum; turf, f. turf, dat. tTjrf; modor, dolitor,

speostor; freond, friend.

2. Quasi-gemination of semi-vowels paradigms of bcadu, battle (^ 90, :

3) ; here, host {^ Like are frxlupe (a), frcetpe (d), f. plur. orna-
85, a).
ment gearpe, f. plur. trappings gcalpc, f. plur. equipment ncaru, f. nar-
; ; ;

rowness ra;5t(, f. providence scon?/, f. sinew ??ie/i<, n. meal eaZw, n. ale,

; ; ; ;

etc.; and fri, freo, m. freeman, pine, m. friend, plur. plur. x\.
frige, freo ;

nom. pinds, pine, gen. pind, pinid,pinigd, pmiged, da.t. pi7ium, ace. pinds, pine.
3. Apothesis and Contraction words in ?<>0 indeclinable (^ 100, a). —
bi, beo, f. bee, sing, indeclinable, plur. nom. beon, gen. beond, dat. bcoum,
eld, f. claw, plur. nom. cldpe, dat. cJdm. [beom.
dry, rn. magician, dat. dry, plur. nom. dryds, gen. dryrd.
ed, f. river, gen. cd, &, cds (m.), dat. cd (ie, Rask), plur. nom. cd, cds (m.),
dat. cdm.
feoh, fco, n. fee, gen. f&us, dat. fco; plur. nom. fco, gen. fcona, fed
(<Cfeohd): so hreoh, pleoh, peoh, etc.
hoh, ho, m. bough, gen. hus, dat. ho, plur. nom. hos, gen. hud, etc.
hrdp, hr&p, hredp, hrd, hrcd, n. sing, and plur. nom.
ace. voc. body, corpse,

gen. hriJbs {<Chr&pes), plur. nom. hr&pds, dat. hr&pum.

morgen, m. morning, plur. gen. morgcnd, morgnd, mornd.
sA, m. f sea, gen. sii:s, s&pe, sx, dat. 5a', si'pe, plur. nom. sihs, s&, dat.
sow, d. sue.
pupil, gen. seon, scdn. sugu, su, [sxm, sxpum.
f. f.
SCO,
treop, treb, n. tree, gen. treopes, plur.
nom. treopu, tripu, treop, treo.

}}red, f. m. n. throe, indeclinable, plur. dat. predum, predm.

54 TROrER NAMES.

101. PROPER NAMES.

(1.) Persons. — JVames of icomen in -u or a consonant are
stronrf, those in -e or -a «re tcca/c. Declension II., d-stem : Begu,
Freaparu ; i-stem : Beadoliilcl,
Ilygd, and most others. Declen-
sion IV.: Elene, Eve, Ada, Maria, etc., from foreign names ;
Pealhl)eo(p), dat. Pealhl^eun (§ 99).
Names of men in -u, -e, or a consonant are strong, those in -a
are xoeah. Declension III., xi-stem : Leofsiinu ? Declension I,
a-stem: iElfred, Beupulf, Eadmund, Sigemund {gen. also Sige-
inuiKle<mund,/'. iias/t) ? Poland, and -most other strong names ;
syncopated: Ecg]3eo(p), gen. Ecgl)e6pes, Ecg]3eues, etc.; Ongen-
])eu(p); Gvende], <7e?^. Gren deles, Grendles, etc.;
Hredcl ; ia-
stem: Ine, Hedde, Gislhere, Pulfhere, Eadpiue, Godpine, and
others from -here and -pine; umlaut not found: Hereman, dat.
lleremanne. Declension IV.: iEtla, Becca, and many others.

(a.) retain foreign declension, or are unde-

Foreign names sometimes
clmcd, but are generally declined as above ; those in -as, -es, -us do not
often increase m
the genitive. Those from Latin -us, Greek -oq, of the
second declension, sometimes drop their endings and take those of the
Anglo-Saxon first: Crist (< Christus), Cristes, Criste, eic. In less fa-
miliar ivords -us oftenest stands in the nom. and gen., but sometimes the
Latin and Anglo-Saxon forms mix throughout: Petrus, gen. Petrus, Petres,
Petri, dat. Petro, Petre, ace. Petrus, Petrum ;
so -as and -es Andreas, gen.
:

Andreas, dat. Andrea, ace. Andrews, Andream ; Herodes, Herodes, Herodc,

Herod-em, -es, or -e.
(b.) hi Gothic these Latin and Greek names of the second declension are

regiilarlij given in the u-declcnsion : Paitrus, gen. Paitraus, dat. Paitrau,

ace. Paitru (^ 93, a). The Anglo-Saxon genitive Petrus may be a relic
of the u-declension.

(2.) Peoples. — Plurals in -as a7id -e are strong, in -an iceaJc.

Declension I, a-stem : Brittas, Scottas, etc. ; ia-stem and i-stem :

Dene, ge^i. Den-a, -ia, -iga, -gea (§ 85, a) Romane, etc. Declen- ;

sion IV. : Gotan, Seaxan, etc.

Tlie singular is oftenest an adjective in -isc regularly declined:

Egyptisc \\\^w, Egrjptian man ; Egyptisc idies, Egyptian woman;

J)a Egyptiscan, the Egyptians, etc. Sometimes an Brit, a Briton.
Often is found a collective loith a genitive, or with an adjective,
or compounded : Seaxnal)e6d; Filistea folc Caldeacyn; Ebrea ;

peras; Sodomisc cyn Rom-pare (§ 86); Nord-men (§84, 3),eic.

;

Foreign names are treated as are names of persons.

(3.) CouNTKiES,
—
A fell} feminiyie names are found: Engel,
England ; Bryten, Britannia. Oftenest is found the jjeople's
 SUMJVIARY OF CASE-ENDINGS. 55
'

name in the genitive with laud, rice, edel, etc.^ or in an oblique

case icith a preposition : Engla land ; Sodoma rice ; on East-En-
glum of Seaxum on Egyptum.
; ; Foreign names are treated as
are names of persons.
(4.) Cities. — Names found alone are regularly declined accord-
ing to gender and endings: Rom,/. Rome; Babylon, n. Babylo-
nes; Sodoma, m. Sodoman. Oftenest they are prefixed undecUned
to burg, ceaster, pic, dtin, ham, etc.:
Luuden-pic, Roma-burg, etc.;
or the folk's name in the genitive followed by burg, ceaster, etc., is
used: Caldea burg. Foreign names treated as names
of persons.

102. WEATHERING OF C AS E - E NDIN G S.

(1.) Anglo-Saxon : Strong. Weak.
/
-^ , ,
A
^

Masculine. |
Neuter. | y^^. Maso. I I
Masc. Fem. Neut.
Decl. I. I
Decl. I. I
Decl. II. Decl. III. I |
Decl. IV.
Head-cases ia a consonant. j
Head-cases in a vowel. |
Head-cases in -an.
Stem a ia i a ia a i u an an an
Singular. —
N.&.V.
Gen
-e e - e u - u a e e
es es es es es e e a. an an an
Dot o e e e e e e a an an an
Ace _ e e - e u, e e,
- u an an e
Inst e e e e e e e a. an an an
Plukal. — ^— V —'
as - u a a an
N.,A.,&jV. as as e, u, a, e e, u, 0,
Gen u, a a a a a, ena a, cna ena,

D. & In&t. . . um um urn iim um um um um

(2.) Layamon:
Singular. — ,

N.,A.,&,V. - en - e en e e, en
e, e, -,
Gen es es es es e, -, en, es e, es en, e, es
D.&Inst... e, en e, en e, en e, en e, -, en c en, e

N.,A.,& V. es, en, e e, -, es, en e, en, es e, en, es en, e, es

Gen e, ene,en,es e, en, es e, en, ene, es en, es en, ene, enen
D.&Inst.... en, e, es en, e, es en, es en, es en, e

found here and there)

Here is precession of all the vowels to e {^ 38) (a is ;

(2), shifting of VI to n (^ 41, Zi) (3), a conflict everywhere between s and

;

n, the weak and strong form. In the earlier manuscript n most abounds,
in the later s. Norman influence, ^ 95, c.

(3.) Ormulum. — Singular, N., A.,V.,D., I. alilcc ; Genitive -ess. Plural,

all cases alike m -ess. Singular dative -e is found with prepositions in a
few phrases, and Plural genitive -e (Northern dialect).
(4.) Chaucer instead of -ess has -es or -s: king, kinges; lover, lovers.
The last form brings us to Modern English. Irregular forms having um-
laut {^ 100, g), or plural -e?i (^ 'J5, c), or indeclinable from r-stems or neu-
ters plural (^ 100,/), are found in Chaucer, and a few still survive.
IjQ ADJECTIVES.— INDEFINITE DECLENSION,

IV. ADJECTIVES.
INDEFINITE AND DEFINITJC DECLENSIONS.
103. An adjective in Anglo-Saxon lias one set of strong and
one of -weak endings for each gender. The latter are used when
the adjective is preceded by the definite article or some word
like it. Hence there are two declensions, the indefinite and the
definite.
10-t. — I. 27ie Indefinite Declension.

Case-endings < stem a, a, or i -|- relational suffixes.

IMasculine. Feminine. Neuter.

<^ j blinda, Llinda, blindi, blinda,

* *

( blind. blind. blind:

Theme . blind. blind. blind.

ISTom blind blind (?<) blind

Gen blinder blindj'c bliudcs
Dat \Aiu([um blindre hYm^wn
Ace blindwe blinde blind
Voc blind blind (?/) blind
Inst blindc? blindre bl.indc
Plural. —
Nom blinde. blinde blindz*
Gen blindrc? blindrt? blindm
Dat blindM?J2 blind^<»^ blindi^»i
Ace blinde blinde bliudw
Voc blinde blinde blindw
Inst hYmdiinn hWndian hWn^uni

(a.) In other Indo-European languages the adjective is declined like the

substantive ;
in the Teutonic it follows the pronominal declension. This
has been explained by supposing a composition in the Teutonic between the
adjective stem and a pronoun (in Sanskrit jas, jd, Jad, a relative) which it
is suggested must have been in the Teutonic Parent Speech j'is, ja, jata ;

; ja7nma, jizai, jamma ; jana, ja, jata ; je, jizai, je ;

jis, jizos, jis plural,
jai,j6s,ja; jize,jtz6,jize; jaim; jans,jos,ja, and have had a demonstra-
tive sense. Whether there has been a composition with a particular pro-
noun, or a conformation to the pronominal declension, must, in the absence
of decisive phonetic demonstration, be decided from the meaning and the ;

fact that this is the indefinite form, and is not used where the sense calls for
a demonstrative, weighs heavily against composition with a demonstrative.
(b.) We
give the demonstrative pronoun from which comes the definite
article :
 THE TRONOMINAL DECLENSION. 57

Stem,
68 ADJECTIVES.— THE DEFINITE DECLENSION.

105. — II. The Definite Declension.

Case-endings < stem an + relational suffixes.

Mascdlike. Fkminine. Nedter.

Stem., blindan, W«i(?. bliudan, blindau,
Theme blind. blind. blind.

Singular. — —~^— '

";
—-^^ " —"^^
Nom se blind«. seo blinde. J^rot blinde.
Gen ]3ges blindan. J)£ere blinda;?. Jjajs blinda??.
Dat l^)am blinda^i. ])a)re blindaw. })am blindaw.
Ace ]5one blinda??. })ii
blinda'?^. liffit blinde.
Voc se blinda. seo blinde. l^ait blinde.
Inst ]^)y
blind a?^. J)iere blinda;?. J>y blinda?z.
Plural. —
*"

N'om J)a blinda?i.

Gen ])ara, blindeww.
Dat J)am blindz<??i.

Ace J)a blind«?i.

Voc ])a,
blind a?i.
Inst J)ara blindzww.

106. — Theme ending Short {Moot Shifting).

Stem., glada, glad. glada, gladi. glada.
Theme glad > glred. glad>gl£ed. glad>gl£ed.

JVbm glsed. glad?^. glred.

Ge}i glades. gisedre. glades.
Dat gladi«?i. glrodre. gladwm.
Ace glaedwe. glade. glsed.
Voc glsed. gladt«. glted.
list glade. glaedT'e. glade.
Plural. —
JVom glade. glade. glad2^
Ge7i gloedm. gla^dm. glcedrt?.
Dat gladt<m. gladutn. gladum.
Ace glade. glade. gladw.
Voc glade. glade. gladz«.
Inst. gladwwi. gladr«?z. glad^^m.

In the Definite Declension it has -yjglad throughout, and agrees

Avhollv with blind.
 STRONG AND WEAK DECLENSIONS. 59

107. — Strong:
Singular.— Masculine. Feminine. Neuter.
Gothic. O. Sax. O. Norse. Goth. O. Sax. O. Noree. Goth. O. Sax. 0.\0KC.

iYow... blind-s, — , -!•;

|

-a,
— ,
— ; (.-ata),
— ,
-t.

Gen.... blind-is, -as, -s ; -aizos, -aro, -rar ; -is, -as, -s.

Dat XAm^i-avtma, -umu, -tun; -ai, -aro, -ri ; -amma, -umu, -u.

ylcc. ... blind-a?!cr, -an{a), -an; -a, -a, -a; (-ata),

— ,
-t.

Inst. ..
(Dat.); (Dat.) (Bat.) (Bat); (Bat.) -u, -u.

Plural. —Umd-(lJal.)-u,
No7n... blind-ai, -a(-e^, -if; -us, -«(-e), -ar ; -a, (-«),
— .

Ge7i. .. hllnd-aizc, -aro, -ru ; -aizu, -aro, -ru ; -aize, -aro, -rd.

Z>. &/. blind-aim, -un, -um ; -aim, -un, -urn; -aim, -un, -um.
Ace... blind-ans, -a{-c), -a; -6s, -a(-e), -ar ; -a, (-m),
— .

"Weak :

Singular. —
Norn... blind-a, -o(-a), -i; -6, -a, -a; -6, -a, -a.

Gen blind-ins, -nn, -a; -vns, -un, -u; -ins, -un, -a.

Bat.... blind-i'n, -tin, -a; -on, -un, -u ; -in, -un, -a.

Ace blind-a??, -?»?, -a; -on, -un, -u ; -0, -a, -a.

Inst.... hYmd-(Bat.)(Bat.) (Bat.); (Bat.) (Bat.) (Bat.); (Bat.) (Bat.) (Bat.)

Plural. —
Norn... blind-a?2S, -vn, -u; -6ns, -un, -u; -6na, -un, -it.

Gen blind-ane, -6n6, -u; -6n6, -6n6, -u; -ane, -6n6, -u.

B.&,I. blind-a???, -un, -u; -6m, -un, -u; -am, -un, -u.

Ace blind-a?is. -un, -u; -6ns, -un, -u; -6na, -un, -u.

In Old High German flic adjective has the same strong endings as the defi-

nite article (^ 104, b). The weak form has Masculine plinto, -in, -in, -un ;

plur. -un, -0710, -6m, -un: Feminine plinta, -un, -un, -im; plur. -un, -ono,
-um, -un : Neuter plinth, -in, -in, -a ; pi. -iin, -ono, -om, -un. O. Fries, has
strong endings like A.-Sax.,but dat. -a(-c) ; weak forms like its noun. ^ 95.
(a.) The Indo-European languages generally have no separate forms for the
definite adjective ;
but the Slavonic and Lithuania have. In them it springs
from composition between the adjective and demonstrative ja (^ 104, a);
Slavonic dobrijj (good), dobraja, dobrojc,
from dobras-\-jas, dobrd-\-ja, dobrat-\-jat ;

Ang.-Sax. g6da-\-sc, g6de-{-se6, g6de-\-pxt.

Grimm suggests that the Teutonic adjective is compounded in a similar way
with the demonstrative 7am (that), English yon. Hcyse suggests a compo-
sition with an, one. The Teutonic weak declensions form one whole with
those of the a?i-stems in other Indo-European tongues as to form, all are a :

growth from one stem. This stem is a secondary formation by means of tlie
pronominal affix -an. The force of this affix may be illustrated by compar-
ing it with the pronouns 7aj«, an; many nouns with it are rendered in En-
glish by an adjective +
one : pxdla, poor one pnrcca, wretched one pana, ; ;

defective one, etc. but to call the adjective a compound with cither
; is likely
to mislead. Compare the explanation of affixes in ^^ 50,03.
GO ADJECTIVES.

As and historical value of the weak declension, see (} 95, c.

to the logical

may give profound insight into the Teutonic mind to notice here that
It a its

fundamental classification of objects is into those made definite to thought

and those not so.

108. The weak form is used Avhcn the adjective is preceded by

tlie definite article, or by a demonstrative or possessive pronoun,
or personal pronoun in the genitive, always with comparatives,
often with vocatives, instrumentals, and genitives, § 362.

(a.) For masculine present participles, see ^ 119.

109. Like blind decline adjectives ending in a long syllable,

participles present, weak participles past, superlatives,

and adjec-
tive pronouns fcest, fiist ; </6d, good
: hdt, hot ; heard, hard ; ;

hxbbende, haxiug (§ 119); gehdlgod, hallowed; hdtust, hotest ;

mln, mine. See § 110, a.

110. With the endings of glsed decline adjectives with a final
short syllable and strong participles past: caJ/r/, blessed ; Jixden,
heathen fscger, fair ; brocen,
;
broken.

(a.) The -u of the feminine singular oftenest, and of the neuter plural
often, suffers precession to -0> -e> — , especially in derivatives. It drops
pretty regularly after a long syllable (^ 109; 91, J). A few once w-stems
iiold it: heard, heardu^ hcardc (Gothic hardus), hard.

111. {Shifting, §§ 73,41).

— Like glccd decline short monosyllables
with root a > 93; bwr, hare; J/a?c, black ; hnsd, ready; hpiet, whetted; Ixt,
late ; si7ixl, small ; spser, spare ; pwr, wary.
(a.) The shifting is stopped by a following vowel, even by e which is
from a, and c<Cd. The nouns (dirges) have shifted further; the ad-
jective has throughout
held stronger than the noun by the old forms.
112. {Gemination, § T8). — Rule 10, § 20, for simplification of gemi-
nation applies: grim, grimmes, grimre, grimmum, grimne, etc., grim.
113. {Synco2)e, §§ 46,79).
— Polysyllables in -xg, -ol (ul, el), -en, -or
(cr), and others syncope, may drop the last vowel of the theme
liable to

when the ending begins with a vowel: ffeger, ia\r, fxgru, hut fcegerne ;

hdlig, holy, hdhgcs^hdlges, hdligan'^ hdlgan, etc,

114. (Stems in -ia, § 83). —
Some adjectives once in -ia have c<^«
in the cases usually without endings blktc, blithe gen. llutcs, bJidre,hl"ides,
:
;

etc. ; rarely before the endings: ecc, eternal, eccum, ecum. So decline ad-

jectives in -e and present participles (^ 119).

(fit.) Some show i-umlaut when compared with other words grcnc :

(0. 11. German griwni), green; scfte (soff), soft; strenge (strong)
strong. ^ 32, 2.
(b.) Some show compensative gemination: middc <^mid (Gothic
midis, midjia), middle. ^ 37, 2.
 PARTICIPLES.—NORTIIUiMBKIAN ADJECTIVE DECLEXSIOX. 61

115. {^Themes in -1).

— Such may have dissimilation into jg before the

case-endings :
fr'i, free, gen. friges, frigre, etc. The g is the parting of the
organs after taking the i-position. § 85, a.
lie. (^Themes in -eo). —
Such may drop the vowel of case-endings:
frco, free, gen. freos,freore,freds, etc. §80.
117. {Themes in ^> -u > -O, § 81 ; 91, B). Such — may drop 7?
final after a vowel :
blaa, blue, gen. bhvpes. After a consonant p final shifts
to u^ o ; and before a vowel may suffer quasi-gemination to iip : fealu,

i'a]\Q\Y,feahipe, etc. (§ 27, 5). This z(,

may suffer precession to O e ; fca- >
lope,fealepe, etc. § 38.
118. Themes in -h, § 80). — Such may drop h final or before a close
ending, and before a vowel change it to g, or drop it and contract: hedh, hea
(Gothic hduhs, O. II. German hoh), high.

SiSGCLAn. — Plural. —
Nom. hea(li) iica(h) liea(h) Xom. hca(ge) hci'i(ge) hca(gu)
Gen. hea(gc)s heiirc hea,(gc)s Gen. hcava heavfi hcara
Dat. I)at.
hea(g)un) licarc heii(g)nni licri(g)am hea(g)um hea(g)um
Ace. heane licu(gc) hea(h) Ace. hea(ge) hea(ge) hea(gu)
T'oc. liea(h) lica(h) hea(h) Voc. lieag(e) hefi(ge.) liea(gu)
Insl. hca(ge) hcarc hca(ge) Inst. hea(g)um hea.(g)imi hca(g)um
The spelling of such words is irregular in the manuscripts. Sing. nom.
heh, accusative hcdhne, hcdnne, plur. dat. hcdhum, are found.

119. PARTICirLES.

The p.articiples have both declensions! §§ 103, 109, 110.

(a.) Present participles in the strong forms without endings have -e like
jfl-stems (§ 114): gtfende, giving.

(&.) Masculine present participles used substantively may take strong

forms after the definite article pd Iktende or Udcnd, those sailing l)drd
:
;

around.
ymb-sittendrd, of those dwelling {^ 100,/.)

(c.) The strong singular accusative of the participles is often (wrongly)

spelt without -n :
gccorcne<Cigccoren-nc, chosen; scridend-{n)e, coming.

120. The declined infinitive (gerund) is often found in the da-

tive : to faranne., to fare.

121. NOKTIIUMBEIAN AdJECTIVE DeCLENSION^.

strong declension is like Common Anglo-Saxon.
The The instrumental
in -« is very rare —
the dative takes its place. The plural nominative is
often in -o, perhaps an older form than -e; compare Old Saxon -a and pre-
cession, § 38 perhaps merely an irregular conformation with weak forms.
;

The weak declension drops ->?, and is otherwise like that of the weak sub-
stantive (p. 51).
 62 ADJECTIVES.— COMPARISON.

122. Comparison.

Comparison a variation to denote clegvees of quantity or

is

quality. It belongs to adjectives and adverb?.

(a.) In Anglo-Saxon it is a variation of stem, and is a matter rather of

derivation than inllection ;
but the common mode of treatment is convenient.
(5.) The suffixes of comparison were once less definite in meaning than
now, and were used to form many numerals, pronouns, adverbs preposi- >
tions, and substantives, in which compared correlative terms are implied :

either, other, ove?; uncle?; first, etc.

fc.) Anglo-Saxon adverbs are in brackets :
(sjMe).

Adjectives are regularly compared by suffixing to tbc

123.
theme of the positive -ir'^-er or -or for the theme of the com-
p)arative, and -ist > -est or -6st for the theme of the suj^erlative.
The ComjKirative has always weak endings and syncopated
stem.
The Sv2)erlaUve has both weak and strong endings.
Adverbs are compared like adjectives: the positive uses the
ending -e, the comparative and superlative have none ;
-ir drops.

Strong, spid, stremcous ; spidra ; spidust.

'Weah, se spidal; se spidra; se spidosta.

Adverb, (spide) ; (spidor) ; (spidost).

(a.) These suffixes in the Parent Speech were comparative -jans, superla-
tive -jans-ta > ista, combinations of emphatic dental radicles (^ 56 ; 12G, a) :

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gotliic. <>. Saxon. O. Norse.

r mah, ntyy/iu, mag>mri, mak>nia, niik>me, mik>mei,

Theme
\great. fjrcat. (jreat. t/reat. f/reat. (jreat.

Compar. mah-i-jas f.iti-Z,ov {-]0\\) nia-jor, -jus ma-iz-a me-r-o mei-r-i

Superl. mah-is'tha fiiy-KXTO-v (see § 126, i) ma-ist-s me-st mei-st-r

The 0. H. German has me-ro, me-ist-cr, Anglo-Saxon ma-r-a, miH-st.

(b.) In Anglo-Saxon ir<^jans, tlie «<J, r<Cs are shifting (^ A\,2,b)\

dropping of an, apocope from gravitation (^^ 44, 38). 6 in -or and -ost is
compensative progression from an {^^ 37, 38) the same form is in Gothic, ;

Old Saxon, Old H. German. Old Norse has a for 6. A further precession
took place in -ir, -or, -ist, -ost, of 2>e> —
and of , o>a>a>w>e> —
(J^ 38).
In Gothic, s has not shifted so pyrsa, worse (J^ 129).
;

(c.) The superlative -ta is suffixed to the theme of the positive in nu-
merals: Sanskrit s'as'-thd, sixth; Greek wpw-ro, first; Latin ^war-^o, fourth ;
Gothic ahtu-da-n, eighth; Anglo-Saxon prid-da, third. § 139.

124. {Umlaut, % o2, 2).

— The affixes -iry-cr and -ist y -est
 ADJECTIVES.—RELICS. 63

may work i-umlaut, changing

a, a, ea, cu, eo > o, u, ii, 11,

to e, it', y>e, y, y, c, y, y:
lanff, long ; lengra (leng) ; lengest.
Strang, strenge (§ 114, a), strong; straigra; strengest.
eald, aid (§ 33), old ; yldra, eldra ; yldest, eldest.
hed\ hed, hCh, high (§§ 118, 25); h^rra, hyhra, Mrra, hedh-
ra; h^list, hehst, hedhst, hedhest, hedgost, and as nedh.
nedh, neh, nigh (§§ 118, 25); oi^ra (n(/r), nera {nedr), nedrra
{nior); nyst (^>i>ze), nelist, nedhst, and as hedh.
feor, (feor), (fyr), far ; fyrra; fyrrest.
geong, young; gyngra {y>i); gyngest {yyi).
sceort, short ; scyrtra / scyrtest.

(softe) sefte, soft (114, a) ; seftra {se/t) ; seftest. [125, 129.

edde (j/, e), easy; pdra (ea), {f/d{ed, e)) ; yr/es^, edddst. See §§

125. {Shifting, § 110). —

Eoot «>t'E of short monosyllables
shifts to cB unless the next syllable begins with a vowel ; such
words may also have forms Avith i-umlaut (§ 124) :

glaed, glad ; glwdra, gledra ; gladdst.

hi'sed, Tea.dy ; hrscdra, hredra ; hradost.
hpcet, whetted, keen ; hpsetra; hpatost.
'

pcei', wary pxrra; ; parost.

126. Relics are found of forms from Parent Speech Compar-

ative -ra, -ta-ra, Superlative -ma, -ta-ma. Of the comparative,
only pronouns, adverbs prepositions, and> the like 6-de7\ other ; :

hpveder, whether; ve-r, ere; vef-ter, after; hi-der, hither; of-er,

over ; iin-der, under. Of the superlative for-ma, first hin- :
;

dema, hindmost ; inn-ema, inmost Isst-ema, latest ; rned-ema, ;

midmost; ?ieV^-ema, nethermost; sid-ema,\atest; tt^ema, utmost;

and others with double comparison. §§ 127, 129.

(a.) Parent Speech -tara. Forms on an, that, and lea, what, English
other, whether:
Sanskrit. Crock. Latin. Gothic. O. Snxon. Anglo-Paxon. O. Norse,

an-tara t-rfpo(c) al-teru(s) an-l>ar(a-) ^-itar 6-cter ann-ar

ka-tara Ko-r£po(c) u-teru(s) hva-})ar(a-) huc-dcr hpaj-cter
hva-rr

The O. H. German has andera, other ; hwedar, whether. This is a com-

mon form for the adjective in Sanskrit, the most common in Greek in ;

Latin and Teutonic only as in Anglo-Saxon. Latin, in-tcr, between ;

dex-tcr, right ; sims-tcr, left. ^ 122, h.

64 ADJECTIVES.— DOUBLE COMrARISON.— IIETEllOCLITES.

(i.) Parent Speech -ma, -ta-ma. Forms on pra, fore; scp, seven;
hin, hind :

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin- Gothic. O. Saxon. Ang.-Sax. O. Nor.

frii-ma for-mo f"""-

in-a-tha-mii 7rpJ-j[(o(t) pri-mu(s) ^ ^^^,^^ ^
hin-du-ma hin-de-ma
sap-ta-ma f/3-co-//o(c) scp-tu-mu(s)

The 0. H. German has/rwrni, first. This is a common form in Sanskrit;

in Latin, suffixed to Comparative jmis^is (^ 123, o), it makes the regu-
I and r it is suffixed
lar -issimo <iis-timo by assimilation {^ 35). After
to the theme and assimilated facil-limo, easiest ; pulcher-rimo, hand-
:

somest. In the other languages it is found only as in Anglo-Saxon. For

numerals, see ^ 140.

127. Double Compaeison is found chiefly -svitli relics in -der,

-er,and -771 (§ 126) &-r, ere, w-r-er, -or, io-r-est; aef-ter, ssfter-ra
:

Ices-
yccftera, ccf-ter-mest (Rask), vcf-tem-est; Iws, less, lazs-sa,
dst, -est; for-ma, fi/r-m-cst, and see § 129.

Accumulation of signs of comparison is a striking fact through all the

(a.)
languages. (I.) Repetition of the suffix for emphasis: -raroc to-tu, reg- <
ular Greek superlative ; Irish ma-ma ; O. H. German bezeroro, more better
Parent Speech ta-ma (^ 126, b).
(Shakespeare); crercra, more sooner, etc.;
(3.) New suffix after Relics (^ 126):
Gothic af-tu-m-is-ta ; Anglo-Saxon

ipf-te-m-es-t ; u.itermost
=
af-\-ta'\-ra-{-7na-\-jans-\-ta, heaping a of radicles

which illustrates their force as signs of comparison (^ 123, a).

Emphatic
double comparison abounds in early English Shakespeare has more braver, :

more fairer, most best, most boldest, most unkmdcst, etc.

(b.) The English superlative ending
-most in aftermost, and the like, is
simulation of a connection with most. ^ 42, 2.

128. Heteroclitic forms abound from themes in -ir and -6r,-ist,

-6st: sU, good; -ra, -la, {set) ;

— est, -ost ; rice, rich; ricest, rtcost ;

glxdra, gleclra, etc. (§ 125). Some

have themes Avitli
(jlwd, ghad ;

double late-
and without comparison: Iset, late; Itetra; latost,
onest; sat, late; sidra {sid, sidor) ; sut-dst, -est, -mest.

129. Defective are the following. Words in capitals arc not

found.

(1.)
3Iixcd Roots :
Positive. Comparative. Superlative.
( o-(jd ) .
j betera,betra,§ 124 betst,bet6st,-ast
•'^'^^^' ^P'^^
] BAT \ 1 ba^ttra, § 125 (bet) (bctst)

[
yfel (yfele) ( pyrsa, (pyrs), j pyrst, pyrresta,
)

had, §123,5 ( (pyrst), (pyrrest)

]pcor [ ]
( sum- ) ( sa^mra, § 124 sajmest
 DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES.— DECAY OF ENDINGS. 65
Positive. Compaeative. Supeklative.
™^^^^ (""'^^^^
Great ( )

much^
(ma ; ( mara, (ma) m&st,§ 124; 123,0!

[^^^""^ (^^'0 i
little,
( L^s (Goth, /asifi-) Ifessa (l3es),§ 35,^ ( Ises-ast, -est, -t

(2.) From Adverbs of time and jilace (compare §§ 126, 127)

ever, (^r)>^rra, )
a-, 32- ser-est
ere, erst,
(c^i--6r, -ur) )

after- af-, £ef-=of, sef-tera-est

icard, (cef-ter) > ajftera ]
sefter-mest, § 127
I"
oefterpeard
else, (elles) (ell or), elra

for-ma > (fyrmest),

fore, forepeard, (fore) fyrra
fyrst, fruma, § 5 1
far, feor, (fyr) fyrre, (fyr) fyrrest (eo>y)
((fuurd-um),
forth, ford:peard, (ford) (furd-or, -ur)
] ford-m-est
for

) j lunduma,
hehind,\)^^f^^'''''^^\[ * (hindor)
^ '
(bii
(hmdan)(
binde-ma, § 126, Z»

inner, innepeard, (in)

inncra inne-ma, (-m-est)
. , ( middepeard, )
med-ema (-uma?)
*^''^'
] (mid) ) mid-m-est

north \
^lordepcard, }_
uord-m-est
''^'^^^'' (nord-ur)
] (nord) S

uidepeard, nid-ra, (
nidema, § 126
nether.
(nide) (nid-6r,-er (i>eo) (
nide-m-est (i>eo)

j ufera,
tipper, Hfepeard, (up) yf(e)-m-est, § 124
] (ufor)

/ ^,> /»** \ litema, lltmest,

outer, iltepcard, (ut) utra,'^(uttor,utor)
'
M Yt-(e-)m-est,§124
^ ^ , ^ „

So sUdemest, edstemest, pestemest, south-, east-, west-most

Decay of ENniNcs. — ( 1 ), Declension :

Layamon, strong, sing. masc.
— -es, -en, -ne ; fern. — -re, -re, -c ; neut. — —
-es, -en, plur. -c, -re,
— Ormulum,
, , , ;

-en, -e; but n, s, r may drop. Weak, -e, -en, as in ^ 102.

strong, sing.
—
plur. -e. Wealc, -c. Chaucer, monosyllables as in Orm., —
—
,

others undeclined. Shakespeare, no declension.

(2), Comparison: Layamon, Ormulum, -re, -est.
— Chaucer (=:Modern
English), -er, -est.
E
66 PRONOUNS.

V. PRONOUNS {Relational Names, § 56).

130. Personal Pronouns {Relational Substantives).

Sing.— l.Z
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 67

(c.) The mode of growth from the radicles in the Indo-European family

may be studied in the following :

Sing. —
 68 TRONOUNS.— REFLEXIVES.
Dpax.— Latin.
 PRONOUNS.—DEMONSTRATIVES. 69

mine, thine, his, our, your, of us two, 0/ you two,

Sanskrit, madija tvadi'ja svadija asmadi'ja jus'madi'ja
Greek....
70 PRONOUNS.— RELATIVES.— INTERROGATIVES.

(i.) For forms in other languages and discussion of case-endings, see

^ 104. Ilcyne gives /wra, pxm only as masculine, but pjbrd bocd, JEl-
fric, 2, 114 pxrd Jnngd, ib. 2, 130
;
see J)xm in Grein. ;

(3. pes.)
—Other Forms: without gemination of 5 in masculine and neu-
ter, pises, pisiun, pise; i>y :
pys, Pysscs, Jnjssc, etc. ; sing. nom. f.
pios;
gen. and dat. f.
pisere'^pisre, pisscrc ; dat. pisson, pissan, piosum ; inst. m.
and n. ^"'5) pise, pisse adjective form, (peos:=0. Saxon pius ; Grimm, Ett-
miiller, Heyne — examples given are all false readings); plur. nom. ^^s;
gen. piscrd, pisserd. Northumbrian: sing. nom. dirs, dius,dis ; gen. and
dat. f. dwsscr, disser ; dat. m. dassum; ace. diosnc, da, dis.

(a.) Pes is an emphatic demonstrative from pa-\-sja. In Gothic, the

same force is obtained by affixing -uh (Latin -ce, -que : hi-c, quis-que)'.
In the other Germanic tongues analogous forms to pes are found : O.
Saxon sing. nom. these, the-su (thius), thi-t ; gen. the-sas, the-sara,
the-sas ; dat. the-sumu, the-saru, thc-sumu; ace. the-san, the-sa, thi-t ;

inst. n, thius; pi. nom. ace. the-sa, thius

gen. the-saro; dat. the-sun; ;

O. H. G. di-se-r, etc. The Anglo-Saxon has lost all the sja except -s in
the nominative. In pisse, pissd there has been syncope and assimila-
tion of r>s, as in usse, ussd ( ^ 132) ; in pisses and pissum, gemination
of s through gravitation. The genitive and dative masculine are writ-
ten pretty regularly with gemination of s —
not always.

spylc : ylca, same, has only weak forms ; pylc,

(3.) Ylc.) pylc-t

spylc, such, have only strong. (i/=i=ze.) ])7js-licypyllic, strong.

(a.) Ylc<C'>J-\-lic ; ?/<C«, demonstrative Ae; -Zzc, like; so /ly-Z/c, analogous

to Latin td-lis, Greek ttj-XIkoq, Sanskrit td-dr'ks'a; spy-lie, Gothic sve-
leiks, etc., English such.

see § 131.
(4.) Self., (5.) Same, adv. same, Sanskrit pron. sama

{sa-{'ma), Greek o^o-c, Latin simi-lis, Gothic, Old Saxon satna,

Old Norse scim-r. Old II. German samo.
(6.) Geotid, adv. yon, Gothic ^ron. Jains, that (§ 255, a).

134. Relatives, —
(1.) se, sco, pwt, who, which, that, is de-
clined as when
a demonstrative (§ 133). (2.) pe used in all the

cases, both alone and in combination with se, seo, pset, or a per-
sonal pronoun, is indeclinable. (3.) spd, so, used like English as
and Old German so in place of a relative, is indeclinable.

135. Interrogatives are Jipd, who; hpxder, yfhich. of two;

hpylc, Ivdllc,of what kind. They have strong adjective endings ;
hpseder is syncopated (§ 84.)
 PRONOUNS.— INDEFINITES. 7I

oING. Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fern. Keut.

Nbni. hpii bpast jSansJcrit. ka-s kti ka-t
Ge7i. hpa33 hpres Greek... Ko-£>Troe>'7r6-Srt,Trov,etc.
Dat. hpam lipam Latin . . .
qui-s qujB quo-d
Ace. hpone lipajt Gothic . . bva-s hvo hva
Yoc. '
O.Saxon hue hua-t
Inst, hpam hpy 0. Norse, hva-r hva-t

Other Forms : dat. hpasm, hpan, hpon, hpam, hp&m ; ace. Iipwne ; inst.

hp'i, hpig, hu. Northumbrian :

hud, hux, husstd, huxd.

(a.) For shifting of the stem radicle, see § 41, i?; for case-endings, ^ 105.
(6.) Hpwder<ihpa, comparative form, ^ 126, a. Hpylc <ihpy -\- lie like

pylc<ipy-\-ric,^ \ZZ,^,a. (y=:i=ze.) 0. Fries, hwa —hwet.

136. Indefinites.

(1.) The Indefinite Article Is 'Clin, one.

Sing. —
72 DECAY OF PRONOMINAL ENDINGS.

(b.) From hpxder (^ 135,5): d-hpxder (any one) '^aj'ifer'^ actor, opdcr,
()(/er, other, either ; nd-h]>xder{ae\t\\ev')^napder,n6pdcr, noder ; ge-hpxdcr,
either ; wg-hpxder {d-\-ge-\-hpxdcry^a:gder, either ; spd-hpxder-spa, which-
soever.

(c.) From Vic (J^ gc-hpilc, -hpclc, -hpylc, any body

133, 3, a) :
xg-hpilc ;

{d-\-ge-\-hpi)-\-lic, § 135, b),

whoever hpilc-hugu, hpilce-hugu, any one, any-
;

thing ; spd-hpdc-spd, whosoever Jri/s-lic, Jjus-lic,Jji/llic,J)y-ltc, of this sort;

,

xlc (d-{-ge-\-lic), each, all :

xlc, clc, ylc.

(d.) Analogous compounds arc found throughout the Teutonic tongues,

and to many through most of the Indo-European family. /

137. Decay of Pronominal Endings: —

(a.) Personal.
— Layamon and Ormulum have Anglo-Saxon forms, also
Lay. ?c>ic/j>Orm. i, Chaucer sometimes ich, ik. Pu>thou,late Old En-
glish (§ 38, il, 1) ; g-e>Lay. :5e>ye ; eo/>>Lay. :jOM>you. Hv^,he6,hit:
sing. fem.nom., Ang.-Sax. chronicle (A.D. 1140+) 5caJ> Chaucer schc"^
she, Northern O. Engl. scM (0. Sax. sid, O. Norse sm), Lay. :jeo, :je, Orm.
"^ho ; hit^Oim. itt, itj dat.>acc. Lay. Jmii, hire ^
Chancer hire (monosyl-
lable) > her ; plur. nom. ace. Lay. ]jc6, paie, Orm. nom. pci^-i^ they gen. > ;

Lay. heore, hire, Orm. pc^-^re (heorc), dat. >acc. Orm. pe'^-^m (hemm)'^
them (^ 130, e) her, hir, here (their), hem (them), are still in Chaucer.
;

(b.) Posscssives.
—
Lay. mm^wu>my, 7;m>/j>thy, sometimes before
a consonapt; other endings like adjectives, § 129 +.
(c.) Demonstratives.
—
The definite article in Layamon retains its declen-
sion, except and precession of a>a>o>e; but indeclinable pe
dat. nC^n
grows more frequent, and in Orm. is estabhshed as in Modern English. Pes
changes like the adjective (t^ 129+) plur. ^as ^T'coi those (^ 38, A, 1).
:
>
Ormulum sing, piss (this), plur. pisse (these) and sing, patt (that), plur. pa ;

(those). Chaucer this, plur. these; that, plur. tho.

(d.) Relatives.
—
Layamon pje, p)at throughout, also fem. and plur. Pju >
peo; Ormulum Jjatt (=that) throughout, as in English now. For the change
of who, which to relatives, see Syntax.
(e.) Interrogatives.
—
Layamon ivhd (^w6),whes, wham C^wdm'),ivhdn
(^wdn), neuter lohxt; Ormulum luhd, ivhds, dat.^acc. whamm, whatt ;
O. Engl. d> 6. Hpilc, hpxder, like adjectives, ^ 129+.
(y.) Indefinite an in Layamon is declined throughout, sometimes also
nom. dn^d, and oblique cases one. Ormulum has only masculine endings;
d, a, frequent. Chaucer no inflection, dn^a, as now.
 NUMERALS. 73

138. NUMERALS
Cardinals. Oemulum. Ordinals. Symbols.
f forma (fruma, ^resta) | j
1. an an
tfyrsta, §129 j

2 J
tpegen, tpa, tu ) .
^^^. Oder ir.
'1 <tpa i
3, ]Dri, J)re6 \n-eo, ])rc Jiriclda HI.
4. feoper fowweri" feopercta (feurda) IV.
5. fif fif fifta V.
6, six sexe sixta VI.

7. seofon (syfone)
j
,
J .
'

|
seofoda (-eda) VII.

8. ealita ehhto ealitoda (-eda) Ylll.

9. nigon (-en) ni^benu nigoda (-eda) IX.
10. tyn, ten tene,(tenn) teoda X.
11. endleofan (ellefnc) endleofta (eo>u, y, e) XL
12. tpelf twellf tpelfta XII.
13. ]3re6t5''iie Jirittene J)reuteoda XIII.
14. feopertj'ue feoperteuda XIV.
15. fifty ne fifteoda XV.
IG. sixtj^ne sextcue sixteoda XVI.
17. seofontj'nc seofonteoda XVII.
18. eahtat^-ne eahtateoda XVIIl.
19. nigontj'ne nigonteoda XIX.
20. tpentig twennti^ tpentiguda XX.
21. an and tpentig J un and tpentigoda | vvt
I tpentigoda and forma.
30. l^ritig, iDi-ittig l^ritti:^ l^i'itigoda XXX.
40. feopertig fowwerrti^ feopertigoda XL.
50. fiftig fifFti^ fiftigoda L.
GO. sixtig sexti^ sixtigoda LX.
70. hundseofontig scofennti^ liundseofontigodia LXX.
80. hundeahtatig hundealitatigoda LXXX.
90. hundnigontig hundnigontigoda. XC.
f
hundteontig ~|
liunndredd C.
100 Imndteontigoda
Ihund J

an and Imndteonti-
goda
101. hund and an CL
hundteontigoda and
forma
74 ETYiMOLOGY OF CARDINALS.
 ETYxMOLOGY OF CARDINALS. 75

(a.) The numerals are clusters of radicles, some of which lure beyond the

Zndo-European family.
1-10. — An (one) <^ pronominal stem z ]> ai-na'^ Sansk. ena, that ;
e'ka

(e-(na)ka)1 § 130, b,c. Dva (two), dental radicle for addition, § 56. Tri,
tar, fem. tissar (titar), three dental radicle ^ <
emphatic r; compare its +
force in comparison, ^ 123, c, and in \/iri, to go further. Katvar, fem. kata-
sar {ka-tatar), four, =:A-a {<Ceka, one) -^tpar (<^tar, titar, three) the sym- :

bols for four are composed of those for one and three in Sanskrit and kin-
dred alphabets, also in Egyptian. Kan-kan (five) is a reduplication indi-
cating the completion of one {ka<^eka) count one hand. For reduplica- —
tion as a sign of completion, see Greek Grammars :
Crosby, ^ 179 ;
see fur-
ther below. Aktan (eight) is ak (one) -{-superlative -ta (^ 123, c), the highest
count of fingers. Navan (nine) is akin to Sansk. nava-s, Greek vi[o-Q, Latin
novu-s, Gothic niu-ji-s, Ang.-Sax. 7iipe, new, now, <^nu, pronominal stem of
interrogation, negation, stimulation ;
nine begins a new quaternion. Dakan
(ten) < dva-kan = 2X5.
(b.) Well-marked identity with the Semitic numerals has been claimed in

eka, Hebrew ek'ad ; s'as', Hebrew s'es', six ; saptan, Gothic sibun, He-
brew has been said that s'es'=^s'e-{-s'e:^2-\-2, and s'eba^=
s'eba, seven. It

5'e+(ar)6fl=3-|-4 the -tan in saptan being a superlative, as in aktan, fin-

;

ishing the count of possibly a week. Kan in kan-kan is also like Hebrew
kam-es ,
five. The original stem for five has been also thought to be pan-
kan, and to be from Sanskrit ^anz, hand.

(c.) The shifting and gravitation in coming down from the Parent Speech
is generally regular, ^^ 41,38, tables in ^^ 18,19 ;
Z;>^:>>y, ^ A\,Z,A,B;
5.
i'^ig, quasi-gemination, ^ 27,
{d.) 11-19. — Endleofan < a/i -j- leofan < tihan (Lithuanic, lika), ten ;

^>e, precession, § 38 ; nl'^ndl, dissimilated gemination of n, the last part

of which changes to cl from the dropping of the nasal veil to send breath for-
ward for I (^ 27, 5 ; 50) ; t(<C.d)'^l, unusual shifting :
'Ocvcrcytuc^ Ulysses;

dingua^lingua (^ 41, b) ;
h{<^k)'^f, shifting as in katvar^ Jidvor, four ;

kankan'^finf, five, etc., § 41, 3, A, J5; i^- eo, breaking, ^ 33; 35, 2, a.

TpELF < tpd + leofan = 2 -+- 10 ; threo-tyne, 3 + 10, etc., are plain.
(e.) 20-120.
—TDENTiG<//jfiTen (twain)-f-/(§-<t?a^-a?i(ten), 2X 10: shift-

ing, § 41,3, Similar are the forms in -tig up to {hund)lpelftigz^l'iX 10,

A.
the great hundred.
—
60-120. With the forms in -tig from three-score to the great hundred is
joined hund. Gothic tchund (Latin -ginti, Greek -kovti, Sanskrit -rati^ <C
dakanta <idakan (ten) -\- -ta superlative, as in saptan, aktan shifting, ^41, :

3, A ; nt^nd, instead of nd, through influence of n ; «>e, progression to

d and shifting, ^ 18 ; a~^u, precession, ^ 38. The Gothic has sibun-tehund
= 7X 10, taihun-tchiind = 10 X 10, etc. The Anglo-Saxon form was once
hund-seofonta (decade seventh), like Old Saxon (h)ant-sibunta. The -ta
changed to -tig through conformation with the smaller numbers, and hund-,
whose meaning had faded, was retained as a sign of the second half of the
76 DECLENSION OF NUMERALS.

when countincr by the common hundred,

great huiulrcd ;
it is omitted : an
hund manna and scofontig, 170 men.
C/.) 100-1000.
—
Hl'nd, /jM?i(/rcc?< Parent Speech dakan-dakanta,-w\\ic\\
would Anglo-Saxon to tihun-tihund (§ 41). It has gravitated to
shift in

hund^ hundred <ihundarc (Latin ccnturia) -\- d, as in eored, legion coped, ;

herd, etc. 1000 is expressed by so dilTerent words in the different tongues

that no common origin can be found, and hence it is believed not to have
been in the Parent Speech. The Lithuanic, Slavonic, and Teutonic, how-
ever, agree: hith. tukstanti; Shv. tusa7itja; Goi\\. p{isundi<^tuk-<^dakan
(ten) -\- santi <^kanti^ hund (hundred) 10X 100. =
140. Ordinals arc superlative forms, except oder^ second.

(a.)Fruima, /orma, first, sec ^ 126 +; odcr, second, ^ 126, a; -da, -la,
-da are all shiftings of superlative -ta, § 123, c; -tebda is a repetition of
te6da<i.tednda (tenth) -tigoda, Ynesic -tigosta, O. Norse -tugasti,
;
O. H
German -zugosto (no examples in Gothic or
Old Saxon), has conformed to
the smaller and more frequently recurring numbers in -tedda. The substan-
tives hund and Jmsend had not developed ordinals in Anglo-Saxon.

{b.) The formation of ordinals is similar in principle throughout the Indo-

European family. j

Declension.
141. Cardinals. — 1, dn, is declined, § 13G.

N.^A.^V. 2, tpegen tpa tu<tpa 3, lKt(-y,-ie) ]3re6 J)re6 (-ia, -io)

Gen tpegra, tpcgu, J)re6ra
D.^Inst.. tpam>tpieni ]3riin (-ym)

Like tpegen decline begen, bd, btc, both.

4-19. — Cardinals from feoper to fpelf, and iv om. preo-tyne to

nigon-tpne, are used as indeclinable, but are also declined like i-
stem nouns of the First Declension {byre^ § 84), oftenest when
used as substantives: nom. ace. voc. /eopere, gen. Reopen?, dat.
in^t.feoperum. Such forms oi ealita are not found. Tpie<^te6n,
umlaut, § 32, 2.

{a.) Those in -tyne have also sometimes a neut. nom. and ace. in -w]>-o,
or -a: fiflyn-u, -o, -a (fifteen) preoteno (^thirteen).
;
(^!>*>C.)
{b.) They are quasi-adjectives like Dene, ^ 80.

20-120. —Forms
in -tig are declined as singular neuter nouns:

prltlg (thirty), geu. prUiges / or, as adjectives, have plural gen.

-rd, dat. -um : pritigum.
100-1000. —prttigrd,
Ilmid, declined likepon?, § 73;
n., is hundred siu(\

p'dsend, like scip, § 70 ; \>\.pilsend-u, -o, -e,

-a (Psa. Ixvii, 17), § 393.
 THE VERB. 77

142. Ordinals have always the regular weak forms of the ad-
jective, except oder (second), always strong. Indefinites, § 130, 2,

143. MuLTiPLiCATivES are found in -feald (fold) :

dnfeald, simple :
tpi-
feald, two-fold ; /w5en(f-7n«ZMOT,thousandfoldly.
1 44. Distributives
may be expressed by repeating cardinals, or by a
dative seofon and seofon, seven by seven bi tpdtn, by twos.
:
;

145. In answer to how often, numeral adverbs are used, or an ordinal or

cardinal with sid (time) xne, once tp^pa {tpiga), twice ; pripa {piga),
:
;

thrice; priddan side, the third time ; feoper sidum, four times.
146. For adverbs of division the cardinals are used, or ordinals with d&l :
on preo, in three (parts) seofedan diil, seventh part.
;

147. An ordinal before hcalf(ha,\i) numbers the whole of which the half
is counted : he pxs pa tpd gear and Imdde healf, he was there two years
and (the) tliird (year) half=2i years. The whole numbers are usually un-
derstood : he ricsode mgonteode heaJf gear, he reigned half the nineteenth
year = 18i years. A similar idiom is used in German and Scandinavian.

148. Sum, agreeing with a numeral, is indefinite, as in

English: sume
ten gear, some ten years, more or less limited by the genitive of a cardinal
;

it is a partitive of eminence code cahta sum, he went one of eights: with

:

seven attendants or companions.

VERB.
149. The notion signified by a verb root may be predicated of
a subject or uttered as an interjection of command, or (2) it may
be spoken of as a substantive fact or as descriptive of some per-
son or thing. In
case proper verb stems are formed, or
tlie first

denote time, mode, and voice and sufiixes (per-

auxiliaries used, to ;

sonal endings) are used to indicate the person and number of the

subject: thus is made up the verb proper or finite verb. In the

second case a noun stem is formed, and declined in cases as a sub-
stantive or adjective.
150. Two
Voices. — The active represents the subject as act-

ing, the passive as aifected by the action. The active has inflec-
tion endings for many forms, the passive only for a participle.
Other passive forms help this participle with the auxiliary verbs
com (am), beon^ pesan, peordan.
(w.) The middle voice represents the subject as affected by its own action.
It is expressed Anglo-Saxon by adding pronouns, and needs no paradigms.
in

151. Six Modes. —

The indicative states or asks about a fact,
the subjunctive a possibility ;
the inqjerative commands or in-
78 VERB .—CON JUG ATION.— CLASSES.

treats the infinitives (and gerunds) are substantives, the parti-

;

ciples adjectives. Certain forms of possibility arc expressed by

auxiliary modal verbs with the inlinitive. They need separate
discussion, and arc conveniently called a potential mode.
152. —
Five Tenses. Present^ hniyer feet ^future perfect^ p>luper'-
.,

fect. Tlie present and iraper'fect have tense stems the future is
;

expressed by the present, or- by aid of sceal (shall) or pille (will) ;

the perfect by aid of the present of hahban (have) or, with some
intransitives, heon (be), pesan or peorctan (be) ; the pluperTect
by aid of the imper'fect of hahban, heon, pesan, or peordan.
153. Two Numbers, singular and plural.
154. TiiEEE Persoxs, ^>s^, second, and third.
155. Stems and Themes. —
A icwsQ-stem is that part of a verb
to which the signs of mode, person, and number were added in
that tense. The xcrh-stem is that to which the tense signs were
added. The theme of any part of a verb is so much of it as is un-
changed in the inflection. For roots, § 57.
150. The Principal Parts are the present infinitive, the im-
perfect indicative first persons, and the passive participle.
157. Conjugation. —
Verbs are classified for conjugation by
the stems of the imperfect tense.
Strong Verbs express tense by varying the root vowel weak ;

verbs, by composition. Strong verbs in the imperfect indicative

singular first person have the root vowel unchanged, or changed
\}jprogression or by contraction. The vowels are
Xo change.
 GROWTH OF ABLAUT. 79

(a.) The variation of letters in the five first classes is called Ablaut; it

sprang from gravitation (^ 38) and compensation (^ 37).

Its beginnings may-

be seen in the other Indo-European tongues, plainest in Sanskrit. Sanskrit

grammars have ten conjugation classes; the present stems are, 1. V+a;
2.-/; 3. Reduplicated V; 4. V+i«; 5. V+»"; Q-V+a'; 7. V with n
inserted; 8.\/-\-u; 9.\/+ni; 10. V+cy'a. Anglo-Saxon strong verbs
correspond to the first or sixth class, a few to the fourth ;
weak verbs to the

(4th 1) and tenth. Sanskrit reduplicated preterites (perfects) are formed all

alike from the root by prefixing its first letters.

Presents.
Sense. Root. Conj. Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic..

throw. kar G. kir-vJnxi; tiT-a,'mi<.V tar, G, step over,

sit. sad C. sid-a'mi ("C-o/xai sed-eoj sit-an

Jcnow, go. k'it, i 1, 2. k'e't-ami, e -mi tl-jii i-re

]
show. dio. G. dic-a'mi, Causal base de'9-aja iHK-vvj.11 dic-o J teih-an
tei

l:noic. bo'dh-ami irtvQ-onai

bhug'-a'mi, Caus. hose bho'g'-aja (pevy-iii

vaks'-ami
80 COMPARISON OF ABLAUT.— CONTRACTION.

(r.) In Sanskrit these vowel changes have no meaning, but arc mostly
mechanical results of the accent: yet, as the place of the accent
depends on
the weight of the prefixes and suffixes in which the meaning resides, the
vowel changes come to be signs of this meaning, and, as the prefixes and
suffixes decay, the sole signs of it. The vowels are the vehicles of emotion
and harmony ;
to make them
signs of relation fuses thought and feeling, and
gives power for oratory and poetry. The Teutonic races, like the Semitic,
found this fusion congenial, and in tlic earliest Gothic the ablaut is already a
fundamental law of the language. Physiology teaches that progression may
spring from accent, that precession may take place in unaccented syllables
of course, and in accented syllables from compensation or shifting compar- :

ison of Anglo-Saxon and English proves these possibilities to be important

facts in the history of language the Sanskrit verb shows that they are the
;

facts from which sprang Ablaut. ^^ 37, 38, 41. The changes of the i-roots
and Sanskrit those of the a-roots are only occa-
ti-roots are established in ;

sional in the present even in the sixth class, and that class is small. It

seems, then, that a-roots of the Sanskrit sixth class were drawn to ablaut by
conformation with j-roots and ?<-roots, and that a-roots of the first class con-
formed after ablaut was except such as attained the Fourth
fully established,
Teutonic Conjugation, where the whole perfect conforms in progression to
the singular 0<a.
(/.) In Gothic, the present, the imperfect plural, and past participle have
the same precessionor progression as in Sanskrit {^^ 18, 38). The imper-
fect singular has a second progression in the second, third, and fourth conju-

gations, because it has gravitated to a monosyllable.

( "-.) The e of imperfect plural tcnimd is from ani, a
compensative drop-
ping of n and lengthening of a, the result of which is modified by ^ a —
process in which we may see how umlaut and contraction run into each
other.

{h.) Imperfect plural and past participle ?(<« is in liquid and double con-
sonant roots. The first consonant is almost always a liquid. The effort for
the two consonants takes the place of accent in part. For the assimilating
effect of m, 71, 1, r, see ^ 35, 2. In Sanskrit, also, a goes to u in connec-
tion with r, m, n.
(j.) In Anglo-Saxon and the other Teutonic tongues the changes from
Gothic ablaut are explained by umlaut, breaking, and shifting. O. Fries., 38.

159. Contraction. — Roots incapable of progression kept the redupli-

cation till had shifted to it (>^ 41, 4) and it had taken pro-
after the accent

gression (Gothic i<^di); and in Anglo-Saxon they had contracted the re-
duplication and root to a uniform eo or e.

(a.) Such roots are those in a-j-two consonants, and in vowels hav-

ing the second progression (^ 38). Add, also, a few in Gothic e, al,
perf. di-6 : let-an (let), Idi-lut ; lai-an (blame), Zai-/y. Hence Grimm's
Conjugation Classes from the vowels of the present and (im)perfect:
 CONTEACTIOX.— COMPOSITION. 81
Pres. Pcrf. Pres. Perf. Pres. Perf. Pres. Pevf.

Gothic... (l)a + , ai-a; (2) ai, ai-ai ; (3) au-, ai-au ; (4) e, ai-e ;
"j

O.Saxon {\) 0.+, ie>e; (2) e, ie>e; (3) 6, io>ie; (4) a, ie>e;/
0. iVorse (1) a+, e; (2) ei, e; (3) an, io; (4) a, c;
0.^. G. (l)a + , ia; (2) ei, ia; (3)ou>6, io; (4) a, ia;

Ang.Sax. (\) ii+, eO>o; (2) a, e6>e; (3) ea, e6>e; (4) cfe>e, e6<u ;
j

Pres. Ferf. Pies. Perf. Pres. Perf.

Gothic... (5) ai, ai-6 ; (G) e, ai-6; (

— ) 6, ai-6.

O.Saxon 6>uo, io>ic.

0. Norse 6, e.

O.H.G. uo, io.

Ang.Sax. a. + p, ed + p; ci;>t', eO>C'; 6, e6>0.

(i.) Traces of the process of contraction are found in O. H. German

and in the following Anglo-Saxon words :

Gothic ^aWare, hold, jiert. hdikald ,-

O.ll.G. haltan, heialtyJiialfyhialt.
Gothic stdutan, strike, perf. stdistdut ; O.H.G. stuzan, steruz (r<,st)~;:>steoz, stioz.
Goihic hditan, call, T^&rt. hdihait ; A.-Sax. hdtan, hcht<,ha!hdt.
Gothic redan, rede, perf. r airoth ; A.Sax. rxdan, re6rd<!.rii;r6d.
Gothic letan, let, perf. /aiWi; A.-Sux. Ixtan, kort (r<il, ^ il, 3, A)<l!£-
Gothic Idikan, leap, pertldildik; A.-Sax. Idcan, le6lc<laildc. [lot.
— A.-Sax. on-drsedan, on-dreord, dread.

The repeated consonants weaken, and finally fall out and let the vow-
els together. In the Anglo-Saxon relics the first root consonant is saved

by metathesis with the root vowel. These contractions at first gave

vowels and diphthongs found in O. H. German.
rise to several different

Conformation in analogy with ablaut has brought them to a uniform eo

or e in Ang.-Saxon. § 53. O. Fries, presents a, e,e, a, 6, e; perf. i, e.

160. Composition. — Derivatives form the imperfect by suffixing to

the verb stem de<Cdide, imperfect of don, do h/fo-de ^=did love. :

(<z.) This formation is common to, and peculiar to, the Teutonic

tongues. Two suffixes of derivation appear in

Anglo-Saxon verb stems:
—
-^a>^e>^>e> (Latin -t, Conj. IV.), and -o^(ci, w)>e (Lat-
in -a, Conj. I.), both from an original -aja, Sanskrit Class Tenth, Greek

pure verbs.
Gothic, nasjan, sa.vc ; jiasi-da, ])\nr. nasi-dcdum: salbori, salve; salbo-da,
salho-dedum.
O. Sax., nerjan, save; neri-da, ncri-dun: scawd-n, see; scawo-da, scawo-
dun.
A, -Sax. neri'an, save; ncre-dc,ncrc-don; seal/ian,sa.\\e; scalf6-de,-don.
O. Fries, nera, save ner{e)-de, ner{e)-don ; salvja, salve salva-de, -don.
; ;

O.Norse telja, tell tal-da, tol-dum : kalla, call kalla-da, kollu-dum.

; ;

O.II.G. norj an, save; neri-ta, neri-tumes : salpon, salve; salp6-ta, salpo-
tumes.

Gothic and 0. II. German have also a stem in

-di, -c, corresponding
to the Latin Second Conjugation.
F
82 TENSE STEMS.— I'EliSONAL ENDINGS.

(i.) Derivatives in Sanskrit have only a periphrastic perfect, one

form of which has kar (do) as its auxiliary enclitic the Greek passive
;

first aorist is compoiinilcd with 0£=:dc {i^ 108); the Latin first, second,

and fourth conjugations compound with fiii (be)>-r/, -ni : amd-vi,

doc(e)ui, audl-vi.

161. Tense Stems. — The present stem suffixes a or ia to the root.

The imperfect is from the old perfect, which repeated (reduplicated) the
root. The Parent Speech liad also an aorist stem prefixing to the root a
demonstrative radicle called the augment, and an imperfect prefixing a sim-
ilar augment to the present stem. Other tense stems were formed by com-
position, as s.
future with as (to be) or hhu (to be).

162. Mode —
Suffixes. The indicative and imperative suffix the per-
sonal endings to the tense stem the subjunctive prolonged the stem to ex-
;

press doubt or hesitation by suffixing to it a for present contingency, id or i

for past contingency or desire (the optative mode). The Teutonic subjunc-
tives are from the optative.

163. Peksonal Endings are from the same radicles as the personal

pronouns. ^ 130.

SiKGULAE.
 PERSONAL ENDINGS.— PRESENT TENSE. 83

165. Present tense, -y/ nam; tense stem, noma. Sanskrit not yet iden-
tifiedwith the others, though put with them by Pott, Benfey, Diefenbach;

Latin -emo in ad-imo, etc., also put here by Bopp, Diefenbach.

Singular. —
84 STRONG VERBS.— INDICATIVE.

Imperfect.
Singular. Plural.
ic nam, I took, pe numow, we took.
J)iiname, tlioit tookcst. ge namow, 2/e ZooZ;.
he nam, he took. hi namo?i, ^Aey ^oo^'.

Futm-e.
shall or tpt'ZZ fa^e.

ic sceal (pille) nima«. pe BCvXon (pillac/) niman.

J)li scealZ (pil^) nimaw. ge sculo^i (pillar?) nimaw.
ht sceal (pillf) mman. hi sculopi (pillttrf) nima?i.

Perfect.

Transitive Form. Intransitive Form.

Sing. I have tahen. / have {am) come.

ic hceblbe numew. ic Qoni cumeji,

J)<i hoefsi (haf(^sZ) iimnen. ]^)tl

ear^ cume«.
he hoefc/ (haf(^(/) numew. he is cxxxnen.

Plur.

pe habba^ numew. pe si7id (sindon) cnmene.

ge habbac? numew. ge Bind (sindon) cumene.

hi habbaf^ numen. hi &ind (sindon) cwmene.

Pluper'fect.

Sing. I ^^^ taken. / had {was) come.

ic haef(?e numen. ic pa3s cumew.
J)ti hxMest nume^z. p&re cumew.
]3tl

he haef(7e nume^i. he poes cumew..

Plur.

pe hv&fdon nuvaen. pe p^row cumene.

ge hviMon wxmen. ge ^sbron cwmene.
hi hdiidon numew. hi pjeroJi cumewe.

Other Forms :
nam, nom ; namon, -an (d'^o) ; sceal, seel ; scul-on, 'un,
-an; sceol-on, -un, -an; pille, pile, pilt (i'^y); hwbbe, hebbe, habbe,
haf-a, -u, -0 ; hafest; hwfed; hsebbad; eom,eam; is, ys ; sind, sint,
sindan {i'^y, ie, eo), ear-on, -un. For com may be used peorde or
beom ; for pxs, peard (^ 178).
 IMPERFECT INFLECTION, STRONG AND WEAK. 85

166. Perfect Stem na-nam^ Latin theme eni-im'^ em.

SiNGULAK. —
Parent Speech. Sanskrit. Greek, Latin. Gothic. O. Saxon. O. Norse.
1. na-nam-(m)a na-nam-a ve-vsji-rjica em-i nam nam nam
"j

na-nim-i-tlia> > vt-vtfi-rjKag em-(is)ti nam-< nam-i nam-?

nem-i-thd
!na-nan-tha, J
3. na-nam-(t)a na-na'm-a vi-vEji-rjKE em-it nam nam nam
Plukal. —
1. na-nam-masi nem-i-ma ve-vtu-ijKa/iev em-mius nem-wm nam-are mim-um
2. na-nam-tasi nem-a ve-vtfi-i'iKaTi em-(is)tis nanx-up nam-wre na,m-ud
3. na-nam-anti nem-us ve-vs]i-i]icd(jt em-(er)unt nt^m-im nam-ww nam-a

O. H. Ger. nam, nam-i, nam ; ndm-umes, -ut, -un. O. Fries, endings are
like Ang.-Saxon, nam^nom.
A.-Sax. PLURALS have sometimes -um (§ 196), often -un, and see ^ 170, c.

(a.) The reduplication sets at work compensation (^ 37, 4), and all
the singular endings are lost except in the second person a vanishing
-e <^ -i. O. Sax. and O. H. Ger. have -i <C Sanskrit -i-tha, and a stem
like the plural. Gothic and O. Norse have -t<^-tha and the singular
unchanged stem ;
-t is found in some Anglo-Saxon preteritive verbs :

scealt, etc., ^ 167. Weak verbs in Gothic have -s<^-ih<C-t, like the
present, and it is found in Anglo-Saxon, oftenest in the new imperfect
of preteritive verbs: cunnan, imp. cudes ; so ZcS^^e^, observedst brohtes, ;

broughtest; seaWe^, gavest, etc. (^ 168); and in Northumbrian; weak

verbs generally strengthen the -s -st like the present. >
Plural. —m^n is shifting (41, b) ; the second person conforms with
the first and third. Sanskrit -i-, Gothic -u-, connecting vowel, inserted
for euphony ;
-u- > -o-, precession, ^ 38.

167. Future. —
Sceal is a preterito-present, § 212; pille is irregular in
the singular after the same analogy, ^ 40 niman is the infinitive. For the
;

history and use of these periphrastic forms, see Syntax.

168. Perfect and Pluperfect. —Hxhhe, imperf. hs'fde, is a weak

verb, ^ 183; eom, imperf. /'.'ps,
is irregular, ^ 213; numen is the past
parti-
ciple. For history and use, see Syntax.

Weak Imperfect ha?fde <C-\/ haf-ia-{- dc (^ 160).

Gothic.
86 STRONG VERB— SUBJUNCTIVE.
1G9. Subjunctive Mode.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural
ic nime, (if) I take. pe nirae^i, (//") we take.

J)ft nime, (if) thou take. ge mme7i, (if) ye take.

he nim<?, {if) he take. hi mmen, (if) they take.

Imperfect.
ic name, (if) I took. pe n'dmen, (if) we took.
J)<i name, (if) thou took. ge name«, (if) ye took.
he name, (if) he took. hi naraen, (if) they took.

Future.
(//) / shall {will) take.
ic scyle (pille) nimaw. pe scj\en (pillew) nimaw.
J)<i scyle (pille) mman. ge scyle^i (pillew) nimaw.
he scyle (pille)
mman. hi scyle^z (pillew) niraaw.

Perfect
Transitive Form. Intransitive Form.

Sing. (^) ^ have taken. {If) I have (be) come.

ic haebbe nurae^z. ic st cume?i.

J)11 hsebbe nwraen. ])ti st cumew.

he haebbe numen. he s^ cumew.
Plur.
pe hsebbeji nwmen. pe sm cume?2e.
ge hsebbew wxmen. ge sm cume^ie.
hi hsebbe?i nume^?. hi sm cume^ie.
Phiper'fect.
Sing. ((/") -^ ^'^'^ ic/:cn. (If) I had (were) come.
ic bajMe nume?z. ic pajre cume?i.

J)11
hajftZie nume?2. p«re cwmen.
l)tl
he hds^de numew, he p&re cumew.
Plur.

pe hd&^den numew. pe -p&ven cumewe.

ge hdi^den nume?i. ge -p&ren cumewe.
hi hviiden nuraew. hi -p&ren cumewe.

Other Forms :
scyle, scyl-en, -on, -an, -e (y'^i, u, co); hsebben, habban,
habbon ; si, sin (t^y, te, eb, ig) ; p&r-en, -an, -on (»>e). For si may
be bed, pese, peorde ; ^ox pxre, purde. ^ 179.
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 87

[§ 1G8.
— Continued from page 85. J
Sanskrit da-dhd-mi <i-\/ dha, Greek ri-Gij-fit, does not occur as an inde-
pendent verb in Gothic, and the form is supplied by comparison. The
reduplication has given rise to a secondary stem, Sanskrit dadh, Gothic
dad, O. H. Ger. tat, from which the plural and second singular are form-
ed with the ablaut of the first conjugation. For second singular -s, see
§ 166. In haf-ia-de~^hwfde, ia drops and -y/a shifts (^ 41).

IVO. Subjunctive Pkesext < Optative Ste^i nama-i (§ 162).

 88 IMPERATIVE.—NOUN FORMS.

172. iMPERATivfe Mode.

Sing. Plor.
2. nira, take. xiyaxad^ take.

173. Infinitive. Gekund.

nima??, to take. lu muxanne^ to take.

Peesext Pakticiple. Past Paeticiple.

mmende^ taking. mune?i, taken.

174. Impekative Stem nama.

Sanski-it. Greek. Gothic. O.Saxon. O.Norgc. O.II. G.

SiNO. — niima v'nii.,

Latin erne nim nim nem nim
Pluk. — nama-ta vkfie-re, Latin emi-te mmi-]j nima-cZ nemi-rf nema-«

Plural -tata> /a >i (^ 38) >rf (shifting, § 41, c). O.F.=A. Sax.

175, Noux FoEMS.

1. Infinitive 7ia7n-\-ana; 2. Gerund. nam-\-ana-\-ja.

^ Cnam-anaj-a) {vEii-iiv<i-Evai\
1.
.

Dative. ..< M
H .
.

>ium-ara
i
nira-a« ncm-a nem-an
\ (§79,a) (§70,«)
2.
(§ 120), nain-anija, Latin em-endo, O.Saxon iiira-annia>-anna. nem-ewne
„ „ . , (v'suo-vr-og ) .
7^
nima-nd7
% .
7
•

3. Pr.Part. nama-nt i . ) mma.-nd(a)-s

nema-?^f/-i nemn-nt-i
( iaf. cme-nt-is )

LP. Part, (bhuff-na

° ) CrtK-vo-v (born))
numa-w numi-n?i
. fga-nom-
) V J > numa-n-s -I ,
{Strong.) { (bent) ) I do-nu-m (gift)) {_ an-er
'). P. Part. ( . . ,, iveu-Tj-Tv-c ) • , ^ , ^ .
s •
j j. ^ 1
^„, , ^ ^iia(m)-ta ] .^^ nasi-/; (a) s (gi-)neri-d tal-d-r gn-ncn-i
)
(Weak.) ( I em(p)-tu-s

(a.) The dative case ending is gone in Teutonic infinitives. § 38.

(b.) Gerund -enne^-ende {^ 445, 2, nn^nd, ^ 27, 5), so in O. N. ;
M.
H. Ger. ; Friesic, O. Sax., and O. H. Ger. have a genitive nim-annias,
-an-nas {-es)\ nem-ennes ; and M. II. German has gen. nem-endes.
(c.) To these stems of the participles are
added suffixes contained in
the case endings. §^ 104-106.
id.) The Greek verbals in -t6q are not counted participles (Hadley,
261, c). Only weak verbs have -da, -da, in Teutonic. Few verbs have
the participle in -na in Sanskrit ; only relics are found in Greek and Latin,
but all the strong verbs use it in Teutonic.

(e.) Weak stems in -ia and -0 have i, c, ig or igc, before -an, -annc,
-end. ^ 165, d.

17G. Peeiphkastic Conditional Foems.

Potential Mode.
Modal verbs magan, cunnan, motan, durran, pillan, sculan, pltari^utan,
may, can, must, dare, will, shall, let us.
 PERIPHRASTIC CONDITIONAL FORMS. 89

Present Tense.

Sing. Indicative Forms. Subjunctive Forms

masg, can, mot, dear msege, cunne, mote, durre -^

meaht, canst, most, dearst msege, cunne, mote, durre

mxg, can, mot, dear msege, cunne, mote, durre jj
nunaji. niman.
Plue.
mdgon, cunnon, moton, dur- msbgen, cunnen, moten, dur-
ron ren, utan

gjj^.Q Imperfect Tense, Indicative Forms.

meahte, ciide, moste, dorste, polde, sc(e)olde
meahtest, cudest, mostest, dorstest, poldest, sc(e)oldest
meahte, cude, moste, dorste, polde, sc{e)olde niman.
Pluk.
meahton, cudon, moston, dorston, poldon, sc(e)oldon

Imperfect Tense, Subjunctive Forms.

Sing, meahte, cude, moste, dorste, polde, sc(e)olde
niman.
Plur. meahten, cuden, mosten, dorsten, polden, sc{e')oldcn

Gerundial Form.
I am to take = I must or ought to take or be taken.
Sing. Pluk.
ic com pe sind
Jm eart ^ to nimanne. ge sind nimanne.
^ to
he is hi sind

177. Othee Peripheastic Foems.

1. com (am) + present participle.
Present eom, eart, is ; smd nimende.
Imperfect pxs, pskre, pses ; p&ron nimende.
Future beam, bist, bid; beod nimende.
sceal pesan nimende.
Infinitive Future... beon nimende.

2. don (do) + infinitive, § 406, a.

Other Forms meaht, meahte, etc. (ea'^i) mag-on, -urn, -un, -an ((z>aO;
: ;

meahtes mcaht-on, -um, -an, -en, -e (^^ 166,170); can, con; const;
;

cunn-on, -un, -an ; cudes ; cud-on, -an, -en ; mot-on, -um, -un, -an, -en ;
mot-en, -an, -e ; most-es ; most-um, -on, -an ; durre {u^y); durr-on,
-an; dorst-on, -en; poldes ; pold-on, -um, -un, -an, -e; sc(e)oldcs;
sc(e)old-on, -un, -an, -en, -e. Forms of com, peorde, and bcom inter-
change (^ 178).
90 CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICE.

17 8. Passive Voice.
Indicative Mode.
SiNGULAK. Plural.
Present and Perfect, 7 am taken or liaoe been taken.
ic eom* (peordc) numew. pe tmmene.
sind{o7i) (peorda^;?)
})t\ QViVt {pcov&est) iwixwen. ge (peorda^) numene.
sind{o7i)
he is (peovda/) wnxnen. hi suid{on) (peoi-dat?) numewe.

Past and Pluperfect, I ivas taken or had been taken.

ic pa;s (peard) uumew. pG p&row (purdon) rwxraene.

}h1p&re (purde) numcw. ge pffiro?i (purdow) rxwrnene.

hu pies (peard) numen. hi p^Bro?^ (purdoji) numene.

Future.
1. / shall he taken.

ic be6(>n)* numen. pe beoc^ numene.

})11 bis^ numen. ge beo^ numene.
he bif? nume?i. hi beo^ numene.

2. I shall or ivill be taken.

ic sceal (pille) beon numen. pe sculon (inWad) beon numene.

]3ll sceal^ (pi^O ^g^'^ nume?z. ge sculon- (pillat^) beon numene.
h6 sceal (pille) beon numen. hi sculon (pillarf) beon numene.

Perfect, / have been taken.

jc com geporden numen. pe sind{on) gepordene numene.

jm eart geporden numen. ge sind(on') gepordene numene.
he IS geporden numen. hi sind{on) gepordene numene.

Pluperfect, I had been taken.

tcpxs geporden numen. pe pieron gepordene numene.

pu pxre geporden numen. ge pwron gepordene numene.
he pxs geporden numen. hi psivon gepordene numene.

IVO. Subjunctive Mode.

Present.
(//") / he taken.

Sing. Plur.
ic (l)tl, he) beo numen. pe (ge, hi) beon numene.
* The forms
of/?eor(fe, eom, and beom interchange.
 PERIPHRASTIC CONDITIONAL FORMS. 91

Past.

(If) I loere taken.

Sing. Pluk.
ic Qjti, be) -psbre numm. pe (ge, hi) -psbven numme.

180. Imperative Mode.

Sing. -Se thou taken: Plck. Be ye taken.

pes 2)tl nvLxnen. pesaf? ge mvaiene.

181. Infinitive. Participle.

bed;* numen, to be taken. nume^i, taken.

182. PePvIpheastic Conditional (§ 176).

Potential Mode.
Present Tense.

Sing. Indicative Forms. Subjunctive Forms.

maeg (&c.) mxge (&c.) "j

meaht (&c.) m&ge (Szc.) I

mseg (&c.) )-
bem numen{e). m&ge (&c.) > Zieore nwmen(e).
Plcr.
J
mdgon (&c.) mxgen (&c.)

Imperfect.
Sing.
meahte (&c.) meahte (&c.)
meahtest (&c.) meahte (&c.)
meahte (&c.) Jeore numen{e). 7neahte (&c.) icon numen{e).
Pluk.
meahton (&c.) mcahien (&c.)

For ieon found />e5an or peordan.

(infinitive) is The forms interchange of
peorde ; of piiire, purde ; of /;e j, 5eo, peord. Bist, bid (i >y)
ieo, 5J, /'ese, ;

ieo, beud {e6<Ci6). ^Ifric's grammar has indie, prcs. coot, imperf />a.'j,
fut. Jeo, perf. /?«^
fulfremedllce (completely), pluperf. pxs gefyrn (for-
merly) subjunctive for a wish, pres; bed gyt (yet), imperf. p&re, pluperf.
;

pxre fulfremedllce ; for a condition, pres. eom nu (now), imperf. y^ic^, fut.
bed gyt (yet); imperative si; infinitive beun.
92 CONJUGATION OF WEAK VERBS.

183. WEAK VERBS. — (Conjugation VI.)

Active Voice.
Pres. IxFISITIVE. Impekp. Indicative. Passive Participle.
savej
neYia)i, nerec?.

hyran, hear ; \\jxde; hyrec?.

lufzaw, love; lufoc?e/

Indicative Mode.
Present (and Future) Tense (§ 165, d).
I save, hear, love.
Singular. Plural.
ic nevie, hjre, lufige. pe neviad, hyrad, \nflad.
\>A nevest, hyrcst, lufdst. go neviad, hyrad, Infiad.
lie nercct,
hjrect, lufdd. hi neviad, hyrad, hifiad.

Imperfect (§§ 160, 166, 168).

/ saved, heard, loved.
ic nevede, hyvde, \ufode. pe neredon, hyrdon, Ixxiodon.
J)^ nevedest, hyvdest, lufddest. ge neredon, hyrdon, Iniodon.
he nevede, hyvde, lufdde. hi neredon, hyrdon, \nfddo7i.

Future (§167).
/ shall (will) save, hear, love.

ic sceal (pille) pc senior (pillar^) ^ nerian^

sceal^ (pi'O
nerian, hyra7i,
l^li ge sculori {j)i\\a(t) y
hyran^
\ufian.
he sceal (pille)
hi scvi\07i (pillac/) ) Infian.

Perfect (§168).
Transitive. Intransitive.
/ have saved, heard, loved. I have (am) returned.
Sing.
ic hsebbe ) , , a -,
ic eoni ^
'' '
1311 hxfst, hafdst i J)11 eart > gecyrref?.
j^'4
he hiefd, haf(«^ ) he is )

Plur.
pe hahhad J pe sind (sinclon) j

ge hahhad > neved, hyred, Infdd. ge sind (sindon) >

gecyrrec?e.
hi habbaf^ ) hi sind (sindon) )

la, iga, igea, ga interchange, and ie, ige, ge : o'^(d, ?i)>plur. e. For va-
riations of auxiliaries and endings, see corresponding tenses of strong verbs.
 CONJUGATION OF WEAK VERBS. 93

Pluper'fect (§168).
Transitive. Intransitive.
7 had saved, heard, loved. I had (loas) returned.
Sing.
ic boefc/e \ ic pees
J

J)11 \i^Mest > nerec?, hjref?, lufoc?. J)t\ pare >•

gecyrrec?.
he hsefc^e ) be pjES )

Plur.
pe \\X:idon \
pe j)§ivon \

ge hvd^don > nerec?, hyved., lufoc?. ge psero^i > gecyrrecZe.

hi hdiidon ) bi pasro^i )

184. SuBjuxcTivE Mode

Present (§ 170).
(7/*) I save, hear, love.
Singular. Plural.
ic \
pe
]3ll > nerze, byre, lufj^ye. ge \ nere'ew, hfven^ Ixxiigen.
be ) bt

Imperfect (§ iTl).
(//")7 saved, heard, loved.
IC

J)<i [•
nerecZe, byr<?e, luKde. ge nQxeden^ hynden^ \\xi6de7i.
[•

he hi

Future (§ 1G7).

{If) I shall {will) save, hear, love.

ic scyle (pille) . pe scyle^i (pillew) , . , ^
,
T.A 1 / -11 \ f nerza?i,' byraw,
.y
A „ ,
/ -n \ f ner^c«^, hyr-
^a scyle (pille)
^ ^"^'''''
^ an, lufi'a??.
he scyle (pille)
hi scyle^i (pillew)

Perfect (§168).
Transitive. Intransitive.

{If I) have saved, &c. {If I) have {be) returned.

Sing, haebbe ) neref?, h5're(7,
Plur. haebbe^i ) lufwZ.

Phiper'fect (§168).
{If 7) /jad saved, &c. (7/* 7) had {were) returned.
Sing, hoefde ) nerecZ, bj'rcf?, pai
-'^ f gecyrrcc?(e).
Plur. hvsfden ) lufof?.
 9J: CONJUGATION OF WEAK VERBS.—WEAK PEESENTS.

185. Imperative Mode (§ 174).

Save, hear, love.
Sing. Plur.
2. nere, ueviad, hyrad, \nUact.
bjr, Infd.

186. Infinitive Mode (§ 1V5).

To save, hear, love.
Present, nevian^nerigan, ncrif/ean, nergcin; hyran/ lufian'^
IwUgan, lufigean.
Gerund, to ncvia7ine, hyrarme, Infkmiie.

Participles.
Saving, hearing, loving.
Present. nQviende, hyrende, Ixxilgende.
saved. heard. loved.
Past nerec?, hyred, (ge-) \nfod.

187. The sjpecial forms and the whole passive

perij^hrastic
voice of weak verbs are conjugated with the same auxiliaries as
those of strong verbs (§§ 176-182).

188. PRESENTS (Weak).

(a.) Like neriaii inflect stems in -ia from short roots :

derian.,
Imrt ; helian., cover ; hegian, hedge ; scerian^ apportion ; spyrian^
speer ; sylian, soil
Jninian, thunder, etc.
;

(5.) But many stems

in -ia from short roots have
compensa-
tive gemination of their last consonant where it preceded i —
(throughout the present, excej^t in the indicative singular second
and third, and the imperative singular) ci cc, di > dd, fi > hb^ ; >
glycg, liyll, etc.; indicative lecge {<legie), lay, legest, leged;
lecgad {<legiad)', subjunctive lecge, lecgen; imperative lege^
lecgad; infinitive Zec^a?^/ part. pres. ^ec^ewc?e/ part, past /eye<?.
So reccan, reach ; Jireddan, rescue ; hahhan, have ; seUan, give ;
telkm, tell ; frem'inan, frame clynnan, clang ; dvppan, dip; cnys-
;

san, knock settan, set, etc.

(c.)
;

Like h^ran inflect stems in -^a>-e> — from long roots:

dixilan, deal ; deman, deem ; helwpan, leave ; msenan, mean ;

sprengan, spring ; styrman, storm ; cennan, bring forth ; cyssan,

kiss, etc. Infinitives in -ea7i occur: sec-ean, § 175, e.
 SYNCOPATED IMPERFECTS (WEAK). 95

Like lufian inflect stems showing -6 in the imperfect

(d.) :

drian, honor beorhtkm, shine

; cleopkm, call hojnan, hope.
; ;

Past participles have o, a, e; gegearp-od, -dd, -ed, prepared.

189. SYNCOPATED IMPERFECTS {Weak).

(«.) Stem -e < -ia

syncopated long roots cig-an, call,
is after :

cig-de j dwl-on, deal, d'M-de ; dem-coi, deem, dein-de ; dref-an,

trouble, dref-de ; fed-cm^ feed; Md-an, heed; li^r-mi^ hear; l&d-
an^ lead ; he-lwp-an, leave ; mmi-an, mean ; oi^d-an, urge ; rtd-
an, read ; sped-an^ speed ; sjyrejig-an^ spring, spreng-de ; hvem-an^
burn, hmrn-de ; styrm-an^ storm; so sep-de and sep-te, showed.
(b.) AssniiLATiojf.
—
After a surd, -c? becomes surd {-t). (Surds
p, t, c (a;), ss, h, not f or s alone, §§ 17, 30) :
r^p-an, bind, rUp-
te; bet-cm, better, btt-te ; gret-mi, greet, grtt-te ; met-an, meet,
mtt-te ; drenc-an, drench, drenc-te ,' l^x-an, shine, lyx-te ; but Igs-

an, release, Igs-de; fgs-an, haste, f^s-de / ni's-an, rush, ncs-dc.

(e.)
—The mute becomes continuous
Dissimilation. c (A) before
-t :
tsec-an, teach, eke, and
tich-te ; eo-an, eh-te tc-te, 36, 3.

{d.) RiJCKUMLAUT. —Themes ecg ; ; in

ec ; ycg,
eng ; ecc, ell enc,
ync, i-umlaut for acg; ace, all; anc, ang ; 6c ; ucg, tine, may
retain a (>«/
ea ; 0); 6; icy o in syncopated imperfects (§§
209-211) lecgan, lay, liegde ; reccan, rule, reahte ; cpellan, kill,
:

fpealde ; pencan, think, polite ; brengan, bring, brohte ; rtcan,

reck, rohte ; bycgan,h\\y, bohte ; pyncan, sQQm, pohte.
(e.) Gemixatio^j is simplified, and mwyin (Rule 13, page 10) :

cewn-aw, beget, cen-de ; clypp-an, clip, clqy-te ; cyss-an,'k\?,s, cys-te;

dypp-an, dip, dyp-te ; eht-an, pursue, elite ; fyll-an, fill, fyl-de ;
gyrd-an, gird, gyrde ; hredd-an, rescue, hredde ; hyrd-an, harden,
hyrde ; Jiyrt-an, hearten, hyrte ; hveft-an, bind, hwfte; lecg-an,
lay, leg-de ; merr-an, mar, mer-de ; mynt-an, purjDose, mynte ;
nemn-an, name, nem-de; rest-an, rest, reste ; riht-an, right, rihte ;
scild-an, guard, scilde ; send-an, send, sende ; spill-an, spill, sptil-
de ; sett-an, set, sette ; still-an, spring, stil-de ; stylt-an, stand as-
tonished, stylte ; pemm-an, ?>]}o\\, pem-de.
(/.) EcTiiLiPsis occurs {g) cegan, call, cegde, cede.
: See § 209.
1 90. Past Participles are
syncopated like imperfects in verbs
having rilckumlaut, often in other verbs having a surd root (§ 189,
I)),
less often in other verbs: sellan, give, sealde, seald ; ge-sec-an,
and set; send-an,
seek, ge-soh-te, gesoJit ; sett-an, set, sette, seted
send, sende, sended and send ; hedn, raise, head, raised.
96 ILLUSTRATIONS OF UMLAUT AND ASSIMILATION.

191. Pkesents. —Illustrations of Umlaut.

Conjugation (I.) (I.) (I-) (in.) (m.)
dvepan, cumrt?i, beorgaw, scMan, creopcMi,
strike. come. guard. shove. creej).
Sing.— 1,
drepe cume beorcfc sctife
creope
( drip (e) si cym{e)st j byrbsi j scjf(e)si j cryp(e)s«
(drcpesi cxxmest \ hcorgcst(jj){ BcMest \ creopesi

idrip(e)f^ j cym.{e)ct j byrhrf

fdrip(e)f^ J scyf(e)rf(0 j cryp(e)(^
(drepef^
i'epect ( cumer^ ( beorge(%)( s,cMed \ creupec?
Plue. — drepat? cwiiwad hcoYgad scMad creopac^
Conjugation... (IV.) (IV.) (V.) (V.) (V.)
ixvan, baca^^, fe.allaw, gr6pa?i,
fare. bake. fall. leap. groic.
Sing. — 1. fare bace fealle lace grope
litev{e)st j hQCSt
becsi j felsi j lacsi!
Ifficsi!
grepsi
'
j
(farcsi ( baccsi ( feallesi ( \ixcest \ gropes^

*
bec^ Md j \&c{e)d groped
\^-xved bacet^ feallec^ \ \ixced gr6pe<^
Pi.UE. — i^rad hvicad feallat? \hcad grupac?

192. Illustrations of Assimilatiori.

Conjugation. ... (L) (!•) (!•) (!•) (I.)

Qian, treda;?, binda;*, cped«?z, \esan,

eat. tread. hi7id. quoth. collect.

Sing.— 1. ete trede binde cpede lese

(it{e)st tn(de)si j bin(t)s< j cpisi lisi!

letest tredes? bindesi

( ( cpedesiJ lesesi

Cited, it trit j bint j cpid lisif

iYQded{i) bindef^ cpedec/ lesed

— (
{

Pluk. dad tvedar? binda/^ cpedac? Ic&ad

(IV.) (IIL)
Conjugation (I.) (in.) slean < fleun< (I.)

berstan, leogan, sleaha?z, fleohan, licgaw,

Z«e. lie.
slay. flee.
Sing. — 1. berste leoge slea fleo liege
fbir
birst j lyhs« j slehsi (y) Wgst
Gvs,iest flyhs«
[bei (
&\c^gest } ] licgesi
f birst (ef?) slehf/ (y)
3. j \y\\d
(berste^
flyh^
( laoged slea^e<^ [
PlXE.—
li(c)ge*^
berstac/ leogat/ sleat^ licg«f{f
 VARIATIONS. OF THE PRESENT INDICATIVE. 97

Vabiatioxs of Present Indicative.

193. Stem 4 > -e in the singular second and third person works
on the root vowel differently from -« > -e of the other persons.
is here unchanged, while other forms have a-um-
(1.) Root i
laut {i>e), § 32, or breaking (i>eo), § 33: drepan; steorfan^

starve, steorfe, stirf{e)st, stirf{e)ct, steorfad ; but y, not e, is

usu-

ally found with eo, and often incorrectly with e.

(2.) Here is i-umlaut of a, ea, eo, u, a, o, ea, eo, 1\,

to e, e(y), y, y, ^, e, e(y), y, y:
bacan^ feallan, slea/ian y sledn, heorgan, cuman, Mean, gropan,
hledpan, creopan, scilfan. § 32.
(3.) Here
is shifting of aysa: far an ; a> e is rare. § 41.

194. Stem -i^-e of the singular second and third person is

often syncopated strong verbs and weak verbs of the

in. first class-

Then Variation of root vowel remains,

Assimilation of consonants follows,
Gemination is simi^lified: etan, td^t (§ 35, J})',
tredan, dst > st (§ 35, A), ddy t
(§ 36, 5) ; hindan, ndst >
ntst >
nst (§ 35, A), ndd>nt (§ 30, 5) ; cpedan, dst > st (§ 35, A), ddy
d (§ 20, 13) ; lesa7i, sst>st (§ 20, 13), sdyst (§ 35, J^) ; berstan,
stst > st, std > Si5 leogan, gst
( § 35, hst, gd
^) ; > > hd (§ 35, J3) ;

drifan, drive, drif{e)st, drif{e)d or drift (§ 35, JB).

(a.) of the third person -d (-p) was a surd (/) when these
The ending
changes were established (e.g. dd^t). Gothic grammars give -/», but -d
is often in the manuscripts Old Saxon grammars give -d, but -th is often
;

found. English has uniformly -ih

=
-p. In Gothic, any dental a preced- +
ing dental = 5i; +a preceding labial =/(,• +a preceding guttural = A^, a
law which illustrates the frequent appearance of
Anglo-Saxon. In final t in

Anglo-Saxon folkspecch there was doubtless variation

in the sound of this

in syncopated forms it was surd after

ending, as in Gothic and Old Saxon ;

surds :
cnjpd (p), creeps drincd (p), drinks sonant after sonants (rare)
; ;
:

brined, brings (z) ;

but the predominant sound was always surd, as in Gothic
lieth.
and English. Compare liget for liged,
(S.) three forms given of the singular second and third persons, the
Of the
syncopated (dripd) is the common prose form,
the unsyncopated, unvaried, or

varied by i-umlaut {driped, byrged) is more frequent in poetry, the varied

with the other persons.
by a-umlaut (drcpcd) is a later conformation

195. Vorbs from roots in -h contract (§ 52) : slecm <. sleahan ;

fleOn ^fleohan.

190. Stems in -ia with compensative gemination hold it

except
G
98 SUMMARY OF VARIATIONS IN CONJUGATION.

in the indicative singular second and third — sometimes through-

out; but the imperative singular has -e (§§ 188, b ; 199; 207, d) :

licgan < Ugian, lie, imperative lige.

197. Variatiox IX Stkong Im perfects.

cpedan, sleahan> seahan > ceosau,

quoth. slean, slay. seon, see. choose.

Sing. — cpred sloh {g) seali ceas

epajde sloge sjege, sape cure

cpted sloh ((/) seah ceas

Plue. — cpjedon slogon ssgon, sapon curon

Part. — cpedcn sl»gen sepen, segen coren :

dy d (§ 3G, 2) ;
A > r7 (§ 36, 2) ; «>/'(§ 35, 3, h) ;
h >p in sape
(Gothic salhvan) is really hp'^p (§ 35, 3, b). So inflect Itdan,

Idct, lido7i, sail, etc. (§ 205) ; seodan., sedd, sudon, seethe, etc.
(§ 206) ; tedh, tuge < teohayi, tug ; freosan, freeze (frore) ; for-
leosan, lose (forlorn) ; hreosan, rush ; pesaji, be, p. p. pesen, etc.
(§ 206).

198. Summary of Variations in Conjugation.

(rt.)
The root vowel may take five forms :

(1.) Throughout the present except the indicative singular sec-

ond and third persons.
(2.) In the indicative singular second and third persons.
(3.) In the imperfect singular first and third persons.
(4.) In the other forms of the imperfect.
(5.) In the passive participle.
{b) Consonant assimilation works mainly on the indicative sin-
gular second and third persons, and on the weak imperfects and
passive participles.
(e.) We
give the present indicative singular first, second, and
third persons, the imperfect indicative singular first person and
plural first person, and the passive participle.

id.) Only the varied syncopated forms of the present indicativfe second
and third persons are often given the other regular forms generally occur,
;

but may be easily supplied (^ 193, h). Any variation of vowel, or assimila-
tion of consonants, which has been given in the phonology, ar\d is here re-
corded as found in any verb, may be looked for with any similar verb. The
variations of the imperfect plural -on (^^ 166, 170) are not given. The final
root consonants determine the arrangement, —
labials, dentals, gutturals.
Vowels in parenthesis after a word are variations of its root vowels.
 FIRST CONJUGATION.—VARIATION. 99

First Coxjugatiox, y'a.

199.^1. Roots ending in a single consonant not a liquid:

Ablaut (t; a, a; i)'^(e; a;,&; e); t>e,a-umlaut; a a?, a >c'e>e, shift- >
ing (^^ 158, 32, 41) (y, ie)
; f, bad spelling, is frequent< variation of con- ;

sonants, ^ 194. Layamon and Ormulum hold the Ang.-Sax. ablaut, though
with varying spelling in Old English it ;
is broken up, especially in the im-

perfect, where both numbers at English ablaut (ce, ea; a, a;

last are alike.

ee, ea)^{t; a ov e ; i) :
eat, ate (et\ eaten; for stems with ^-breaking

and in -ia (t; a, a; i): bid, bade, bidden; e>«, progression (^38); a;>e,
Most of these verbs vary in English from their type in con-
shifting (^ 41).
formation with the forms in § 200, and with weak verbs.

Lndicative Pkesent. iMrEEP. Sing. Pluk. Part. Past.

1st. 2d. 3d.

drepe, drip{e)st, drip{e)d (p) ; driep, dnepon ; \ ff-^r

Uo),^200.
\ Strike.
)

spefe, spif(e')st, spif{e)d{p, ; spief, sp&fon ; spefen, sleep.

pwf, pxfon (c) pefen, weave.

pefe, pif{e)st, pifle)d (p, t) ; ;

wt, eeton eat.

ete, it(_e)st, it ited (ij, ie, e) ; ; eten,

frit frited frwt, fr&ton ; freten, eat up.

frete, frit(e) st, ;

mete, mit(e)st, mit ; msst, mseion ; meten, mete.

cnede, cni{de)st, cnit ; cnxd, cn&don; cneden, knead.

trede,trist tndes, tnt tridedl

^^^^^ ^^^^^^
,
trcden, tread.
)
(.y, le, e) ;

cpede, cp'ist, cpid{y) cpeded; cpxd, cp&don; cpeden, quoth.

lese, list, list ; lies, Ixson ; lesen, gather.
-nist -nses, -nxson -nesen, recover.
ge-nese, -nist, ; ;

{pese, pesest, pesed) rare ; pxs, pseron ; ge-pesen, he

sp{r)ece (<•»), spriest, spricd (p) ; spriec, spreecon ; sprecen, speak.
prece, priest, pried (p) ; prxc, prxcon ; prcccn, wreak.

pege, pigst ihst), pigd (hd) pa;g (h), patgon (a, e) pegen, carry.
; ;

irece, see ^ 200; hpete, whet; pede, hind; j^ece, stick, are doubtful; so also
(Jitan, arripere ; hnipan, collabi ; gipan, hiare ; screjoe, scrape ; />e£?e, wed).

^-breaking : i > {ie, to, eo>y); ayeay e, a > ed > e.

§§ 33, 35.

gife (ie, &c.), gifst, gif(e)d (/-) ; geaf Cv, e), geafon (e) ; gifen, give.
for-gite (le, &c.), -gitst, -git ; -gcat {x, e), -geaton (e) ; -giten, forget.

A -breaking: iy eo, a'^eay e. §§33,35.

seohe (sco), sihst, si(h)d (i/>eo) ; seah, sAgon (e), sdpon ; ge-sepen,-g-, see.

ge-feohe (-fed), -fihst, -fi{h)d ; -feah {e), -fii-gon ; -fegen, rejoice.

Stems in -ia (compensative gemination, § 196), no a-umlaut,oi- late.

The but plur. picgead occurs.

imperative has -e :
frige, site,

fric"-e, fri!r(e)st(hst),
jrie^L,jiig^K<i)o,,y J, Jfrii^(c)d')
a^ / V . ^. { gefrwen}> .

friPg,friL'gon; 1 / f mquire.
> <. (^)^)j >
(Jid,}));
lid (/) (a, e) lie.
liege, ligst, lig{e)d{t), ; Iceg, hegon ; Itgen,
100 FIRST CONJUGATION.— VARIATION.

ISDIOATIVB PbESENT.
lat. 2d. 3il. Imperf. Sing. Pluk. Takt. Past.

Picge, pigst, pig{e)d (Jid) ; peak (Pa/i), pxgon (a, e) ; pigen, take.
sitte, sit(e)st, sit ; swt, swton ; gc-setcn, sit.

I)idde, bi(de)st, bit ; bxd,bxdon; bcden, bid.

Add fccge,feah, fetch; 5/>n7/e, sprout ; {hlicce, h\a.me; snicce, sneak) 1

200. — II. Roots ending in a single liquid :

Ablaut {i; a, a; w)>(j {eo, y) ; o, 6; u) (e ; x, ai; o); i'^(eo, y), a'^o,

a ]> o, m-assimilation ;
i > e, m > o, a-u-mlaut ;
a > a', a >
aj, shifting ; i >eo,

a^ca, r-breaking ; eo>y, i-umlaut :

(«, ea)>e, shifting. ^^158,35,32,41.
English ablaut {ea; a or v; o) steal, stole, stolen; :
la, a, ^ 199; o

lengthened in the past part., conformation in the imperfect.

nime (eo, y), nim(e)st, nim{e)d; nam (o), namon (o) numcn, take. ;

cpime'^\ cim(e)st ^^
cim(e)d "^ cpam.(o)\ cpdmon(o)\ cumen} come.
cume } cym(e)st) cym{e)d ) com ) comon
cpele, cpilst, cpild; cpxl,cpMon ; cpolen, kill.
ge-dpele, -dpilst, -dpiht ; -dpxl, -dpMon ; -dpolen, err.
hele, hilst, hild ; hxl, h&lon; Jiolen, conceal.

hpele, hpilst, hpild; hpsd, hpMon ; hpolen, sound.

stele, stilst, stild; stxl, stxlon ; stolen, steal.

spele, spilst, spild; spxl, spxlon ; spolen, sweal.

bere, birst (y), bird (y) ; bxr, bxron ; boren, bear.

scere (eo), scirst (y), scird (y) ;
scxr (ea, e), scxron ; scoren, shear.

tere, tirst, tird (y) ; txr, txron ; toren, tear.

ge-ppere, -ppirst, -ppird; -Ppxr, -ppxron; -puren >weld.

i-pporen^
-Pruen, j
brece, Iricst, bricd (p) ; brxc, brabcon ; brocen, break.

201. — III. Roots ending in two consonants, the first a nasal:

Ablaut (i; a, u; u) ; i^y, bad spelling, is frequent; a^o, nasal assimi-

lation (^^ 158, 35) ;
variation of consonants, ^ 194.
Final gemination is often preserved. Unsyncopated forms are very com-
mon (^ 194). English ablaut {i ; a or u ; it) swim, swam or swum, swum; :

but stems in -nd have progression (I,- ou; ou)=di; du; du) find, found. :

hlimme, hlimst, hlimd; hlam{o), hlummon; hlummen, sound,

grimme, grimst, grimd; gram (o), grummon ; grummen. rage,
spimme, spimst, spimd; spam (o), spummon ; spummen, swim,
climbe (^ 36), dimst, cltmd; clamh (omm), clumbon ; clumben, climb,

ge-limpe, -limpst, -limpd (p) ; -lump, -lumpon ; -lumpen, happen,

ge-nmpe, -rimpst, -rimpd(p) ;
-ramp, -rumpon ; -rumpen, rumple.
brinne (beorne, ^ 204), bnnst, > .

^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ brunnen. burn.

brind; )

on-ginne, -ginst, -gind; -gan, -gunnon ; -gunnen. begin.

 FIRST CONJUGATION. —VARIATION. 101

b-linne, linst, lin{ni)ct; Ian, lunnon ;

rinne (eorne, § 203), rinsi
sinne, sinst, sinct;
spinne, spinst, spind;

pinne, pinst, pind;

stinte, stin(t)st, stint;

J)rinte, prin(t)st, print ;

binde, bin{t)st, bint;

finde, fin{t)st, fint ;

grinde, grin(t)st, grint ;

hrinde, hrin(t)st, hrint ;

spinde, spinet) st, spint ;

pinde, pin(t)st, pint ;

pinde, pin(t)st, pint ;

crince, crincst, crincdCp);

d-cpince, -cpincst, -cpincd (p) ;

prince, drincst, drincd (p) ;

for-scrince, -scrincst, -scrincd )

since, sincst, sincd (p) ;

stince, stincst, stincd (p) ;

spince, spincst, spincd (p) ;

bringe {cge), bringst, bringd;

clinge, clingst, clingd;

102 FIRST CONJUGATION.— VARIATION.

202. — IV. lioot in two consonants, tlic first ^, or three con-

sonants \vitli metathesis of r :
Ablaut {i ; a, u ; it) > {c ; .t, u ; o) ; ?>?,«>«, a-umlaut {!^ 32) ; a>
»>e, shifting {^ 41). Umlaut and shifting stopped by n. (^^ 200,201.

Indicativb Pkesent. Impeef. Sing. Tlur. Part. Past.

lat. 2(1. 3(1.
1 n rl ( \
breffde
brede
Kbrardest}
}

)
.?x
bri{t)st
.

)
h
bregdcd ) brwgd
, •:
bnt Tz J
) brxd
)
r? J
) brudon
brugdon (,
-^irof/era,
i
'^,

, , . „„ I
, ) .,
ire- S braid.
,

( den, i 199 )
stregde\ strigdest\ strigded)^ strwgd '^ slrugdon slrogden I
strow,
strede ) slri{t)st ) strit i strxd i (
sprinkle.

frigne\ \ \ frxg{e)n\ ~ j.

\cf\ I I I (e)
Ifrugnonl frugnen ask.
J.
.'
\ r , { J- * \ ^ \ •' frunon > '' frunen I
frme J jnnsl ) fnna ) jran )

berste, birst, birst{ed) (ie) ; bxrst, burston ; borsten, burst,

persce, pirsccst, pirsced; pxrsc, purscon ; porscen, thresh.

203. —V. Root in two consonants, first a trill (I or r) :

(a.) Ablaut (i ; a, u ; u)^{e; ea,u; o) ; i>e, m>o, a-umlaut (1^32);

a^ea (l-breaking, ^ 33)>co (irregular spelling), ox pea'^ peo, p-assimila-
tion (^ 35) ? Unsyncopated forms in e are common :
helpest, helped. En-
glish ablaut {e; a, e or o; o); ea>a or c, shifting, ^ 38, A; o, ^ 200 ;
but all

imperfects have become weak: help; {halp, help, holp), helped; (holpeh),
helped.

belle, bilst, biht; bcal, billion ; bollen, bellow.

(speal (speoll, Rask),> ,, ,,
swell.
spelle, spilst, spild ; 1
1 .w/1.
spullon ; )[spollen,

helpc; hilpst (e), hilpd (p) ; healp, hulpen; holpen, help.

delfe, dilfst, dilfd; dealf, dulfon ; dolfen, delve.

melte, miltst, milt ; mcalt, multon ; molten, melt.

spelte, spiltst, spilt {i^ie,y) ; spealt{eo?), spulton; spolten, die.

be-telde, -til{t)st, -tilt ; tcald, tuldon ; tolden, cover up.

melee, milcst, ?nilcd{p) ; mealc, mulcon ; molcen, milk.

beige, bilgst (Jist), bilgd{hd) ; bealg{h), bulgon; bolgen, be wroth.

felge, filgst (hst), filgd (hd) ; fealg(h), fulgon; folgen, go into.

Cspolgen ~\

spelge, spilgst {hst), spilg{e)d{hd) spealg{h), spulgon ; ; I (spelgen, ^swallow

'
Add d-selce (e>eo, ea), sulk. Koch), 3

^/-breaking, i>ieyy (§ 33) ; z>e is also founcl, a-uinlaut,

J.
§§32, 194,
gille {e, ie, y), gilst {ie, y), gild {ie, y) ; geal, gullon ; gollen, yell.

gilpe {ie, y), gilpst {ie, y), gilpd {p) {ie, y) ; gealp, gulpon ; golpen, boast.
gilde {ie, y), g%l{t)st {ie, y), gilt {ie, y) ; geald, guidon ; golden, pay.
 SECOND CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 103

204. — (^>.)
Before r (and h) :

Ablaut (i; a,u; u)^{eo; ea,u; o) i>eo, a>ea, breaking ('5> 33) m>o, ; ;

a-umlaut {^ 32). After labials {p, m, p), eo may go to u {^ 35, 2) y for i ;

abounds. Unsyncopated broken forms prevail peorpest, peorped. A'^owels :

brought before r by metathesis often retain their old umlaut: rinne'^irne ;

brinne^birne ; bersce, perste (^ 202). English like {a) eo>e, ^ 38, A. ;

georre, gyrst, gyrd; gear, gurron .

gorren, whur.
eorne (i,y), yrn{e)st {i, eo), yrn{e)ct\ {earn) am (o), \ run.
urnen,
(i, eo) ;
3 urnon ; i

beorne{i,y), beorn(e)st {y), beorn{e)d\ beam {barn) (o), | ,

omen. burn.
(y) ; ) burnon ; i

meorne («), myrnst, myrnd; mearn, murnon ,

momen, mourn.
speorne {u, o), spyrnst, sprjrnd; spearn, spurnon ; spomen, spurn.
peorpe {u, y), pyrpst, pyrpd {p) ; pearp, purpon ; parpen, throw.

ceorfe, cyrfst, cyrfd; cearf, curfon; corfen, carve.

deorfe, dyrfst, dyrfd; dearf, durfon; darfen, suffer.

hpeorfe {u, o, y), hpyrfst, hpyrfd; hpearf, hpurfon ; hparfen, return,

tdie,
steorfe, styrfst, styrfd; stearf, sturfon ; storfen,
(starve.

speorfe, spyrfst, spyrfd {() ; spearf, spurfon ; sporfen, cleanse.

peorde pyrd{ed)
{u, y), pyrst, ; peard, purdon ; porden, become.
beorce, byrcsl, byrcp; bearc, bureau ; barcen, bark,
spearce, spyrcst, spyrcd {p) {sporced) ; spearc, spurcan ; sporcen, faint.

bearge, byrgst{hst), byrg{e)d{hd); bearg{h),burgon; borgen, guard.

feahte, fyhlst, fyht ; feaht, fuhton; fohten, fight.

205. Second Conjugation, ^/i.

Ablaut {i; a; i; i) ;
i'>y, I'^y, bad spelling ;
.sc-breaking or A-breaking
a>ea (i>io.?), t>eo ("^ 33) ;
a >», shifting. English ablaut (i; d; i) =
(di ; 6; i) ; i^di, d^o, progression {^ 38) :
drive, drove, driven.

dptne, dpin{e)st, dpin{e)d; dpdn, dpinan ;

gine, gin{e)st, gin{e)d;

hrtne, hrin{e)st, hrin{e)d;
hptne, hpin{e)st, hpin{e)d;
seine, scin{e)st, sctn{e)d;

gripe, grip{e)st, gnp{c)d (/) ;

nipe, nip{e)st, nip{e)d {p) ;

ripe, rip{c)st, rip{e)d {p) ;

to-slipan, -srip{e)st, -slip{e)d{p)

be-Vife, -ljf{e)st, -lif{e)d;

clife, cltf{e)st, clif{e)d;

drifc, d/if{c)st, dnf{e)d {ft) ;

scr'ife, serif{e)st, serif{e)d ;

slifc, slif{e)st, slif{e)d;

10-i SECOND CONJUGATION.— VAlilATION.
Indicative riiESEUT. Imperfect
1st. 2ii. 3cl. SiNo. Pluk. Takt. Past.
(sweep,
sp'ife, spif{c)st, spif{c)d; spcif, spifon ; spifen, (turn.

spipe, sjnp{c)st, sptp{e)(t ; spap {an), spipon ; spipen, spew.

bite, hU{e)st, b1t{cd) ; but, hiton; bit en, bite,

(flitc,
jfltte, fiit{e)st, Jilt ; fiat, fiiton ; fliten,
(strive.

hnitc, hnit{c)st, hnit ; hnat, hniton ; hniten, butt.

slite, slit{c)st, slit ; slat, sliton ; sliten, slit.

smite, smU{c)st, smit ; smdt, smiton; smilen, smite.

ppite, Ppit{e)st, ppit{ed) ; ppdt, ppiton (eo) ; ppiten, cut off.

pile, pit(e)st, pit(eit); subj. pitan, (see, visit,

V pat, piton; pilen,
y-putanyutan, §§ 176, 224, c. umpute.
plite, prit{e)st, plit{ed) ; plat, pliton ; pliten, look.

prite, prit{e)st, prit{ed) ; prat, priton ; priten, write.

llde, hidcst {ht{t)st), bided {bit) ; bad, bidon ; biden, bide.

cide, ci{t)st, cit ; cad, cidon (cidde) ; ciden, chide.

(?) lide, list, tided lid; lad, lidon ; liden, grow.

glide, glist, glit ; glad, glidon; gliden, glide.
gnide, gnist, gmt ; gnud, gnidon ; gniden, rub.

hlide, Mist, hlit ; lildd, hlidon ; hliden, cover.

ride, rist, rit ; rdd, ridon (io) 1 ; riden, ride.

slide, slist, slit ; sldd, slidon ; sliden, slide.

stride, strist, strit ; strdd, stridon ; striden, stride.

pride, prist, prit ; prdd, pridon ; priden, bud, grow.

lide, U{de)st, lid{ed) ; lad, lidon; liden, sail.

mide, mist, mid; vxdd, midon; miden. hide.

scride, scrist, scrid; scrdd, scridon ; scriden(d), go.
slide, sli{de)st, slid; sldd, slidon; sliden, slit..

snide, snist, snid; sndd, snidon ; sniden, cut.

pride, prist, prid; prdd, pridon {d) ; priden, wreathe.

pride, prist, prid; prdd, pridon ; priden, bud, grow.
a-grise, -grist, -grist ; -grus, -grison; -grisen, dread.
rise, rise St (rist), rised (rist) ; rus, rison; risen, rise.

blice, blic(e)st, blic(e)d (p) ; bide, blicon ; blicen, shine.

sice, sic(e)st, sic(e)d (p) ; sac, sicon; sicen, sigh.
snice, snic(e)st, snic(e)d (p) ; suae, snicon ; snicen, sneak.
strice, stric(e)st, stric(e)d (p); strdc, stricon; stricen, go, streak.
spice, spic(e)st, spic(e)d (p) ; spdc, spicon; spicen, deceive.
pice, pic(e)st, pic(e)d (]J) ; pdc, picon ; picen, yield.
hnige,hnig(c)st(hst),hnis:(e)d}
^^ ' , ^, , v , .

(hd); "^
hnah(g), hmg hnigen, nod.

((miuffo),
^ ° '
mige, mihst, mihd; mdh, migon ; miff
* en, k
(water.
sige, sihst, sihd; sail, sigon; sigen, sink.

stige, sfihst, stihd; stdh, stigon ; stigen, ascend.

 THIED CONJUGATION.—VAEIATION. 105

p'tge , pihst, pthd ; pah, pigon ; pigen. fight.

like, Uhie)st, lih{e)d (y) ;

Idh {ed) {lag), Itgon ; It
gen. lend, give.
sihe (seo), sih{e)st, sih{e)d; sdh, sigon (Ji) ; sigen{h), strain.

iihe {ted), tikst {y), tihd{y) ;

tdh {ed), {tigon?) ; tigcn, accuse.

{Peo, ^ 206)
Jnhe, pihst, pihd ; pdh {])dg,}d:h) , -I
{
i
^
{preu, ^ 20G)
prthe, prihst, prihd; prdh, prigon ; prigcn,
-^ * ( cover.
Add spine, swoon ; sntpe, snow ; prife, thrive 1 sci-ie, shriek.

206. TlIIKD COXJUG'ATION, -y/ U.

Ablaut (m(i/); ed,u; u)^{e6{{i); cd,u; o) iu^io~^eo, m>o, a-um- ;

laut (§^ 32; 38,2); ea>c, shifting {^ 41); eo>y, M>y, i-umlaut {^ 32).
Ormulum ablaut (e, (m) &, u; o), Old English {e, {u) e, o or e; o), En-
; ;

glish {ee, ea, ob, u; ee, e, o, o; o, b, ee, e). The imperfect becoming like
the present by the shifting of is distinguished anew
eo'^e and ed'^e, by
conforming with the 6 of the participle, by shortening its vowel (e, 5), or by
taking a weak ending :
seethe; seeth-ed,sbd; seeth-ed, sodden ; cleave; clove,
clef-t cloven, clef-t; choose; chose; chosen;
; 5(7/?, weak. ^^25,200.
Variation of consonants, § 194.

creope, cryp{e)st {ed), cryp{e)d > ^

I creap,crupon; cropcn, creep.

{eo){p){
dreope, drypst, drypd {p) ;
dredp, drupon ; dropen, drop.
geope, gypst, gypd {p) ;
gedp, gupon ; gopen, take up.
slupe,slyp{e)st{u),slyp{e)d{u){p)\ sledp, slupon ; si open, dissolve.

supe, sypst, sypd {p) ; seap, supon ; sopen, sup.

cleofe, clyfst, clyfd; cledf, cliifon ; clofen, cleave.

dufe, dyfst, dyfd; deaf, dufon ; dofen, dive.

scufe, scyfst, scyfd {ft) ; scedf, scitfon ; scofen, shove.

hreofe, , ;
be-hrofen, (?)

leofe, lyfst, lyfd; leaf, lufon ; lofen, love.

reofe, ryfst, ryft; redf, rufon ; rofen, reave.

breope, brypst, brrjpd; bredp, brupon ; bropen, brew.
cedpe, cypst, cypd; ceap, cupon ; copen, chew.
hreope, hrypst, hrypd ; hredp, hrupon ; hropen, rue.

preope, pnjpst, prypd; J)redp, prupen ; propen, throe.

bredte, bryt{e)st (eo), bryt {ed) {eo) ; brcut, bruton ; broten, break.
fleote, flytst, flyt ; feat, fiuton ; floten, float.

geote, gytst, gyt ; gedt (e), guton ; goten, pour.

gredle, gryt{e)st, gryt ; great, gruton ; gruten, greet.
hleote, hleotest {hlylsl), hlyt; Meat, hluton ; hloten, cast lots.
hrute, hrytst, hryt ; hredt, hruton; hroten, rustle, snore.
Kite, lytst, luted {lyt) ; ledt, luton ; lotcn, lout.

neote neotcd {nyt)

{lo), nytst, ; neat, nuton ; noten, enjoy.
redte, rytst, redted {ryt) ; real, rulon ; roten, weep, cry.
sceote, scytst, sceoted {scyt) ; scedt (e), scuton; scoten, shoot.

spredte, sprytst, spryt ; spredt, spruton ; sproten, sprout.

lOG TIIIIU) CONJUGATION.—VARIATION.
luDIOATIVB PBKSENT. IMPERFECT
1st. 2d. 3d. Sing. Tlub. Part. Past.

peote, Pytst, pf/t ; J)edt, Jmton ; Pwtcn, howl.

d-preolc, -prytst, -prcoted {-pryt) ; -prcdt, -pruton ; -proton, irks, loathe.
deadest (5^(0^0,
beodejio) ''^o-l^^. ^^^^^ boden, bid.
dea (byt) ; )

encode, cny{t)st, cnyt ; cnedd, cnudon ; cnoden, knot.

creode («), cry(()st, cryded cryt; credd, crudon; croden, crowd.
Ic6de{i6), ly{t)st, lyt; ledd, ludon ; laden, grow.
reode, ry{t)st, ryt ; redd, rudon ; roden, redden.
strudc, stry{i)st, struded {slryt) stredd, slrudon ; ; stroden, despoil.
d-breude, -breodest {-bryst), -breo-'t "
-bredd, -brudon ; -broden, worsen.
ded {-bryd) ; )

d-hude, -hyst, -hyd; -head, -hudon ;. -hoden, spoil.

hreode, hryst, hryd; hredd {d),hrudon; hrodcn, adorn.
seode, seodest (sysi), seoded (syd) ; sedd, sudon ; soden, seethe
cease, ceosest {cyst), ceased {cyst) ;
ceds {c), curon ; coren, choose.

drease, dryst, dreosed {dryst) ; drcds, di'uron ; droren, \

(mourn.
freose, fryst, fryst ; freds, fruron ; froren, freeze.

be-greose, -gryst, -gryst ; -greds, -gruron; -groren, frighten.

hrease, hryst, hryst ; hreds, hruron ; hroren, rush.

for-leose, -lyst, -lyst ; -leas, -luron ; -loren, lose.

bruce, brucest {brycst), bruced >

bredc, brucon ; brocen, brook, use.
{brycd {p)); i
^
luce, lycst, lycd {p) ; leac, lucon ; locen, lock.

reoce, rycst, rycd {p) ; rede, rucon ; rocen, reek.

smeoce, smycst, smycd {p) ; smedc, smucon ; smocen, smoke.
Slice, sycst, sycd {p) {c<^g) ; scdc, sucon ; socen, suck.

bdge {eo), bugest {byhst {g)), biU . .

.
.^ ^^^'
^^'^'^
^"^on , bogen, bow.
ged {byhd {g)) ; j

dredge, dreogest {dryhst), dreo-) , ^,/ \ , , a-

dreah{g),dnigon; drogen, suffer.
ged{dryhd); '^

fledge,jleogest{yhst),fleugcd{yhd);fledh {eg), fiugon; fiagen, fly.

leoge, lyhst, lyhd; lie.

ledh{e){g),lugan; logen,
smuge, smyhst, smyhd; smedh, smtigon ; smogen, creep.
jleohe{fleo),fiyhst,flyhd; plur. ") n ^, j, n a
flogen, flee.
fleod; ^fleah,flugon;
teohe {tea), tyhst, tyhd{id); plur.
y tedh (e) {g), tiigon ; togen, tug.
teod;
,
({<bihe,2Q5)
^ -^ '

pea, pyhst, pyhd ; pedh, pmgon ; pogen, -J

(thrive.
((<pAhe,205)
' '
prco, pryst, pryhd; prcdh, prugon ; progen,
(cover.
Add »ed, strain ; ico, accuse, ^ 205, Heyne fneose, sneeze 1;
 FOURTH CONJUGATION.—VARIATION. 107

207. FouiiTu Conjugation, -v/a or a.

Ablaut (a; 6, 6; a); a>ig, shifting; a>e, i-umlaut, infrequent (^ 32).
English ablaut (a; o or oo ; a) {e; o or u; e) a>e, progression and = ;

i-umlaut {^^ 38, 32); o>w, progression (^ 38): wake, ivoke, lodken; take,
took, taken. Variation of consonants, ^ 194.

ale, wl{e)st{e,a), ssl{e)d {e,a); 6l,olon; alen, shine.

gale, gwl(e)st, gml{e)d; gol, golon ; galen, sing.

fare, fxr{e)st, fxr{e)ct; for, for on; faren, fare.

stape, stwp{e)st, stsep{e)(t{p); stop, st6po?i ; stapen, step.

; ; ge-dafen, behoove.

grafe, grxf{e)st, gra}f{c)d; grofgrofon;

{ll^,!2ln, \s^^^^^^^&-
rafe, rxf{e)st, rxf{e)d; ruf, rofon ; rafen, rob.

Made, hladest
' (hlest),
^ ' hladed } n, \'' , n/ \-< , n
nladen
? /\iload.
j
., ,
)- hl{e)od, hl{e)odon ; {a"),

pade,padest{j>a'st),paded{pmd); pod, podon; paden, wade, go.

ace, xc{e)st, icc{e)d {p) oc, ocon ; ; acen, ache.
l/ace, ba;c{e)st(e),bieced{e), ^191; boc, bocon ; bacen, bake.
sace, sxc{e)st, sxc(e)d (p) ; soc, socon ; sacen, fight.

tace, tmc{e)st, t3ec{e)d{p) ; toc,tocon; tacen, take.

pace, pxc{e)st, pxc{e)d (//) ; poc, pocon ; pacen, wake.

pasce, piesc{e)st, pxsc{e)d (p) ; pose {x), poscon (x) ; pxscen, wash.
draffe,drx^(e)st(hst),drxff(e)d)
° ., °^ ' ^ ' °^ ' y , -., / \ , /. , j
dron{g), drogon; dragen, drag.

gnage, gmeg(e)st (hsl), gnce- -} ^,

gnoh, gnogon ; gnagen, gnaw.
g(e)dthd), '^

Add pape, thaw.

(6.) 5C-breakiug, § 33 ; A-breaking, § 33 ; ea^y., § 32.

scie)ade,sc{e)adest{scxst),sc{e)a-">
\ ' \i /%/-, /\^, /\+ ^i
scathe.
, ,
,, y sc(e)od,sc(e)odon:
\ / \ / 7 sciejaden,
7 v / 7
ded iscxd) ; j

sc(e)ace,scie)acest(scxst),sc{e)a-^ -,^ , ^^ ,, / \ 1 1
. , ,\ Y sc(c)oc,
\ / ' sc(e)ocon
\ / ; sciejacen
\ ' (a'),
\ " shake.
ced {scxd); )

sceppe{y), scyp{pe)st, scyp{pe)d; sc{e)6p, sc{e)opon; sc{e)apen{e), create.

scafe (eaf), sc;if{c)st, scxf{c)d;scuf{eo?),scofon; scafen, shave.
'
leahe {led), lehst {y), lehd (y) ; loh {g), logon ; leahen {lean), blame.
sleahe {sled), slehst (y), slchd (y) ; sloh {g), slogan ; slagen {x, e), slay.
pped, ppehst (y), ppehd (y) ; l)poh, pjpogon ; ppegen, wash.
peaxe, pexest, pcaxcd, pex{e)d; p{e)ox, p{e)oxon; pcaxen, wax.
Add^ea, flay.

(c.) 7i-assirailation, ay o, % 35.

spane, span{e)st, span{e)d{x); sp{e)6n, sp{c)onon ; spanen{o), allure.

slande {0), slandest {stentst),') ,.,,., ,t <^,„s
'^"^^ *'^^'" ^^ ^16). standen, stand.
standed {stent (y)) ; |
 108 FIFTH CONJUGATION.—VARIATION.

((?.)
Stems in -ia^ § 196. Imperative in -e: spere, stepe, hefe.
Indicative Pbf.8e:nt. Imperfect
1st. '2d. 3d. SiNo. Plub. Part. Past.

spor,sp6ron; sporen, swear.

sper-ie{-{i)g€), sperest, spered;
sceppe<CscaJic, ^ 207, b; sci/ppe<CsceaJie, ^ 32.
steppe i'Cstapie), step{e)st, stcp{e)d{Jj); stop, stupo7i ; stapen, step.

hof, kofon; hafen(x), heave.

hebbe{a'){<.hafie),hcf{e)st,hcf{e)d;
hlchhe {<hlahie) {i, y, ea), hlchst {t,
y),| j^^. ^^.* ' ' ^^^^^^^^^ v /. ^
^,^ & j^^
i
hlehd{i,y);
Add scedde, shed.
208. Fifth Conjugation. — Contract. Imperfect in eo, e {id).

(1..)
Root in a + two consonants; «>ea, 1-breaking (§ 33), Um-
laut i/<ea or €<a (§ 32). English co>e, shifting (§ 41);
aid y old, progression (§ 38): fall, fell, fallen ; hold, held,
hdlden.

fall.
ge-feallen,
^Tf\tfddy^ ^^^^''^'-^'""^^^'^'^Ifoolilh/eoUon;
pe6l{l),pe6Uon; peallen, well.
pealle,peallest {pylst), peal{l)ed {pyld) ;

pealten, fall.
pealte,pealtest (pylst),pealted (pylt) ; peolt, peolton ;

fealde fealdest {fylst), /'^"^'^"^ .

fold.
y,^;^, y,^;^,„ f.alden,
|
h{c)alde healdest {hylsl), healdedi .
^^^.^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^ j^^j^^
{hylt) ;
>

.
, ,.
\ -< " stealded}L
stcalde, stealdest (stylst), , /-; >
steoLd.steuldon; stealden,
.
^i; ; ,77 possess.
)
{sty id) ;

v(e)alde, pcaldest (pylst),

"-^ pealded'}
-^
^,, ^,, ,,
>
'^^.'^
.,/ >
peold, peoldon ; pealden, govern.
{pylt) ;

pealce, pealc{e)st ipylcst), peal-} ^, ^, ,

,,
/\^/ 7 i / 1\\ > peulc, peolco7i ; pealcen, walk.

(5.) n-assimilation, « >.o (§35).

banne, ban{ne)st {benst), ''
, - / \ / "x 7 " / "x j. / \ 1
, / N ^ /7 ^s r
j
oerafn)
\ / (eo),
v / oerawon (eo) ; oanne«(o), order.
/ ban{ne)d {bend) ;

sparine, span{ne)st {spenst),) ' / \ , '\ 1 / /iv

^^'"^^^^ ^^''^' '^^'^"'"^ ^^'^ ' '^'^"'^^"' 'P=^"-

.;,an(n;)rf {spend) ; I
blande {0), blandest {blcn{t)d),') ,,^ 7/ /-v 77/^ 7 / /^\ 77 > / \ 1 1 j
77 7\f/7 7 .\ y blend {co),blcndon{eo); olande)i{o), hlend.
blanded {blent) ; )

fo {<Cfahe), fe{h)st {&), fe{h)d') '^' r'^ , s r" r /\\

\' \
feng {cg)Jengon; fangen
^^^^^_
{^'fJ.fod; (o),|
infin./on; imperat. /o(A), /o<f. )

gd {<ga-gd-mi, km g&st gM,^

innn. ^a?i;
plur. >
^.^ ^.^^ .
° ^^^
°
.
^a«; imperat. ^a, g-fla; ).

gauge {o){cg), gangest (0), } . ,.^ ^ ^ .

, .

^^"^ ^''^ ^^' ^^>' -'''^' ^«"^^" (")'

^g«-
ganged {oi v^gangad{o); \
infin. gangan (0) ; imperat. ^a??o- (d) ; p. pr. gangende (0) {geon-
gan, k 201 ;
gengan, weak).
 FIFTH CONJUGATION.—VAKIATION. 109

^'^^^'' ^'^^'
heng, hengon; hangen
^"pl^^S?' '^'^^^'^^^^'l (o),| ^^^^
infin. Aore {<Chdhan) ; imperat. ho{h), hod. )

(2.) Root in a; i-umlaut d>^ (§ 32). English Cip^dw, pro-

gression and labial assimilation (§§ 38, 35) ; eop ew M, > = shift-

ing and labial assimilation (§§ 41, 35) hloio, bleio^ hloxon. :

^ ^
spape, spdp(e)st (spsep(e)st), spdp(e)ct ) ^ ^
^pea;;, .;..o;7on ; spapen, sweep.
isp!&p{e)ct (^)) ; j-

ge-ndpe,-ndpest{-na;pst),-ndped(-7i&pp); -neop, -neopon; -ndpen, whelm,

for-spdfe, -speefst, -spa}f{e)d; -speof, -speofon; -spdfen, drive.

hldpe, bldp{e)st (bleep(e)st),

-r\ / /» ^\/ ^I
bldp(e)d ,, ^ ,, ^ ,,, ,,
blow.
(hi- Mn- lleop, bleupon ; blapcn,

cndpe, cndpest{cnsepst),cndped{cn&pd); cneop,cneopon; cndpcn, know.

crape, crdpest (crwpst), crdped (crsepd); creop, creopon ; crdpen, crow.
mdpe, mdpest (meepst), mdped (m^pd) ; mcop, meopon ; mdpen, mow.
sdpe, sdpest {sxpst), sdped {s^pd) ; se6p,seopon; sdpen, sow.
jjrdpe, prdpest{pr&pst), (jrdped (pri'pd) ; preop, preopon; prdpen, throw.

pape, pdpest {pxp[e)st), pdped {p&p{e)d) ; peop, peopon ; blow.

w^-l^^g\ |
Mate, bldtest (blebtst), Mated (bliet) ; Mct{eo),blkon; bldten, pale.
hate, hdtest (Ji&tst) , hdted {h&t) ;
i
he{h)t (^ 159,"> ,^ ,
'

/ja«e (aj), passive, ^ 219. I b) , he{h)ton ; ^

hndte,hndtest{hnsbtst),hndted{hnM); ,
/'
> hndten, knock.
-j

sc{e)dde, sc{e)ddest, sc{e)dded; \ ^} "', [ 5c(e)a(f

en, divide.

{}) strdde, strddest {stne{t)si), strdded}{strcd{eo),stre-\ * ^, .,

(5<ra'0 ; .
H don ; |
'"« ^">

,.\ ^ (sccon, scionon) , .

(;) sca/ie, , ; i ,
^^ r , shine.

lace, ldc{e)st{l;acst), Idced {laicdQj)); \

^^„
,x ,^ > Idcen, leap.

(3.) Root ea. Syncopated forms not found in poetry.

hedfe, hedfcst {hyfsl), hcdfcd {hyfd)t ; heof, hcofon ; hedfcn, weep.
hledpe, hledp{e)st (y), hledpcd (hlypd {p) ; hleop, hleopon ; hledpen, leap.
d-hnedpe -hnedp{c)st {-hnypst), -hned-l .;,„,^ /,„,j ,^. .Unedpen, sever.
)
p{e)d{-hnypd{p));
hedpe, hedpest{hypst), heaped {hypd); hcuj), hcopon ; hcdpcn, hew.
beot,bcoLon; beaten, heat.
bedte,bedtest{bytst),bedted{byl)~;.
bredte, bredtest (jbrytst), bredted (bryt) ; 5reo<, breoton ; bredten, break.

^e-.cea<e, -scedtest {-scytst), sccdted I .

^^^^. _^^^. ^^,1 ^^
-^
(-5cy/);^ . .
dedge, dcds[{e)st (dyhst), dcds;{e)d ) j " j ^ t ^„^„ ;i„„
/.-> ^x /,,\ r o' deo2;on
deoi^, a ; deas^en, dye.
(,dygd){hp)- ^
110 SIXTH CONJUGATION.— VARIATION.

(4.) Root ae> English ce, shifting (§ 41).

Indicative Present. Impekfeot
1st. 2d. 3d. SiNo. Pluk. Pakt. Past.

sid'pe {a,c), slivp{c)st, shep{e)d; slcp, slcpon ; slijbpen, sleep.

grwtc, gr:L't{c)st, gnit{ed) ; gret, grclon ; gr&ten, greet.
^^' ^'''''
iMe, l&t{e)st, lM{ed) i^) ; ^'-S'^"' '^t.
\Ut\fto^^' }
on-dr&dc, -dr&(t)st, -dnvded > j ^ , > , ..
,v , ^ , , , , , ,

(j..-,f\. \ -dreord{-drcd),-dredon; -drmden, dread.

rM{e), nvd{c)st {r&{t)st), rx- )

(.reord (^ 159, h), red ned) ., ,

ded {rM) ;
S
l(M.Gloss.), reordon (?);['
(5.) Root e > English ee, shifting (§41).

{hrepe, hrep{e)st, hrcp{c)d ; hrcop, hreopon; hrepen)? cry.

pepe, pep(e)st, ptp{e)d; peup, peopon ; pcpcn, weep.

(0.) Root 6 ;
i-umlaut 6>c {% 32). English eop > eio (§ 208, 2) :

groio^ greio, groicn,

hrope,hr6pest (hrepsl),hr6ped{hrepd{p)); hreup, hreopon ; hropen, cry.

Iipope, hpopest{hpepst),hp6ped{hpepd{p)) ; hpeop, hpeopon ; hpopen, whoop.
lilope, hlopest (blepst), blopcd (blcpd) ; hlcop, bleopon ; blopen, blow.
Jlope, Jlopest {Jicpst), Jlopcd (flcpd) ;
fledp, fieopon ; jlopen, flow.

grope, gropest (grepst), groped (grepd) ; greop, greopon; gropen, grow.

Mope, hlopest (hlepst), Moped {hlej'd) ;
hleop., hleopon ; Mopen, low.
rope, rope St {reps t), roped (repd) ; rcop, reo{po)n ; ropen, row.
spope, spopest (spepst), spoped{spepd) ; spcup, speopon ; spopen, speed.

blole, blotest (bletst), bloted (blel) ; bleot, bleoton ; bloten, \ n

{\) prole, protest {prelst), pr6tcd{prel); preot, preolon ; protcn, root.

' -'

spoge, spogest (spehst), spogcd(spe/td); < r

_*'' spogen, sough.

209. Sixth Conjugation. — Stem in -ia. Weak.

No ablaut. Certain verbs, having their -ia syncopated in the imperfect
and past participle, drop their umlaut in those forms. The imperative sin-
gular of these verbs has umlaut without gemination, and the ending -e
(^ 188, b). The imperfect singular second person is often found in -es
(^ 166, a).

V'a.
(a.) Theme in cg<^gi, compensative gemination (^ 188, b). Order of
vowels, (e; a?, ^b; s); a >e, i-umlaut (^^ 32); a >cT, shifting (^ 41) mg'^ ;

^. eg>e, §37,2.
lecge, leg{e)st {hst), leg{e)d (hd), }Lrgde (e), )
Lrgdon (e), ] ge-lsegd {e),\,
Y>]nr. lecgad; Uedc, Uedon ; S
geled, i^'
 SIXTH CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. m
secge {a>), seg{e)st (a?) {eg), seg{e)ct "]
swgde (e),") sxgdon {e),\ swgd,\
Jm- ^'
{se){cg),-p\\iT:.secg{e)ad{te). 1
s&de, > saidon ; ) said, )

perat.5eo-e(a;),plur. secg{e)ad{a'). >

For sagdst, sagud, saga, see sa- \

(b.) Theme in cc<Cci, U<^li, compensative gemination (^ 188, Z»). Or-

der of vowels, (e; ea,ea; ea); a>e, i-umlaut {^ 32); a^ea, ^-/-breaking
(^ 33); cd'^ht, ^ 189, c. English vowels, (e; u; 5); fa>a (OrmuIum)>
6, progression {^ 38) :
sell, sold, sold.

'^
cpelle, cpel{e)st, cpel{e)d; cpeal-de, -don ;
-j
,
^'
> kill.

'

dpelle, dpel{e)st, dpel{e)d; dpeal-de,-don(dpelede); \ > err.

j
felle (y < ea, ^ 32),fel{e)st,l J^ai
^ ^ ae, .,^.
aon^yLde)
.
.

,
Sfeald, \ tell.
fel{e)d,fyllest,fyllcd; ^ (y^;^,^^ j

selle (y = t<Ciea,(s 32), se-\ ,-.,,, ,, ^ i,s •

'^'^""^-^'^ "^^'^ ' ^'«^^' ^^'^"^ Sivc

lestiy, i), selediy, i) ; I
u-stelle, -stelest, -stel{l)ed ; -steal-de, -don ; -steald, station.

telle, tele St, teled; teal-de, -donitelcde);

^ "^ -{ ^ , ,'- \ }| \
iteled{se),) [couni.

cpecce,cpec{e)st,cpec{e)d{p); {Ji)cpeah-te,-ton{cpehte); {^)cpeaht,y^ ,

drecce, drec(e)st, drec(e)d } , , \ , ,

-ton; vex.
\ dre{a)h-te,
drr{n)lit,
U^;^luT.drece{e)ad;
lecce,lec{e)st,lec{e)d{p)\ leoh-te, -ton (caf e); hoht{c), leak, wet.
recce, rec{c){e)st, rec{e)d{p) ; reah-te, -ton (a, cT, c) ; rcaht, rule.

slrecce, strec(e)st, strec(e)d}

. ,
,/m,
y stre{a)h-te, -ton
,
;
.j^
streaht,
,^1.
stretch.

l>ccce, ])ec{e)st, pec{e)d{lj); pe{a)h-tc, -ton; pcaht, thatch.

peace, pec{e)st,pec{c){e)d(p); pe{a)h-te, -ton; pe{a)ht, wake.

precce,prec{e)st,prec[e)d{])); preh-te,-ton {ea?) pre{a)ht, wake.

(c.) Theme in a nasal {nc,ng). Order of vowels, {e; o,o; o); a^c,
i-umlaut (^ 32) ;
a >o, nasal assimilation ('^35). English order, (i; ou; ou);
I comes from bringan (^ 201), pincan (^ 211); o'^ ouz=au, progression
(i^ 38) :
bring, brought, brought.

brenge, breng{e)st, breng{e)d{cp); broh-te, -ton ; hroht, bring.

l^ence, pene{e)st penc{e)d{p),} _^^^^ ^^^.^^^^
^ ' / >
)
lA\xt.penc{e)ad;

210.— V6.
Theme in c; cd'^ht (^ 189, r). Order of vowels, (e; o,o; o); o>e,
i-umlaut {^ 32). English order, (ec; ou; ou); ou=:du, progression (^38):
seek, sought, sought.

rece, recst, recd{})), recced; roh-te, -ton; roht, reck.

112 IRREGULAR VERBS.— VARIATION.
Indicative Pkessnt. Impeefect
1st. 2u. 3d. Sing. Pluu. Tart. Past.
sece, secest, sccccf, plur. scc{c)a(/,'\ suh-tc, -ton; suht, seek.
-

subj. plur. sec{e)an (ai, co), part.

i
pres. sec{c)ende.

211. — Vu.
Theme in a guttural (5-, c); cgd'^ht, ncd^ht (^ 194, a). Order of
vowels, {{11)1/(1); o,o;o); M>y, i-umlaut (^32); y>z, shifting or bad
spelling {^ 41); M>Goth. au^o, A-r-breaking (^ 33). English order,
(y; ou; ou) \ y {i)yy = ai, o^ou = du, progression (^38): bu^, bought,
bought.

bycge{t) {<C_buirie, (s
188,'^'
b), bys^est,}
^* ^ , ,. , , ,
boh-te, -ton ; boht, buy.
byo-ed; '^

hycs;e (/), hiis;est,

-^* ' hygeit,
^* ' plur.
^ hyc-}
^ , , , , ^ , / ^ .
,

\ hog-de,
-don; ge.hug6d{o), mind.
g{e)a't;

{hoh-te is not found. Conformation with the common weak forms led
to hogde'^hog-ede, -dde, -ode, and finally to a present hogie.)

hynceh), /jync{e)st{i), Jwnc{e)d{i)}

' , , , , , ,
ge-Jmht, seem.
(/), plur:yc(V/ lM-te,-ton;
pyrce {eo,i,e), pyrc{e)st{e), pyrc-\ / \7 , , ,, ,
work.
{e)d{i), plur. pyrc{e)ad; \ por{n)h-te,-ton; ge-porht,

212. IRREGULAR VERBS.

I. PRiETERiTivE PRESENTS. — The Completion of certain acts is the be-

ginning of states perfects of verbs denoting such acts get to be used as

;

presents denoting the states: Sansk. ve'da, Greek foi^a, Ang.-Sax. /ai, 7
have seen >
/ know. About a dozen such verbs are common to the Teu-
tonic tongues. They retain antiquated personal endings and other forms,
have peculiar syntactical relations, and the original notion of their verb has
often given place to a varying modal force, in which case they become aux-

iliary verbs. The old presents are obsolete. New weak imperfects are
formed.

\/ vid, see. Parent Speech, perfect vi-vaid-{m)a, plur. vi-vid-masi (^ 166).

Sanskrit.
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 113

new present. It may be varied by umlaut, or other assimilation. The per-

sonal endings have all the variation mentioned in ^^ 165, 166, 170 :
mag-um,
-un, -on, -en, -c, -an ; meahtes. In canst, gemanst, dhst, -t is strengthened
to -st (^^ 50 ; 40, 1). The grammars give unne, cunne, durre, purfe, age,
indie, pres. sing. 2d but their examples are subjunctive.
duge as regular ;

First Conjugation. — V^i

dair-
megan, beneohan, innan, cmnan, ge-minan, scelan, deorran<^deorsan (Goth,
san), peorfan, not found.
Indicative Sing.
_ 1st & 3d. 2d. Plur. Subjunctive. Imperat. Infin. Part.

""'oO« («)(«) ; m&g-e,-en; ; mag-an(u); ;

(6?i99'20oi"!'"^°''"^^^*''^'^'

Imperf. meah-te{i),meah-ion{i); -te,-ten; am strong, (may), <have grown.

Pres. (^199). he-neah, ; be-mtgon; beniig-e,-en; ;
benugan? ; ;

Imperf. be-noh-te, -ton {^2\\); -te,-ten; hold and use<have come to.

Pres. (^201). cn(o), ; unnon; unne, -en; ;

unn-an ; (ge)unn-en ,-

Imperf. w-rfe, -f^on (Goth. ^ irregular), ^37; -de, -den; favor<have given.

Pres. (^201). can (o), canst (o); cunnon ; cnnne,-en; ; cunn-an; ;

cu-de, -don (Goi\i. kunpa),^Zl; -de, -den; knovv<have got. cude.

Imperf.
Pres. (^201). ge-man{o), -manst ; -munon; -e,-en; gemun,-ad; gemun-an; ;

Imperf. gc-mimde, -don; -de,-den; remembcr<have called to mind.

C scul-€ en'
"^

Pres. (^203). sc(e)al(sceT), sc(e)alt; scul-on(eo);

< ,
\.\ '> sculan; ;

Imperf. sc{e)ol-de iio), -don; -de, -den; 6liall<ouglit<have got in debt.

Pres. (^204). d{e)ar, d{e)arst ; durr-on; -e,-en{y); ; durran; ;

Imperf. dors-te, -ton (Goth, daurs-ta) ; -tc, -ten; dare<have fought.

FTes.{^20l). pic)arf,p{e)arf-t; purf-on; purf-e, -enQ/y, ; purf-an ; ;

Imperf. porf-te, -ton; -te,-ten; need< have worked (opus est).

Second Conjugation (^205). — V^i igan,not found,pitan,^ 205.

Pies. ... ah, dhst; agon; ag-e,-en; ; dgan, -ne ; dgendc ;
-ten; own<have earned or taken.
Imperf.. dh-te, -ton; -tc,

ndh:={ne-{-dh), &c., not own.

Pres. ...
pat, past (u:) ; piton; pit-c,-en; pit-e,-ad; pitan(ij)-ne; piten,-de ;

c pis-se, -son,'",
Cpis-se,-son,^ "'
Imperf.. pis-te{y), -ton; *^^36,3:35,M
j
^^36,3; 35, I {
J (
V
-ten. J^^
_^^^ ' -sen . i
: )j
'
know<hs
know<have seen.

IB, pestan;
pestar
,
3

Fies. ...
ndt{—ne-{-pdt),nj/ton(c); nyt-e,-en; ; nitan{tj); nyten,-de;
Imperf. nyste,nysse ; nyston {&c.); not know.

Third Conjugation (§206). — -y/u; </(/^aw not found.

Pres.... dcdhig), diigon; ; dug-e,-en; ; dugan ; dugende ;

lm])erL. doh-tc, -ton {^2\l); -te,-ten; is fat<has grown.

II
114 lUUEGULAli VEKn?>.

Fourth Conjugation (^ 207).

—Va ; matan not found.

Indicative Sing.
1st & 3d. 2d. riur. .''ubj. Imp. Infill. Part.

Pres. ... mot, most; moton; mot-e,-en; ; molan;

Imperf.. mos-te, -ton (^ 36, 3) ; -tc, -ten; is nicet<lias met.

Grimm takes bco, be, for a praeteritive present from a buan, to dwell, of
the Fifth Conjugation.
From an imperfect subjunctive of the Second Conjugation (Goth. viljau<C
y ft/, inflected like ncmjau, ^ 171) arise
Vxes. ...
piUc, pilt ; pillad{y)\ j>ill-e,-e7i; -c,-ad; pill-an; -ende;
Imperf.. pol-dc, -don (Goth, vilda) ; -de, -den ; will<[have wished.
Pros.... nclle,nelt; neUad{7/,i); -e, -en ; -c,-ad; -an; -ende;
Imperf.. 7iol-de, -don, &c. ne-{-piUe, will not.

pi'^po, assimilation {^ 35, 2, a) ; 2>r, a-umlaut ; pi^y, ^^ 32,23 ; //>/.

213. — II. Verbs without Connecting A'owel (Relics of Sanskrit 2d

Class, ^ 158) :

(I.) The common forms of t!ic substantive verb are from three roots:
'\/ as, ^Z bhti, y/ vas.
\fl-) Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. O. Sajcon. Anglo-Saxon. O.Norso.
Stem, as, s eo- cs, s is, s is, s is, ir, s ; ar er
Sing.— 1. as-mi el-iii^etr-nt *s-u-m i-m<ls-m eo-m ea-m e-m<er-m
2. fis-(s)i ia-ai, £1 es- is- ear-t er-t
D. as-ti ea-Ti es-t is-t is-t is- .
er-
Plue.— 1. *s-mas ia-^iv *s-u-mu3 *s-in(l *s-ind(on) ear-on er-u-m
2. *s-th4 ka-re es-tis *s-ind *s-iud(on) ear-oa er-u--5
3. *s-auti £-uai, c-lffi "s-uut Vind ''s-iod(uD) *s-ind(on) ear-on er-u

As'^s, compensation, gravitation {^^ 37, 38) as >25, precession (^ 38) ; ;

ys<j.s, bad spelling 5>r, shifting (^ 41, 3, h) irm'^ (corm)^ eom, arm'^
; ;

(earm) cam, breaking (^ 33); second person -5 and -t (^ 165); nt^nd,

shifting {^ 19), nt is often found. Scond-on, -tin (le, y), u-umlaut? (^ 32) ;

-on in earon (O. Norse cr-u-ni) (^ 1G6, a) in sind-on, a double plural throurh ;

conformation (^ 40) aron, earon, are rare in West Saxon.

;

The subjunctive (Sansk. *s-jd-m, Greek i*-'h]-v, Lat. *s-ie-m'^sm, Goth.

*s-ija-u, O. II. Ger., O. Sax., Ang.-Sax. O. Norse *s-e) is inflected

*s-l,
like the imperfect given in ^ 171. Anglo-Saxon has also si^sig (dissim-
ilated gemination, ^ 27) '^ste, seo (a peculiar progression, ^ 25) >sy (bad
spelling); so plur. stn, sjen, seon, syn. The subjunctive often has the force
of an imperative, and is given as the imperative in .^Ifric's grammar.

(i.) -y/ hhu, be. Sansk. hhav-dmi, Greek (pv-w, Lat. fu-i, correspond in

form to Goth, hau-an, Ang.-Sax. hu-an, dwell. From the same root are
found forms without a connecting vowel in Ang.-Sax., O. Sax., O. H. Ger.
In O. Sax. are only hiii-m, bi-st; in O. H. Ger. pi-m, pi-s, plur. pi-rumes,
— ,

pt-rut, pi-run {r<^s<i-\/as). Ang.-Sax. has beo-{m) (id), bi-st (y), bi-d (?/),

plur. bead (io), and a present subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, with the
 IRREGULAR VERBS, 115

common endings ; eo'^y^y'^i, umlaut, precession, and shifting (^^ 32, 38,
41). Sing. 3d ^eo£? occurs (conformation).
(c.) -y/ vas'^vis (ablaut) is inflected in the First Conjugation, ^^ 199, 197,
but the present indicative forms are so rare that they are not given in the

grammars.
Paradigms for Practical Use (pp. 84,90,91).
Present :

Sing. — indicative. Subjunctive. Imperative. Infinitive. Participle.

ic eom, be6{m) ; si, beo, pese ;

J/u eart, bist ; SI, beo, pese ; beo, pes ;

he IS, bid; SI, beo, pese ; beon,

Plur. — or pesende.
pe sind{on),beod; sin, beon, pesen ; pesan ;
ge sind{on),.beod; sin, beon, pesen ; beod, pesad;
lit
sind{on),bc6d; sin, beon, pesen ;

Imperfect :

Sing. —
ic pxs ; pizre ;

pu p&re ; psbre ;

he pxs ; pxrc ; ge-pesen.

Plur. —
pe, ge, hi pseron ; p&ren ;
The negative ne often unites with forms beginning with a vowel or
p:
neom = ne -\- eom ; nxs ^ne-\- pxs, p. p. nxrende <C ne pxrende, etc.
nis ;

(2.) -y/ dha, place Sansk. da-dhd-mi, Greek ri-Oij-fii, Goth.

: O. Sax. — ,

do-n, O. H. Ger. tuo-n, do. Anglo-Saxon imperfect from reduplicated theme

dad; a^-x (ablaut, § 199) '^y'^i, irregular weakening. ^ 168.
Indicative Sing. Plur. Subj. Imperat. Infin. Participle.
Pres. .. do, de-st, de-d; do-d ; do, -n ; do, -d ; do-n; do-?ide.

Imperf. did-e{y),-cst,-e ; -on{:r); -c{x),n; do-n, de-n.

(3.) '[Z ga, go Sansk. g'i-gd-mi, Greek /3i-/3jj-/zt, Goth, gaggan, O. Sax.
:

gd-n, O. H. Ger. gc-7i. Imperfect from -y/i (Sansk. e'-mi, Greek d-fii, Lat.
t-rc, go, ^ 158, a)>Goth. i-ddja, weak form strengthened.

Pres. ..
gd,gx-sf,gx-d; gad; gd,-n; gd,-d; gd-n;
Imperf. eo-de, -dcst, -de; -don (^37) ; ge-gd-n.
From the same root are the nasalized forms gangan, imperf. geong, geng,
gieng (^ 208, b) ; geongan (§ 201) ;
and gengan, imperf. gengdc.

214. Reduplicate Presents (Relics of Sanskrit 3d Class, ^ 158) :

gangan <,y/ga > ga-gd-mi, go (^ 213) ;

so hangan, standan, ^ 210).

215. Stems in -ia of strong verbs (Relics of Sanskrit 4th Class, ^ 158) :

fricge, inquire,
etc. (^ 199) ; speric, swear, etc. (^ 207, d).
11(5 IRREGULAK VERBS.

216. Stems with n inserted (Relics of Sanskrit 7th Class, ^ 158) :

fo<,fdhcy {fd{n)gan), fcng, etc., catch {^ 208, b).

ga{}i)ga)i<Cga-ga, go (^ 214).
ho <
hdhc >
{hd{n)gan), haig, etc., hang (^ 208, b).
sta{n)dan, stod, etc. (^ 207, c).
brc{n)gan, hrohte, bring; J)e{n)can, polite., think ; py{n)can, puhte, seem
(^^ 209, c,- 211).

217. Stem in y/ Artia (Relic of Sanskrit 9th Class): frignan, ask

(^ 202), shows itself of this formation in Gothic, but is consolidated in An-

glo-Saxon.

218. Relics of Reduplication (»5» 159, i) :

hdlan, cd.\\, heht ; Idcan,
leap, hole (^ 208,2) ; l&tan, let, leort; ondr&dan, dread, ondreord; nvdan,
rede, reord (^ 208, 4) and see ^214. ;

219. Relic of Passive :

hdtan, call, is called (^ 208,2) ; passive indie,
pres. sing. 1, hdt-te {&), I am called ; 3, hdt-te, he is called. Imperf. sing.
1,3, hdt-te ; plur. hat-ton. Hdtte^^ Gothic haitada: -te, Goth, -da (baira-
da), Greek -rat (<psp£-rai), Sansk. -tc (bhdra-te) <^ta-tiy>Fa.rent Speech -tai
(bhara-tai). Compare t^i
163 :
(2J>a>e, precession, § 38 ;
i > rf, shifting,
§ 19 ; it?> tt, assimilation, § 35, B.

220. Verbs with Mixed Ablaut drepan, strike, p. p. drepen and :

dropen bregdan, braid (^ 202)

(^ 199) ;
.s^eZ^an, swallow {^ 203) sthan, ; ;

seon, strain tthaji, teon, accuse

; Jnhan, peon, grow prihan, preon, cover ; ;

(^^ 205, 206) but these eight last should be treated as separate verbs.
;

221. Verbs with Mixed Strong and Weak Forms :

Jinde, find, im-
perf. /an«? QXiA funde {^ 201); iwaji, inhabit ; imperf. bu-de ; p. p. g-eiw-ra ;

buian, bugian, biipian are other variations ; cidan, ciiide, cad, cidde.

222. Verbs with Mixed Weak Forms in -ia and o {^^ 160; 165, d;
183). The same theme often has forms from both stems ;
but they are best

given under diflferent verbs :

Theme Z;/ has imperfects lif-de «stem lifia) and lifo-de (y, eo) «stem
lifo). Hence two verbs, libban<^lifian by compensative gemination {^ 188,
b), and lifian like lufian (^ 183).
With libban are put indie, pres. {libbe, plur. libbad, not in Grein) imperf.

lifde, lifdon.
With lifian, pres. lif(i)ge, leofdst, lifdd {eo,y), plur. lif-iad {-igad, -gad,
-igead) imperative leofd; p. p. lifiende ; imperf. lifode (y, eo).
; The z of
ia has its usual variations in the infinitive and participle {ig, ige, ge, g),

§ 175 i^eo, a-umlaut, ^ 32.

;

Hahban (<t), have, <^hafian, has, besides full forms from -ia, indie, sing. 1

haf-a,-o,-u; 2,.haf-ast; 3,haf-dd; imperative Aa/'d. For other forms,

see pages 84, 85, 86.
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 117

Secgan, say (^ 209), has sagdst, sagatt, saga to put with a sagian ; so
tcllanand talian, tell {^ 209) hycgan and hogian, mind (^ 211), etc.
;

223. Weak Verbs with Ruckumlaut :

bycge, buy, bohte, etc. {^ 211).

224. Forms disguised by ecthlipsis and the like.

(a.) Ecthlipsis of ^, h, ox p:
bregdan'^ brede, hraid slrcgdan'^ stredc, strow; frignan'^frine,
;

ask, etc., vowel e, i kept short by ablaut (^ 202) lecgan, lay, im- ;

perf. sxgde'^s&de, said, etc. (^ 209); sjngian, be si-

legde^lede ;

lent, sptgad^ spiad, etc. bogan bod, boasts. ; >

fo<ifdhe, catch; ho<ihdhe, hang, etc. {^ 208, b) seu<^sihe, etc. ;

(§ 205) and many others, strong and weak.

;

gerpan {ie, y, i, ea, a?), equip ; imperf. gyrede, p. p. gegyrped, gyred,

serpan (y), contrive ;
indie, pres. plur. syrpad, syrepad; imperf. syr-
p{e)de, syr{e)de (e) ; p. p. gesyrped.
{b.) DissiMiLATED GEMINATION :
p^up'^cp (^ 117); {i^tg^ige,
regular, ^ 183); syrepad <C syrpan, contrive;
gefrxtepod <igefrxtpian,
adorn. ComT^d.xe poruhte<^porhtfi<^pyrcan,'woxk (^211).
(c.) Assimilation: po^u; pi'^u; pperan, weld, p.p. gcpporen^ge-

puren {\ 200) spigian (y), be silent, imperf. si/gode, sptgodc (^ 224, a).
;

(d.) Shifting oif,p to u: begrauen<ibegrafen<^grafen, grave (^207);

bi-pdune <^pdpen<ipdpan, blow (^ 208, 2).
(e.) Interchange of g, i, and p : (h and g regular (^^ 197, 118)) buian, ;

bugian, bupian, inhabit (^ 221) herian, herig(e)an, herpan (y), blaspheme;

;

and many more. For scon, see, seah, ssbgon, (ge)sepen, ^ 197.
(/.) Metathesis: frignan^fringan, ask (^<^ 201,202) ;
gepruen<Cge-
pperen, weld (^ 200), etc.

225. lsrOETHUMBKlA:N-. — INFLECTION.— Indic. pres. sing. :

l,-o; 2,
-est; 3, -cd'^ -cs ; plur. -at? > -as. Subjunctive: sing. -e; plur. -en>-e.
Infinitive : -an (rare) >-a>-aj>-e. Imperfect plur. -un, -on drops 7i be-
fore a subject ivoe (pe), we, or may go and -u, -o to e or
—The vowels of gie
i.
(gc), ye,
Variation. ablaut and other variation may change as in

^ 26. The first form of ablaut {^^ 199, 200) has present ea, eo ; imperf.
sing, .r, ;oc, e
plur. oe, e. The contracted imperfects (^ 208) have e, ei.
ca. Weakverbs with stem -ia {^ IGO) in the present drop i with compensa-
tive gemination {^ 188, b). Stem e remains often in the imperfect, and oft-
enest in the p. p., except in verbs having ruckumlaut (^ 189, d). Stem 6

goes to a. Participle pres. often in -and.

Irregular Verbs. — (For first person -m, see § 165, a) :

T^Vosa = Ang.-Sax. pesan: Pres. indic. 1, am, eom ; 2, ard ; 3, is;

plur. aron, sind, sindon. Subjunctive, sie. Pres. indic. 1, bium

(om) ; 2, bist ; 3, bid; plur. bidon. Imperf. u\rs ; plur. woerun.
GAA = Ang.-Sax. gdn, go : Pres. indic. 1, gA (geongo) ; 2, gi&s ; 3,

g&ct; plur. gdad (gad). Imperf. edde.

118 IRREGULAR VERBS.—DERIVATION.

DdA=Ang.-Sax. don, do : Pres. indie. 1, dom (do) ; 2, does ; 3, docd ;

doad {doed). Subj. do.

plur. Inipcrf. di/dc.
Wa//a =Ang.-Sax. pillan, will ; Pros, indie. I, loillo ; 2, wilt ; 3, ivil ;

plur. ivallad. Iinperf. loalde. Other forms generally agree with the
West Saxon.

226. Weathering of Inflection Endings. — (For variation of root

vowel, see ^^ 199-211) :

 DEKIVATION. 119

Composition or coalescence combines two notions.

Certain notional stems used as the latter part of compounds lose their
(d.)
notional force, and become in effect relational suffixes. It is not easy al-

ways to separate these from suffixes springing directly from radicles.

228. Suffixes fkom Radicles (§ 56).

The Anglo-Saxon nominative or present are at the left.
suffixes of the .

Small letters above the line have dropped. Latin stems in o- are of the
second declension, and imply a nominative in -us, -urn, or -er {^ 70,).
Suffix.
1. Vowels. Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Anglo-iSaxon.
—'^<a: jug-d, yoke, Vjuff,]o'm ; ^vy-u-v; j^g-o-; juk-^s ; iuk^.

e<a(verb): hhdr-d-mi, 1 hear ; (p'tp-m; fi^-o ; bair-a; ber-e.

^<-'-
r^tv"te?'''i *«">«-"> >^-«--
r's^f's^^---
— '<i: «A-?, snake, •/ a^^, sin ; tx-t-C ; angu-i-s ;
J "'_ \cpen^.

y f
ftf-w', quick, V ok, to ] , ,
| ac-u-s,
f
hand-u, V ( kand^',
'
( be sharp ;
)
(needle; \
hantk, ca.teh\{ hand.
e<ja: mddh-Ja, middle; fikaaov<iyLi^-jo-v; med-io-; mid-ji-s; midd<Cmide,

a"<jan: Lat. ^f-^-iore-w, legion ;

Goth. maMriAr-^a**, murderer ; Ang-Sax. murctr-a^.

;
.,
_ ivid-ja, wit, Vvid,see; j uff<Ta<ifuic-ja,^ in-sid-ia,sit-^band-i, { bend^,
^"^
\j^i'-r, goddess ;
(
voice, -/ml-; i ting in wait; (-/Jane/; (bond.

ie, < aja in verb

6 stems, see § 160.

-.^ ^
a
ena<ja(+na):
[Zt'"'"'T"\0.U.G.n.agat.i,
child,<Ka.(0-c,
j '"f'^'^^'f
..^^41,^^!^ <n^^^'f,
[
child; ; I maul.
2. Semi-vowels.

p'' (u, o)<va: ..

e'-ra, going, V t, go ;
at- f wv, time ;
x-vo- ; ai-v^-s; d-p'^.

pu< vu, p' (u, o) ) f far-bu Q-jni), color ;

<vja: ) (
6ea(f-M, battle.

„ ^
in'*<ma:
{ghar-md, heat, '
V ghar, "' \ ^ . ,
not
^ j.
var-rnr
n n
Y >
3£|0-/*o-s, ; /or-mo- ; ; pear-m^.

((g)na-man, name,
ma"n <, man: ....{, „
' ] , . .
a, ^
( yvoti-uov-oc :
(n)no-m€n: na-m,u(-man); na-ma".
V know I gna, ;
;

For ma, ra, as sufDxcs of comparison, see §§ 123, 126.

f«^'-ra, field, 'v/o^, go; dy-p6-Q; ag-ro- ; ak-r^-s; ac-(e')r^.

j.a ' 1 a ^ J.O
.
'
'
)

—
\sddyra,sea.t,V sad, ; 'iS-pa; sel-la{d>r); sii-l^-s ; set-(e)l'^.

Here put e?-^)*, or<^i ',

«r^> *, er-e {<,-ja), al^-j^, el^j ^, ol'^i''',
ul^th el-e (_<C-ja').

. rGr.
r.
(-7jpo
(-rjpo + io),
to), La (^-dii+id), Goth, (-ar+ja),
Lat. (Bopp gives -ar-ja<.iar-ja).
ILat.
at. libr-dr-io-(ius'),
libr-dr-w-(ius' book-man ;
Goth, bok-ar-ei-s, Ang.-Sax. boc-er-e, O.H.G.
buock-er-i (art).

,j jj J-dn,
f«(Z-ara, water, (
Tip
rfp-£v-oe, smooth; j ^cc<-<:n, comb ; (
vat-6(-in-s),{ pxt-a^.
'

\V/vad, wet.
vad, -wet. I fi'/c-ov-oc,
tiK- likeness ; I ec^wi-w, eater ; ( water. \
pxt-e-'^^.
For more of -an, see §§ 95, 105, a; for infinitive -ana, p. p. -na, § 175.
 120 DERIVATION,

Sevii-voioels — Latin.
Sanskrit. Greek. Gothic. Aug. -Sax.
Continued.
„ ^ (svap-Tui, sleep, ) „ f soin-nu-s<, \ har-n'^, i
spcf-(c)7i'^,
i V svap, sleep ;
) (
sojmio-s ; I bairn ; I
sleep.

, „ (phali-nd, i
KtSpi-vo-c, (
fraxi-no, { silubrei-n^s, ] .,.
(e)u'^:
^ -^ <„ , . . 1 , "1 7 1 -1 ( silfre-'nr.
•'
Ifruit-bearing; ( cedarn ;
C ashcu; I
silvern; J

~ i

<^ "> leof-(e)n\

•
(«'?-»*', fire, 1 lihai-ni,
"'
; .

=
'^""-^' "''*^
.,
' '^'""' '"
J-
'
(

{ Vaj; i i victuals ;
I Vlif, live.

fSM-n?L son, ) . ,, . , , , f su-nu-s, ]

nu: i , ,
C S-pjy-vu-C, stool ; wo-nii-s, band ;
S
s«-nw, son.
V 5Wj D6ur
_
\ 5
J (. son ^
)

S'i-atva,' goddess r re(7-ma, queen, O.H.Ger. „.

no ^. .A
,
clndr-ani, In-
, ^ /, T ("

\,
/3a.«W«
,^.
;

\ ^<reM-), , s
(
\ . «r.
^
i ,
avd-en"'^,
enne<a.nja:...{^^,^- ^«'-f r^oddess!
l queen (v V <!;;); l king; goddess;
(. ;

, f Lat. (exter-no), extranco-, belonging to ( 0. H. Ger. vst-r-ijni. ,

erne < ar-a-nja .

:
{
\
., / eo mo i. ion on
. .

ihdX extra; (-er, §§ 122, o; 129, 2) ;

1 *
\

I
east-erne.
(
eastern; )

3. Dentals.

I
For p. p. -ta, Gotb. -da, -tha, § 175, 5; for -ta-ra, -ta-ma, -ta-ta in compar-
*^*
\ ison, §126.
Here belong Ang.-Sax. -ff« (ad^, dd"; ndd"'), -d^ {od", ud^, ed% -t^ (ot^, et").

r pi-tar, father, )
7ra-r£p-oe ; pa-ter ; fa-der; fxd-er.
der, der, dl^ < \
^ p^, feed I
Gr. vt, Lat. «e>(needle) nw-dli
;
^^a, Jie-thla;
'
&/ir«'- to-, brother ; 0pa-7op-of ; frd-ter; hro-thar; hro-dor.

estre^ <as-ta-ra( Latin sa?-(?-as<ro-, deafish; ) o i ^ -nt) r 11.1

female baker.
<^ . , , Ang.-Sax. oa?c-e5<r-e"'f,
( + an) ( French poet-astre, petty poet
: ;
;

,; ,;
•
. {ma-ti, ravoA, \ ^ ,. .,• {myn-d'',
ti<ti: ...J men-ti-s;
ctS' d>, .

(V ma-n, ^,
think
.'
;
VMiij-Ti-c; mun-t¥-s;\
(
".

_^^^ _^»^
.'

(
sta-tii-s ; ddu-ihu-s,
(-tu-ti, 1 r ded-d'^ ;

tu:
fswa-<M-TO, stand,
< / ,^ .
f f acr-ri;,
{\ ^ cit3' ;

V
\ ,
<-tu-dm,-tu-din,
^ ,,•)•,,,
death, <
Iqe-hoh-i^,
I , 7 ./,

\
Vstka, stand ;
\
(-..-.,< -r.-.,) ; .
]
| ^^^_^ ] ^^^^^^^^_^ .

^j^^^^^^^^_

nes^^ (nis^\ nys^*) ) | gudji-nassu-s, \ gud-ne^^,

<na+as+tu: ) (
priest-hood; (goodness,

ende<ant: § 175, 3.

, , V iqan-as,' genus, ) ,
. ( aa-is^, ( eg-esd'^,
-er-is <

7^1
es-a°<as(+an):{'' .
(ytv-o-g;
^' j
gen-us, r
< V gen, hear ;
)
' ^ ;
>
(
awe;
1
(Va^r,
/
fear.

ere pu (_ ;
'JGoth. -iza, O.H.G.-ira, A.-S. -eruy-ru in plurals ivg-ru, eggs, etc. (§82, a).
}
(e)ru:
els^ ) t al + sa 1 0. H. G. fuot-isal'^, fodder ;
0. Norse foed-sla ,- Ang.-Sax. fed-ek^, -esl^^.

esPi (as+la)O.H. G. ra<-mZ<^, riddle; Swedish ?vcrf-eZse; Ang.-Sax. nid-ek^.

4. Gutturals.

Uoy<-/c(5-c, of {belli-co., oi
ih^ ' iga<ka- '" /'5'*''^^^'"-^'«'
\0^-''<^-(i-^-«,\ .^-a^
Ifrom^S'tWAu; (
%os; ( war; (
greedy; )

Here put h'^, oc^' ', uc*? i.

., . „ ^ ^^ ^ . , i steina-ka, ( stiin-ih-f^ ,
^^^ • O.H. Ger. .tem-oH stony; \
\ ^^^^^. ^^^^.^^
 SUFFIXES.— QUASI-SUFFIXES. 121
Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Ang.-Sax.
„ _ ( Traic-i(jKo-Q, f scutr-isco-, ')
barn-hk^-^, f ^
w
.
. . , ., ,

isc'^<i(s)ka:
^ -^ ,.,,, , ., ,
/ « x < ,..n > , .,
- , -i cild-isc^.
( little child (77-aic-) ;
]
little plate ;
i c^^iluish ;

Syr-isco; [ Ent/l-isc'^,

[^
a Syrian ; / 1^ English,

ing^<i(n)g^: 0. H.G. ec?t7-fnc<^, noble-man ;

A.-Sa.x. wdel-ing'^ ; Elis-ing'^,
son of Elisha.

1-ing'^ : O. H. G. junJd-linc^ a youth , ;

A. -Sax. geong-ling^ <^geong,
young.
ung\ing': O.H.G. warn-unga, wa.rmng ;
A.Sax. j^carri-icng'^ (-ing^)
{pearn-ian, to warn).
iucle : Lat. Jootm-jz-cu-Zo, little house {domo-)\ O.H.G. csil-inchilin,
little ass; A. -Sax. Ms-MzcZe, little house.

For suffixes of pronouns and numerals, see ^§ 130-140 for those of com- ;

parison, §^ 122-129. The endings of adverbs are mostly from case-endings.

229. QUASI-SUFFIXES FROM ISTOTIONAL STE:irs.

eern, em, house; Goth, razn, O.Norse rann : shep-ern, sleeping-room;

hors-ern, stable. Often mixed with Latin radicle suffix -ern : Lat. lat-
ern-a, lucerna, A. -Sax. hldc-ern, lant-ern Lat. tab-erna, A. -Sax. gxst- ;

ern, tav-ern ;
Lat. career, A.-Sax. earc-ern, prison A. -Sax. cpeart-ern, ;

quarters.

b^re, bearing ;
Lat. -ferus, 0. H. G. pari, O. Nor. hibr :
lust-hxre, lust-y,
joyous.
cund, kind ;
Gr. -yev-t'ic, Lat. -gena, Goth, kunds, 0. H. G. chund : dcofol-
cund, devil-ish god-cund, god-like.
;

cragft, craft; 0. Sax. -Jcraft, O. H. G. -ehraft: stwf-crxft, (letter -craft)

grammar.
cyn, kind Lat. gen-us, Goth, kuni, O. Sax. kunni, 0. Nor. ki/nni, O. H.
;

G. chunni : treop-eyn, (tree-kind) wood man-cyn, man-kind. ;

daeg, day ;
Goth, dags, O. Sax. dag, 0. Nor. dagr, O. H. G. tac :
gear-dxg,
(yore-days) formerly.
dom, judgment, authority, dominion ;
O. Nor. -domr, 0. H. G. -tuotn, Ger.
-thum :
cyning-dom, kingdom,
faest, fast ;
O. Nor. -fastr, M. H. G. -vesle, Ger. -fest :
dr-fxst, honorable ;

st&de-fxst, stead-fast.
feald,' fold ;
Goth, faiths, 0. Nor. -faldr, O. IL G. -fait :
mxnig-fcald,
manifold.

ful, full ;
Goth, fulls, O. Sax. -ful, 0. Nor. -fullr, 0. IL G. -fol :
dr-ful,
honorable. Sansk. pur, Gr. ttXI-wc, Lat. ple-nus.

had, character, state, rank; O.H.G. -heit : hrodor-hdd, brother - hood ;

m&den-hdd, maidcn-hcad.
 122 QUASI-SUFFIXES.—ABLAUT.

lieaio, .''.pvd Goth, hard-u-s, O. Nor. -hardr, O. II. G. -harl, O. French

;

-ard: mx^n-heard, (might-hanl) very mighty ilrunk-ard

bragg-art. ; ;

Iko, sport, gift Oc^.Idiks^ O. Nor. hikr, O. H. G. -Icih : fcoht-lde,

;
fight ;

O. Eng. lovc-laih, love ; know-ledge ; ped-ldc, wed-lock.

leks, loose from ;
Goth. -Idus, O. Sax. -los, O. Nor. -laus, O. II. G. -laos,
-las : dr-lcds, (honor-less) dishonorable ;
god-lcds, god-less.
lie, like ; Goth, -leiks, O. Nor. -likr, -legr, O. H. G. -Wi :
dr-ltc, (honor-like)
honorable ; god-lic, god-ly. Sansk. -drk, Gr. -\ik, Lat. -lie.

mail, man ;
Goth, mans, O. Sax. -7nan, O. Nor. -madr, 0. H. G. -man:
glco-man, glee-man ;
plf-man, wo-man.
Goth, -mcl, O. Sax. -mahal, O. Nor. -7ndl, O. H. G. -mahal,
m^l.^time ;

mdl{i): undern-mskl,noon-\AmG; stijcce-mxlum, -piece-meal.

r^den (Lat. ratio), mode, fashion :
freond-r&den, friend-ship ;
mwg-r&den,
kind-red.

red, reed, counsel, condition ;

O. N. -rdd, 0. II. G. -rdt : ht-red, (hive-con-
dition) family.-

rice, prince ;
Goth, -rei/cs, 0. Nor. rc/cr, O. H. G. -rih, Sansk. rd'g'an, Lat.
rex :
sige-rice, victorious. (2) —dom, cyne-rice, kingdom.

^ sceaft, shape, manner 0. Sax. -scaft, O. H. G. (10th century) scaft.

;

i scipe (y), shape, manner O. Sax. -scepi, O. Nor. seapr, O. H. G. seaf:

;

freond-scipe, friend-ship ; hyge-sceaft, mind-state ;

land-seeap (scipe),
land-scape (-skip).
smid, smith; 0. Nor. -smidr, O.H. G. -smid : ptg-smid, warrior; Goth. -a.

staef, staff; O. Nor. -stafr, O. II. G. -stap :

fdcen-stsef, wickedness ; dr-
stccf, honor.

sum, same, like ;

O. Nor. -sam'>', O. H. G. -sam :
pyn-sum, winsome, joyous.
teme(y) = sum: luf-tyme,\oye\y ; hejig-ty77ie, troublesome; ppeorh-teme,
perverse.

pare, men; Goth, vair, O. Sax. luer :

Rom-pare, Romans. Sansk. vir-a-s,
Gr. rjp-ioQ, Lat. vir.

peard, becoming, tending to; Goth, -vairths, O.H. G. -wert, -wart: hdm-
peard, home-ward. Sansk. vrt, Lat. vert-ere.

pis, wise ;
O. Sax. -whi ; O. Nor. -vts ; M. H. G. wise :
riht-pis, (wise as
to rights) righteous, -y/ viA, ^ 212.

230. New Stems pkom Vaeiation of Eoot Vowel.

Ablaut. —The vowel of the present denotes the act or an object suited to
act those of the past denote result, the plural being
;
more abstract. But in

many derivatives this force is lost.

First Conjugation, (e(eo); s;{ea); &{d); e; ^199): beran (bcoran), hear,
>• beord, birth here, barley beam, child b&r, bier,
; (i ; a, u ; u ; ^ 201) ; ; :

singan, sing, >5an^, song, song ; grindan, grind, ^grund, ground.

 UMLAUT.—FORMATION OF NOUNS. 123

Second Conjugation, (i ; a, i; i; ^ 205) :

drifan, drive, '^ draf, drove ;

bttan, bite, > bit, bit ; bitei; bitter ; bat, bait.

Third Conjugation, (eo(w) ed, u; o ; § 206) beogan, hexid,'^bf.dn, ring

;
:
;

boga,bow teohan, tug,

; >
ieam, team ; toga, duke tyht, c^uide. ;

Fourth Conjugation, (a (ea) ; 0,0; a(ea); §207): grafan, gra.ve,^ grwf,

grave ; ^/"q/",
ditch ; sceapaii, shape, > scop, shaper, poet.
Umlaut. — The same stem may occur with and without umlaut or break-
ing, but this variation does not make a new word, though it may be the be-
ginning of bifurcation (§ 40,3). Since the ablaut became irregular (§ 199)
new words have been formed in large numbers by irregular bifurcation.

Suffixes aeeanged according to their Use.

Formation of Substantives.
231. Indefinite Noun-signs :
u<«, —^</, —^<^jd, u, —''<a, e<
ja, a.<^an, e<Can.
These combine with the case-endings {\}^ 69-95), and are abundantly used

as secondary suffixes ;
— *
found oftenest with names of actions and qual-
is

ities, u with names of qualities, e and a with agents.

gif-u (gif-an, give), gift. drinc'^ {drinc-an, drink), drink.

d&d^ {don, do), deed. hird-e (Goth, haird-ei-s), bird.

jnjn^^ (O. Sax. wunnia), fun. han-a'^ (-y/can, sing), cock.

mag-u {mag-an, get), son. tung-e, -an, tongue.

232. Agent. — Masculine a, end, ere, o<ija, F (e/«, oZ«, uio-), cter,
der, ter.
Feminine e<an, en"^,estre, <ii, — id, isse (Lat. issa).
Listruments and means: els^, ele, el*^, dP, or^ (cr^).

(e)n^
Quasi-suffix, smid.
dem-a {dem-an, deem), judge. myr-e, -an (mearh, horse), mare.
dem-end {dem-an, deem), judge. fix-en, enne (fox), vixen.
dem-ere {dem-an, deem), judge. sang-estre {sing-an, sing), songster.
sang-ere {sing-an, sing), singer. fcd-cls {fed-an, feed), victuals.
pin-e (V pin, love), friend. nct-ele (Vna, sew)"? nettle.
fore-rin-el {rinn-an,x\xvi), fore-run- sct-l^^, n. {sitlan, sit), settle.

ner. mt-dl^ (V^^^i sew), needle.

fx-der (-y/pa, feed), father. fod-or^ {J'kl-an, feed), fodder.

bro-der (-y/bliar, support), brother, leof-cri}' {lif-an, live), victuals.

speos-ter, f. (sva-su-tar, connected byg-els, bow ; ham-or^, hammer.

woman; -y/su, bear). /j/,g--5mic^ (war-smith), warrior.
abbud-isse, abbess.
124 DERIVATION. —SUBSTANTIVES.

233. Action. —Masculine and Neuter t^ {oic, ct"), d^ {ad, od, nad).
Feminine iiig*, uiigS \\ le*^'* (e/e, ole, ulc).
'^^\ Quasi-suffix, lac.
d-rts-t (?-w^an7 rise), resurrection. hern-ing {beorn-an, burn), burning.
bxrn-et {beorn-an, burn), burning. bwrn-ung {bcorn-an, burn), burning.
hunt-ad (Jiunt-ian, hunt), hunting. sping-cl'' I {sj)ing-an, sconrge), scourg-
hunt-ud {hunt-ian, hunt), hunting. '

sping-elc ing.
hunt-nad {hunt-ian, hunt), hunting. bcadu-lac^ (fight-sport), fighting.
jnf-ldc, marriage.

234. Result. —Masculine m^ (eni<^, ?«?z«), ma", n^^, ct<^</zi, t^<^tu.

Neuter n^.
Feminine (e)n^.
cpeal-m^ {cpell-an, kill), death. dcd-d^ (-y/ dau, die), death.

pxs-t-m^ {peax-an, wax), fruit.

gc-J)oh-t^ {pinc-an, think), counsel.
blo-maP' {blop-an, blow), bloom. bcar-n^ {ber-an, bear), child.

heof-en^ {hebb-an, heave), heaven. sel-en^ {sell-an, give), gift.

235. Quality and objects named from it. —

Feminine u {o, eo), nes'^' {nis, nys), (u)d«, d^ t''.
Neuter tt^^, d^, t^, used instead of di, d^, t^ when
ge- or
other prefix is used with an abstract.
Masculine ing*^-

Quasi-sufRxes, craeft, cyn, dom, had, man, r£d, rfed-

en, rice, sceaft, sceap, scipe, steef.

hvbt-u {hdt, hot), heat. liece-crivft^, m. leech-craft.

streng-u, -o, -eo, strength. l&ce-cyn^, n. (leec!i-kind), doctors.

ge-ltc-nes^^, like-ness, l&ce-dom^, m. leech-craft.

mild-heort-nes^^, mercy. pis-dom {pis, wise), wisdom.

streng-d^, strength. cild-hdd^, m. child-hood.

ge-cyn-d^, nature. pcop-hdd, serf-dom.

pit-leds-f', wit-lessness. sud-man, m. Southerner.
gyme-lys-f, heed-lessness. hi-red'', f. (hive-state), family.
f.
geog-ud^ {geong), youth. fremd-raiden' , friendship.

ge-ping-d'^, honor. hyge-sceaff', f. (mind -state), thinking.

ge-cyn-d^, nature. Ia7id-sceap, n., -scipe, m., land-scape,

ge-pih-t^ {peg-an, weigh), weight. dr-stwf^, m. honor. l-skip.

xdel-tng^, noble-man. btsceop-rice, n., bishopric.

23G, Diminutives: c (?/ca, oc^), 1 (Z«<(t)/a),le<2^-}-a;i, ling, incle'«,

en^ <Cjd-\-na.
k (questioning; ^ 56) and 1 (trilling) are suited to express diminution.
 DERIVATION.—ADJECTIVES. 125
The Sanskrit diminutive is k; Greek, w, (jk; Latin, /, c-l ; Goth., O. H.G.,
I most ;
Low German, k most. Anglo-Saxon words in uca, el, le are rel-
ics ;
ling is growing into use. The English uses ock, ling.

bull-uca"'-, bull-ock. geong-ling'^, m. young-ling.

cyrn-el^, n. (corn, corn), kernel. rdp-incle, n. (rap, rope), string.

meop-le, f.
(Goth, mavi, virgin ;
ma- cijc-en^, n. (coc, cock), chicken.
vilo, little girl), girl.
mwgd-en^, n. {m&gd, maid), maiden.

237. Patronymics: ing^.

JElfred Mdclpulf-ing^^, Alfred son of ^thelwulf.

238. Gentiles: e<^ia, an, isc, ing^ (^ 101,2).

Quasi-suffix, pare.

Engl-e (§ 83), English. Englisc, adj., English.

Got-an, Goths. Pyr-ing-ds, Thyringians, descendants
Rom-pare, Romans. of Thyr.

239. Place :
en«, ene«". Time :

Quasi-suffix, ern (wrn), etc. (^ 101). . .

dsg, mal.
midl-en^, n. midst. dom-ern^, n. {dom, doom), judgment-
cyc-ene, f.
(coc, cook), kitchen. hors-ern, n. horse-stable. [hall.

gedr-dxg, m. (yore-day), antiquity. undern-miU, n. noon-time.

ADJECTIVES.
240. Indefinite Suffixes combining with case-endings: — '^, u<:^a,
—a<^an, e<ian.
^,

Any adjective theme may have stems in all these endings (§^ 103-114).

241. Characteristic, connoting quality of the object denoted by the

stem isc. :

Quasi-suffixes, cund, lie (with nouns).

cild-isc (cild, child), child-ish. J'^f-li''' (p'lf, woman), having the qual-
deofol-cund, (devil-kind) devil-ish. itics of a woman, womanly.
(a.) Patrial isc also connotes origin from a place or stock :
Romdn-isc,
Roman ; Lunden-isc, Londonish ; Engl-isc, English.

242. Fitness or disposition for the act or state denoted by the theme :

ol, or.

Quasi-suffixes, fus, lie (with verbs), sum, tyme, pis.

j;?rec-oZ(5;jrec-an, speak), talk-ativc. bealo-fus, disposed to Ja/e, wicked :

bit-or, -er {bit-an, bite), bitter. O. Nor./w^, O. II. G. funs, ready.

 126 DERIVATION.— VERBS.

forgifend-lic, to be forgiven. luf-sum, disposed to love.

xin-gesepen-lic, (unseen-) invisible. lof-sum, worthy to be praised.
un-gclxrcd-Uc, (unlearned-) unlearn- luf-tpme, fitted for love.
ed. riht-pls, knowing right, righteous.

243. Fullness, connoting possession of an object denoted

by the stem ;

e<y«, ig, iht, ed.

Quasi-suffixes, b^re, fasst, ful, heard, leas.

pjjnt-c (pcord, worth), worth-y. pxstm-bu^re {pxstm, fruit), fruit-ful.

stdn-ig {stall, stone), stony, abound- hlys-hwrc fame), famous.

{lilysa,
ing in stones {£). dr-faast (dr, honor), honorable.
pcl-ig (pela, wealth), rich. cear-ful {cearu, care), care-ful.
sldn-iht, stony (;&). mirgeii-hcard, might-y.
ge-hyrn-ed {horn, horn), horned. ccar-leus {ccaru, care), careless.

244. Material, (e)n^ : slxn-en {stdn, stone), made of stone.

gyld-en {gold, gold), golden.

245. Place, erne :

siid-erne, southern ; nord-erne, northern.
peard :
siid-peard, southward ; nord-peard, northward.
For Pronouns, see i^^ 130-137 ; comparatives and superl., ^§ 122-129.
For Numeral -feald, -ode, -tig, etc., see §^ 139-148.

VERBS.
246. Strong Verb Suffixes: a, ia<ya (^^158, a; 215).
These are suffixed to a root.

nim-a-n, take ; sper-ia-n, swear; sittan<Csit-ia-n, sit.

247. Weak Verb Suffixes: ia <a;a, 6 <o;a (^ 160).

(a.) aja is a secondary suffix a = -\-ja, a belonging to a simpler word.

In aja > ia, a drops aja ; ajd > ^ ady u, progression and contraction

(§^ 38, 52).

{b.) Variations :
ia, iga, igea, ga, ea, a, ie, ige, ge, e,
— ;

6, d, a, u, e, precession and dissimilated gemination

(^§38; 27,5).
ner-ia-n, ner-e-de, save ; infinitive ner-ia-n,
ner-iga-n, ner-igea-n, ner-
ga-n; feg-a-n, feg-ea-n, ioin, feg-{e)-de ; indicative present ner-ie,
ner-ige, ner-ge, ner-e.
sealf-ia-n, salve, sealf-o-de, sealf-u-dc, sealf-a-de, scalf-e-dc.

247*. Infinitive anis contracted from aa.

dgan, ahan ; on from d/ian,
bhan: gdn {gaan), go; smeagan'^ smedn, consider slcahan^ sledn,
shy ;
,

fun <ifahan, catch gcfeon<Cgefeohan, rpjoice icon

; ieuhan. tug. ; <
 NOTEWORTHY WEAK VERBS. 127

Noteworthy Weak Verbs.

248 —
I, Causatives and Transitives, relics of the Sanskrit causative.

They have the highest progression of the root (lilce the strong imperfect

singular), and i-umlaut.

CoNJ. 1. —
y' a -y/ sad, sit;
: Sansk. std-ami, sit, causative sdd-djd-mi,
set ; Goth, sit-an, sat-ja-n ; O. Sax. sittian, settian ; O. Nor. sit-ia,
set-ia. Highest progression, a; i-umlaut, e (^^ 199-204, 32).

sittan<^sit-ia-n, sit; imp. swt{a) ; settan<^sat-ia-n, set.

licgan<ilig-ia-n, lie; imp. la?g {a) ;
lecgan<^lag-ia-n, lay.
beorn-an, burn; imp. bai-n; bern-a-n, cause to burn.
drinc-an, drink ; imp. dranc ; drenc-a-n, cause to drink.

CoNJ. 2. — V^'- V^'f) show; Sansk. causative (Zep-o/a-mj; Goth, teih-an,

tdik-ns, token. Highest progression, a; i-umlaut, & (^^ 205, 32).

lih-an, point at; imp. tdh ; t&c-a-n, teach.

drif-an, drive ; imp. drdf; dr&f-a-n, disperse.
lid-an, go (by sea) ; imp. lad; hed-a-n, lead.
ns-an, arise ; imp. rds ; rxr-a-n, raise, rear.

CoNJ. 3. — -y/u: -y/i/a/o-', bend ;

Sansk. causative bhug'-djd-mi {^ 158).
Highest progression, ed ; i-umlaut, y (^^ 206, 32) ;
e often occurs.

bug-an, bow, bend ; imp. bedh ; byg-a-n, cause to bend.

Jleog-an, flee ; imp. fledh ; fi/g-a-n, put to flight.

CoNJ. 4. — V^) ^- V P^^^ Sansk. causative joar-4?a-OT?) accomplish. High-

est progression, u; i-umlaut, c ((^^ 207, 32) ; or, progression, a; umlaut,
e : Goth, far-an, far-Ja-n, but gal-an, sing, gol-ja-n (compare ^ 158, e).

far-an, go ; imp. for ; fer-a-n, go ; far-ia-n, carry.

/>ac-a«, wake ; imp. /'oc; />eccaw<]jpac-z'a-?2, awaken.

pac-ia-n, watch, is also found —a later denominative.

Here belong many verbs apparently formed from nouns or participles by

i-umlaut of the root vowelhyld-an, to make bent (heald) hyn-an, to make
:
;

lowly (hcdn) hrym-an, to cry (hredm)

; pyrc-an, to work (peorc) pyrm- ; ;

an, to warm (pearm) yld-an, to delay {cald, old) yrm-an, to make wretch-
; ;

ed {eai-m) ypp-an, to lay open (up)

; yt-an, to drive out ; {iit) ; words in

-fyld-an: prt-fyld-an, to triple {fcald, fold), etc.

249. — n. Denominatives without Umlaut, from adjectives.

Such arc oftencst neuter, but with ge- oftencst transitive.

micl-ia-n, to grow great (micel) ge-miclian, to make great. ;

litl-ia-n, togrow little ge-litlian, to make little.

;

hdt-ia-n, to grow hot (hat) compare hiit-an, to make hot. ;

pearm-ia-n, to grow warm; compare pyrm-an, to make warm.

128 ADVERBS.— NOTIONAL STEMS.
250. — III. Denominative Suffixes grown Verbals: -c-, -g-, -n-,
-S-, ettaiK^atian (^ 188, b), l^can :

hyr-c-n-ian, hark, hearken {hyr-an, hear) ; syn-g-ian, to sin ; mier-s-ian,

to make more plt-n-ian, to punish ; ; hdl-etlan, -etan, -etian, hail ;

sunior-ldican, summer is near.

ADVERBS.
251. Adverbial suffixes are mostly from case-endings.

Notional Stems (Nouns),

I. Living Case-endings, with and without prepositions: gen. es, a;
dat. a, e, um ace. , ne
instrum. e, e
;
weak an. — ; ;

es :
dxg-es, by day ; icLvg-es, (now)-a-days ; eall-es, wholly ; micl-es,
much ; to-midd-es, amidst ; neaht-es, by night ; ned-es, needs ; son-es,
(eft-)soons; /a?2C-c5, willingly; s>fter-peard-es, a.fterwa.rds; hdm-peard-
C5, homewards, a: g^cf/r-a, of yore (o-ear, year).
Adverbial -es is found with nouns having their genitive in -c : nealU-c,
ned-e, etc. ; sin-neahtes, eternall3^

a, dative feminine (^ 93, i) dcarn-ung-a, -inga, -enga, O. Sax. darn-

:

ung-o (^ 88, a), O. H. G. tarnunk-un ((J Goth, o, ^ 95, c), secretly = :

deorcung-a, in the gloaming Scotch darklings, darkling eallung-a, ; ;

wholly kvcling-a, 0. Eng. backlings, on 'the back so O. Eng. nose-

; ;

ling, side-ling'^ sidelong (§ 40, 3), headlong, on the nose, side, head.
This is often thought genitive plural but feminine abstracts in
-ung ;

seldom use the plural, and they retain the old dative in -a (^ 77, i) ;

while the O. H. G. can not be a genitive plural.

um, dative plural :

hpU-um, -on, whilom ; on-sundr-on, asunder ; pundr-
lun, wondrously stycce-mM-um, piece-meal
; ; seld-iim, -on, -an, sel-
dom ; litl-um, little micl-um, much.
;

e, e, dative and instrumental :

wfr-e,e\ex; heodieg{e), to-day ;
to-dmg-e,
to-day ; to-nihte, to-night ; to-ealdre, always ;
inicle md, much more ;

to-gxdere, together, an :
to-cdc-an, moreover.
— , ham, home east, east pest, west ealne peg, always
accusative :
; ; ; ;

on peg, away on bxc, back on-gedn, against eal, all nedh, nigh
; ; ; ; ;

hdmpeard, homeward on idcl, in vain and comparatives and super- ; ;

latives (^ 123). ne eal-ne peg, always sum-ne d&l, O. Eng. some :

;

deal, somewhat.

II. Obscure Endings, a, e.

{a.) a Goth, -a, 0. Sax. -a, O.
: II. G. -a, perhaps from instrumental -a

(^63,^).
{!).) The common adverbial ending from adjectives is -e : O. Sax. -o,
 RELATIONAL STEMS. 129

O. Nor. -a, O. H. G. -o, Goth, -o, some say -la. Gothic -ba, -6 are prob-
ably akin to instrumental -bhi and -a {^ 63, g). Bopp thinks -6 an ablative

ending like Greek -(og<^-ojT, Latin -u and -e<C-ed, but in Teutonic the in-
strumentals have a history analogous to that of the ablative in Greek and
Latin ;
the Anglo-Saxon instrumental has been kept alive by the influence
of this adverb. Grimm thinks -e a weak
singular accusative neuter.
(c.) So many adverbs are formed from adjectives in -lie, that -lic-e >
Eng. -ly is established as an ending ;
so Icelandic -liga, M. H. G. liche.

fel-a, much ; gen-a, again ; get-a, yet ; s6n-a, soon ; tel-a, well ; feor^
{Goth, fairra), far; nedh'^ (Goth, nchva), nigh; ofi^ (Goth, vfta), oft;
j?el^ (Goth. vaila),we]l; pid-e, widely ; deop-e, dee-ply ;
heage <C^hedh,
highly; ?2ear/>e<^nea?-M, narrowly ; s<ra??o--;?c-e, strongly ; sceort-lic-e,

shortly, etc., etc. For h^g, p^u, see ^^ 117, 118.

252. Relational Stems (Pronouns and Prepositions).

L Correlatives of Place :

where, whither, whence ; there, thither, thence ; here, hither, hence.

A.-Sas.. hpxr, hpider, hpanan ; 7-';i''", pider., panan; liir, hider, keonan.
O.SsiK.. huar,huar(pd),huanan; thar, thar{pd'}, thanan; her, her(od), hinan.
O.H.G. hwdr,hwar-a,-ut,hwanana; dar, dar-a,-vt, danana; hiar, ker-a, -6t, hinana.
O. Nor., kvar, kvert, hvadan ; P^ar, padra, pjodan; her, hedra, hedan.
Goth hvar, hva-p, -dre, kvapru; par, padei, pjapjro; her, hidre, (Jiepru).
Greek... ttov, ttoT, tto^iv; tv^a,tv^ac(, tvBtv; Lat. 7wc, hue, citro, hinc.
Sansk... hu-tra, Icii-tra, hu-tas; ta-tni, id-tra, ta-tas; d-ira, d-ira, d-tas.

(a.) For the stem radicles (interrogative hp, demonstrative J), h), ^^ 135,
133, 104, 130 :
lipAr, p&r (;&, x, a), Ormulum &.

<Jj.) Ang. -Saxon endings, -r, -der, -nan (-a?0 ;

-d (5a?not?,Goth. sama-P)) :

-r<^ locative <^ comparative -ra (^^ 120, G2)

-77 Sansk. wj»a-n, Greek :

iiTc-p, Lat. s-upe-r, Goth, ufa-r^ O. H. G. uba-r, O. Sax. obha-r, Ang.~

Sax. ofe-r, over.

-der, -dcr, Goth, -drc, Sansk. -lra<C-ird, is the instrumental of a com-

parative in -ta-ra {^^ 120, 62) some think this -tra weathers
: to -r in

hpxr, etc. ; -d, probably comparative, ^ 255 (Sansk. samanli).

-nan, -nannc, an oblique case of the repeated adjective sufRx -?za, belong-
ing to (^ 228, 2) Lat. super-no-, belonging (super) above whence ab-
:
;

lative adverb supcr-nc, from above and coming from are ; belonging to

near akin, but the lost case-ending gives the turn io from. Goth, ze-
nana, within utana, without; hindana, hehxnd, etc., do not have the
;

plain sense from. Pott suggests composition with a preposition (Let-

tisch no, from). Here belong cdst-an, from the cast pcst-an, from ;

the west, etc. also ipft-an, aft; fcorr-an, from far; for-an, before
; ;

hind-an, from behind inn-an, within ; ncdn, from nigh

; neod-an, from ;

beneath ; vf-an, from above ; ut-an, from out, and their compounds.
I
130 DERIVATION.—PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES.

II. Correlatives ov Time: Manner:

when ;
then ;
now ; once. how ;
thus ;
so.

A.-S. hpanne; panne {w,o,e), J)d; nu; iu,geu. hu<^hpi ; pus,])xs; spa.
Goth, hvan; pan, {O.H.G. do; nu; ju, giu. huieo),hvdiva; svah, sve.
Lat... quum; turn; nimc ; ja77i<^S:ins\i. ja. quo-modo; tarn, ila; sic, ut.

Gr.... TzoTi; Tort; vv,7wv(Siansk.nu); v!i<i<Jjd. n-wg; rw£ ; wg.

hpannc, accusative masculine ; pa, feminine ; hu, hpt, instrumental ; pus,

genitive, <^ppis, or instrumental pu-\-s,
O. Sax. thiu-s (^ 133, 2);

pms, genitive ; spa, Goth, sve, instrumental the endings in tlie other ;

languages are not all analogous.

III. Prepositions =:= adverbs :

ccftcr, hi, for, in, mid, on, of, to, purh,

under, up, ofer, piit, with many derivatives and compounds. See ^^ 253-
259.

IV. Derivatives in e, denoting rest in, probably a dative : Goth, -a, O.

Sax. -a, O. Nor. -i, O.H.G. -a.

inn-e, within ; ut-e, without ; ifan-c, over, etc.

V. Comparatives and Superlatives. ^^ 123-129, 2.

PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES.

253. — I. Those denoting simple relations generally take their signifi-

cance from a single consonant {^ 50). Contrasted space relations are pri-

marily denoted. This contrast is often further brought out by endings of

comparison (^^ 122-129). The relation is sometimes made more definite
by case-endings and other suffixes. Most inseparable prefixes have a sim-
ilar etymology.
II. Many prepositions and prefixes of later growth are from nouns or
verbs, and have an etymology like adverbs.

254. Prepositions and prefixes with a single consonant. A few others

are added to better illustrate their etymology.

1. Semi-vowels. Sanskrit. Greek, Latin. Gothic. O. Sax. O. Nor. O. II. G.

a-(^), privitive: ... dvisyas? t^? ex? see or; d- ; er- ; d<,ar-.
OX- —
d: dvisy^us? ; ;
2is- ; ; ur,dr-; ur-.

ea-C, besides : dva; av-(jiQ); ;

du-h ; o-h ; au-h; au-h.

-with seeto; vi-, ve- ; vi-pra wi-d; vi-ct; lei-dar.

pid, agamst, :
ot, ; ;

.. na; ne, ne ; ni ; ne ; we; ni, tie.

ne, n-, negative: I'jy- ; ni,

an (on, d-), on : and; dvd; an-; ana; an; d; ana.

and (pnd,(jd),a.n-: dn-ti; dv-ri ; an-ie; an-d; an-d;-t; an-d; an-t.

in.
in, in, on: and, an-; tw, iv ; in; in; inna; mn,i;
vin-: uv-,d-; in-; un-; un-; d-; un-.
un-(w»), an-, a-;
 PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES. 131
Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. O. Sax. O. Nor. O. H. Ger.

mi-d, with :
mi-thas; /.te-Tci ; ; mi-p; mi-d ; me-d; mi-t(i).

mis-, mis- : akin to mid, Goth, mi'sso, mutually ; missa-; mis-; miss-; mis-.
a- (w, apa, o), ever : eva-s'? alfd; xvum ; div ; eo; ae ; eo.

2. Labials (p, b, f ).

up, adv., up lipa; :

vtto, vTrip ; s-uh, s-vper ; iup ; up; upp ! 4/*
hi (be, biff), be-, hy: abhi; -0t ; (ti)-bi ; U; hi, be-; ; pi.
ymb(e), CTw6(c), about a6Aj; :
afi^i; amb- ; ;
wnbi ; um ; umpi.
of (ir/^), of, off: apa; otto; ab ; af; af; of; aba.

for-, for-(bid): pd-rd ; -irapd, irdp ; per- ; /"fa-; fiir-; for-; far-.
for, for :
purds ; TrdpoQ ; prss ? faur ; fur{i) ; fyr(i) ; furi.
fore, fore- :
purds; Trdpog ; por ; faura; for(a); for-; fora.
feor, adv. adj., far :
^ira; Trspa ; pei'-; fair-ra; fer; fiarri; fer.
. ,„ ^^ (pari: per-;' \ probably a simulation of Lat.
mixed;'^
,
fr&- (/rea-), very : r Trepi
^,
;
' -^

} a e .>•
' >-s An ')\
Kjira ; Trpo ; pro, prw ; )
prm by compounds offrea (,§ 40, 1).
fram, from :
pd-ra-m; Tripav ; peren-; fram; fratn; fram; fram.

3. Dentals (t, d, J), d, s).

aet, at : ddlii ; (o-y^i; ad; at; at; at; az.

6(t, unto : ddhi? ; ; and,und; unt; unz ; unt-.

to, to : ddhi? -ct; ;

du ; t6,te; ; zuo, zi.

to-, in two: (cZ)fj- C§ 130, 2) ; Sid; dis- ; di^- ; te- ; ; ze(f),za{r).

ut, out :
tit; va-npOQ; ;
ut ; ut ; ut ; «3.

ed-, back :
i-tara, oth&c ? ;
i-terum? id-; id-ur; id-; it-.

hurh, through .... tirds ; :

; trans; pair-li ; thurh ; ;
durak.

sam-, together: ... sa-md' ; ajjia;

sim-ul ; sama; sama ; sam- ; sama.

sam-, half: sd-mi-; semi-; ; sam-; ;

sdmi-.
»//t"- ;

sin-steins') ; sin- ;
sin-.
sin-, ever :
sa-nd'; tVo-c ; sem-(^per') ; si-;

4. Gutturals.

ge-, together :
(sd-ycdm? ^uv? cum, co-? ga-; gi- ; g- ; ka-, etc.

iles—d-^ge, ever : . 0. H. G. ed-ga (§ 13C, 5).

(a.) For shifting of letters, see ^^ 18, 19, 41

for precession and weather- ;

ing of endings, ^ 38. « <ar, 6d<^and, ^ 37 ; ymbe <C,abhi, and<^ddhi, (} 27,

5 ; A in Jmrh, c in edc, ^ 133, 2, a.
(5.) Most of the Sanskrit forms look like vowel pronominal
bases with
suffixes and case-endings: a-hhi, a-pa^ a-pa-ra'^ gen. purds, locative
pari, ace. pdram, instrum. pdrd. ^ 62.

255. Comparative Forms :

er, r, ter, der, cter, ct, d. ^^ 122-129.

of-cr, over ; ipf-ter, after un-der, under

; ; pi-dcr, wither-(nam) ; to-pi-

dere, against ; ni-der, neath pi-d, with ; mi-d, with fo-r, for fo-re,
; ; ;

before f-rvk, very ; ;

gcon-d, yond ; hin-d-an, behind samo-d, together. ;

(b.) The above

are formed on of; af; a?i>Sansk. an{a)-tara; pi; ni,
akin to in, Sansk. ani^ni, down, Gr. tvt-poi, O. H. G. ni-dar; mi<^ma;

f—<C.pa; gcon, Goth. jdins<Cja-na ; hin heon{an) (i^ 252) sam. = ;

132 PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES.—PARTICLES.

256. Superlative m (!^ 120) :

fra-m, from ; pdram, ir'epav, peren- seem
to be accusatives, and in so far not analogous to from.

257. Adverbial -an (^252), mostly compounds: be-, b-, pid-wfl-an ;

for-an ; xt-, bi-, on-, to-, pid-for-an ; geond-an ; be-, pid-geond-an ; be-
heon-an ; bc-hind-an ; inn-an ; b-, on-, pid-inn-an ; neod-an ; be-, under-
neod-an ; uf-an ; b-, d-b-, on-uf-an ; upp-an ; on-upp-an ; ut-an ; b-, on-b-,
put-, ymb-ut-an ; English before ; beyond ;
behind within be-, under-
; ;

neath ; above a-b-, with-out. ;

258. From Substantives, mostly compounds with prepositions : to-

edcan, besides; a-,

on-gegn, to-gegnes, against; ge-mong, on-gemong,
among on-efn (German n-eben), even with, beside, an-ent in-middum,
; ;

td-middes, amidst be-tpeon-um, -an, between ;be-tpeo-h-s, be-tpeox, be- ;

twixt ;
so English be-side<^5e sidan; down <^d-dune, from a hill; a-loft

(ShakespeareX o?i li/fte, in the air; and the like, hand-, § 267,11.

259. From Adjectives = adverbs (see ^^ 254, 229) :

&r, ere ; fear,
far from ; ge-hende, handy to ; la;s, less ; nedh, near, nehst, nedh-hand,
nigh to ; til (Northumbrian), to ;
peard, td-peard, toward ; pana, less ge- ;

long, and-long, along; n-efne, n-emne (compare on-efn, § 258), except;

sid (late), since. Prefixes eal- {pi-, el-), all efen-, co- ; ful-, full
:
mis-, ; ;

mis- ; sdm-, serai- ; sin-, ever ; pan-, less ; pel-, well.

Particles of Interrogation, Affirmation, Negation.

260. Interrogation. — (a.) Adverbial forms of the pronominal ^/>, whose
derivation has been explained :
hpxder, hpxr, hpider, hpanan, hpy, hu, and
compounds, for-hpam, etc.

(b.) Intensives: ne, ^ 254 ; ac (ach, ah), ^ 262 ; hu, ^ 252 ; Id, § 263.
(c.) Conjunctions in indirect questions :
gif, if, ^ 262.

261. Affirmation and Negation. — (a.) From relational stems:

gea, ia, yea<ya (^ 107, a) ;

Goth, ja, jai ; O. Sax., 0. Nor., O. H. G. ia.

ge-se, yes ; gea-\--se<^si, let it be.

ne (^ 254), n-a, n-6, nay, no ;

Goth, ne div, O. H. G. ni-eo, not ever,
ne-se, like gese n-dn, Ger. n-etn, Lat. n-on, not one
:
; ncalles, nalass, nies
{ne ealles), not at all n-d-piht, nbhl, not a whit. ;

(6.) Regular adverbial forms :

sodlke, pitodlice, verily.
 DERIVATION.— CONJUNCTIONS.—INTERJECTIONSo 133

262. CONJUNCTIONS.
In their formation they are similar to prepositions.

I. From relational stems. — (a.) Not before explained:

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. O. Sax. O. Nor. O. H. G.

and, ond, and ; (dti ; tn ; et) ? ;

andi ; ;
anti (u).

ano, ono, an = if; (<aMa); dv; an; an; O.K.G. eno, inu<!.an+nu.
gif, if; ja-d (j'a-pi) ; (I; s-i; ja-bai ; (ef; ef; ihu).
ac (ch, A), but ;(akin to edc, § 251 ?) ;
ak ; ac ; ;
oh.

ge, and ; (< ja, § 252 Srj SJd ; < ; ja-ni) ; ja-h ; ja, ja-c ; oh ? ioh.

gyt, yet
ffeta, <igeo, ^252; ; ; ; ju-pan; ;
M. H. G. ie-zuo.

})en-den, whilst compare Latin tan-dem ;

; pan-de ; ; ;
dan-ta.

J)eah {peh), though ;

see for -uh § 133, 2, a ; pa-uh ; thih ; po ; doh.

odde (edda, pe), or; utha, but; ; at; ip, aip-pau; ettha; eda; eddo (p-").

eac, also; sam, samo-d, as well as; ne ne, neither — — nor; nu — nu,
—
now then, have been given with adverbs or prefixes.
and may be akin with and<Canti (^ 254). ano is all doubtful ; ja^ja-
bai and i >
Goth, i-ba =
O. H. G. i-bu, are kindred stems ; gif, O.
Friesic je/, Lithuanic jet-J, go with ja-bai i^^ 107, a; 63,^) ge might ;

be ge- (^ 254) -den in pen-den, -pan in ju-pan, are the demonstrative

;

ta (^ 104, b) ;
Goth, tp > ed, ap > od is akin to ed- {^^ 254, 3 ; 38).

{b.) other pronominal adverbs, whose etymology has been explained,

Many
and whose meaning and use belong in syntax liii, how spa, so ; spxjlce, :
;

such ; pidcr, panan, pa, pij, pe, pxs, ponne, hpi-der, whither ; hpx-der,
p&r ;
whether ; elles, else ;
O. H. G. albs, alies, gen., Lat. alias, al-, ^ 216.

II. From notional stems, a few oblique cases of nouns.

hpile, hpil-iim
— hpUum, sometimes—sometimes.

263. INTERJECTIONS.
Imitation of cries, or sound-gestures ed, eie, edp, oh pa, pea, wo;
:
;
(1.)

Za, lo; Aa, ha; hd,\\o.; compounds

— ea-^a, mixed with French Ae-/a5 (Lat.
lassus, weary), alas, corrupt alack pd-ld, pd-ld-pd, ; welaway, corrupt wel-
aday, etc. ; liig. Jug, Lat. o, a, iElfrc. Coll.

Somewhat similar quasi-words are wide-spread, but they can be iden-

tifiedonly when steadied by true
words formed from them Greek ba, :

ovai, Lat. vcB, Goth, vdi, O. Sax. we, Swed. ve, O. II. G. we, wo O. ;

II. G. ivc-la, etc. Such words were doubtless as numerous in the an-
cient languages as in English, but are not preserved in books.

(2.) True words used as cries or gestures have nothing peculiar in their

hpxt, what /ui,how pel, well peg Id— pel W,well done,
etc.
etymology :
; ; ; ;

cfne, Lat. eccc, lo.

134 COMPOSITION OF WORDS.

264. COMPOSITION OF WORDS.

Composition proper combines word-stems so as to express a new notion.
Coalescence is the running together of whole words with such change
of accent as to make a new word.
(a.) Parasyntheta are derivatives from compounds.

Nouns.
265. — I. Form. — Nouns final in compounds retain their stems and end-
ings: elsewhere only their theme, except substantives in e<^ia, e<^t, and
u(o): gum-a, ma,n ; gum-cyn, ma-nkind eald-fxdcr, gra.ndfa.ther ; gryre, ;

horror ; gryre-hpil, time of horror lagu, lake ; lagu-flod, river. Coales- ;

cence takes place of prefixes and some genitives with a following noun :

Sxternes-dwg, Saturday; M6nan-da?g, Monday; Oxend-ford, Oxford;

daeges-ege, daisy ; and-sparu, answer ; un-treopd, untruth ; un-pis, un-
wise, etc. Words with quasi-sufRxes are compounds in form. § 229.

266. — II. Relation of Stems to each other. — (1.) Attributive

(substantive + substantive)
—appositive :
dc-treo, oak-tree ; pif-man, wo-
man ; compare peop-boren, born a slave descriptive gdr-ledc, spear- ; :

leek, garlick heafod-man,\\ea,d-man; genitive: god-spel, God's mes-

;

sage; (adjective -f substantive) mid-da:g, mid-da.y 7icdh-bur, neigh-hour.

:
;

Adjective parasyntheta from the last are called Possessives cl&n-hcort, :

possessing a clean heart ; dn-hendc, one-handed ; dn-edge and dn-eged,

one-eyed ; bwr-fot, bare-foot, bare-footed.

(2.) Objective. —
(Substantive -f-noun, between which an accusative end-
ing or preposition would express the relation) accusative man-cpellere, — :

man-killer dd-sparing, oath-swearing blod-geote, shedding of blood gen-

; ;
:

itive :
cear-ful, full of care ;
dative :
god-Uc, like to God.
(3.) Adverbial {noun
or particle adjective) scl-meahtig, all-mighty + :
;

manig-feald, manifold blod-redd, blood-red sndp-hpit, snow-white un-

—
; ; ;

clesne, unclean {noun or particle -\- substantive) space relations land-

;
:

man, man living on the land, farmer time niht-hnrfn, raven flying by ;
:

night ;
cause :
hand-gepeorc, hand-iwork ; purpose :
ort-geard, orchard,
yard for vegetables ealo-fxt, vat for ale; edg-sealf, eye-salve with an ; ;

infinitive, hpet-stdn, stone to whet put-boc, writing-book material stdn-

; ;
:

peal, wall of stone ; is-gicel, icicle gold-smid, worker in gold. ;

(a.) compound nouns not possessives and adverbially com-

Attributive

pound adjectives are called Determinatives.

(5.) Collectives have copulate parts :

per-polf, man and wolf, were-
wolf; preo-tyne, three and ten.

267. Verbs.
I. For the terminations springing from composition, see § 160.
 FORIVLVTION OF WOKDS TO EXPllESS GENDER. I35

II. Verbs with proper compound stems are parasyntheta from compound
nouns. But note hand-sellan, put in hand; ful-fyllan, etc., below.
III. Compound verbs are directly formed by coalescence with preposi-
tions and prefixes :
ofer-fleopan, over'flow ; d-pacan, a-wake mis-don, ;

mis-do ; pcl-don, do well

ful-fijllan, fulfill
efen-peoi'can, co-operate.
; ;

{a.) For prepositions and prefixes, see ^^ 15, 254.

{b.) Composition has the same laws throughout the Indo-European lan-

guages. Ill some of them so many of the stem-endings conform with the

most common one that it comes to be regarded as a sign of composition

(Gr. -0-, Lat. -i-,Goth. -a-) traces of this are in Anglo-Saxon
; :
mht-e-gale,
night-in-gale.

FORMATION OF WORDS TO EXPRESS GENDER.

268. — —A. Words with pairs of endings (Mobile)
I. Animals. :

Masculine, — < a <[ an ere.

a ; ;

Feminine, — <C*> e<Can; ige <1 <^ ian en<Cenni; estre. e, ie ,•

1. (
— <Ca and — <C0) umlaut, 32: gat, g&t, he-goat, she-goat; ^ -es, -e,

m&g, kins-man, -woman pulf,pylf,

-es, -e, she-wolf. — (a and ; he-, 2. e) :

ass-a, -e, he-, she-ass ; mdg-a, -e, kins-man, -woman ; nef-a, -e, nephew,
niece rxg-a, -e, hart, roe peop-a, -e, man-, maid-servant pebh-a, -e,
—
; ;

—
;

weaver; picc-a, -e, witch; pudup-a, -e, widow-er. 3. ( <^a and e,

ige) mearh, merige, mere, myre, horse, mare hldford, hldf{or)d-ige,
:

lord, lady. 4. (a and — <^i)

—
han-a, hen, cock, hen. 5. ( <^a and
;

— —
en) :
xlf, -en, elf; fox,fixen, fox, vi.xen
god, gyd-en, god-dess muncc, ; ;

-en,monk, nun Jicop, -en, pegen, pign-en, pealh, pyl-en, servant add
;

—
;

manna, mennen, servant; cdsere, cdser-n, emperor, empress. 6. (ere

and estre) bxc-ere, bxc-cstre, baker, bakster hearp-ere, -estre, harper

:
; ;

hopp-ere, -estre, dancer ; red-ere, -estre, reader ; sang-ere, -estre, singer ;

sedm-erc, -estre, seam-ster pebb-ere, -estre, weaver, webster fidcl-erc,

—
; ;

-estre, fiddler. 7. (Relics): gos <^gans, gandra (^^ 37; 41, Z»; 50),
goose, gander; cyning, open {-\/ cpan^ cun^ cyn, ^^ 35, 32, 38, 24),
king, queen abbud, -isse (Lat. abbatissa, Gr. -laaa), abbot, abbess speor,
; ;

speger (Goth, svaihr-a, -6, Lat. socer, socrus, Gr. tKvp-oQ, -d, Sansk.
fvagura, fva^ru), father-, mother-in-law.

B. Compounds whose first part marks sex, last part gender :

Masculine, pxpned, pstp-, p&pen-, weaponed carl, hyse, man, guma. ;

Feminine, pif, wife mwgden, maid cpcn, woman.; ;

piipned-man, m., -beam, n., cild, n., -pifestre, f., man, boy, hermaphrodite ;

hyse-cild, n., boy; man-cild, n., man-child man-csnc, m., man-servant; ;

gum-man, man gum-pegn, man carl-cat, m., -fugol, m., tom-cat, -bird
; ; ;

pif-man"^ pimman, m., woman; ptf-pegn, m., servant; plf-freohd, m.,

friend; m&den-cild, n., -f&mnc, f., -man, m., female child, maid; cpcn-
136 rOKMATION OF WOKDS TO EXPRESS GENDER.

fugol, m., bird; add sperc-healf, f., spindl-healf, f., spcar-lialf = male
side, spindle-half = female side.

C. Male and female have names from different roots. Such names
abound for man and the domestic animals.
They are old and widespread.

Man :
guma, per, husbonda, hod, secg, hxle{d), rinc, hcorn, carl ; plur.
firds; f:cmmine,fu;m7ic, ides, bryd,f6slre, meople, mwged, m&g, open;
neuter, beam, cild, child pif, wife. Pairs of kindred fxder, modor ;
; :

sunu, dohtar ; brodor, spcostor; cam, mudrigc, uncle, aunt ;

god-fxder,
god-modor.
Horse: Ox: oxa, steorc, fearh,
hcngcst, steda,fola; feminine, 7?zcn7ic.
bulluca; cu,heafre. Sheep: ram,pedcr; {em.c6p{ii). Swine:
fern.

bar, eofor, bearh ; fem. sugu. Goat: bucca, hirfcr; fern, rdh, rd.
Deer heart, m., hmd, f. Dog hu7id, m., bicce, f. Hen coc, m.,
: :
:

hen, f. Bee
drdn, m., beo, f. Neuter
: :
hors, picg, horse swtn, ;

swine; 7n«7, mule f/cor, wild beast, deer ; ;

cea//, calf lamb; scedp,;

sheep.
Names of other animals are epicene {^ 67). Neuter names of young ani-
mals often add -ir-, the plural
-er- in cild, cild-er-u, child, children :

(^ 82). Nothing else peculiar in tiic formation.

269. —
II. Things without Sex, and abstracts. For general rules,
^ 67 (gender of the endings, ^^ 231-239). It is often not
easy to tell how
far personification, and how far phonetic laws, determine the
gender 64, (^
2). The same object often has logo,
names of different genders :
see, f.,

m., brim, n., cgor, n., sea. The Teutonic tongues generally agree. But
note Neuters (German masculine) mod, mood, muth;
tpig, twig, zwei"-;
pin, wine, wein ; (German feminine) clif, cliff, klippe ; ear, ear, dhre ;
fxsten, fastness, feste ; lie, corps, leiche ; sAd, seed, saat ; sceorp, scarf,
schdrpe ; pxpen, weapon, waffe ; pesten, n.,m., v,-a,ste,witsic ; Masculines
(German feminine), crwft, craft, kraft; lust, lust; tear, tear, zdhre ; (Ger-
man neuter) ende, end ; feld, field here, army, heer ; sal, cord, seil ; Fem-
;

ININES (German masculine), turf, turf, torf; piht, wight, wicht ; (German

neuter) blxd, blade, blatt ; boc, book, buch ; Imlu, health, heil ; heorlc,
heart, herz ; gesihd, sight, gesicht.

270. — III. Derivatives from foreign names retain their gender,

except
Feminines > masculines ancor, anchor
:
Joo?, box-wood ^cr^uc, peach
; ;

pistol, epistle ; regal, rule >neuters non, noon NEUTERS>masculines

; :
;

balsam ; crcda, creed ; >feminines ceaster, city lilie, lily palant, palace
:
; ;

timpane, ^n\m1
 PART III.

SYNTAX.
271. Syntax is tlie doctrine of grammatical combinations of
tcords. It treats of the use of the etymological forms in dis-

course —their agreement, government, and arrangement.

SIMPLE COMBINATIONS.
272. There are four simple combinations: the pi'edic'ative, at-
trib'utive, objective, and adverbial.

273.—I. Predicative
= 7i0)mnative substantive -\- agreeing verb ,
=)io77iinative substantive-^- agreeing 2^redicate noim;
=znominative substantive -\-23redicate advei-b.

gold is heorht, is
gold glisnad, gold glistens ; gold bright;

JElfred pses cyning, Alfred was king ;

ic com her, I am here.
(a.) This is a combination between a

subject, of which something is said {=zgold, JElfred, ic), and a

predicate, which is said of the subject {:= glisndct, beorht, cyning, her').
(S.) Copula.
—
The sign of predication is the stem-ending of a notional
verb (=:a glisnud^, or is a relaiional verb (is, pses, eom).
in The substan-
tive verb, when so used, is called the copula
—
a good name for any sign of

predication. Copulative verbs take a predicate noun.

(c.) Quasi-predicative is the relation between the implied subject and

predicate in a quasi-clause. ^ 278, d.

274. — 11. AXXrihutiw e=agreeing noun-^ substantive ;

^.genitive substantive-\- substantive.

god cyning, good king ; JElfred xdcling, Alfred the prince ;

Engld land, land of the Angles.

(a.) This combination expresses the relation of subject + attribute as

taken for granted. leading substantive is called the

The
subject, that to which the attribute belongs {cyning, JElfred, land) ;
an attributive is the agreeing adjective {god), or genit. substantive {Engld) ;

an appositive is the agreeing substantive {xdeling).

The sign of this relation is the agreeing case-endings, or the attribu-
{b.)
tive genitive ending, or a preposition {^ 277,2).
lo8 SYNTAX.—SIMPLE COMBINATIONS.

275. — III. Objective = verb + governed noun.

= adjective + governed noun.
ic huntige heortds, I hunt harts he syld him hors, he sells him a
;

horse gilpes pu gyrnest, thou wishest fame

;
p&re fabhde he ge- ;

feah, he rejoiced at the vengeance hi macad hme ;

(to) njmnge,
they make him king ;
Pu me godnc, why callest thou me
hpi scgst
good 1 bead gcmindige Lodes jnfes, remember Lot's wife.

(a.) This combination expresses the relation of an act or to its

quality
completing notional object.

Objective verbs or adjectives are those which need such object {huntige, etc.).
Subjective need no such object {ic sl&pc, I sleep).
Transitive verbs have a suflcring object {huntige, syld, macad,
etc.).
Intransitive have no suffering object {gyrnest, '

gcfeah).
The completing object may be
suffering {=dtrect),an accusative merely affected {heortds, hors, hine,mc);
dative {=indirectz=personal), a receiver to or for whom is the act
{him) ;

genitive, suggesting or exciting the act {gilpes, f&hdc, p'lfes) ;

factitive, a product or result in fact or thought {cyninge, godne).

{b.) The sign of relation is the case-ending or a preposition.

(c.)Many Anglo-Saxon verbs require an object, when the English by
which we translate them do not. Many objects conceived as cxcitinp- in
Anglo-Saxon are conceived as suffering in English ;
many as merely ad-
verbial.

{d.) The factitive object often has a quasi-predicative relation to the suf-
fering object, agreeing with it like a predicate noun {me godne). Such +
clauses are nearly equivalent to two (why sayest thou that I am
good?).

276. —IV. A6.vevhidl=verh+ adverb ov adverbial phrase.

— adjective
-\- adverb or adverbial 2')hrase.

=adverb-\- adverb or adverbial i^lirase.

ic gd ut, I go out ic singe sclce dwg, I sing each day pe sprecad
;
;

gepemmodlice, we speak corruptly he com mid pa f&mnan, he

;

came with the woman mid sorgum libban, to live having cares
;
;

hpi fandige ge mm, why tempt ye me ? micle md man is scedpc

betera, man is much (more) better than a sheep.

(a.) This combination between an act or quality and its unessential

is

relations. The most common

relations are place {ul), time {xlce
dxg),
manner {gepemmodlice), co-existence {mid fwmnan, mid sorgum), cause
{hpi), intensity {micle, md, scedpc).
{h.) The sign is an adverbial ending, case-ending, or preposition.
(c.) The adverbial combination is given by Becker as a subdivision of
the objective, hni the
linguistic sense of the Indo-European races unifora.iy
recognizes the adverb as a separate part of speech.
 EQUIVALENTS.— SENTENCES. 139

277. Equivalents of the Noun and Adverb iu the com-

binations :

(1.) For
a, Substantive
may be used a substantive noun or
pi'onoic7i, an adjective or any of its equivalents, an infinitive, a
clause,) any word or phrase viewed merely as a thing.
(2.) For an Adjective may be used an adjective noun or joj-o-
noun, an article (attributively), a ^jar^zc/^^e, a genitive substan-
tive, an adverb, a preposition loith its case, a relative clause.

(3.) For
an Adverb may be used an oblique case of a noun
with or without a preposition, a 2}hrase, a clause.

SENTENCES.
278. A Sentence is a thought in words. It may be
declarative, an assertion, indicative, subjunctive, or potential ;
interrogative, a question, indicative, subjunctive, or potential;
imperative, a command, exhortation, entreaty a species of ;

exclamatory, an expanded interjection. ^"^ 149-151.

(a.) A clause is one Jinite verb with its subject, objects, and all their at-

tributives and adjuncts. Its essential part is its predicative combination.

The {grammatical) subject of the predicative combination, its attributives
and adjuncts, make up the logical subject of the clause the grammatical ;

predicate and its objects with their attributives and adjuncts make up the
logical predicate.
(6.) A subordinate clause enters into grammatical combination with
some word in another (principal) clause co-ordinate clauses are coupled
;

as wholes.

(c.) The sign of relation between clauses is a relative or conjunction.

(<f.) Quasi-clauses. — (1) Infinitives, participles, and factitive objects
mark quasi-predicative combinations, and each has its quaai-clause. (2) Li-
terjections and vocatives are exclamatory quasi-clauses.

279. A Sentence is simple, complex, or compound.

280. A simple sentence is one indipendent clause.

I. A predicative combination.

Verb for predicate: fisceras fisciad, fishers yjs/j.

Adjective God is god, God is good.

:

Genitive tol C&sares is, tribute is Cxsar''s.

:

Substantive Cicdmon pxs leodpyrhta, Ca^dmon was a

:
poet.
Adverb :
pe sind her, we are here.
Adverbial : God is in heofenum, God is in heaven.
Subject indefinite :
(Jiit) sntpd, it snows me Jiyrst,
; me it tliirstcth.
140 SENTENCES.

II. Clause with attributive combination.

Adjective attribute god gold glisndd, good gold glistens. :

Genitive folces stemn is Godes stemn, foWs voice is God^s voice.

:

Appositive pe cildra sind ungelairede, we children arc untaught.

:

III. Clause with objective combination.

Direct object : Cccdmon porhte leudsangds, Caedmon made poems.
Dative l&n me prthlcifus, give me three loaves.
:

Genitive pxt pif dhloh drihtnes, the woman laughed at the lord.
:

Factitive Simonem he nemde Petrum, Simon he named Peter.

:

IV. Clause with adverbial combination.

Place gd ut, I go out.
: ic

Time ic gd ut on dxgred, I go out at daion.

:

Manner se cyning scryt me pel, the king clothes me

: well.
Co-existence : mid sorgum ic libbe, I live with cares.
Cause he has is for cylde, he is hoarse from cold ; se cnapa pypdd
:

oxan mid gadisene, the boy drives oxen with an iron goad.

281. — V. Abridged complex sentence. Clause containing a

quasi-clause. § 278, d.
Infinitive : tsbc us sprecan, teach us to speak.
Factitive :
hpt segst pu me godne, why callest thou me (to be) good?
Participle (adjectival) hcbhe sumrie cnapan, Jjypendne oxan, I have a
: ic

boy, {driving) who drives oxen; (adverbial, gerund), Boetius gebxd

singende, Boethius prayed singing ; (absolute), pinre durd beloccnre,
bide pinne fseder, thy door having been locked, pray thy father.

282. —VI. Abridged compound sentence (§ 284), Verbs>verb.

Compound he and seo singad, he and she sing.
subject :

Compound predicate he is god and pis, he is good and wise :

; seo lu-
fdd hine and me, she loves hi^n and me.

283. A complex sentence is one principal clause Avith its

subordinate clause or clauses. § 278, h. The subordinate may
be a
Substantive sxgd pxt he com, that he came is said (ob-
:
(subject), is ;

I wot that he came ;

pal pxt he com,
ject), ic (appositive), tc com to
pam, pxt he pxre gefulpod, I came for this, that he might be baptized.
Adjective sixf-crxft is seo cxg, pe pxrd hoed andgit unlycd, grammar
:

is the
key, that unlocks the sense of the books.
Adverb (place), hpider pu gxst, ic gd, I go lohither thou goest; (time),
:

tc gd hpxnne pu gxst, I go when thou goest; (manner), ^m

sprxce spd
spa an stunt p'lf, thou spakest as a stupid ivoman speaks; (intensity).
 FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 141

heud gleapc spa iixdran, be wise as serpents ; leofre is hlehhan ponne

gr&tan, it is better to laugh
ft
than cry ; (cause efficient, motive, means, =
an apodosis], concession, purpose)
argument, condition [protasis to
:

kitpunrdd forpam God pilt, it thunders because God wills; paciad^for-

pam pe ge nyton pone dceg, watch, because ye know not the day ; On-
send Higeldce, gif mec hild nime, (protasis) if me battle take, (apodosis)
send to Higelac, etc. Co-existence is usually in an abridged participial
clause (^281).

284. A compound sentence is a number of co-ordinate

clauses. h.
§ 278,
Copulative : ic ga ut and ic geocie oxan, I go out and I yoke oxen.
Adversative :
fyr is god pcgn, ac is frecne frea, fire is a good servant,
hut is a bad master; ne nom he ma, Peak he monige geseah, he took no

more, though he saw many.

Disjunctive ic singe odde ic r&de, I sing or I read.
:

Causal forpy ge ne gehyrad, forjjam pe ge ne synd of Gode, therefore

:

not of God.
ye do not hear, {for this that) because ye are

FIGURES OF SYNTAX.
285. A complete sentence has every part of all its combina-
tions expressed.
A normal sentence is complete, and has its parts expressed
and arranged according to the general laws of the language.
Figures of Syntax are deviations from the normal sen-
tence.

I. Ellipsis, omission. This may be of a conjunction (asyn'deton), of

a word to have been repeated (brachyl'ogy), of a verb somewhat like one
in a corresponding clause (zeugma), of the latter part of a clause not to be
of other clauses (aposiope'sis). See
supplied from the corresponding part
also anacoluthon (below. III.).
II. Pleonasm, many words. There may be too many conjunctions
too

(polysyndeton), two nouns and a conjunction for a noun and attributive

(hendi'adis).
III. Enallage, substitution. Of one part of speech for another (anti-
of a different scheme of con-
meri'a), of one case for another (hypal'lage),
.struction for the one in which a sentence begins (anacolu'tliou). Syn'-
esis is a construction according to sense and not grammatical form.
lY. Hyper'baton, Of words (anas' trophe), of clauses
transposition.

(hys'teron-prot'eron).
 142 USES OF THE CASE-ENDINGS.

USES OF THE CASE-ENDINGS.

Substantives.
Agreement of Endings.
286. — I. Predicative Combination. —A predicate noim
deaotiug the same person or thing as its subject, agrees with it

in case.

(a.) Also in gender, if it varies for gender, and oftenest in number; but

copulate singulars and a plural agree ic eom

peg, I am the way (John,
:

xiv, 6) ; he is mm
sunn, he is my son (Luke, ix, 38) ; he and seo sind
freondds, he and she are friends. Nouns of multitude take Synesis.
{b.) The rule applies to quasi-predicatives (^ 278, d) : God het
pa fxst-
nisse heofenan, God called the Jirma7nent heaven (Gen., i, 8). But pred-
icate-accusative substantives are rare in Anglo-Saxon. The Latin and
Greek accusative + infinitive is generally represented by a clause with
pxt (that), and the factitive depends on to (to) or for, as does often the
common predicate :
J)u pyrcst pe to Gode, thou makest thyself (to) God
(John, X, 33) ; me p&ron mine tedrus for hldfds, to me my tears were
(for) bread (Psa., xlii, 3).

(c.) The rule is called for oftenest in clauses having the verb be
{eom,
pesan, beon), become {pcordan), stand, lie, etc. {standan, licgan, etc.), go,
remain {gdn, punian), seem, prove {pyncan, profian) and passives of ;

naming, calling {hdtan, nemnan), seeing, thinking, telling {seon, tellan),

making, appointing, choosing {macian, gcsceapan, gesettan, geberan, ge-
ceosan, etc.). The predicate noun is oftenest an adjective: pa bedmds d
grene stondad, the trees stand ever grceji (C. Ex., 200, 4) cnapa ltd ; mm
lama, my hoy lies lame (Matt., viii, 6); peos poruld puna.t gchdl, this world
remaineth ivhole (St. B., 14) me pxt riht ne p)ynced, to me that seems not
;

right (C, 289) pxs dxg genemned, light icas called day (C, 129)
; leoht ;

lytel he pies gesepen, he was seen (as) little (Horn., i, 138) he ptes blind ;

acenned, he was born blind (John, ix, 20) Saxulf pxs gecoren to biscop,
;

Saxulf it'as chosen (to) bishop (Chr., 656). See b.

287. — II. Attributive Combination. — Au appositive

agrees in case Avith its subject.
Often also in gender and number. It is an undeveloped adjective clause,
generally marked as such by tone and punctuation but in titles it some- ;

times makes with its subject a kind of compound noun in English (see be-
low, e) pe, cildra, we, (who are) children {JEM.) ; seo drpyrde f&mne
:

Ecgburh ahbodisse, Aldpulfes dohtor J)xs cyninges, sende pam drpyrdan

pere Gudldce leddene pruh, the venerable maid Ecgburh abbess, Aldvvulf's
daughter the king('s), sent to the venerable man Guthl^'c a leaden coffin
(St. G., 18) ; Dryhten sylf, heofend hcdhcyning, the Lord himself, heaven's
 APPOSITIVES. 143

high king (And., 6) ; pxs sum Jus scipes-man, pxs foresprecenan Adel-
baldes, there was one, his boatman, the aforesaid Athelbald's (St. G., 22) ;

freondscipe si betpux imc, mc and pe, friendship be betwixt us, mc and

thee (G., 31, 44) pid Blxdlan and Atlilan, Hand cyningum, against Bled-
;

la and Attila, kings of the Huns (Bed., 1,13); spa her men dod, geonge
and ealde, so here men do, young and old (C, 1206) hi pegniad, xlc, ;

odrum, they serve, each the others (Met., 25, 12). The appositive is some-
times

descriptive, giving kind, condition, etc., of its subject (cildra, abbodisse,

dohtor, cyninges, hedhcyning, scipes-man, etc., in examples above) ;
definitive, a specific name after a general description, very common in
Anglo-Saxon {Ecgburh, Gudldc, Adelbaldes), emphatic (sylf). {Repeat-
ed Subject. —
A pronoun-|-a name, and a name-j-a pronoun, where the
seeming attributive is really a repetition of the subject for clearer syntax,
are very common se Heelend, hefwste, the Saviour, he fasted, St. G., 9)
:
;

partitive, giving parts of whole {mc and pe, cyningum,

its subject, or its
geonge and ealde). Examples are introduced by spa spa (Latin wf, Ger-
man als) sume bead langspeoredc, spa spa spands, some (birds) are
:

long-necked, as swans (St. B., 14) ;

distributive {mlc).

Adjectives are often appositives {geonge and ealde), so pronouns.

{a.)
Sentences are often appositives, oftenest definitives beginning with
{b.)

pxt, after hit, pxt, ping, or the like indefinite subject 'pcet gelamp, pxt :

picr com sum man, it happened, that there came a man (St. G., 9) hit ;

(20) ; pmg (19).

(c.) Appositive for partitive genitive is found after sum: pa cp&don
sume pa bocerds, then quoth some (of) {the) scribes (Matt., ix, 3) sume, ;

hi comon, some (of them) they came (Mc, viii, 3). Rask gives tpcgcn
marc gold, two marks (uf) gold. I have not found such forms in Anglo-
Saxon but they are common in Old English, after the inflections had de-
;

cayed (Lang.,1, 174; Ch.,7328). So German masse geld, pfund Jleisch,

etc. The reverse, gold, two marhs, is in Sanskrit, and down to English.
{d.) Genitive for appositive of material or place ccaslra Natzarcdes :

for ceastre Nazareth, i. e. City of Nazareth := City Nazareth, i^

313.
(e.) Genitives in apposition all have their endings, where in Old English
all hut one drop it :
cyninges Aldpulfes dohtor, king('s) Aldwulf's daugh-
ter. See above.
(/.) An
appositive often fails to agree with its subject from anacoluthon :
mtnum hldforde
* * *
Alfpold cyning (nominative), to my lord King Alf-
—
wold (St. G., Pro].) se rica and se heuna * * * ealle hi gelice sc slranga
—
;

dead forgrlpcd, the rich and the poor (nominative) all these alike strong
death gripeth (St. G., 19).

{g.) Number. Note cyningum, selc, above. After a dual the name of
the second person used alone partitivcly pit Scilliiig soi^g dhofan, we,
is :

(T and) Scilling, raised a song (C. Ex., 324, 31) xinc Adamc, to us, (me ;
 U-1 NOMINATIVE.—VOCATIVE.

and) Adam (C, 387) ;git lohannis, ye, (thou and) John (C. Ex., 467, 7).
This idiom is found in O. H. German, is common in O. Norse.
(A.) Gender. Synesis. Substantives agree in natural rather than in
grammatical gender: JEIJhud., pxt maiden, A.\^c<\,i\\c maiden (Horn., ii, 150).

NOMIXATIVE.
288. Tlio subject of fi finite. verb is
put in the nomina-
tive.
JElfred cpsed, Alfred said ;
God is god, God is good.
{a.) Nominative independent. The subject of quasi-clauses of enun-
ciation is put in the nominative. Such are names and titles containing no
predicative combination :
pxt godspel wfter lohannes gerecednysse, the
Gospel according to John. Anacoluthon, ^ 387,/. Absolute, § 295.
{b.) Repeated subject. See ^ 287, definitive.
(c.) Predicate nominative. See ^ 286.
{d.) Attributive nominative. See ^ 287.
(c.) Factitive object. A nominative of enunciation is often used in-
stead of a factitive object after verbs of naming, calling, and the like
cly- :

pode God his gefylsta, he called God his ''helper'''' (Hom., 2, 82) ; hdtad
"
hine xfensiiorra, they call it evening star'"' (Met., 29, 30) ge clypiad me ;

"
Ldreop and Dryhten, ye call me Master" and " Lord" (John, xiii, 13).
This use of ihe. oratio dirccta is the common form in Sanskrit, and has
doubtless been common in all folkspeech. It is in the Greek of the Nevi^

Testament the Latin Vulgate in such cases uses the vocative, as does the
;

Greek sometimes. It is in the Gothic (O. H. German T) and M, H. Ger-

man. Compare ^^ 289, d ; 29 i.

Vocative.
289. A compellative is put in the vocative.
Ldreop, sege ponne. Lord, speak then (Luke, vii, 40) ed Id geonga, O ;

young man (Luke, vii, 14) Id pu licetere, thou hypocrite (Matt.,

;
vii,
5) hldford cyning, lord king (Ap., 7) Fxder iire, pu pe eart on heo-
; ;

fenum., our Father, thou that art in the heavens (Matt., vi, 9) rnin, ;

se spetesla sunnan scima, lulidna, my (the) sweetest sunshine, Juli-

ana (Ju., 166) ; Hcrra, se goda, Lord, the good (C. (G.), 678).

(a.) A compellativeis the subject of a

quasi-clause of address. The ad-
dress may be
formal, a simple call, or an emphatic judgment {pu licetere).
The vocative may have an interjection with it, or not it may enter into at- ;

tributive combination with adjectives, appositives, clauses, etc. Note the

use of an appositive with the definite article :
Herra, se goda ; min, se spe-
tesla ; and compare French Monseigneur Varchevesque, etc.

{h.) The weak form of the adjective is often used in the vocative without
a definitive :
leofa Beopulf, dear Beowulf (B., 1854).
 ACCUSATIVE.— IMPERSOXALS. 145

(c.) Latin vocatives are sometimes used :

Thaliarche, Apolloni (Ap., 5,

7,9).
{d.) Quasi-clause.
The vocative (with or without attributives) may en-

ter into combinations as a clause. It may be a direct object :

manige
cpedatl, Dryhten, Dryhten, many shall say, Lord, Lord (Matt., vii, 22) ;

factitive object :
hpi clypige ge me Dryhten, Dryhten, why call ye me
Lord, Lord? (Luke, vi, 46). Compare ^ 288, e.
(e.) native grammarians in Sanskrit do not separate the vocative
The
from the nominative, but think it a slightly modified form for address. Its
syntax is nearly the same in all our languages.

Accusative.
290. Objective Combinations.
—L The direct object
of a verb is put in the accusative. It may be
L A material object moved, hit, or changed, or produced as an effect,
by a transitive verb pone maddum hyred, he bears the treasure (B.,
:

2055) stormus stdnchfu beutan, storms beat cliffs (Seaf., 23) ; ic

;

dhyrde heortan, I will harden his heart (Exod., iv, 21) scip pyrcan, ;

to build a ship (C, 1302). {Madm^ maddum, Orm. maddmess.)

Persons and abstractions may also be conceived as material objects
(a.)
of act or thought se pxt picg byrd, he whom that horse bears (El., 1196)
: ;

ic bere dryhtnes domds, I bear the lord's commands (D., 744).

(b.) Transitive
verbs express an exercise of the appetites (eat, drink,

etc.), the senses (see, hear, etc.), the sensibilities (love, hate, etc.), the in-
tellect (know, think, etc.) movements moving an object, or keeping it
;
—
from moving (set, lay, raise, carry, heave, have, hold, marry, catch, take,
call forth, send forth, speak, etc.), hitting or moving
give, lead, throw, drive,
towards it (strike, follow, etc.), changing its form or condition (break, tear,

harden, cover, sprinkle, etc.), making an object (do, make, work, build, etc.),
causative acts. Verbs expressing these notions as affecting the whole of a
material object govern the accusative throughout the Indo-European tongues.

(c.) Persons may

be conceived as suffering objects of their appetites.

Impersonals of aiopetite or passio7i govern an accusative

of the person suffering.
Me pyrste, it thirsted me = I suffered thirst (Matt., xxv, 35); me hin-

grede, I suffered hunger (Matt., xxv, 35) ;

hine lystc, it listed him==
he suffered list (B., 1793) ;
mcc longdde, I longed (Kl., 14) me apryt, ;

it irks me, dpreotan pegn (Sch.,21) ; us pldtad,v.-e loathe (Num., 21, 5).
So hreopan, rue (C, 1276) gcmsktan, dream (D., 122) eglian, ail (?)
; ;

(Bosworth, Ett. their example a mistake) tinclan, tickle (?), it tikclcth ;

me (Chaucer, C. T., 6053). Koch says passives of these impersonals

take an accusative so Grcin, his mandryhten (ace.) gemxted peard
;

K
140 KEFLEXIVES.— COGNATES.—TWO OBJECTS.
" his lord
(D., 157) ;
but dryhtcn is nom., (was) had dreamed ;" so pxs
inonig gdystcd (Met., 1,U) ic pxs ofpyrsted (Seel., 40) ; ; ic eom of-

longdd (Kl.,29) ; no accusatives found.

{d.) Reflexives. —Many verbs may take an accusative of the reflexive pro-
noun : hine sylfm dhcng, he hung himself (Matt., xxvii, 5) ; dpende hine
sylfne to Gode, he
turned himself to God (Chr., 1067). Sylf, self, is not fre-
quent in early Anglo-Saxon. Some verbs get to have a reflexive sense
without the pronoun he gebcalh hine, he swelled himself
: = he was wrathful
(Luc, XV, 28) ge belgad, ye are wrathful (John, vii, 23)
; ;
he hcpohle hine,
he bethought him (Luc, xv, 17) ; gxst hine fysed, the spirit hastens (it-

self) (Ex., 178, 7) ; ic me reste, I rest me (Ex., 494, 8) ;

resle pict folc hit,
the people rested (itself) (Exod., xvi, 30) gegadorode miccl folc hit, ;

much people gathered itself (Chr., 921) parniad evp, beware (yourself) ;

(Matt., vii, 15) pene pec, wont thee (Fath., G2)

;
se H&lend bcpende ;

ilnnc), the Saviour went (him) (Matt., ix, 22; Mc, v, 30). In Sanskrit
the reflexive is incorporated with the verb, and makes a middle voice (§ 150,
a). So in Greek, but not in Latin. Traces of the middle are found in
Gothic, but in the main it and the other Teutonic tongues work like the An-
slo-Saxon. Intransitives take a dative reflexive, as do some of the above
sometimes. See § 298, c.

291. —n. A definitive object repeating more specifically the notion

of the verb :
(cognate accusative), dcniad rihtne dam, judge righteous
judgment (John, vii., 24) ; (more specific), sang hildeleod, it
sang a
war-song (Jud., 211).
(a.) The verb may be transitive or intransitive.
{b.) The simple cognate alone is tautological. An adjective + definitive
= adverb. The transition from the
cognate is easy, and is al- effect to the

ready made in Sanskrit. The definitive has a widely extended use in Greek,
and in German and English is co-ordinate in importance with the material
object.

292. Double Object. — Some verbs of asking and teach-

ing may have two accusatives, one of a person and the other
of a thing.

(a.) SoSanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, 0. H. German, etc

in

{b.) Asking.Verbs of asking may have the second object cognate (ask
him questions), exciting (ask him z. favor) or (ask him about Vishnu). The
third form is the common one in Sanskrit the first and second in Greek, ;

Latin, O. H. German :
hig hine ne dorston eenig ping dcsian, they durst not
ask him any question (Luke, xx, 40) ; hig hine pxt bigspel dcsodon, they
asked him about the parable (Mc, iv, 10) hi hine bissen gefrugnum
;

(same, vii, 17, Northumbrian) spa hpxt spa heo hine bebde, whatever favor
;

she might ask him (Matt., xiv, 7). This construction is rare in Anglo-
 SUBJECT ACCUSATIVE.—FACTITIVES. I47

Saxon; generally we have accusative of person-}- genitive of thing (+ da-

tive of person for whom) or (2d) ace. of pers. -|- infinitive (or clause)
; ;
or
(3d) ace. of pers. -\-ymbe, be, softer (concerning), and an ace. of thing ; or
(4th) the person follows to or !Bt, the thing is an ace. or gen.
'

(c.) Teach is a causative of /earre in Sanskrit {^jA/a^'a. Causatives gov-

ern an accusative -|- the case of the included verb ne meahton pe gel&ran
:

Icofne peoden ried ienigne, we might not teach the dear lord any counsel
(B., 3079). Txcan, teach, takes the accusative of thing -j- dative of person.
{d.) The passives seem not to take an accusative in Anglo-Saxon, as they
do in Greek, Latin, English, etc.

293. Quasi-predicative Combinations. — I. The sub-

ject of an infinitive is put in the accusative.

Secgnd hine libban, they say that he lives (Luke, xxiv, 23) ;

geseah stream ut brecan, he saw a stream break out (B., 2546).

(a.) This accusative is grammatically the object of the preceding verb;
but after verbs oi perceiving and declaring, ivishing and expressing a wish,
and some others, the logical object is the infinitive clause, and grammarians
use this rule. Cases to which it applies are not found in Sanskrit, have a
wide range in Greek and Latin, are rare in Anglo-Saxon. See § 286, b.

294. — A
predicate noun denoting the same person or thing as
II. its

subject agrees with it in case (^ 286) pc pitun pi bilepitne pcsan,

:
we
know thee to be gentle (^Elfc). Under this rule come some

Factitives. — («.) Some verbs of making, naming, re-

garding may have Um accusatives of the same person or thing.
He his englds did sedele gdstas, he makes noble souls his angels (Psa.,
ciii, 5) ; pa per as Eufrdlin nemnad, the river, which men
seo ea,
name Euphrates (C, 234); tocneopon Crist sodne man, they recog-
nized Christ as a true man (Horn., i, 106) hi hine purdodon sodne God,
;

they worshipped him as true God (Hom.,i, 108).

(b.) Verbs of making, naming, regarding, perceiving, finding, having, leav-

ing, and the like, may take an accusative adjective as a factitive object.
For Anglo-Saxon verbs, see passives in ^ 286, c.
(c.) Verbs of making (choosing, etc.) in Sanskrit may have two accu-
satives, but usually the factitive is a locative. So in Anglo-Saxon it is usu-
ally construed with to or for. See ^ 286, b.
(d.) Verbs of naming. See ^ 288, e.
(e.) Verbs of regarding have two accusatives in Sanskrit and after.

(/•) When the factitive is in the accusative, it is drawn into agreement

with its quasi-subject, the direct object of the verb.
148 DATIVE.— OBJECTIVE COMBINATIONS.

295. Adverbial Combinations. — The extent of time

and space is put iu the accusative after verbs.

(a.) So in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, etc.

H,vfdon sumne dM pegcs gefarcn, they had gone some part of the way
(Gen., xliv, 4) ealle niht spmcende, all night toiling (Luc, v, 5).
;

{b.) Excess of measure (dative) dnne stwpefurdor, one step further (Jos.,
:

X, 12) ;
—
instrument: grws ungrene, not green with grass (C, 117, 812) ;
—
absolute dag scridende, day dawning (Gu., 1011 ; C, 183, nom. abs. ?), ^
:

304, d. Milton's me overthrown (Sam. Ag.,463) is classic affectation.

(c.) The accusative used with prepositions to denote an

is

object towards which, or to, on, or over which an action

extends. For examples, see Prepositions.

Dative.
296. The dative in Anglo-Saxon denotes relations of four old
cases :

1. Dative, the person to whom something is given, or for whom some-

thing is or is done.
2. Instnimental, that with which an act is done or associated.
3. Ablative, that from which something is separated or distinguished.
4. Locative, the time or place in which.

Objective Combinatio7is.
297. An object of influence or interest is put in the da-
tive.
I. Object of Influence, the person to whom something is given. The
giving may be figurative material objects or abstractions may be con-
;

ceived as persons. The object given may be expressed as an accusa-

tive, or implied in the governing word.

(a.) This dative is oftenest found after verbs of

giving (paying, offering, loaning, etc.) : ealle pas ic sylle J)e, all these I

give thee (Matt., iv, 9); so gifan, foigifan, li&nan, lednian, dgyldan,

geunnan, tidian, ordthan, pi/rnan, forpyrnan, etc. ;

address = giving words (say, bid, forbid, answer, thank, chide, judge, prom-
ise, advise, etc.) : ic secge pe, I say to thee (Matt., xvi, 18) ;
so cydan,

hebeodan, comma,n(\, f
or beodan, ansparian, pancian, cidan, deman, rsedan;
gesture :
bedcnian,hec]ion, bugan, bow, hnigan, lutan, stupian, odypan, etc. ;
obeying = giving thought (listen to, obey, follow, etc.) :
hig hlyston him,
let them listen to them (Luc, xvi, 29) ; that which is obeyed is often
conceived as personal : minum Idrum hyre, hear to my precepts (C, 105,
8); so gehyrsumian,fylgian,heorcnian. So exciting thought (seeming.
 DOUBLE OBJECT. 149

etc.) :
pyncd, it seems to many a man (Boet., 29, 1) me
manegum men ;

pyncd, methinks (Boat., 33, 1), etc.

giving feeling (pity, mourn, honor, trust, etc.) gemiltsd minum sund, :

(give) (to) my son (Matt.,

pity xvii, 14) dr a pinum feeder, (give) honor ;

so besdrgian, treopian, treopsian, gely-

(to) thy father (^^If. L., 1, 4) ;

fan. Here also giving ^exciting (please, soothe, still, etc.) pam folce :

gecpeman, to please the people (Mc, xv, 15); so stillan, oleccan, and

impersonals : him ne sceamode, it did not shame him (Gen., ii., 25) ;

ofpuhte (Sat., 247) ; langad (B., 1879), etc.

giving aid (help, serve, defend, injure, etc.) :
pu monegum helpst, thou

helpest many (Hy., vii, 44) ;

heo him penode, she ministered to them (Mc,
i, 31); so fremian, peopian, derian, fylstan, styran, chastise, etc.: hi

dydan, they did me woe (Psa., cxviii, 138) ; do pel pdm, do

me pa well
to those (Psa., cxxiv, 4).

(5.) Adjectives of the above senses, especially of thought and feeling:

dnum gehyrsum, obedient to one (Matt., vi, 24) getrype hldforde minum, ;

true to my lord (^Ifrc) pam bisceope cud, known to the bishop (John, xviii,
;

15) leof Gode, dear to God (C, xvi, 17) fremde, strange (B., 1691).
; ;

'
(c.) Some of these words may take
a genitive of the non-personal ob-

ject :
hlyst his pordd, listen to his words (Nic, 3) ; or even of a personal
object ;
so helpan, gelyfan, pidsacan, pancian, treopian, miltsian, gefeon,
sceamian, etc. See under Genitive. The notion of the verb may be con-
ceived as given to the object, or as had as belonging to, or excited by
him, e. g. confidence to him (dative) or have confidence in
gelyfan=give
him (genitive) helpan=give
; help to him or be his help. In Sanskrit the

genitive may be used for most datives of this kind. The early Greek has
much of the same freedom. The Latin is more fixed than the Gothic, O.

II. German, or Anglo-Saxon.

{(I) Double Object.—

Verbs of granting, refusing, and
thanking may take a dative ami genitive.
Ic fcores pe unnan pille, I will grant (to) thee (of) life (Ex., 254, 4) so ;

onlihan, pyrnan, tldian ; me pxs forpyrnde

paldend, the lord refused
me that (C, 2219) pancian his dryhtne pxs lednes, to thank his lord
;

for the gift (C, 257). See under Genitive.

298. — II. Object of Interest, the person for whom something is or is

done.

(a.) advantage or disadvantage (verbs) bxd him hldfds

Dative of :

pyrcan, bade make loaves for

him (Sat., 673) polde hire bur dtimbran, ;

wished to build a bower /or herself (R., 30, 5) him hedhcymng pif dpeahle, ;

a wife raised up (C, 172) (adjectives)

for him (Adam) the high king
:
;

betcre an limd it is better for thee that one of

Pe is pxt Jnnrd forpeorde,
it would be better for
thy limbs perish (Matt., v, 29) n7jttre him p&re, ;

him (Luc, xvii, 2).

150 ASSOCIATION.— MASTERY.

(i.) Dative of Possessor: him pxs gcpcald, to him was (=hc had)
power (Cri., 228) ; pxin nc byd nuncs godes pana, to them is lack of no
good (Psa., xxxiii, 9) Gode si puldor, to God be glory (Luc, ii, 14) pd
; ;

byd pam, woe is to him (Ex., 414, 25) so after interjections pd pdm :
;

men, woe to the man (Matt., xviii, 7) pel pierc hcordc, well for the herd ;

(LctT. Cnut., ii, 84, 2).

A favorite in Greek and Latin not so in Teutonic. ;

The Sanskrit thus uses a genitive. second dative takes a preposition.A

(c.) Reflexive,
after verbs meaning take nim Jjc pis ofiet on hand, :

takc/tir thcc this fruit in

hand (C, 518) ; be, remain, etc. :
pubron him on
Cent, they were for themselves in Kent (Chr., 1009) beod eop stille, be
;

still for yourselves (Exod., xiv, 14) ;

so stod, stood (Gen., xviii, 8) ; sxt,
sat (Gen., xxi, 16), etc. ; move, go, etc. :
gcpdl him, he departed /o?- Am-
sclf=^\\Q was off with himself (C, 2884); so cyrde (Chr., lOlG) ferde ;

(1009) trxd (B., 1881)

; ; gd (An., 1350) hpearf (C, 447) sometimes
; ;

pende (Chr., 1016 ^ 290, d) ; ; fear, etc. : ondrcd he him, he feared for
himself (John, xix, 8) so with pile, wish (Ex., 450, 18) piste, knew (C,
; ;

445) hleodrede
; (Ex., 185, 3) hxfde, had gelyfed, believeth
; peaxan, ; ;

grow, etc. (Grein, s. v.). These are substitutes for the middle voice. See
\ 290, d. Many of them resemble the ethical dative. Most would be ex-
pletive in English.

299. Association. —Words of nearness and likeness

govern the dative.
He pam huse genedhlxhte, he came near to the house (Luc, xv, 25) ;

pdm leohtum steorriun, like the bright stars (C, 17, 7).
gelic

(a.) Here belong some words of meeting, association, contention, and the
like ;
of bringing near, receiving, touch of imitation, agreement, etc. ;
:

geefenlsecan, pidstandan, forstandan, pidpinnan, tidan, hrinan, onfon;

impersouals hit licode He'rode, it was suited to Herod (Matt., xiv, 6)
:
;

so becyme, becometh (Mc. (D.), xiv, 31) ; gedafenad (Luc, iv, 43) ;

gerised (Ex., 1, 5) ; gebyrad (John, x, 13).

(5.)This relation takes the instrumental (or genitive, nearness sometimes

the locative) in Sanskrit the dative in Greek, Latin, Gothic, etc.
;
Some
of the words may govern in other relations an accusative, genitive, or in-
strumental :
hrinan, onfon.

300. Mastery (use).

— The instrumental or dative may
denote an object of mastery:
pdm p&pnum pealdan, to have power over the weapons (B., 2038) ;

py ponge pealdan, to have the mastery of the field (Guth., 674) ;

peold Hunum, ruled the Huns (Wid., 18) py rice r&dan, to rule the ;

realm (Dan., 8, 688). Ruling may be conceived as transitive, or as

giving law or direction to a dative, or as being master of a genitive,
or as being strong by means of an instrumental: /ea/<fflra> English
 ADVEREIxVL COMBINATIONS.— INSTRUMENTALS. 151

wield governs the dative in Gothic and O. Norse, the genitive in O. H.

German, in Anglo-Saxon, like Latin potior, the ace., gen. (dat.), instr. ;

rwdan governs the gen. in 0. Saxon and M. H. German, in Anglo-Saxon

often the instrumental or dative, the dative elsewhere brucaii (Lat. ;

fruor), use (Bed., 4, 19) neutan, use (An., 811), take the ace, gen.,
;

instr., dat.

301. Separation.
— Some verbs of separation may take
an object from which in the dative or instrumental.
(a.) Transitive
verbs of this kind take an accusative +a dative: mec
bescyrede eallum, he deprived
me of all (Rid., 41, 101) ; passive scyl-:

dum bescyredne, deprived of shields (Mod., 8) ; + instrumental hi rihte

:

bcnxman, to rob them of their right (C, 129, 32) ; hine heafde becearf, he

cut him off from his head (B., 1590) ; bed&lan, deprive (B.,721).
(b.) Intransitives feondum odfaren hxfdon, they had escaped the
: hi

fiends (Exod.,64). So adjectives drihtnefrem.de, far from God (C, 105).

:

(c.) The old case

here is the ablative, which is retained in Latin. The
Greek uses the genitive. The Anglo-Saxon has oftenest the genitive,' then
the instrumental, sometimes a dative.

Adverbial Combinations.

302. —Instrumentals. (a.) The instrumental or da-

I.
—
tive may instrument, means, manner, or cause
denote :

spebban speorde, to kill with

sword (B., G79) edgum geseah, saw with ;

eyes (C, 51, 2) pordum herian, to praise with words (C, 1, 4)

; ;

cognate of manner gefullode pam fulluhte, baptized in the baptism

:

(that I am) (Mc, x, 39) lustfulUan pxs biscopes pordum, to rejoice

;

because of the bishop's words (Bed., 2, 9) adjectives fedrum snell, ;

:

swift with wings (Ex., 206, 7) ancrum fxste, fast by means of an-
;

chors (El., 252) ; fedrum strong, strong in respect of wings (Ex.,

203,18); mundum fre6rig,ixeezmg in my hands (An., 491). Greek
dative, Latin ablative represent these old instrumentals.

(J.) Dative of the Agent. Passive verbs take the agent with a prep-
osition{fram, purh, etc.) fram miniim fxder, given by my fa-
:
gescaldc
ther (Matt., xi, 27) gecpeden purh pone pitegan (ace), spoken by the
;

prophet (Matt., iii., 3).

The dative after some verbals might be put here :

Gode sind mihtelice pa ping, to God the things are possible (Luc, xviii, 27).
Sanskrit here uses the instrumental regularly Greek often, Latin some- ;

times, a dative without a preposition.

(c.)
The instrumental or dative may denote price:
dnum prnningc gcboht, bought witli one penny (Matt. (D.), x, 29) ;
usu-

ally after pid or to, or a genitive.

152 DATIVE.—ADVERBIAL.

(d.) The instrumental or dative may denote measure of

difference :

sponne lengra pxre pryhy longer than the coffin hy a span (Bed., 4, 11) ;

miclc md sccdpc bctera, better than r. sheep by much more (Matt., xii,
12) ;
so micclum (Greg.) ;
micclre (Bed., iv, 13).

(e.) The instrumental or dative may denote an object

sworn by :

mec pine life hedlsode, he swore me by thy life (B., 2131) ; oftenest after
purh or for.

303. — II. Ablatives. —The comparative degree may gov-

ern a dative.
Mara lohanne fulluhtere, greater than John the Baptist (Matt., xi, 11) ;
hetera manegum spearpum, better than many sparrows (Luc., xii, 7).
The nominative, with ponne, than, is more common. The instrumental
is found. The Sanskrit uses the ablative, sometimes the instrumental ;

the Greek the genitive ;

the Latin the ablative ; other Teutonic tongues
are like Anglo-Saxon.

304. — III. Locatives. — («.) The dative may denote time

when or place where.
Odrum daege hine hyngrode, the second day he hungered (Mc, xi, 12) ;

pam priddan dxge he drist, the third day he arises (Matt., xx, 19) ;

so instrumental: py syxtan monde, on the sixth month (Bed., i, 3).

{b.) It may denote a repetition of times : on dxg seofen sidum syngad,

sinneth seven times a day (Luc, xvii, 4).

(c.) The dative of place takes a preposition.

Quasi-predicative Combination.

{d.) Dative absolute.— A substantive and participle in

the dative may make an adverbial clause of time, cause,
or coexistence (§ 278, (Z, § 295, b, time with be, bi,
§ 334).
Him spreccndum, hig comon, they came, while he was speaking (Mc, v,
35) ; pinre dura belocenre, bide, thy door having been locked, pray
(Matt., vi, G), so still a dative in WyclifFe. Sanskrit uses thus
different cases to denote different relations ;
the locative is the most
common. The Greek has the genitive oftenest; the Latin the abla-
tive. The Teutonic languages use this construction seldom. Time
when, not absolute, is put in tlie dative in Greek.

.305. With
Prepositions. The dative with a preposi- —
tion may denote an object of influence or interest, asso-
 INSTRUMENTAL.— GENITIVE. 153

elation, mastery, or separation ;

or an instrumental,
ablative, or locative adverbial relation. For examples, see
Prepositions.
Insteumental.
306.— I. The Proper Instrumental. See §§ 299, 300, 302.
The plural instrumental endings are lost wholly, the singular nearly.
The dative generally takes their place. The surviving endings are found
sometimes in ablative and locative uses. They are lost also in Greek and
Latin (^^ 302, 70, a). O. H. German and O. Saxon have a few singular
examples, Gothic only pronouns.

307.— II. Ablative uses. See §§ 301, 303.

308. — III. Locative uses. See § 304.

Genitive.
309. The Anglo-Saxon genitive denotes relations of four old
cases :

1. The genitive, the possessor and personal adjunct.

2. The ablative, that from which any thing is separated.
3. The instrumental, by which any thing is or is done.
4. The locative, the time or place in which. The genitive is already
in the Sanskrit loosely used for all the other oblique cases.

Attributive Combinations.

310. — I. Possessive. —An attributive genitive may de-

dote the possessor or author of its siibject.

The subject may be

material wealth : his speorde, his sword (Mc, xiv, 47) ;

quality :
enghs hip, angel's beauty (Jul., 244) ;

persons had or related Godes pcopas, God's servants (LL. In., 1)

:
Of- ;

fan dohtor, Offa's daughter (Chr., 787) Ines irodor, Ine's brother (Chr., ;

718) ofBcers Cantpard cyning, Kentish men's king (Chr., 827).

;
:

Any thing conceived as belonging to another Apollonies hand, Apollonius' :

hand (Ap., 21) pdrd apostold Idre, the apostles' lore (Bed., 4, 25) ; JElf-
;

rcdcs domds, Alfred's laws ; huscs duru, house's door (St. G., 1).

311. — 11. An attributive genitive may denote the sub-

ject or object of a verbal.

Subjective genitive Godes gife, God's gift (LL. In., Prcam.) tpegrd
:
;

mannd gcpilncs, two men's testimony (John, viii, 17) cyninges hies, ;

king's command (C, 8, 14).

15-i GENITIVE— PAKTITIVE, CHARACTERISTIC.

Objective genitive: Godes egsa, fear of God (Ex., 244, 30) synnd ;

forgifcnnes, forgiveness of sins (Matt., xxvi, 28) huntunge hcorta, ;

hunting of harts (Bed., 1, 1).

312. —
Partitive. III. —An attributive genitive may de-
note the whole of which its subject is part.
Se norddi&l middangeardes, the north part of the earrth (Bed., 1, 1) ;

reste dxges wfene, the evening of the Sabbath (Matt., xxviii, 1).
{a.) The subject a pronoun hpxt godes do ic, what of good do 1 1
:

(iMatt., xix, 10) /ij'ivt pcorccs, what sort

;
of work (^If.) so hpxder, hpylc, ;

cal, sum, ivlc, gehpd, gchpylc, dinig,piht, ndht, etc. ;

—pair, adv. (C, 284, 24).
{h.) The subject a numeral : an his cnihld, one of his disciples (Luc,
xi, 1) ;
iiifcsl ealrd, first of all (C, 4, 32). Compare d, below.

(c.) The subject a superlative : sAdd hcst, least of seeds (Matt., xiii,

32) ;
husd houses (B., 146). Very common is ealra-\-a su-
sclcst, best of
of all, etc., whence old English aWerfirst,
perlative; ealrd rtcost, richest
aZt?erliefest, etc. (Ch. Sh.).

(d.) The subject an aggregation

or measure of objects or material :

mycele 7nanegeofiid, a great crowd of fishes (Luc, v, 6) heard spijnd, herd ;

of swine (viii, 32) hund mittend hp&tes, a hundred of measures of wheat

;

(xvi, 7) ; pusend pundd goldes, a thousand of pounds of gold (LL. ^thd.,

II, 7, 2). This should be distinguished from the characteristic genitive of
material (^ 313, b). This is very common, that rare ; this is Sanskrit gen.

(e.) A
genitive may denote the eminence of its subject : cy-
cognate
ningd cyning, king of kings (Ex., 9, 17) drcdmd dream, joy of joys (30, ;

22) heofond heofonds, heaven of heavens (Psa., cxlviii, 4)

;
and so abun- ;

dantly in Anglo-Saxon, 0. Norse.

313. — IV.
Characteristic. — An attributive genitive
may denote a characteristic of its subject.

In Sanskrit a characteristic takes the instrumental, in Greek (rare) the

genitive, in Latin (frequent) the ablative or genitive.

{a.) Quality fcgeres hipes men, men of fair aspect (Horn., ii, 120).
:

(6.) Material: scennum sciran goldes, patens of pure gold (B., 1694) ;

rare : material as characteristic is almost always expressed by an adjective

{gylden, golden), or a compound {goldfwt. gold vessel), or a preposition

{reuf of h&rum, garment of hair (Matt., iii, 4)). Compare ^ 312, d.
(c.) Age lamb dnes gedres, lamb of one year (Horn., ii, 262).
:

(d.) Sizefen unmsitre mycelncsse, fen of immense size (St. G., 3)

: ;

so -weight, value, and the like: pencgd peorde, pennies-worth (John,vi, 7).
(c.) Name hit ofetes noman dgan sccolde, it the name (of) apple must
:

have (C, 719) he forleort ceastra Natzaredes, he left the city (of) Naza-
;

reth (Northumbrian Matt., iv, 13). The West Saxon uses the appositive
Nazarcd. Bntene igland, island (of) Britain (Chr., 1 Bed., 1), is doubt- ;
 PREDICATIVE— EXCITING OBJECT. 155

fill. The Greek and Latin used this genitive sometimes, the French often,
and it became common in Semi-Saxon.

Predicative Combinations.
314. A predicate substantive may be put iu the genitive
to denote a possessor or characteristic of the subject, or
a whole of wliicli it is part.
Possessor: Dryhtnes sind pa rtcu, the kingdoms are the Lord's (Psa.,
xxi, 26) ge Cristes sind, ye are Christ's (Mc, ix, 41). Character-
;

istic pa pseron ongrisliccs andplitan, they were of grisly counte-

:

nance (Bed., 5, 13) he pxs scearpre gleapnesse, he was of sharp

;

wit (5, 19) seo pass micelre br&do, it was of great breadth (5, 12)
; ;

he lifes p&.re, (if) he were (of life) alive (LL. ^thd., H, 9, 3) he ;

X
pintrd ste, he may be of ten years (LL. H. & Ed., 6). Partitive se :

abbot pass goderd manna, the abbot was of good men (Chr., 1066).

(a.) The predicate genitive may be used perhaps in all the relations of
the attributive genitive. Compare the Latin and Greek Grammars (Had-
ley, 57-2).
(b.) Quasi-predicative. The genitive may be used for a predicate-
accusative adjective (^ 294) Hig gesdpon pone sittan gescrydne and hales
:

modes, they saw him sit clothed and of sound mind (Mc, v, 15).

Objective Combinations.
These are mostly secondary, either abridged or acquired. In most of
them one of the common relations of the attributive genitive may be con-
ceived between the genitive and the notion of the verb or adjective with
which it combines: he fears i7 =
he has /car of it ; he remembers it ^ho
has remembrance of it.

315. Exciting Object. —The genitive may denote an ex-

citing object.
That which suggests or excites a mental state or an act is its exciting
object. The most common states or acts taking this object are

L Feelings —joy, sorrow, pride, shame, longing, love, hope, fear, care, won-
der, etc. Verbs: peodncs gefegon, they joyed in the lord (B., 1627);
mordres gylped, he exults at murder (B., 2055) ; piire fcohgiflc scami-
gan, to be ashamed of the gift (B., 1026) ;
gilpes pu girncst, thou yearn-
fame (Boeth., 32)
est for ondrcd he pa-s, he feared that (John, xix, 8)
; ;

pibpna nc reccd, he recks not of weapons (B., 434) pxmdrigc fullcs mo- ;

nan, wonder at the full moon (Met., 28, 40) so begym (Luc, x, 35) ; ;

pilnian (An., 1130); pyscad (Guth., 194), and see § 297, c. Adjec-
tives frgcn sides, glad of the journey (An., 1013) sides pcrig, weary
:
;

of the journey (B., 579) godes gr&dig, greedy of good (Sol., 344).
;
156 GENITIVE— rAllTITIVE.— SEPARATION.
II. Intellectual states —remember, forget, think of, listen, ete. Verbs :

gcmun pines pordes, remember thy word (Psa., cxviii, 49); Godes hi
forgcdton, thoy forgot God (Psa., cv, 18); Jwncc pe nuncs yfcles, we
think no evil (Gen., xhi, ;J1) hlyst his pordci, listen to his words (Nic.,
;

3).Adjectives gcmyndige Lodes pifcs, mindful of Lot's wife (Luc,

:

xvii, 31) iinpis pxs nainan, ignorant of the name (Bed., 4, 13).
;

III. Acts related with such states of mind —

laugh, pray, help, try, watch,
remind, etc. :
pif dhluh dnhlncs, the woman laughed at the lord (C.,
p:i't

2380); jlxsces hi babdon, they prayed for flesh (Psa., civ, 35); Itdan
pines iftci/mcs, watch for thy return (Ex., 466, 33) help mm, me ;
help
(Psa., Ix, 1) ; llpi fandige ge min, why tempt ye me? (Matt., xxii, 19) ;

min cos lude, tried after me (B.,2084). Adjectives: gcaro (Jul., 49).
(a.) Verbs of asking, accusing, reminding may take an
accusative and genitive (§§ 292, 297, a) :

pe hiddan dure bene, to ask thee of one thing (B., 427) dcsian (Bed., 4, ;

3); tyhd me untreopdd, accuseth me of untruths (C, 36, 33); usic

pdrd lednd gcmonian, to remind us of the loans (Ex., 333, 19).

(5.) Verbs
of granting, refusing, and thanking may take
a dative and genitive. See § 297, d.
(c.) Impersonals may take a genitive and an accusative or dative
of the person excited : hme ietes lysted, he longs for food, ^ 290, c (Wal.,
52) ; him pxs ne sceamode, it did not shame him of that, ^ 297, a (Gen.,

ii, 25).
{d.) Reflexives may take the reflexive pronoun and a genitive on- :

dred he him pxs, he dreaded (him) of that (John, xix, 8).

(e.) In Sanskrit the exciting object is regularly an ablative, but many of
the verb notions here specified already take a genitive in Greek the
geni- ;

tive is established, in Latin frequent in Teutonic, genitives, datives (instru-

;

mentals), and accusatives combine often with the same verb,

316. Partitive. — The genitive may denote an object af-

fected in part.
After verbs of sharing and touch gcnam pxs ofxtes, he took of the :

fruit (C, 493) wt pisses ofxtes, he ate of this fruit (C., 500, 564) pxs
; ;

pxstmes onbdt, bit of the fruit (C., 470) ic hxbbe his her, I have (some);

of it (the fruit) here (C, 678); his hrtnan, to take hold of it (C., 616);

pxpnd onfon, to take hold of weapons (C, 2040). So in other languages.

In the Romanic tongues, and sometimes in Anglo-Saxon, a preposition is
used. See of.

"17. Separation (ablative).

—The genitive may denote an
object of separation. (Conii)are § 301.)
(rt.) Many transitive verbs of separation take an accusative of the
 RULE.—MATERLU..—MEASURE.—ADJUXCT. 157

benwman Crist rices, to deprive Christ of the

person and a genitive
:

rob him of his

kingdom (C.,286, 3) fata hine bereafian, ; goods (Matt., xii,
29) hine
; ganges getpseman, to hinder him from flight (B., 967) getp&- ;

fed (B., 1763) ged&nsa (Ps. C, 112) berxdde (An., 1328). ;

[b.) Intransitives
;

—
cease, need, miss, etc. God gespdc his peorces, :

God ceased from his work (Gen., ii, 3) ealdres linnan, to be deprived of
;

beho-
life (B., 2443) pinga bepurfon, have need of things (Matt., vi, 32)
;
;

fatt (Bed., 4, 23) miste mercelses, missed the mark (B., 2439) ; pacs sodes
;

ansaced, deviate from the truth (Sol., 182). Adjectives: buendrd leas,
clean of crime (Ex., 276, 13);
empty of inhabitants (C.,6, 16) fdcnes cMne, ;

dnes pana fiftig, fifty less one (An., 1042) bed&led, p. p. (C, 276, 9). ;

Supremacy. —The genitive may

318. denote an object of

supremacy or use.
God pealded manna ct/nnes, God rules the race of men (Psa., Iviii, 13).

See § 300.

319. Material.— The genitive or instrumental may de-

note the material of Avhich any thing is made or full. Com-
pare § 302, a.

Pietfxt leddes gefylde, filled the vessel with lead (Ex., 277, 10) ofx- ;

ies gehlxdene, laden with fruit (C, 461) peos eordc is berende fuge- ;

Id, the land is full (bearing) of birds (Bed., 1, 1) adjectives fxtful :

;

ecedes, vessel full of vinegar (John, xix, 29) ; gdste (Luc, iv, 1).

(a.) The material after a verb of making takes a preposition. ^ 294, c.

(b.) The material is put in the genitive in some other relations. ^ 324.

320. —
Measure- The genitive in combination Avith acljec-

tives may denote measure. Compare §§ 295, 302.

(a.) Space, dimension fifliges fot-gemearces lang, fifty paces long
:

(B., 3043) fiftend monnes elnd deop, fifteen man's ells deep (C, 1397).
;

{b.) Time he pxs hundnigontiges pintrd eald, he was (of) ninety (of)
:

winters old (Bed., 3, 27) oftenest English {twelve) years old

;
is in Anglo-
Saxon a compound adjective (tpelf) pintre (Luc.,ii, 42 viii,42 ; ; Gen., v,6).
(c.)
six peiiingd pyrde, sixpence worth (Rask)
Price, value : is pyrde ;

his mctcs, worthy of his meat (Matt., x, 10). Compare ^^ 302, 313, d.
is

(d.) Crime mordrcs scyldig, guilty of murder (B., 1083) deddes scyl-
: ;

dig, deserving of death (Matt., xxvi, 66).

Also dative and instrumental.

—
Adjunct. The genitive in combination with adjec-
321.
tives may denote the jxi^'^ oi' rekitio?i in w^hich tlie quality is
conceived.
Modes bltde, blithe of mind (B., 430) mcrgcnes streng, strong of might
;

(B., 1844). For instrumentals, see ^ 302.

158 GENITIVE—ADVERBIAL.— niEPOSITIONS.

Adverbial Combinations.
IMost examples are relics of the time when the genitive was more freely
used in the adverbial relations than we find it in the literary remains. See
further § 251.

322, Space.
—The genitive may tienote by what way :

pendon him pa oitres peges hdmpcard, they return homeward by another

way (Chr., 1000), Gr. r»)c oSov, Ger. deincsj.ocg€S.
How far from (?) IV mild from pam mialan, four miles from the
:

mouth (Chr., 893 ;

so Maetzner), but four of miles is better {^ 295).

323. Time. — The genitive may denote the time when :

pintrcs and sumcrcs pudu bid gclice gehongcn, winter and summer the
wood hung (with fruits) (Ph., 37) pxs pintrcs, that winter
is alike ;

(Chr., 878) dnes dceges, one day (Job, 165)

; dwges and nihtcs, by ;

day and night (B., 2269) Jns pics feordes gcdres, this was on the
;

fourth year (Chr., 47). Note also pxs, thereafter.

32 1. Means. —The genitive may denote means or cause:

pxteres peorpan, to sprinkle with water (Dom., 78) ; glxd pines, jolly
with wine (B., 2791).

325. Manner. — The genitive may denote manner:

hiigan spilces gcongordomes, bow
such vassalage (C, 283) gepeal- in ;

des monnan ofsled, intentionally slay a man (LL. Alf., Intr., 13) so- ;

des ic pe secge, of a truth I say to you (Matt., v, 26) ; peaxad self-

pilles, grow of their own accord (Lev., xxv, 5).

32G. With genitive with a prep-

Prepositions. — The
osition sometimes used to denote instrumental, abla-
is

tive, or locative adverbial relations. See Prepositions.

USES OF PREPOSITIONS.
327. A preposition governs a substantive, and shows its

relation to some other Avord in the clause.

(a.) This relation is oftenest adverbial, but may be attributive, pred-

icative, or objective : sxton he strande, sat by the strand (Matt.,
pam
xiii, 48) ;
— attributive :
redf of hxrum, garment of hair (Matt., iii, 4) ;
—
predicative : he pxs fram Bedsdida, he was from Bethsaida (John, i, 44) ;

— objective : on his dgenum feder are gescedpian, render honor to his fa-
ther (C, 1580).
(b.) A preposition may merely define a verb. It is then said to be in
complete composition, if phonetically united with it, otherwise in incomplete.
 GENERAL RULES.—AND, ANDLONG, ^FTER. 159

328. Preijositions expressing extent take the accusative,

others the dative and instrumental.
Ace. Signs: geond, ud, purh, y7nb{c)^=cmb{e).
Ace. sometimes: and, ivj'ler, xt, for, fore, foran, in, innan, mid, on, to,

ofer, uppan, under, pid.

(a.) Prepositions expressing position, or a place of rest before or after

motion, take a dative. The same preposition may express extension with
one verb and rest after another. (Study the examples.) The dative also
has taken up the instrumental and ablative relations, and all others ex-
cept plain accusatives. Occasional instrumentals and genitives occur, and
are given under their prepositions.

{b.) Prepositions compounded with adverbs generally retain their case.

Ace. ymb-utan, and sometimes on-butan, on-foran, on-uppan, ongegn, on-
gemong, pid-geondan, pid-xflan, pid-innan 1 Grain.

329. The genitive is sometimes used with purh, pict, of, to,
innan, Utati, pana,
— mostly in old phrases.
(Compare § 322.)

(a.) Prepositions compounded

with nouns may take a genitive originally
an attributive with the noun and-lang, to-middes, be-ipeonum.
:

Table of Prepositions.
330. and (§ 254) ; + dative or + accusative : Gothic ace.

I. Dative— number: eahta niht and feoperum, eight nights and four

(Men., 211).
II. Accusative — place and eordan, on the earth (Met.,
:
123) 20, ;
and
ordfruman, in presence of their creator (C, 13).

and-long, -lang (^^ 259, 329, a) gen. +

rtdcnde andlang pxs pcstcncs, :

pursuing along the wilderness (Jos.,viii, 16) up andlong (Chr.,882) ny- ; ;

dcr andlang, down along (Lev., i, 15).

331. gefter (§ 255), more aft; + dative or (rare) accusative.

Goth, afar + dat., ace. ;
O. Sax., O. II. Ger. aftar; O. N. C2)tir.

I. Dative.
Place — position : cumnd orfler me, come further back than I =: follow me
(Matt., iv, 19) ;
—extent : siiton wfter
bcorgum, they sat dispersed through
the hills (C, 191, 9). Latin secundum.
Time — point: prym dagum
vrflcr three days ic arise, after I arise (Matt.,

xxvii, G3)
— extent:
; poruldstundum, during
.rflcr this life (El., 3G3) ;
—
pundor arfter pundrc, wonder after wonder (B.,93I).
repetition:
Cause panian wfter headospate, melt because of the hot blood (B., 1606)
:
;

— end acsode wfter him, asked after him (Psa., xxxvi, 35) grof wfter
:
;

goldc, grub after gold (Met., 8, 57). Compare /or.

160 TRErOSITIONS.—iEFT, MR, JET, iETFORAN, BI.

Likeness :
geporhtnc scfter his onVicnessc, made after his likeness (C.,25,

18) ;
a'ftcr Engld lagc, according to English law (iE(lr., 1). See bi.

II. Accusative.
Place : he eordan xflcr pxter sctte, he set the earth upon the waters (Psa.,
cxxxv, G).

eeit = a-flcr (rare)

irft mcc, (come) after me (Matt., iv, 19, Northumbr.)
:
;

wft sunnan sctlgangc, after sunset (Gen., xxviii, 1 1). O. Eng. eft, cft-soons.

332. ffir (§ 259) + dative. Nortbura. ace. aud gen., Golli, gou.
Time : xr sumeres cyme, before summer's coming (El., 1228) ; hatede me
&r eop, hated me before (it hated) you (John, xv, 18) ;
&r pam, pon,py,
Lat. priusquam, before that.

333. aet (§ 254, 3) + dative or (rare) ace. Gothic dat., ace, gen.
I. Dative.
Place — position :
p&ron at Exanceastre, were at Exeter (^ds. VI) xt
ham, at home (B., 1248)
— direction : comon ict me, came to me (Matt.,
;

— departure:
;

XXV, 43); dnimad pxt pund wt him, take

the pound from
beside him onfeng pallium wt papan, he received the
(Matt., xxv, 28) ;

pallium at the hands of the pope (Chr., 1026) so with learn, hear, take, ;

etc. wt =: of, from. So in Gothic, O. Norse. Compare Gr. Trapa and

the dative of separation (^ 301). Often strengthened hy gelang (B., 1377).
Time —point : wt middan sumere, at midsummer (Bed., 5,23) wt atreslan, ;

for the first time (Ex., 51, 30).

Specification (Lat. quoad) wt vite speop, got along as to eating (B.,3026).
:

Opposition wt me gepyrcean, work against me (Psa., cxxviii, 1).

:

State —
circumstance stande set gehede, stand praying
:
(Psa., v, 3) ;
swt
mt pine, sat at the wine (Rid., 47, 1).

II. Accusative — space: wt swstredmds gebruiddest, extendest even to

the sea-streams (Psa., Ixxix, 11).

eet-foran (+ dative or (rare) ace.) — wtforan pam folce,

— personplacegepcmmed (go) in
: :

front of the people (Jos., 6)

iii, wtforan Gode, cor-
:

— time wtforan mwssan,

;

rupt before God (Gen., vi, 11) ;

:
before An- (St.
drew's) mass-day (Chr., 1010). II. Ace. :
wtforan edgan pine, before thine
eyes (Psa., v, 5 Ettm.). ;

334. bi, be (§ 254, 2) ; + dative (iustr.) : Gothic ace. and dat.

Place — immediate juxtaposition hi swton be pam strandc, they sat
by the
:

strand (Matt., xiii, 48) dledon he mwste, laid him by the mast (B., 36) ;
;

for be pam lande, sailed along by the land (Ores., 1,1); be pege, by the
way (Mc, viii, 3) ;
—part handled :
genam be feaxe, took him by the hair
(Jud., 99).
 B^FTAN, BE-EASTAN, ,
BE-TPIHS. 161

Time be dxgcs leohte, by daylight (Rid., 28, 17)

: absolute Jm ;
— dative :

ne dl&te be pe lifigendum, permit thou not, while thou livest (B.,2665).

—
Cause means hangad he praide, hangs by a thread (Boeth., 29)
: source — :

sunu dgan be bryde jAnre, have a son by thy wife (C, 2326) theme
;

;
— :

sungon be Godes bearnc, sung of God's son (EL, 562) dcsiad be pam ;

cilde, ask about the child (Matt., ii, 8) be pam dcege nan man ndt, of
that day no man knoweth (Mc, xiii, 32) command ferde be his hld-
;

— :

—
;

fordes h&se, went by his lord's command (Gen., xxiv, 10) agent (rare, ;

if ever) forhvd be pam lygenum, seduced by him by lies (C, 598) so

:
;

Msetzner, 1, 404, and Grein under lygcn, but better by the lies (means).
Goth, bi is not so used. In Middle English (Wycliffe) first common.
Manner: be
fullan, fully (Psa., partly (Met., xxx, 27) ;
be sumum dsele,

20, 96) ;
— succession, likeness pord be porde, word word (Boeth., : for

Pref.)
—proportion be gcpyrhtum, according
: works (An., 1613) to their ;

—accompaniment:
;

be hearpan singan, sing to the harp (Bed., 4, 24).

Measure of difference (^ 302, d) : mare be dnum stsefe, more by one let-

ter (Nic, 33).

b-aeftan (+dat.) :
gang bxftan me, get behind (by) me (Matt., xvi, 23) ;

bxftan pam hldforde, except with the owner (Exod., xxii, 14).
be-eastaa, -pestan, etc. (4-dat.) : be-edstan Rinc, east of the Rhine
(Oros, 1, 1 ; where also -pestan, etc.).

be-foran (+dat. or ace.) :

—place : him bcforan, before him (C, 183, 17)
—time (Psa., civ, 15). Ace, place beforan pone cyning, in sight of
:
;

the king (Boeth., 16, 2).

be-geondan (-|-dat. or ace.) : he pxs begeondan lorddne, he was over

by Jordan (John, iii, 26). Ace. com begeondan lorddnen, came by
:

past Jordan (Matt., 19, 1).

be-healfe (4-dat.) :
hchcalfe minum hlujordc, beside of my lord (By.,

318).
be-heonan (+dat.) : beheonan s&, this side the sea (Chr., 878).

be-liindan (+dat.) : him bchindan, behind him (Met., 29, 52).

b-innan (4-dat.) :
— place: hinnan pam dice, within the dike (Bed., 1,
11) ;
— time : hinnan prym dagum, within three days (John, ii, 19).
be-neoctan (4-dat.) beneodan cneope, below the knee (.^If. LL., 63).
:

b-ufan (4-dat.): bufan Jjiem elnbogan, above the elbow (54); a-b-ove
<Orm. d-b-ufenn has not been found in Anglo-Saxon.
b(e)-utan {a, o) (4-dat.) : buton burgum, out of towns (Edg.,IV, 2,3) ;

buton ende, without end (Sat., 315) biiton dnum, except one (B., 705).
;

be-tpeonum, -tpdm, -tpynan (-|-dat. or ace.) : be stem tpeonum, by two

seas (B., 858) ;
him betpyndn, among them (Job, 166). Ace. :
be-tpeonum
peallds, (ledcst) between walls (Psa. cv, 9). Genitive :
Rid., 30, 2.

be-tpili-(s), -tpeox, bctwixte (+dat. or ace.) bctpcox pc and

Layamon :

pam pife, betwixt thee and the woman (Gen., iii, 15). Ace. betpeox :

his mdgds, (sought him) among his kindred (Luc, ii, 44).
L
162 EAC, FEOR, rOK, FOIJE, FKAM.

eac (§ 254,
335. 1) + dative, Goth. adv. couj.
Number /^ priddan :
geare cac tpentigum, the third year in addition to
twenty (Bed., 1, 13) ; freond i&nigne edc pissu77i idcsum, any friend be-
sides these women (C, 2500) cdc pam {pan, jjon), thereupon, more-
;

over (Met., 1, 41).

336. feor (§ 259) + dative.

Place fcor urum mynstrc, far from our monastery (B6d., 5,
:

4) ; fcor his
fxder, far from his father (Luc., xv, 20) unfcor (vii, 6). ;

337. for (§ 254, 2) + dat, or instr., or ace. Gotb. ace.

fore (§ 254, 2) + dat. or ace. Gotb. dat. {for- =frdi-.)
I. Dative and instrumental :
{for-: for-manig, very many, By., 230).
Place for his edgum, before his eyes (C.,2420) fore edgum (Cri., 1324)
:
; ;

for Abrahamc, before Abraham (C.,2778) fore (Cri., 1233). ;

Time for pintrd fela, many

: winters before (C, 2199) ; fore (Cri., 1031).
Cause — motive: propode for manna lufan, suffered men (Men.,
for love of

86) fore (Hell., 110) ;

— occasion :
for guman synnan, suffered for man's
—
;

sin (Kr., 146); fore (Cri., 1095) exciting object for his life lyt sor- ;
:

gedon, they cared little for his life (Ex., IIG, 18) fore (B., 1442) da- ; ;
—
tive of advantage for us gepropode, suffered for us (Sat., 665) fore
:

—theme
;

(Cri., 1202) s&don for manegum yfclum daidum, spoke of many

;
:

evil deeds (Nic, 2) fore (Pa., 34) oath for drihine, for God's sake
; ;
— :

(Met., 1, 64) fore (Jul., 540) reason for J>am {an, on),forpy, there- — :

—
; ;

fore for hpam {an, on), for hpi, wherefore;

; exchange: feounge for
lufan, hate for love (Psa. cviii, 4) for ealhim Jjissum, in spite of all that ;

(Chr., 1006) ; for intingan, for the sake of (Bed., 3, 8).

Manner for : his peldaidum, according to his good works (Psa.,- Ixxvi, 7) ;

— order :
gyfe for gyfc, gift after gift (John, i, 16).
II. Accusative.
Place — after motion: gdn for Jje andpeardnc, go before thee (C, 871);
fore (An., 1030).
Time for ealle men, (acted) before
: all men (Kr., 93) ; fore preo niht, be-
fore three nights (An., 185).
Cause —
motive: for plcnco, for pride (B., 1206); advantage dative — = :

for ehterds and tsklendum, pray for persecutors and calumniators (Matt.,
V, 44) ;
—
exchange: tod for tod, tooth for tooth (Matt., v, 38).
Factitive Object {^ 286, b) hine hsefde for fulne cyning, held him for :

(as) full king (Chr., 1013).

338. frain,/wm (§ 254, 2) + ablative>dat. (instr.). Gotb. dat.

Place whence motion : comon fram edst-dable, came from the east (Matt.,
ii,l).
 GEHEXDE, GEOND, IN, ON. 163

Time fram :
cLvges orde, from daybreak (EL, 140).
Conditions and relations whence separation : drds he fram slmpe, he arose
from sleep (Bed., 4, 24); fram synnum, from sins (EL, 1309) feor ;

fram me, (their heart) far from me (Mc, vii, 6). Instrumental: fram.
'

Pys ptg-plegan, (turn) from this war-play (By., 316).

—
Cause source fram pam hit naman onfeng, from whom it took name
:

(Bed., 1, 1)
—
agent with the passive costnod fram deofle, tempted by :

the devil (Matt., iv, 1)

;

theme fram ellendstdum secgan hyrde, heard ;

— :

tell of hero-deeds (B., 875).

339. gehende (§ 259) + dative. O. Sax, at handum.

Place :
gehende pam scype, handy (near) to the ship (John, vi, 19).

340. geoud {io) (§ 255), thitber+acc. of that intervening.

Place :
go, geond pcgds, go through the highways (Luc, xiv, 23) geond ;

/>M<^M, through the wood (In., 20) geond pa peude, among the people (An., ;

25) ; geond stopd, through the places, all about (Luc, xxi, 11).
Time: geond feopertig dagd, after forty (of) days (Num., xiii, 22).

341. in (§ 254, l) + clat., instr., ace. Goth, dat., ace., genitive.

on (§ 254, l) + dat., ace. Goth, dat., ace.

In Old Saxon in Anglo-Saxon of Alfred's Meters,

is not found, nor in the
the Runes, or Byrhtnod twice in the Psalms, three times in Caedmon's
;
it is

Genesis elsewhere in the Anglo-Saxon poetry in and on freely inter-

;

change but in prevails in the North, on in the South. The distinctive

;

on has a vertical element {icp or down), which easily runs to against or

near. (See Grein, 2, 140.)

I. Dative, Instrumental.
Place where: in tune ofsleah, slay (a man) in town (^db., 5); on py
in hcafde hpite loccds, on the head
cynericc, in the kingdom (Chr., 871) ;

white locks (Rid., 41, 98) on has also on picge, on horse-back (B., ;
:

286) on Temesan, winter quarters on (along) the Thames (Chr., 1009)

; ;

— person on hym sy gefylled, in them is fulfilled (the prophecy) (Matt.,

—
:

xiii, 14) ;
on pfum, (blessed) among women (Luc, i, 28) ;
after verbs

of taking away : blxdd name on telgum, took fruit from the branches
(C, 892). Compare xt.

Time when gcdr-dagum, in old days (B., 1)

: in ;
— on : on pam cahtodan

dxgc, on the eighth day (Job, 104) how long ;

— : on six dagum, in six

days (he made the earth) (C, 266, 1) ;

on py ylcan gedre, in the same
year (Chr., 896).
Cause — theme : think on (Psa. cxvii, 8) ;
— end : on forgifcnnisse, for for-
giveness of sins (Ilom., ii, 268) ;
— exciting object pundredon on his Idrc,
:

wondered at his lore (Mc, vi,2) ;

trust in (Psa. li, 6 ; ace, cxxiv, 1).

Means or instrument : se pxs hcorht on bhedum, that was bright witli

16-i INNAN, ON-BUTAN, ON-EFN, OX-FOEAN, ON-GEGN.

flowers (Dan., 500); ic on mhimn mmte andctlc, I confess, with my

mouth (Psa., cviii, 29) ; simgon on tympanis, they sang to the accompa-
niment of drums (Psa., Ixvii, 24) psaltcrio, hearpe (cxliii, 10). ;

Material on pdm tclgum iimbran, to work upon the branches (Pli., 188).
:

Marnier: conion on Jmm Jloccum, came in three companies (Job, 1G5) ;

—
condition: in gebcde he 5/oc?, he stood in prayer (Bed., 5, 12) ;
on (B.,
1739) on onlicnesse purde,gie\v into likeness (C.,2564).
;

II. Accusative.
Place whither heo hine in pxt mynstre onfeng, she took him into the
:

monastery (Bed., 4, 24) ;

—
on fcollon on pornds, fell (down) on thorns :

(Matt., xiii, 7) hvdde hine on viunt, led him (up) on a mount (Matt., iv,
;

8) datives are found in this sense on heofenum cuman, to come into :

— persons:
;

heaven (Job, IGG) ;

com hungur on Bryttds, hunger came
among the Britons (Bed., 1, 14) ;
he on hi feaht, he fought against them
(2,9).
Time how long: in ealle tid, for all time (Pa., 17) ;
on pa xfentid, at
eventide (Kr., 68).
Cause —
purpose gdn on Jixod, go a fishing (John, xxi, 3)
:
price be- ;
— :

bohte on seolfres sine, sold for a treasure of silver (C, 301, 7).
Manner: 07i Scyttisc, in Scottish (tongue) (Bed., 3, 27) condition: on- ;
—
lif, awakeneth
paxned in into life (Ph., 649).
Factitive : he up drxrde redde stredmds in rand-gebeorh, he reared the
red streams into (as) side defences (C, 196, 24).

innan (§ 257, Goth. adv.) + dat., ace, gen. Dat. : he sxt innan hUse,
he sat in the house (Matt., ix, 10)
— ace. :
feal innan pa saa, fall into
— gen.:
;

the sea (xxi, 22) ; gdst innan hrcdres, soul within the body
(Psa. cxlii, 4). So time ;
Dat. (Chr., 806) Ace. (Chr., 693). ;

on-butan dbutan (§ 257)

(rare), dat. or ace. seteoped abutan psere + :

sunnan, (ring) visible around the sun (Chr., 806) onbutan pxre sun- ;

nan (Chr., 1104) ace. (Exod., xix, 12).;

—
Number dbutan feoper :

hund mannd, about four hundred men (Chr., 1055).

on-efn (0. Sax., O. H. Ger., § 258) dat. him on-efn liged, anent (= + :

beside) him lies (B., 2903). Ace. (Grein) gen. (Gen., xvi, 12). ;

on-foran (^ 257) + dat. (rare, see be-foran) :

onforan pinter, before win-
ter (Chr., 894).

on-gegn, d-gen, -gedn (^ 258)+dat., ace. Place :

pdm d&lum ongegen,
(Britain lies) opposite the regions (of Europe) (Bed., 1, 1) ; ongen eop,
opposite you (Matt., xxi, 2) ; hostility ongedn gramum, (go) against
— :

the fiends (B., 1034) ; ongedn his lustum, fight against his lusts (Job,

167)=/>/(A
—
Ace. place dgcn hine arn, ran to him (Luc, xv, 20) :

— hostility: cuman ongedn hine, come against him (Boet., 35, 6).
;

Time: ongedn pinter hdm tugon, against winter went home (Chr.,
109G).

on-(ge)mong(e) (^ 258 ;
O. Sax. an^ima??^)+dat. Place : Godum on-
 IN INNAN, ,
IN-TO.—L^S, MID, NEAH. 165

gemonge, stood among the Gods (Psa., Ixxxi, l)=beipuh, on middum.

Time :
onmang pam gepinnan, during the fight (Chr., 1106).
in innan {inne), on innan (inne) (^ 257)4-dat., ace. ofne on hman, in :

the oven (Dan., 259). Ace. in pone ofn innan, into the oven (Dan., :

238).
on-middan, -middum {i^ 258)
dat. on-middan pam hpxte, amidst the + :

wheat (Matt., xiii, 25) omiddan sceafum, amid your sheafs (Gen.,
;

xxxvii, 7). See to-middes.

+
on ufan (^ 257) ace. Place locad ufan on hcUe, looketh from above :

on hell (A. R., 25). Time: o?j-M/a« Aar/>esi, after harvest (Chr., 923).
on-uppan (^ 257)-|-dat. :
on-iippan pam assan, rode upon the ass (John,
xii, 14).
in-to (^ 254, 1, 3)4-dat. com into healle, came into the hall (Matt., ix,
:

23) ; into him, went unto him (Bed., 3, 12) ; into heom, locked the
doors onto them (Chr., 1083).

342. Ises (§ 259) + dat. (instr.) :

Number :
tpd Ixs XXX {prittigum ) gedi'd, two less (than) thirty (of)

years (Chr., 642).

343. mid (§ 254, 1) + tlat. (instr.), ace. Goth. dat.

I. Dative (instr.).
Place — among whom
ic pxs mid Hunum, I was among the Huns (Trav.,
:

57) ;
— near whom
mid Eormanrtce, I was with Ermanric (Trav., 88).
:

Time mid &rdxgc, with the dawn (B., 126).

:

Manner mid gefedn, joyfully (An., 868) mid rihte, rightfully (Jud., 97).
:
;

Co-existence se mid Idciim com, he came with gifts (C, 2103) perds
:
;

mid pifum, men with their wives (C, 1738) (instrumental) gcpdt him ;

ham mid py here-tedme, got himself home with the booty (C, 2162).
—
Cause means mid his handum gesceop, with his hands made (C, 251)
:
;

(instrumental) py hungre, with hunger (Soul, 31) instr. mid py hilli, ;

— :

with the sword (C, 2931).

II. Accusative.
Place puna mid usic, dwell among us (C, 2722) mid aldor, lived with
:
;

their lord (C, 20).

Co-existence gcpdt mid cyning, he departed with the king (C, 1210).
:

Cause sluh mid hdlige hand, smote with holy hand (C, 208, 18).
:

Object of address or discrimination sprwc mid hine, spoke with him :

(Bed., 2, 13) demd mid unc tpih, judge between us two (C, 2253).
;

344. neah, weA, n&h; near; nehst (§ 259)+ dat. Goth. dat.

Place seo cd flopeit nedh l)xre ccastre peaUe^ the river flows nigh the
:

town's wall (Bed., 1,7); pille ic pam lige near, I will go nearer to the
fire (C, 760) ;
nehst pvbre caxe, (the nave) turns nearest the axle (Boet.,
39,7).
166 NEFNE, NEODAN, UD, OF, OFER.

345. nefne, oiemne {ne gif ne^ Lat. non nisi? but sec § 259)
+ dative.
Separation: c all e for nam ncmnc fcdum unum, took off all except a few
(B.,1081).

340. neodan (§ 257) + ace. ? See hc-neodan^ xindcr-neodan.

He peard purhscoten neodan he was shot through be-
J)xt otter breost,
neath the other breast (Oros, 3, 9) so Koch, but the texts have under-
;

neoitan. The 0. H.Ger. nida is used as a prep., as is 0. Norse nedan

\\'\i\\fyr, but I have not found neodan so used.

347. od (§ 254, 3) 4- acc, (rare) dat. Goth, ace, dat.

Space — extent to : ealne od pone peal genuman, they took all as far as to
the wall (Bed., 1, 12).
Time: od pone dwg, until that day (B., 2399). Dative: od pisum dxgc,
unto this day (Horn., ii, 132).
Effect: unrot od dead, sorrowful unto death (Mc, xiv, 34).
Degree : ealrd od nytenu, (slew the first-born of the Egyptians) of all even
to the cattle (Psa., cxxxiv, 8).

348. of
(§ 254, 2) dat. +
Gothic <?/ translates ano, fram oft-
ener vvo ;
in space and time relations they interchange ; in causal,
of is material cause, fram is efficient ; both take a dative.

Place whence: he dstdh of pam pxtere, he came out of the water (Matt.,

iii, 16).
Time :
of pam d<Tge, from that day (John, xi, 53).
State or circumstances of sld'pe onpoc, awoke from sleep
:
(C, 249, 2)
—
;

dli/s us of yfle, deliver us from evil (Matt., vi, 13) any object of sepa-;

ration (^ 301) : hdl of pysum, whole of this (Mc, v, 34 Luc, vii, 21). ;

Partitive an of pysum, one of these (Matt., vi, 29).

:

—
Cause material: of eordan geporht, made of earth (C, 365); dfedde
of fixum, fed with fishes (An., 589) redf of hedrum, garment of hair ;

(Matt., iii, 4) source —

of Geatd fruman syndon Cantpare, from the
:

—
;

Geats are the people of Kent (Bed., 483, 21); author: gehyrde ofGode,
heard from God (John, viii, 40) I do nothing of myself, of me sylfum
;

(viii, 28);
—
agent: pxs of My r cum gecoren, was chosen by the Mer-
cians (Chr., 925).

349. ofer (§ 252, h) + dat., acc. Gothic dat., acc.

I. Dative.
Place —point higher than ofer since salo :
hlifian, over the treasure a hall
stand (C, 2403); — surface on which: pind ofer ydum, wind upon the
waves (B., 1907).
 ox, TIL, t6. 167
Time :
ofer pam dnum gedre, (live) over (^ longer than) the one year
(Horn., ii, 14G).
Degree: ofcr snupe sctnende, shining above (= brighter than) snow (Psa.
C, 75).
Rule ofer deofium pealded, rules over devils (Dan., 7G5).
:

Accusative senses are frequently found with datives.

II. Accusatives, often used where geond or ssfter might be.

Place —
motion or presence from side to side of an object: ofer ssi gcpi-
ton, over sea they went (Chr., 885) pieron pystru ofer ealle eordan, ;

there was darkness over all the earth (Matt., xxvii,45) ;

—above it :
hlypp
ofer heafod, (my sin) is gone over my head (Psa., xxxvii, 4) ofer peal, ;

got over a wall (Psa., xvii, 28) standende ofcr hig, standing over her ;

(Luc, iv, 39). Dative senses ofer hrof hand scedpedon, showed the :

hand above the roof (B., 983).

Time —
extent ofer ealne dwg, through the whole day (Jud., 28).
:
Dative
sense: ofer midne dxg, after mid-day (C, 853), common.
Degree ofcr ynce, over an inch (^(Ib., G7)
: eminence an steorra ofcr ;
— :

odre bcorht, a star bright above others (Met., 29, 19).

Rule :
pealded ofer eal manna cyn, ruleth over all mankind (Psa.,lxv, 6).
Conflict ofer drihtnes pord, against the lord's
: command (C, 593) ; ofer
pillan, against the will (B., 2409).
Separation: ofer peepen, without a weapon (B., 685).
Exciting Object {^ 315) ic hlissige ofer phire spreece,! :
rejoice over thy
speech (Psa., cxviii, 162).
Theme : he ofer benne sprxc, he talked about the wounds (B., 2724).

On and compounds, see in.

350. Samod (^ 255)+dat. : samod ^rdage, with dawn (B., 1311).

351. til, Northumbrian sometimes for to (§ 259) + dat. Goth.,
Ang.-Sax. adjective; O.Norse preposition-fgen.
Cped til him, said to them (Matt., xxvi, 31); infinitive: til eotanne, to
eat (Matt., xxvi, 17); so in Orm. common in Chaucer, WyclifTe often — ;

with to or into; used in time, place, and dative relations as late as

Spenser.

352. to (§ 254, 3) + dat. (rave ace, gen., instr.). Goth, dat.

(rare ace).
Place — end of motion or extent: he to healle geung, he to the hall went
(B., 925) ; hu hedh to hefone, how high to heaven (Boet., 35, 4) bcseoh
to me, look at me (Psa., xii, 3)=on+acc. after verbs of seeking, ask- ;
— ;

ing sxcce secean tu Ilcorote, seek a fight at Heorot (B., 1990) dhsodc
:
;

Frysum, asked among the Frisians

to (B., 1207) ^i^from. Compare ,rt, on.
—
Time end of duration: 30000 /^m/ra to ptnum dedddipge, 30000 years tu
168 TO, TO-EACAN, TU-PEAKD.

when: to — (C, 1031);

thy death-day (Soul, 37);
to mn-tidc, at noon-tide (Mc, xv, 31) ;
— howJnssum,
cl.vgc
long
to-day
langrc : to hpllc, for
a long time (C, 489).
Degree :
ge ctad ye shall eat to fullness (Lev., xxvi, 5).
to fyllc,

Price :
geseald to prim hund penegum, sold for three hundred pence (Mc.,
xiv, 5).
Order: hchstne to him, highest next to him (C, 254).
Likeness God gcsccop man to his anllcncsse, God made man
: in his like-

ness (Gen., i, 27).

End of action to — object added
to his anltcnessc, (add an ell) to his stat-
:

ure (Luc, 25) gccleofod to mtnum gommn, cleaved to my gums

xii, ;

(Psa., xxi, 13) of address or gesture —

cpxct to him, said to him (Matt., :

viii, 7)
;

gebuge to, bow to a worse God (Jul., 361) condition dgeaf

— :

pif to
;

gepealde, gave a wife into his power (C, 1867)

;

— act
— purposeprepared
;

for :
gefeohte gearu, ready for fight (Num., xxi,
to lig to 33) ;
:

prxce sende, sent fire for vengeance (C, 2584). Factitives ceorfon :

to sticcon, cut to pieces (Lev., i, 6) pe hahhad Abraham, to fmder, we ;

have Abraham as father (Matt., iii, 9) ;

hine to sylfcpale nemnad, name
him a suicide (Ex., 330, 24).
IL Accusatives (rare).
Place: gojigan to Galileam, go to Galilee (Sat., 527). Time: to mor-
gen, this morning (C, 2438) to dxg, to-day (Psa., ii, 7). Condition: ;

to dead dcman, doom to death (Gu., 521). To ham faran, go home (B.,
124) honda, at hand (Gu., 102)
; to to gepeald? (Jul., 86) to sod, in ; ;

truth and some other adverbial phrases are possibly accusatives.

;

in. Genitives —
mostly with pxs, hpiss, middes : to pxs, to such a de-
gree (B., 1610), thither (B., 2410) ; to hpxs, whither (C. Exod., 192) ; to
middes dwges, at mid-day (Psa., xxxvi, 6).

IV. Instrumental : to hpi, wherefore (Hom., ii, 134).

V. Infinitive — purpose or end : mxl is me to feran, it is time for me
to go (B., 316). Gerund: he com cordan to demanne, he came to judge
the earth (Psa., xcvii, 8).

to-eacan {^ 258)--t-dat. : to-edcan pam, in addition to these (Boet., 26, 2).

to-foran (^ 257) + dat. Place toforan him gegaderode, gathered be-

:

fore him (Matt., xxv, 32). Time toforan pam dxge, before the day
:

(Chr.,1106).
to-gegnes, -genes, -gednes (^ 258)-t-dat., ace. him togednes rdd, rode
:

against him (B., 1893). Time :

togednes Edstron, against Easter
(Chr., 1095). Ace. (Gen., xiv, 17). See further ongegn.
to-middes (^ 258)-}- gen., dat. to-middes heard, in the midst of them
:

(John, viii, 3). Dative : to-middes pmm pxtsrum, amidst the waters
(Gen., i, 6).

to-peard, -peardes (^^ 259; 251, 1): topard Huntendune, lie toward
Huntingdon (Chr., 656) ferdon topardes Ou, went towards Ou (Chr., ;

1094).
 PURH, UFAN, UNDER. 169

t6-pi(lere (^^ 255, 359) + clat., ace: prddum topidere, answer to ( =

against) enemies (Cri., 185) ; pig topidere, to hold against a fight (Ex.,
341, 20).

353. l)urh (§ 253, 3) +acc. (rare dat., gen.). Goth. ace.

Place —motion into and out at the opposite side :
gan piirh unre n&dle
^%6>go through a needle's eye (Luc.,xviii, 25) purh heard midlen,\\ent
— simple
;

through their midst (Luc, iv, 30) ; extent {=^gconcl) : Ixrende

purh /M^eam, teaching throughout all Judea (Luc, xxiii, 5).
ealle
Time purh ealne dxg, through the whole day (Psa., Ixxiii, 21) Jnirh
:
;

sleep, (spoke to him) during sleep (C, 2641).

—
Cause agent; pxs geporht purh hme, was made by him (John, i, 10);
— means Jjurh dryhtnes pord, (light was named day) by God's word (C,
:

130);
— motive: purh femdscipe, through hatred (C, 610) lust (Ex.,
23, 15);
— reason: purh Lat. propter hoc, Jjxt, for
;

that reason (Gen.,

xxxvii, 5) ;
oath (Lat. per) : ic sperige purh me silfne, I swear by my-
self (Gen., xxii, 16). See on.
Manner purh :
endebyrdnesse singan, sing in order (Bed., 4, 24) deman ;

purh his d&da,\\xAge according to his deeds (Sat., 623). Co-existence :

cennan purh sdr inicel sunu, to bring forth with pain many a son (C, 924).
n. Dative —place :
perh hiord middum, went through their midst (North.
Luc. iv, 30) ;
means jmrh costnungum
:
gepenian, seduce by temptations
(Job, 165).
—
IIL Genitive means geclainsode purh pxs huselganges, purified by the
:

sacrament (Horn., ii, 206).

ut }>urh> Semi-Sax. Jnirh w<>Eng. throughout is common.

354. ufan, adv. See hiifan, onufan,

355. under (§ 255) -j-dat., ace. Gotb. Mnf7ar, + aec; undaro^

+ dat. O. Sax, i«n£?ar, -6?-
y O.ll.QQwuntar ; O. 'N ovsq imdr.

Place —where its object would fall, or overshadow

pu pxre under Jjam fic-
:

treope, thou wast under the fig-tree (John, 48) under beorge, at the foot
i,

—
;

of the mountain (B.,2559) ; or cover, or enclose under hearmlocon, un- :

der lock=in prison (El., 695 ; under helmc, helmeted

C., 6, 19) ;
—dress :

(B., 342, 2539) ;

under gyldnum ledge, wearing a golden diadem (B.,
1103).
Time : under pdm, Lat. inter hxc, in the midst of these things (Chr., 876) ;

so in O. Sax.
—
Personal rank, rule pcgnds under mc, servants under me (INIatt.,
:
viii, 9) ;

under Northmannum, under the rule of the Northmen (Chr., 942) ; under
on/JcaWe, under authority (901).
IL Accusative.
—
Place after motion : under hrufgcfur, went under a roof (C, 1360) ;
— di-
170 UNDER-NEOBAN, UPPAN, UTAN, PANA, PID.
rcction under bwc, backwards (C.,2562)
: extent like a dative under ;
— :

roderd rum, under the expanse of the heavens (C, 1166).

Personal: tinder helle cin, amontj the race of hell (Ex., 99, 5), so O. Sax-
on under hand sj>sordcs, (give) to the sword (sunder the hand ofj (Psa.,
;

Ixii, 8).

under-neoJan (+clat). Xot in Layamon, Orm.; rare O.

Enrjlish.

pxs undernxden hisfote, (support which) was underneath his foot (Chr.,
1070).

356. uppan (§ 257) +dat., ace. Goth, iupa, adv.; O. Saxon

V2)pcm,-en; O. Norse upd ; O. H. G.'d/an. Perhaps tw^o words,
derivative i<j':>7:)«?i<t<^, and comiDouiul w_p-f-07i, have mixed.

Place — on a high object

ge-offrd hine uppon dure dune, offer him upon a
:

hill uppan assene,xiAe upon an ass (Matt.,xxi, 5)

(Gen.,xxii, 2) ; over: ;
—
him uppan, above him the cross was raised (El., 886).
Time: uppon Edstron,Si{teT Easter (Chr., 1095).
Separation uppon him genum,en hxfde, had taken from them (Ciir., 1 106).
:

II. Accusative.
Place — after motion : me dhof uppon hedhne stdn, raised me upon a high
stone (Psa., xxvi, 6) but dat. and ace. mix (Exod., xxxiv, 2).
—
;

Time uppon Pentecosten, a.t Pentecost (Chr., 1095)

: succession: segdcr ;

uppon oderne, one upon another (Chr., 1094).

Opposition uppon pone eorl pan, fought against the earl (Chr., 1095)
:
;

tealde, charged against the king (Chr., 1094).

357. utan (§ 257) +genilive. Goth. ?<toia+ gen.

Place : innon landes odde uton landes, W\i\i\n or out of the land {JEds,\\,

8, 2). See b-utan, on-b-utan, pid-utan, ymb-utan.

358. pana (§ 259) -f genitive. Goih. vans ; O. N. yanr, adj.

dnes pana prittigum, thirty less one (Bed., 1,1). Same idiom in Gothic,
etc. See ^317, J.

359. pid +acc., dat., gen. Goth, vipra 4-acc. O.

(§ 254, 1) ;

Norse ace, In senses analogous to Latin contra^ opposite

dat. ;

but gradually absorbing mid, § 343. The accusative and dative

are not Avholly separable in sense; they often interchange in the
same passage.
I. Accusative.
—
Space beside, along sum feol pid pone peg, some (seed) fell along the
:

way (Luc, viii, 5) code pid pa sic, went along the sea-side (Matt., iv, IB)
; ;
 PIDER, PIB-^FTAN, PIB-EASTAN. 171

pid peal, (set their shields) against

the wall (B., 326) ; pid pxs H&lendes
fct, (sat) by the Savior's feet (Luc, x, 39)
Other Relations —association: he pid pulf, he with the wolf (stripped the

dead) (B.,3027) hagol pid fyr gemenged, hail with fire mixed (Exod.,
;

ix, 24)
—
conversation pid Abraham sprecan, to talk with Abraham (C,
;
:

2405)
— comparison :
pid sunnan leoht, (the brightness of the stars is not
;

to be set) beside sunlight (Met., 6, 7)hostility pan pid paldend, fought ;

— :

against the lord(C, 303) yrre pid me, angry against me (Gen., xli, 10); ;

— defence unc pid hronfixds perian, to guard us against whales (B., 540)
:

—
;

pid hearm, against harm (C, 245, 6) friendship, agreement: beo pid ;

Gcdtds glxd,he with the Geats friendly (B., 1173) ;

acordedan pid hine,
they agreed with him (Chr., 1120).

II. Dative.
Place —position
opposite sxpeal uplang gestod pid Israhelum, the sea-
:

wall stood upright next to the Israelites (C, 197, 8) from far to near ;
—
(^ 299) tedh hine pid hijre peard, drew him toward her (Jud., 99) so
: ;

after go near (Sat., 249); grasp after (B., 439); strike against (B.,
1566) ;
— from union to near gesundrode leoht pid peostrum, separated
:

light from darkness (C, 127).

Other Relations association —
teofanude wghpylc pid odrum, associated :

each with the others (Sch., 44) mengan lige pid si)de, mingle falsehood
—
;

Avith truth (El., 307) conversation pid Abrahame sprwc, talked with
;
:

Abraham (C, 2303) —

exchange he -sealde &lcon senne penig pid hys
;
:

dxges peorce,he paid day'^ to each a penny for his work (Matt., xx, 2) ;

.
— opposition: pid Gcde punnon, against God fight (B., 113); put pinde
roped, rows against the wind (Ex., 345, pid 12) ; rihte, against right (B.,

144)
— defence helpan pid help against :
pid cpealme lige, fire (B., 2341) ;
;

gebearh cnihtum,s\i\e[A the youths from death (C.,246,7); separation;

—
mod pid dredmum gedxldc, mind from enjoyments sundered (Ex., 146, 18).
III. Genitive.
Place — towards an object exciting desire or dread (see ^ 315) : bescah un-
derbade pid pxs pifes, (Orpheus) looked hack after the woman (Eurydice)
(Boet., 35, 6) let jleogan hafoc pid pxs holies, let the hawk fly to the
;

wood (By., 8) pid pxs fiestengeates folc onette, toward the city gate
;

folks hastened (Jud., 162); hndh dledt pid pxs engles, looted low before
the angel (Num.,xxii, 31).
Abstract —
defence hied pid hungrcs, protection against hunger (EI., G16)
:
;

pid yfcld gefreo us, deliver us from evils (Ily., 6, 31).

pider (§ 255)+acc. pider me pxron, they were against me

:
(Psa., \\\
5). See tb-pidere.
behind at his feet (Luc.,vii,
pi(t-aeftan (^ 257)-(-acc. pid-xftan Ais/e/,
:

38 Mrc, v, 27).
;
Better pid xflan.
-\-a.cc., dat. next eastward of, etc.
piil-eastau, -nordan, -sudan,
:
(Oros.,
1,1).
 1 72 PID-F0RAN.—YMB(E).- ADJECTIVE.

piit-foran (^ 257)+acc. :
pidforan pd sunnan, before the sun (Boat.,
39, 13).

pid-geondan (^ ii5T)+acc. :
jmtgcondan lorddncn, beyond Jordan (Matt.,
iii, 5).

pid-innan (^ 257) + ace.: pidinnan pintan-ceastra, within Winchester

(Chr.,nG3).
pid-utan {^ 257)+acc., dat. Place pidutan pa pkstopc, without tlie :

camp (Lev., xxiv, 14). Dat. (Oros., 2, 4, G) ;—maimer iilcon pxpnon, :

without any weapons (Chr., 1087).

pid peard (separate) pid hcofonds peard, towards heaven (Horn.,

:

i,

4G) ; pid hire peard, towards her (Jud., 99).

3C0. ymb(e), emh(e) (§ 254, 2) +acc. (rare O. Sax. ace;

dat.).
O. Norse ace, dat.
Place gyrdel ymhe lendcnu, girdle around his loins (Matt.,
:

iii, 4) ; ymb
hine sxt, (a multitude) sat around him (Mc, iii, 32).
Time (1) ymb dntid, about the first hour (B., 219) (2)
:
;
ymh pucan, after
a week (C, 2769); (3) ymb dne niht, v/ithin one night (Chr., 878) ;

(4) ymb preo niht, three nights before (Sat., 426).

Theme ford :
sprecan ymb Grendel, to speak about Grendel (B., 2070) ;

ymb pd fyrde pencean, to think about the expedition (C.,408). So after

to wonder (EL, 959) care (B., 1536) strive (Gn. C.,55); and the like
; ;
;

hig dydon ymbe hyne, they acted about him=they did to him (Matt., xvii,
12).
Dative (generally after its case) him ymle
gestodon, around him stood (B., :

2597) sprxc ymb his msege, spoke of his kinsman (Hell., 25).
;

ymb-utan (^ 257)+acc. place ;

—
licgad me ymbutan, lieth round about :

me (C, 382) ; ymbiitan eop, (why seek) without you (what is within)
(Boet., 11, 2)

ADJECTIVE.
361. An Adjective agrees with its Substantive in gender,
number, and case.

(a.) This rule applies to the articles, adjective

pronouns, and participles.
(J).) An infinitive or clause
take an adjective in the neuter
may singular :

leofre is us gefonjisc, to catch fish is pleasanter to us (^If.)

gbd is pmt ic ;

on God hyht sctte, it is good that I hope in God (Psa., Ixxii, 23).

(c.) Indefinite. An adjective is often used indefinitely in the masculine

for a person, or neuter for a thing : se blinda, gif he blindne hit, the
blind,
if he lead the blind (Matt., xv, 14) ;
me pijrse gelamp,2, worse thing hap-
pened to me (Sat., 175).
{d) Noun understood Englisc ne cude, did not know English (speech)
:

(Bed., 3, 3) ; ptn spydre, thy right (hand) (Matt., vi, 3).

 ADJECTIVE, STRONG OR WEAK. 173

(e.) Collectives singular may take a plural by synesis : seo heard

purdon dd rune ene, the herd were drowned (Mc.,5, 13).
(/.) Copulative singulars may take a plural, or have a repeated singu-
lar understood p&ron gehdlgode Eadhxd, and Bosa and Edta, Edhed, and
:

Bosa, and Eata were consecrated (Bed., 4, 12); eddig is se innod, and pd
breost, blessed is the womb, and the breast (Lc, 11, 27).

(g.) Partitives. Neuter partitives may be used for agreeing adjectives

(^ 312, a) : ndn ping grenes, nothing green (Exod., 10, 15).

Steong or Weak, §§ 103+.

362. The weak formsare used after the definite article, demon-
stratives, and possessives ; and often in attributive vocatives, in-
strumentals, and genitives. The comparative forms are all weak :

1. Article : se ofermoda cyning, the proud king (C.,338). Exceptions

are rare: sio hdlig roc?, the holy rood (El., 720); se Gder,\\\e other

(B., 2061). For present participles, see ^ 119, b.

The article is sometimes omitted before the weak form of a current epi-
thet, especially epic forms: hrefn blaca,h\z.ck raven (B., 1801);
in

7nihtigan dryhtne, mighty lord (B., 1398).

Demonstrative of pissmn Ionian life, in this long life (C, 1211).
:

Exceptions occur on pissumlsenum life (Kt., 109).

:

2. Possessive minne strongUcan stol, my strong throne (C, 366).

:

The article is often inserted min se heofenlica fxder, my heavenly :

father (Matt., xviii, 35). Strong forms are frequent: minne spelne
hldf, my sweet bread (Psa., ci, 4). His, and other possessives of the
the third person, are regularly followed by a strong form or inserted
article mid his dgenum redfe, with his own robe (Matt, xxvii., 31) ;
:

his se deora snnu, his dear son (Sat., 243) ; stnne driorigne (B., 2789).
3. Vocative : blindan latteopds, blind guides (Matt., xxiii, 16); ge
blindan, ye blind; ge dysigan, ye foolish (Matt., xxiii, 17). For
other examples, and inserted article, see ^ 289.
4. Instrumental leuhtan speorde,\v\ih. a bright sword (B., 2492).
:

5. Genitive Ixnan lifes, (end) of a long life (B., 2845); so C, 1,

: 13 ;

231,13; Ex., 4, 25; 11,4.

6. Comparatives ludran landscipc, (I never saw a) : loathlicr landscape

(C, 370) pxs bctcra Jjonne ic, he was better than I

; (B., 409).

363. In other cases strong forms are used.

1. No definitive Jju cart heard man, thou are a hard man (Matt, xxv,
:

—
24); vocative: pu riht cyning, thou true king (Ex., 2, 13); instru-
—
mental: rcdde lege, with red flame (C, 44); genitive: mihtiges
—
Godes mod, mighty God's wrath (C, 403); predicate: Eddige synd —
/)«, blessed
are they (Matt., v, 3); superlative se pxs lcofdst,hQ — : was
dearest (B., 1296). For exceptions, see over, ^ 302.
174 TERSONAL PRONOUNS.
3. With the indefinite article :
ofslogan ainne Bryttiscnc cyning, slew
a British king (Chr.,508) ; Anne leofestne sunu, (he had) a dearest son
(Mrc, 12, 6).
3G4. These uses are establislicd in Gothic, except tliat with the possess-

ives, and perhaps the demonstratives, of some of which examples do not

occur. The weak form has spread in High German. See § 107.

PRONOUNS.
365. A Substantive Pronoun agrees with its antecedent
in gender, number, and person.
8GQ. — I.Peesonal Pkonouns, §§ 13 0+.
1. Omitted subject: —imperative (regular) arise (thou) (Matt., :
arts, ii,

20)
— repeated a concessive
; clause punige peer he punige, dwell
in :

(he) where he may dwell (^ctr., —reflexives: pende hine, 5, 6) (he)

turned him (C.,34, 33); — other cases (rare): ndt Jjufare,
;

know not (I)

whether thou come (C, 34, 2) ;
bist ful Iidlgan hyhtes, (thou) art full
of holy joy (Ex., 4, 24).
2. Repeated subject :
§ 287, definitive.
3. First person plural for singular by authors and preachers nu pille :

pe reccaw, now will we (I) recount (Oros., 1, 1, 11); so (Horn., 2, 446). —

Kings say ic, or pe for themselves and council ic JEdelstdn cyning :

(LL., 1) pe (LL. Ina. 1, 1), but Beowulf used the plural majestatis
;

(B., 958, 1652) in Norman French nous (LL. William, 1, 41).

; Ye
and you as pronomen reverentiae appear first in Old English.
4. Dual: —
interchange with plural: gelyfe gyt, pirniad pxt ge ne
—
5£?co-o«, believe ye
* *
take heed that ye tell not (Matt., ix, 28-30) ;
—
strengthened by bu, bu tu, bd, bd tpd {^ 141) pit bu druncon, we two :

both drank (Bed., 5, 3) —

with single appositive unc, Adame, to us,
; :

(me and) Adam (C,

387, see ^ 287, g).
5. Hit may represent a definite object of
any gender or person etad :

pisne hldf, hit is min lichama, eat this bread, it is my body (Horn., 2,
266) hit {seo sunne) pssre birnende stdn, it (the sun) is burning stone
;

(A. R. Ett., 39) ; ic hit earn, I am it = he (Matt., xiv, 27) ; ic sylf hit
com (Luc, xxiv, 39) ; pit hit cart (Matt., xiv, 28) ;
—
or a clause hit is :

upriten, ne costnu pu, it is written. Do

not thou tempt (Matt, iv, 7) —
an indefinite subject — an operation of nature or chance hit sntpd, :
;

it

snows (^If. Gr., 24) ;

hit gdimpcd, it happens (B., 1753) ;
—a date : hit

pxs pinter, it was winter

(John x, 22) hit iifenl&cp, it is
evening (Luc,
—appetites, notions,
;

xxiv, 29); and the like: (rare) hit Itcode Hcrode,

it pleased Herod (Matt., xiv, 6).
6. Indefinite persons are denoted by hi: ponne hig pyr'iad eo/>, when
men shall revile you (Matt.,v, II).
 POSSESSIVES.—DEMONSTRATIVES. 175

7. Cases mix, dative me with accusatiA^e mec, pe with pec, us with usic,
cup with eopic. The dative finally displaced the accusative so also ;

liave him and them in English. Nominatives also give place to the
oblique cases : he is strongra pon m.ec, he is stronger than me =I
(Matt., Northum.) h'wiself, etc., see ^ 306, 10.
iii, 11, ;

8. Personal pronouns are often reflexives ic me resle, : I rest myself

(Ex., 494, 8) restad eup, rest yourselves OElfd., 3) gegadorode miccl
; ;

folc hit, a great crowd gathered itself (Chr., 921). See 10.
9. Personals reciprocals :
hig hetpeox him cpsiidon, they said among
themselves (Mrc, 1,27).
10. Strengthened by agen, an, self CCor declensions, see ^^ iSl-f-) :
Jnn
ugen beam, thy own child (C, 144, 27) hire dgen beam, her
; own
child (158, 6); pinum agnum fotum (173, 2) ; ic ana atbxrst,! alone
escaped (Job, 165); ic selfa,! myself (C, 35, II); pii seZ/iz, thyself
(36, 12) pm sxjlfa, feminine (Ex. 262, 32) ge sylfe (John, iii, 28) he
; ; ;

i-y// (C, 35, 18). Accusative for nominative: pe sy If cyme, ihyseli

come (Ex., 8, 8) ;
Pilatus hym sylf uprdt, Pilate himself wrote all this
(Nic, 34) ;
—reflexive :
lufd pinne nchstan spa pe sylfne, love thy
neighbor as thyself (Matt., xix, 19)
—possessive :
Pun sylfes beam, thy
—
;

own child (C. 176, 34); hire sclfre sund,\\er own sons (B.,1115);

pronoun omitted scolfcs bhedum, its own shoots

:
(C, 248, 17).
11. Personals with pe as relatives, see relatives.

Possessive s, § 13 2.

oG7. — 1. The possessives couple with a demonstrative without weak

flexion :
Jjcs min sunu pxs dead, this my son was dead (Luc. xv, 24) ;

min se gccorena sunu, my chosen son (Matt., iii, 17).

2. Sin and his his hearran, drihtcn sinne, his lord (C,
:
19, 20). See

^ 132,5.
3. For genitive ending : Enac his cynryn, Anak's children (Num., xiii,

29) Gode his naman c'igdan, call on God his name (Psa. xcviii, 6),
;

doubtful common in Layamon and Old English, where also her: Pallas
;

her glass=:Pallas''s glass (Bacon).

4. Omitted mid handum, (T can work) with
:
my hands (C, 18, 27).
5. Without its substantive : ealle mine synd ^me, all mine are thine

(John, xvii, 10); heard is heofenan, rice, theirs is heaven's kingdom

(Matt., v, 10). In Layamon, /2eorcn>01d Engl. /ieru?i>Engl. hers;

ourun^ours, etc.

DEM ONSTKAT I VE S, § 13 3.
1. Se, seo, l)cet, as an article.
368. The definite article marks its object,
(a.) As before mentioned or well knovrn porhte fen, : and smyrede
mid pjam fcnne,he made clay, and anointed with the clay (John, ix, 6) ;
se
176 THE ARTICLE USED, OMITTED.

Hd'lcnd, the Savior (Luc, x, 38) piere eordan, the earth (John, viii, 6)
; ;
—
proper names Hloitpiges sunu. Se Hlodpig pxs Carles hrudor (Chr., 885)
:
;

Pxnc lie rode in, tho (rainous) Ilcrod (Matt., ii, 22).
(6.) As further described, hy a clause pam hurc par hco Jnnc Lrg, the :

bower wherein she hiy (Ap., 1) se Bcopulf, se pe pid Brecan punne, the
;

Beowulf, who fought with Breca (B., 50G); by an appositive pxs muntes — :

Syon,i\\G mount Sion (Psa., xlvii, 2) by an adjective: pxt betste hors, ;

—
the best horse (Bed., 3, 14)
sc hdlga Gudldc, the holy Guthlac (St. G., 4)
;

—
;

seo Magdalenisce Maria, the Mary called Magdalene (Matt., xxvii, 56) ;

by a possessive pam hlaforde pxs huses, the lord of the house (Bed., 3,
:

10) ;
— by relation
to other objects mentioned (often
possessive) gefyldon :

pa ud pone brerd, they filled it to the (=its) brim (John, ii, 7) ; pjam geate,
(into the sheepfold) at the (=its) gate (John, x, 1).
(c.) As a definite whole pa ludeds, the Jews (John, vii, 1) pd clxn-
:
;

/ico?-^«?i, blessed are the pure in heart (Matt., v, 8); —a personified abstract:
se ;>i5t?o»j, Wisdom (Boet., 3, 3).

309. The omitted where it might be used. It is i;sed less in Anglo-

article is often
Saxon than in Gothic or Old High German, and very rarely in the oldest poetry, e. g.,
twice in the Traveler's Song, 19 times in the first 537 lines of Beo\vnlf, 12 times in 268 lines
of Cffidmon (Grimm D. G., 4, 420). The steadiest uses are those in 368, b. Proper names
of places and times, which are compounded with or described by appellatives, often take
the article without further reason. Folk names under c varj'.

(a.) Marked cases of the omission of articles are after a genitive, (2) with an object
(1)

compared, with a negative, (4) superlatives, (.5) copulative or disjunctive singulars mean-
(3)

ing many, (6) a repeated word in correlation, (7) predicate nominative, (8) factitive object,
(9), after prepositions with names of places, parts of a house, parts of the body, (10), before
an attributive adjective, genitive, or appositive.

(1) Mid Godes gife, by God's gift (In. LL. 1) pxs folces priterds, the ;

scribes of the people (Matt., ii, 4, so oftenest) ; pxre Godes liifan, the love
of God (St. G., 2) ; ^ 367, 1 ; (2) strengre panne ruse, more fragrant than
(the) rose (Rid., 41, 24) ; {^)peof ne cymd,thie? comes not (John x, 10) ;

(4) idesd scenost, fairest

of women (C,
G26) (5) berad bord and ord, ;

(chosen men) bear shield and spear (El., 1187); {(S) pxs adxled pxtcr of

pxtrum, then was parted (the) water from (the) waters (C, 152) (7) be ;

pxs man-slaga, he was (a) murderer (John, viii, 44) (8) hine heold for ;

fulne cyning, took him for full king (Chr., 1013) to hlaforde (921) (9) ; ;

on sx, on (the) sea (Ap., 19) ;

on sande (C, 242) xt huse, at home (Psa.,;

cxi, 3) ;
lit
of healle, out of (the) hall (B., 663) ; beforan durd, before (the)
door (Mc, 11,4); on bed gdn, go to bed (C, 2234) cpxdan on heortan, ;

said in heart (Psa., Ixxiii, 8) xt fotum (B., 500) on cncopum (C., 227, 2),
; ;

etc., abundantly (10) hxfdon langne speoran, they had (a) long
;
neck (St.

G., 5) ; cli/piendcs stcfn, the voice of

one crying (Matt., iii, 3) ; JElfred
cynf?)^-, Alfred king (Chr., 894).
370. article vT-ith an adjective is frequent, to point out persons:
The
se dumbasprxc, the dumb spake (Matt., ix, 33) or things (rare) Phi ;
— :

topeardan, the future things (St. G., 13) in apposition with a proper —
—
;

name: Sidroc sc geonga, Sidroc the younger (Chr., 871) so also: hellc ;
 DEMONSTRATIVES. 177

pxre hdtan,hG\\ the hot (C, 362). Just so participles: pa timhriendan,

those building (Matt., xxi, 42) for pdm gecorenum, for the chosen (xxiv,
;

22) pa geladodan, those invited (xxii, 3).

;

371. With a numeral Pm tpclfe,the twelve (Mc, 4, 10)

: ; pjxt an (Matt.,
V, 47) ; 56 eahtoda dxg, the eighth day (St. G., 3).
372. With pronouns /a :
odre, the others (I\Iatt., xxvii, 49) ; 56 pe, the

which (Bed., 2, 5) ; calpxt land, the land (Matt., ix, 26)

all butu pa scypu, ;

both the ships (Luc, v, 7) so ;

:
healfne pone speoran, half the neck (Jud.,
105) ;
—
possessives, see § 367.
373. The article is repeated with copulative words oftener than in En-
glish :
pxt gold and pxt
seolfor, the gold and the silver (Apol., 14) some- ;
—
times a plural is used with two singulars hyre pa leofstan hlaford and sunu, :

her (the) dearest lord and son (Chr., 1093).

Se, seo, l:)a3t; ]pes, Jdcus, jpis, § 133.

374. Se is less emphatic than ]5es. Both deuote the near ob-

ject, or an antecedent to a relative.

1. Se is often nearly the third pronoun :
spungon Mg pone, and forleton
hine, they beat that one (him), and sent him away (Mc, xii, 3). Note seo
>Eng. 5Ae, ^a>Eng. they ; Lat. hie.
2. pxt and pis are often used without agreement in gender or number :

Jjxt that was a good king (B., 11) pjxt pxron pa &restan
pxs god cyning, ;

scipu, that (those) were the first ships (Chr., 787) pis is seo eorde,
this is ;

the earth (C, 1787) ; pis sint pa bebodu, this (these) are the statutes (Lev.,

xxvi,46). Compare /m^, ^ 366, 5. German cs smt?.

3. Antecedent se pe bryde hxfd, se is brydguma, he is bridegroom,
:

(the which), who has the bride (John, iii, 29) pxt pe dcenned is of flxsce, ;

pxt is floisc, that is flesh, the which is born of the flesh (iii, 6) ;
rare with

pes (John, i, 15, North.).

4. 6d Pjis,i\\\ now (Bas. Hex.,G) ;
but generally these two ycars=:nu tpa
gear (Gen.,xlv, 6).
5. This and that^the former, the latter, are not expressed by pns,pxt;
but se xrra, se xflera (Bed., 4, 23). A discriminated remoter object is

rare.
6. Pyy md, Lat. eo magis, more by that (so much the more) (C, 54, 33) ;

Pry hcardra, the harder=:harder by that (80, 8) ; § 302, d.

?Ab.ylc,pylc, spylc (^ 133, 3). Ylc couples with the article or demon-
strative pylc and spylc may be used as adjectives or substantives pxt ylce
; ;

leoht,the same light (C, 301, 34) such (Luc, ix, 9) PjylUc, such (Boet., ; ;

39, 3 ; Matt., xviii, 5) ; spylc, such (Mc, iv, 33 ; Boet., 38, 2).
376. SelfC^ 131), with personal pronouns (^ 366, 10), with substantives:
pxre sylfan stipe, the same place (John, xi, G) se cyning sylfa, the king ;

himself (Ex., 2, 1) se peoden self, the Lord himself (C, 9, 10)

;
on pxt ;

dxgred sylf, at the

dawn exactly (Jud., 204).
M
178 SYNTAX.— INTERKOGATIVES.

Inteekogatives.
377. Hpa, hprct (§ 135).

Ilpd asks mostly for persons :

hpa prat hocstafds xrcst, who wrote letters
first? (A. R., 40).
Hpxt asks (1) for neuters, (2) for an answer without regard to gender or
number, (3) for a special character or part of an object :

(1) Hpxt nxddercynna si on eordan, what of snake kind are on the

earth? (A. R., 41) ; (2) hpxt syndon ^-tjwhat (who) are you? (B., 237) ;

hpxt is se
cynmg, who is the king (of glory)? (Psa., xxiii, 10) : com-
pare pxt,pis (^ 374, 2); (3) hpmt godes do ic, what (of) good thing
must I do? (Matt., xix, 16) ; hpxt nipes, what of new? (Ex., 441, 22) ;

hpxt peorces, \vha.t kind of work? (^lf)>01d English adjective use:

whatt weorrc (Orm., 1833).
(a.) Hpxt is se pe me xthrdn, what is he who touched me (=cmphatic

ivho), Lat. quis est qui (Luc, viii, 45).

(b.) Interjection, opening poems, etc., Hpxt! pe Gdr-Dcnd (B.).
Hpxne
(c.) secgad men pxt sy m,annes 5m?im, whom say men that the Son
of Man may be? Hpxne (Thorpe), North, huelcne is used for hpxt of other
A. Sax. versions in imitation of the Latin Qucm dicunt homijics esse Filium
hominis (Matt., xvi, 13), making anacoluthon, ^ 293.
378.
Hpseder (which of two), and lipilc (what kind of, which among
may agree as adjectives, or govern a genitive hpxder uncer tpegd,
like), :

which of us two (B., 2530 Matt., xxi, 31 A. R., 39) hpylc man (A. R.,
; ; ;

<40) hpilc manna (.^Elfc).

;

For interrogatives as indefinites and relatives, see ^^ 382, 390.

Relatives, § 13 4.

379. Relative clauses in the Teutouic tongues are oftencst con-

structed like leading clauses with a demonstrative, j^ersonal, or

interrogative pronoun. Tliey are made relative, i. e., subordinate

adjective, by tone alone, or by a relative particle 7^6 added. The
Sanskrit and Greek have jDcculiar forms for the relative the ;

Latin qui is from the interrogative >2'?a's.

380 —
A. Demonstrative Forms.
1. <Sc, SCO, pxt alone pd feng Nero to rice, se forlct Britene, then came
:

Nero to the kingdom, who (that one) lost Britain (Chr.,47) se purhpunad, ;

se byd hdl, who endureth, he shall be saved (Matt., x, 22) antecedent ;

—
omitted pxt ge gehyrad, bodiad, that ye hear, preach (it) (Matt., x, 27).
:

2. pxt pxt, whatever: pxt pxt lator bid, pxt hxfd

angin, whatever later
is, that has beginning (Hom., i, 284).
se6,pxt with indeclinable sign pe : Augustinum, pone pe hi gecoren
3. Se,

hxfdon, Augustine, whom (the one that) they had chosen (Bed., 1, 23) pd ;

ungeledfsuman, pdrd pe hi pd gereorde ne cMan, the unbelievers, of whom

 RELATIVES. I79

they the speech did not know (Bed., 1, 23) pxt pe^lmtte may refer to a. ;

sentence (Bed., 2, 7).

i. pe alone: se stun, ptc,i\\Q stone, that (the builders rejected) (INIc, xii,

10) pa mdctmas, pe, the treasures, that (thou gavest me) (B., 1482)
; ;
—an
'antecedent omitted nu synd fordfarene pe sohton, now are gone (those)
: who
sought (Matt., ii, 20).
From 7;e a preposition is usually separated Jjxt bed,pe se lama on Ixg, :

the bed that the lame one on lay (Mc, ii, 4).
5. Spylc —
spylc : he sice spylcne hldford, spylcne he pille, he may seek
such a lord, as he may choose (^ds., v, 1, 1) ; spylce burh, spylce seo pies,
such a city, as it was (Oros., ii, 4, 5).
6. Spa :
spylcrd yrmdd, spa pu unc &r serife, of such miseries, as thou
to us before assigned (Ex., 373, 2). Compare German so, Engl, as, and
§382,2.
381. —B. Personal Pronouns.
1. Alone. In O. H. German, clauses with the personal pronouns are
made relative without further sign Fatcr unser du pist in himilum, our
:

Father, who (thou) art in heaven (Schade, 8; Grimm, iii, 17).

2. Personals -witli indeclinable pe or se : hpxt ic hdtte, pc ic land
redfige, what am I called, who (i. e. I) the land ravage? (Rid., 13, 14) ;
se

mec, whom (i. e. me) (Ex., 144, 9) ; Jie pe, (we) who (Cri., 25) ;
Fxdcr
ure,pu pe earl on Jieofenum, our Father, who (thou) art in heaven (Matt.,
vi, 9); /e Jju, (Hy., 8, 13); 7;e he (Psa., Ixvii, 4); pe his, whpse (Psa.,

xxxix, 4) pe him, to whom (Psa., cxlv, 4)^se him (C, 201, 31)
; Jje sep- ;
—
arated hpxt se god pxre,pe pis his bedcen pxs, of what sort the god was,
:

that this was his sign=:whose sign this was (El., 162). The German re-

tains this idiom, du, der du hist, etc. The Gothic uses ikei (ik-\-ei), puti,

izei.

3. Pergonals -with se pe : se bid Jeofust, se pe him God sylcd, he is

dearest, (he) to whom God giveth (Vid., 132). Compare § 384, a.

382 — C. Interrogatives.
1. Hpxt; —
indirect interrogativc>relativc ne rxdde ge pxt hpxt Dauid :

dyde, have ye not read (that) what

David did (Luc, vi, 3) nxfdon hpxt ;

hig xton, they had not what they might

eat (Mc, viii, 1).

Hpd (who) appears as a proper relative first in its dative warn, loan in
Layamon (2, G32 3, 50), in its genitive whas and dative loham in Or-
;

mulum (3425, 10370). The nominative who is found sometimes with

a pronominal antecedent in WyclifTc, A.D. 1382-3 (Isa., 1, 10), and be-
comes common as a full relative in Berners' Froissart, A.D. 1523.

2. Spd hpd spd, spd hpxt spa, spd hpylc (spd), whosoever, whatsoever,

whichsoever Isete ic hine, spd hpd spd cymed, I will let him, whosoever
:

cometh (sit by me) (C, 28, 20) spd hpxt spd (Matt., xvi, 19) spd hpylc
; ;

spd (Matt., X, 42 Bed., 2, 2) spa hpylc (Psa., cxxxvii, 4).

; ;

itself as a relative in Layamon.

Hpylc (which) appears by
383. Attraction, {a.) The relative is sometimes attracted to the case
180 RELATIVES. —INDEFINITES.

of its antecedent :
haligu trcop, seo pu healdest, ho]y troth,
which thou bold-
est (C, 2II!1). But see ^ 384, a.
The relative is to the gender of a noun in its own
sometimes attracted
(i.)
clause :
fulpiht-tid, pxne (M) Tpelfta-da>g hdtad, baptism-time, which they
Twelfth-day call (Men., 13).
(c.) For relative adverbs, sec ^^ 396-398.

384. Incorporation. The same word may represent both antecedent

and relative. It may have the case (a.) of the antecedent: gebyrgde pxs

gepeoXjtz.sieA. of
what grew (C, 483); such cases are frequent, /a"5=/>a;5
pe. Those in ^ 383, a, may be similar, seo^seo pe, seo appositive with
treop. Compare ^ 381, 3. {b.) Of the relative hi rnefdon hpxt lug xton, :

they had not what they might eat (Mc, 8, 1).

Here the clause hpxt h'lg
3&ton is the object of nxfdon. (c.) The case of /e is not discriminated.

For examples, see ^ 380, 4.

885. Omission. Phrases of naming often lack their subject an mimac, :

Bnhtnod pxs gehdten, a monk (who) was called Brihtnoth (Chr.,963);

sealde dne peopene, Bala hdtte, gave her a maid, (who) was called Bilhah
=01d Eng. Bilhah hight (Gen. xxix, 29). M. H. German used the same
idiom. Similar phrases sometimes have a relative expressed, sometimes a

personal pronoun : se pxs hdten Penpald,

who was called Penwald (St. G.,
1) ; Agado he pxs gehdten (Chr.,675). Com\t^.xe gefor JElfred, pxs gerefa,
Alfred died (who) was sheriff (Chr., 90G). But the Anglo-Saxon does not
omit the relative freely, like the English.

Indefinites, § 136.
386. An: —indefinite article: an man hxfde tpegen sund, sl man had
two sons (Matt.,xxi, 28) ; dstdh on hine spa an culfre, (the Spirit) descended
on him, like a dove (Luc, iii, 22) seldom, if ever, in poetry but a pretty
; ;

indefinite an after its noun occurs he eordsele dnne pisse, he knew a cav-
;

ern (B., 2410) ;

—
with numeral or measure an fiftlg sealmds, a fifty :

psalms (iEds., dne healfe tide, a half time (W. P. T., 12); an gear
5, 3) ;

an man, they ruled a year a man=:each man one year (Oros., 2, 2, 3) ;

dne fedpa pordd, a few words (Nic, 11), dne is plural and means only.
(a.) The English aw>a has several shades of meaning. A nurse said, "a spoonful an
hour a dose for a child till a doctor co7nes"=:A certain nurse said, "one spoonful each
is

hour is tchat 'is called dose for any child till some doctor comes." The first, second, and
third of these uses are sometimes found in Anglo-Saxon, as in Latin (unus). Our sec-
ond example is nearly the fourth use, which is the most characteristic use of the proper

article, i. e., simple sign of a singular use of a generic term but compare it is a dove
:

with it is like a dove. Nan means not any : is nun cam, is there not any care ? (Mc, 10,
40). The Goth, ains translates Gr. Jt; sums, tic. O. Norse einns is sometimes pro-
clitic, so Germ, einer. See sum.

{b.) An (indefinite pronoun) is adjective or substantive. Peculiar uses :

(1) his dncs crxft, his own power (C, 272)

seemed to — {2)puhte pe dnum, it

—
;

thy se//(Sat., 55) (3) an xfter dnum (Sal., 385)=anne and dnne (Oros.,
;

2, 3)=a« xfter eallum (B., 2268)=a« xfler odrum (Sat., 26)=:dnes and
 NUMEEALS. 181
\

odres (Met., 25, 52), one after another; (4) butan pdm dnum, except the
—
ones (Sat., 147) for unc dnum tpdm, for us two alone (Rid., 61, 15) —
—
; ;

(5) dn Slum, only son (Rid., 81, 10) pxt pxs an cyning, that was a
; (6)

(true) king (B., 1885);

— (7) dnrd with indefinite pronouns: dnrd gehpylc,
each one «of
ones) (Matt., xxvi, 22) so sbghpylc (Gu., 4) hpd, gehpd, ;

etc., compare gehpylc Jjegnd, each of thanes=each thane (B., 1673) (8)
;

;
—
dnes fipxt, somewhat, in any degree (Boet., 18, 3) (9) 07i dn, in one, to- ;
—
gether, once for all (Psa., cxxxii, 1 ; Ixxxii, 9 ; lii, 4).
38V. Nan, a;nig, nxnig have both substantive and adjective syntax.
388. Sum; (I) indefinite article=art; sum man hxfde tpegen sund, a
man had two sons (Luc, xv, 11), see § 386 (2) pronoun dnum he sealde ;
— :

fif pund, sumuin tpd, to one he gave five pounds, to another two (Matt.,
XXV, 15) ;
— (3) eode eahta sum, he went one of eight (B., 3123) — (4) sum
—
;

feol, some (seed) fell by the way (Mc, 4, 4); (5) sume pd bocerds, some
(of) the scribes (Matt., ix, 3) sume ge, some of you (John, vi, 64), see ^
—
;

287, c ; (6) sume ten gear, some ten years (Boet., 38, 1), see ^ 148.
389. Man, pilit, dpiht, ndpiht :
gif mon pif ofsled, if one a woman
slay (^If. B., 9) ; l&de mon hider, some one led hither (Bed., 2, 2) lades ;

piht, anything of pain (painful) (Ex., 144, 1); opiht elles, anything else,
something (Bed., 3, 22) ; nopiht yfeles, nothing evil (Bed., 2, 12) ; so nun
pmg grenes, nothing green (Exod., x, 15).
390. and compounds hpd^=-m,an, any one (Matt., xxi, 3 Mrc, 12,
Hpd :
;

19) spylces hpxt, some what (B., 880), summ whatt appears in Orm, 958
; ;

gehpd, each (Mc, 15, 24); wghpd, each (Rid., 66, 2); hpxt-hugu, some
what (Bed., 1, 27).
891. Gehpxder, each of two, dhpxder, any, are substantive, xghpxder,
either of two (Bed., 2, 3; 1,7), of many (B., 1636), subst. and adj.
392. Compounds of -lie arc used substantively and adjectively xlc, :

each, every (Matt.,vii, 17 xx, 2), xuer xlc'^everyche'^every appears in

;

Layamon, 2814 selc with oder, are both inflected hi cp&don selc to odrum,
;
:

they said, each to the others (Mc, 4, 41) xlc odres fet, each wash the ;

other's feet (John, xiii, 14) ; spike pr't, some three (Luc, 1, 56).

Numerals, §§ 13 8-14 8.
393. Cardinals : oftenest substantive with gen. :
feopertig dagd, forty
(of) (Jays (C, 1351); with of: dn of pisum, one of these (Matt.,v, 19);
— apposition: dn fftig sealmds,
a fifty psalms (^(Is., 5, 3); with —
pronoun hi pry, they three (Ex., 190, 11)
: alone pd forman tpd, the ;
— :

first two (^pair), Adam and Eve (C, 194) adjective mid L scipum, ;
— :

with fifty ships (Chr., 1052) ; tyn pusend, ten thousand (Matt., xviii,
24). Compounds with and : six and fiftig, 56 (Bed., 2, 5) with Ixs, ;
—
pana, butan: tpd Ixs XXX,
28 (Chr., 641); dnes pana prittigum,
thirty less one (Bed., 1, 1) tpentig butan dn, 19 (Bed., 5, 19) ; numerals
;

with sum, see § 388, and compare French quclque, Gr. ns.
182 NUMERALS.— ADVERBS.
For ordinal dates: sixtigum jnntrd, 60 years (=GOth year) B.C. (Bed.,
1,
—2) ;
multiplicative six spa micc.l, six times as much (LL., p. 398) ;
:

—distributive: ipam, by twos (Lc, 10, 1); divic and dnnc, one by one
(Oros., 2, 3, 4);
—
how often: sixtyne shium, IG times (An., 490); —
division : on tpd, in two (Ap. 11).
394. Ordinals. Adjective, witli or without an article se cahtoda dxg, :

the eighth day (St. G., 3) priddan divgc, the third day (Lc, 9, 22) ;
;
—
with of (rare) oder of his leorning-cnihtum, a second of his
:
disciples
(Matt., an operr appears in Orm., 5778
viii, 21), compounds (1) or- ;
— :

dmal-^-ordinal : p>j ipentigdan and pij fcontan, the 24th (day of Sep-
tember) (Bed., 4, 5); (2) cardinal+ordinal an and tpcntigudan, 2lst :

(Exod., xii, 18); (3) ordinal 4-cardinal : sixta edc fe opcr tigu7n, idth
(Bed., 1, 15).
Division: seofedan dihl, seventh part (Ores., 2, 4, 6); before heaJf (^

147) :
nigonteode healf gear, 18V years (Chr.,855) feurde healf hund ;

scipe, 350 ships (Chr., 851).

395. Indefinites (1.) eal eal here, the whole mob (C, 150, 12) perod
:
;

eal, the host all (C, 184, 1) eal seo &, all the law (Matt., xxii, 40) ; ;

uninflected (B., 2042, and often when parted from its noun) with ;
—
pronouns ealle, we all (C, 268, 27)
:
pe ealles pxs, all that (186, 25) ;

—
;

hig they all (Matt., xiv, 20)

ealle, substantive eallum gumend ;
:

cijnnes, all of mankind (B., 1057) georndst ealles, eagerest of all (Psa., ;

83, 12) Iipxt ealles, what on the whole (cxix, 3)

;
calrd ricost, richest ;

of all (Vid. 15, ^ 312, c) ; tpelfd ealrd, twelve in all (B.,3171).

-
(2.) Manig ;
— adjective :
manige men, many men (B., 337) rinc manig, ;

many (a) man. Germ, mancher tnann, Lat. multus vir (An., 1118);
many enne king, many a king, appears in Layamon (6591). Note the
noun mxnigeo, a crowd (Matt., viii, 18; iv, 25) ;
and often OShake-
speare's the rank-scented many, a great many ;
—substantive :
moniges
pintrd, many (of) winters (C, 1230).
(3.) Micel, much md, mdrd, more. ;

(4.)Feapa, few fed{p)um dnum, few only, a few (B., 1081)

; ; fcd{pe)rd
sumne, one of few=with few companions (B., 3061).
(5.) Lyt :
hjt freondd,{evi (of) friends (C, 2626) ; cynnes lyt-hpon,ie\v
of the race (Jud.,31]). For hpon, see Grein.

ADVERBS.
395*. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
Adverbs could for the most part be parsed as cases of nouns, as they were,
^251. They make
Adverbial combinations : he peup biterlice, he wept bitterly (Matt.,

xxvi, 75) ; spa geongum, so young (B., 1843) spa miceles gepdh, he
;

throve so greatly (C, 186, 24).

 INTERROGATIVE.—DEMONSTRATIVE. 183

Predicative, mostly adverbs of place hps^r is se luded cynmg, where :

is the Jews' king'? (Matt., ii, 2) pe her bedn,we are here (Mc, 9, 5)
— expletives, so
; ;

p£r ic eom, there I am (Matt., xviii, 20) ; called, //;£/•

peard geporden mycel eontbifung, there was a great earthquake

(Matt., xxviii, 2).
Attributive, rare : min lu magtster, my of-yore master (Bed., 5, 10).
396. Interrogative and demoustrative adverbs may be used like

their pronouns, §§ 252, 2G0.

A. To govern a case hp&r eordan Abel pxre, where (:=in what part)
:

of the earth Abel was (C, 1003) hpider (Jul., 700)

;
governed sell pxr :
— :

pu on sitest, seat where on thou sittest (Hy., 7, 41), so other prep, often.
B. To introduce clauses.

3 9 7. — I. Leading Clauses.
Declarative introduce a clause like an indefinite hit (^ 365,
:
Jjxr may
5):
pie?' peard geporden mycel eordbifung, there
was a great earthquake,
Germ, es geschah em gross erdbeben, Gr. ffeiapiug iysvtro, Lat. terra: motus
factus est (Matt., xxviii, 2) hence so-called expletive there.
—Interrogation mayEnglish
;

Interrogative. relate to the general affirmation of

a sentence, or to some particular point connected with it, the subject, ob-

ject, time, place, mayiner.

(1.) General questions are expressed by inversion or tone: hwfst pu
hafoc, hast thou a hawk? (^Ifc.) by hpxdcr with the subjunctive: ;
—
hpxder ge nu pillen psedan, will(Met., 19, 15). ye now hunt?
(3.) Particular questions are expressed by interrogative pronouns or
adverbs hpier is heord God, where is their God ? (Psa., cxiii, 10)
:
;

hpider, wh'iihexl: (C, 2269); ^anon, whence ? (B., 333). For pro-
nouns, see ^ 377-8.
(a.)Negative questions add ne : ne drincst pu, pin, dost thou not drink
wine? (^Ifc).

(b.)
Tlic particles ac, ah, hit, Id, are used to strengthen ques-
tions.

Ac for hpam, wherefore then? (Sal., 342) ah ne pe fordrifon, did we ;

not cast out (devils) ? Matt., vii, 22 North.) hit ne synd ge selran, ; ;

are not ye better? (Matt., vi, 20) hpxt is pis Id mannd, who is this
;

(Id) man? (El., 903) ; so are used forms of secgan and cpedan, say :

segst pu msrg se blinda pone blindan Ididan, (sayst thou) can the blind
lead the blind? (Luc, vi, 39) cpcde ge hscbbe gc sufol, (say ye) have
;

ye any meat? (John, xxi, 5) cpede pe ys jjes Dauidcs sunu, (say we)
;

is this David's son? (Matt., xii, 24).

(3.) Disjunctive questions may

have inverted clauses, or the sign
hpxdcr: ys hit riht pxt man pam Casere gafol syllc, pe nd, is it right
to give tribute to Caesar, or no? (Luc. xx, 21) hpxdcr first: hpxdcr ;

IS mdre,pe Jjwt gold,pe tempi, which is greater, the gold or the temple ?
184 ADVERBS.— rAKTICLES.

(Matt., xxiii, 17) ;

— before secontl clause :
pxs Johannes fulluht of
/icofone, hpxdcr ])c of mannum, was John's baptism of heaven, or of
men? (Luc., xx, 4).

3 9 8. — II. SUBOKDINATE CLAUSES.

Indirect questions: frwgn, hp&r Abel pxre, asked where Abel was
1.

(C, 1003). Sec furtlicr, ^^ 424, 425.

2. Relative clauses has, panon ic ut code, house whence (=from
:

which) I went out (Matt., xii, 44) ; /la dagds, ponne se hrydguma byd
afyrred, the days when
the bridegroom shall be taken away (Lc, 5, 35) ;

on st&nihte, p;tr hyt ncpfde mycle eordan, on stony ground, where it had not
much earth (Matt., xiii, 5).
(a.) The relative adverb is often made a conjunction by incorporation
(^ 384) : ne mage ge cuman pider ic fare, ye may not come whither I go
(John, viii, 21).

Paeticles of Affirmation and Negation, § 261.

399. Answers. The particles gea, gese, ne, nese, na, in
answer to general questions, have the syntax of declarative
clauses. (Other tongues have particles of like syntax.)
(a.) They are quasi-clauses, ^ 278, J.- lufdst pu me? ged, lovest thou me.
Yea (=1 love thee) (John, xxi, 16) gise, Id gese, yes, O yes (Boet., 16,
4) ;
—object of a verb :
;

no (Luc, xii, 51) nd

ne, secge ic eop, I say to you, ;

(xiii, 3) ;
nese
60) ; cpyst pu, eart pu of Pyses leorning-cnihium ? nic, ne
(i,

com ic, art thou of his disciples? Not I, I am not (John, xviii, 17).
400, Negative Adverbs. Repeated negatives strengthen
the negation. (So in old Teutonic and Greek, not in Latin.)
1. General negation is expressed by ne. It may be repeated before the
verb, subject, object, adverb ne on mode ne mum, do not mourn in mind
:

(An., 99) ndn spile ne cpom, none such comes (Cri., 290) ne ndn ne
;
;

dorste ndn ping dcsian, no one durst ask him anything (Matt., xxii, 46) ne ;

pep pu nd, weep not at all (Lc, 7, 13).

(a.) A positive word of emphasis may be added ic ne :
forhtige piht,
I shall not fear a whit (Psa., Ixi, 2) ;
often ndpiht (Matt., xxvii, 24) ; so
French point, pas.
2. Particular negation is expressed by un-, -Icds, nd, nalxs, noht: nalws
ridende on horse, ac on his fotum gangende, not riding on horseback, but
going on his feet (Bed., 3, 28) ;
nalxs micelre tide, no long time (4, 6) ; heo
cpemanne Gode mid pordum, nxs jnid peorcum, they try to please
tiliad to
God with words, not with works (Psa.,xlviii, 12) noht feor, not far (4, 3). ;
 SYNTAX.— VERB. 185

USES OF THE VERB-FORMS.

Peksonal Endings.
Agreeme7it.
401. A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and
person.
(a.) Participles in compound tenses agree passives pes pu gehletsod, ;
— :

be thou blest (An., 540) pesad ge gebletsdde, be ye blest (Psa., cxiii, 23)
; ;

— perfect her syndon geferede, here have come (B., 361).

: After habban,
transitive participles agree with the object, intransitives have no ending :

he hsefit mon geporhtne, he has man made (C, 25, 18) ; hie gcgdn hcrfdon,
they had gone (Jud., 140). But the endings early fell away. See further
examples, ^^ 412-419.
402. Simple Subject. — 1. Its forms. 1. A substantive. 2. An adjec-
tive used as a substantive. 3. A pronoun. 4. A numeral, 5. An infin-

itive. G. Any word or phrase as such. 7. A clause, or clauses. So in all

tongues. Impersonals generally have their subject hit. For examples,

see ^ 366, 5. See /at;-, ^ 397. Indefinite personals (man, etc)., see ^§
389, 390.
2. Collectives singular may take a plural verb by synesis : se here

gebrohton, the
army brought (their ships) (Chr., 1016) a singular and ;
—
plural past folc
: swt * *, and drison, the people sat, and they arose (Exod.,
xxxii, 6) se here spar pxt hie poldon, the army swore that they would
;

(Chr., 921) pin ofspring sceal dgan heord feondd gata, ihy offspring
;
shall
oi their foes (Gen., xxii, 17).
possess the gates
3. Numerals plural may take a singular verb, generally before them :

pa pxs dgan V pinlrd,

was gone 5000 years (Chr., 616, 655). Com-
then
her manners (?) (Chr., 10G7).
pare him gelkdde hire pedpds, him pleased
403. subject, ^ 283.
Compound
Copulate singulars take a plural (1) after them regularly: Maria and
Martha p&ron tpd gespi/slru, Mary and Martha were two sisters (Hom., 1,
—
]30); before them sometimes: pa cp&don Annanias, Azarias, Misahel,
then said Ilananiah, Azariah, Mishael (Hom., 2, 18) ;— oftener pd peard :

he gedrcfed, and eal Hierosolim-paru, then was he troubled, and all Jeru-
salem folks (Matt, iii, 2).
(fl.) Copulate
words may be really a simple subject, 1, a repetition of
the same notion, often a climax ?nm sdpl and mind is spydc gedrcfed,
: mm
my soul and my mind is greatly troubled (Psa., vi, 2 Milton, P. L., 1, 139) ; ;

— complements of one notion jlvbsc and blud ne xtedpde pe,

2,
: flesh and

blood hath not showed to thee (Matt., xvi, 17, North. so Lat., Greek, etc.) ; ;

tor and burh stod, tower and burg stood (C, 102, 17 Milton, P. L., 2, 495 ; ;

6, 814, etc.).
ip.) Logical copulates connected by a preposition may take a plural by
186 VERB.— AGREEMENT. —KINDS.

eynesis fcond mid his gefcrum fcollon. the fiend with

: sc (=:an(]) his
mates (C, 300). JSo in Latin, Greek, and elsewhere.
fell

404. Agreement -with a predicate may take place

1. When the subject is pis or pxt :
pis synt pa bcbodu, these are the
statutes (Lev., xxvi, 4G) ; Jjxt poiron pa iurestan scipu, those were the first

ships (Chr., 787).

2. When the subject is remote
gyf pxt Icoht 7;e on pe ys, synt pystru,
:

ifthe light that is in thee is darkness, Lat, tencbra sunt (Matt., vi, 23), and
in other cases when the predicate is the more important to the thought.

405. Omission of the subject occurs (1) with imperatives, (2) where
itwould be repeated, (3) with reflexives, (4) in other rare cases, mostly of
the first and second persons (for examples, see § 3GG) of the verb ;
— :

(1) the verb to be in exclamatory claus^^s pa eop,'woe (be) to you (Matt., :

xxiii, 13, Cambridge) pel gesund, Apolloni, (may you

; be) very well, Apol-
lonius (Ap., 7) ;
—elsewhere p&r Icoht and
(rare) :
lif, in heaven, where (is)

light and life (C, 212, 26) ; (2) to

phrases: edge for edge,
give in certain

and tod for tod, an eye (must be given) for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth
(Matt., V, 38). For hpxt, what, ^ 377, b. For omission of the infinitive
with auxiliaries, §^ 435-443. Answers, ^ 399.

40G. The Kinds of Vekbs.

Notional, § 55.
Intransitive, ^ 275, a.
Transitive, ^^ 275, a ; 290, h.

Copulative, ^^ 273, b ; 286, c.

Impersonal, ^^ 290, c; 299, a; 366,5.

Reflexive, ^^ 150, a; 290, d; 298, c.
Factitive, ^^ 275, a ; 294, a.

Causative, § 292, c.

Relational, §§ 150-152; 176; 212; 435-443.

The emphatic form in do (^ 177, 2) spa dod nu pa pe astro pidstan-
(a.) :

dan, (as a great rock withstands), so does now the darkness withstand
(Boet., 6). This perhaps never occurs in Anglo-Saxon except as a repeti-
tion of a verb just used. See a possible example (Psa., cxviii, 25) Grein.
But do+an object clause occurs as an emphatic form : ne do pu &fre, Prxt

pu oncyrre^^ne avertas, do not (thou ever, that thou) turn away (Psa.,
cxxxi, lO) so cxviii, 97, 174, 170, etc.
;

(ft.) The same verb may be in the same author

notional in one connection, relational in
another so also transitive and intransitive, reflexive and not, causative and
; not, and the
like.

(c.) Historically verbs change from one kind to another; especially from notional to
relational, from intransitive to transitive (causal), from transitive to intransitive. They
acquire factitive, reflexive, or passive senses, or drop them. Snch changes may be noted
in comparing Anglo-Saxon verbs with their English descendants. See impersonal and
reflexive examples at the §5 referred to above.
 VOICES.—TENSES. 187

Voices, § 15 0.
407. A transitive verb may take two forms as the agent or the object is

made more prominent.

408. Active. The active voice is used to make tlie agent
liie subject of predication.

(a.) It is the common form of all verbs.

409. Passive. The passive voice is used to make the direct

object of the action the subject of predicatiou.
For its forms, see ^§ 1T8-182, and tenses, ^§ 412-416.
(a.) The agent is expressed with passive verbs by an oblique case after
fram, purh, or the like fram Siluestre l&rde p&ron, they were taught by
:

Silvester (El., 190).

(J.) A factitive object becomes a predicate nominative Crist pxs :

Hxlend gehdten, Christ was called HMend (Saviour) (Men., 4) but if ;

expressed with a preposition, it is unchanged :

pxs to pdpan geset, was
made pope (Chr., 1058).
(to a)

(c.) Other objects are unchanged with passives (dative) pws skrende :

cedelum cempurn dboden, the message was given to the noble knights (An.,
230);
— impersonals me gepuht^^me Pyncd, seems me (Ex., 163,
: is it to

6)
—genitive bedmds p&ron ofxtes gehlxdene, trees were laden with
: fruit
—instrumental
;

(C, 30, 4) ; lohannes pxs heafde becorfen, John was cut

:

off from his head (Bed., 1, 27).

410. Middle. For middle forms, see ^^ 150, a ; 290, d; 298, c.

Tense, § 15 2.

411. In relation to time action

represented by A. -Sax. verbs is

as in its own nature indefinite, continued, or completed ; and in

regard to the time of speaking ^% present, 'past, or future.

Indefinite. Continued. Completed.
ic nime, ic eom nimende, ic hxbbe numen,
Present 5
\l take. I am
taking. I have taken.
c ic nime, ic bed nimende,
Future < ic sceal (pillc) niman, I shall be taking, I shall have taken.
f I shall (will) take.
ic nam, ic pxs nimende, ic hxfde numen,
Past
I took. I was takinjr. I had taken.
For subordinate clauses, see ^ 418.

The endings of the Anglo-Saxon verb

412. discriminate only-
past time from other time.
1. The so-called present tense is used for present and future acts.
2. The so-called imperfect is used for all
past acts.
188 I^'DICATIVE TENSES.

3. Compound forms in wliich the auxiliary has the present form discrim-
inate varieties oi present a.nd future action.
4. Compound forms in which the auxiliary has the imperfect form dis-
criminate varieties o? past action.
(a.) The present, future, and perfect are called principal tenses ; the

imperfect and pluperfect, historical tenses.

Indicative Tenses.
413. The Present expresses
(1.) What exists or is taking place now :
pone maditum byred, he bears
the treasure (B., 2055) —progressive :
peos corde is berende, the land
—
;

is bearing (=produces) (diverse birds) (Bed., 1, 1) passive: ic eom ;

gelufod, I am loved (^If. Gr., 26) corde is gecpeden Godes fot- ;

sceamel, earth is called God's foot-stool (Horn., 2, 448) ; pyrd bereafdd

(Met., 28,42) bead fangene (Bed., 1, 1).
;

(2.) Customs and truths : p^r pin goldheord zs, peer is pin heorte, where
thy treasure is, there is thy heart (Matt., vi, 21).

(3.) Author's language : se pitega lis mandd, the prophet exhorts us

(Horn., 2, 124, rare).
(4.) Future :
cvfter prim dagon ic arise, after three days I shall arise
(Matt., xxvii, 63) ;
ne givst pu panone, wr pu agilde, thou shalt not go
thence, till thou shalt have paid (Matt., v, 26).
(5.) Imperative : six dagds pu pircst, § 430, c.
(6.) Narrative clause dependent on a past tenss hpi noldest pu secgan :

Jjxt hco pin plf is, why didst thou not say that she is thy wife? (Gen.,
xii, 18, frequent). ^ 419, III.
414. The Imperfect (preterit) expresses
(1.) What took place or was
occurring in time fully past: he sxgde,
he said (they were magicians) (Jul., 301) progressive: spa ic xr
—
—
;

secgende pxs, as I was saying before (An., 951); passive: ic pxs

gelufod, I was loved (^If. Gr., 2G) pd pxs pridpord sprecen, then a ;

mighty word was spoken (B., 642) pur don heofends ontynede, the ;

heavens were opened (Matt., iii, 16).

(2.) Perfect nu Pm Ixtst Jnnne peop, forpam mine eagan gesdpon P»ne
:

hxle, now lettest thou thy servant depart, for mine eyes have seen thy
(Luc, 2, 30).
salvation

(3.)Pluperfect pd hi Jjxt gebod gehyrdon, pd ferdon lug, when they had

:

heard the command, they went (Matt., ii, 9).

415. The Future is expressed (1.) by the present, ^ 412 (future perfect,
§ 413,
— progressive bead feohtende,
4) ;
: will be fighting (Jos., x, 25) ;

— passive: beo gelufod, ic be loved (^If. Gr., 26) I shall

xlc trcop ;

byd forcorfcn, each tree shall be hewn down (Matt, iii, 10 Luc, 6, 38) ; ;

pyrd him pile gegearpod, punishment shall be prepared for them (C,
28, 6).
 INDICATIVE TENSES. 189

(2.) ic pe sceal mine gelxstan freode, I shall keep my regard

By seed :
for thee (B., 1706) J)u scealt peordan, thou shalt be (=wilt be) a
;

comfort to the people (B., 1707) ; sceal gar pesan hxfen on handd,
spear shall be raised in hand (B., 3021) he sceal pesan
Ismahel hdten, ;

he shall be called Ishmael (C.,2286); sceal pesan prutende (C, 17C2).

(3.) By pille: pene ic pxt he gyldan pille, I think that he will pay (B.,
1184); pu pill secgan, thou, wilt say (Met., 24, 48); Northumb. has
often uuillo in the first person (Matt., xii, 44 ; x, 33).
(4.) By gd : he gxd rsedan, Lat. pergit lectum, he is going to read (^Elf.

Gr., 25), Fr. Je vais lire. See ^ 445, and uton, ^ 443.
6,

(5.) By hsp-bhe :
pone calic pe ic to drincenne hxbbe. North, done ic drinca
uuillo, the cup that I have to (=: shall) drink of, Lat. iibiturus sum
(Matt.,xx, 22) ;
rare. See i^ 453, a. So in Goth., Romanic.
(6.) By eom : Mannes Sunu is to syllenne. North, sunu monnes gesald
bid, the Son of Man is to (^ shall) be betrayed, Lat. tradendus est
(Matt., xvii, 22). See ^451. The three last forms perhaps give no
pure futures in the Anglo-Saxon literature.
(7.)The future perfect is not discriminated. In its place may be a fu-
ture ser pu dgilde, thou shalt not go thence, before (=till) thou shalt
:

have paid (Matt., v, 26) a perfect: pit eft cumad siddan pit dgifen
;

habbad, we will come again, after we (shall) have completed (C, 174,
25).
(a.) The future forms are sometimes imperative, ^ 420, c.

(b.) Pure futures in sceal and pille are not sure in large numbers, and the

English distinction between the persons is not made out.

41G. The Perfect represents an action as now come to completion. It

is denoted

(1.) By hwbbe : he hxfd mon geporhtne, he has made man (C, 25, 18) ;

pe habbad lydre gefcred, we have got along badly (Sat., 62).

(2.)By eom, with a few intransitives mostly of being and going: ic eom
hider gefered, I am (have) hither journeyed (C, 498) so synd ford- ;

farene, have departed (died) (Matt., ii, 20) dgdn, gone (El., 1227) ; ;

geporden, geseten, urnen,

Passive: eom + pp. of transitives : ealle ping me synd gesealde, all

things have been given me (Matt., xi, 27) ;

— eom geporden-{-p. p. : nii

hi Ixxii, 15; ic pxs fulfremedlke

syndon gepordene tolysde (Psa.,
gehifod:=amatus sum (iElf. Gr., 26).
417. The Pluperfect represents an action as completed at some definite

past time. It is denoted

(1.) By hine geporhtne, he had made him (C, 17,4);
hsefde: hxfde
gefaren h.rfdon, they had gone (Bed., 1, 23).
(2.) By pxs with such
as liave a perfect in eom: pxs pd Icnctcn dgdn,

spring had gone (El., 1227). Passive pxs-^-^^. p. of transitives J)d :

— :

se Hdilend gefullod pxs, he dsldh, when the Saviour had been baptized,
he came up (Matt., iii, 10) ;
—pxs gepordcn-\-i>. p. : ccaru pxs genipod
 190 TENSES— MODES.
gcpordcn, care had been renewed (B., 1304) ;
ic pxs gefyrn gelufdd=
Lat. amatus cram (/Elf. Gr., 20).

Subjunctive Tenses.
418. The
tenses follow in general those of the indicative, but
time indefinitely expressed in relation to the speaker. Futurity
is

runs with doubtful possibility. In indirect sentences the time is

to be taken in relation to that of the principal verb.

The Imperfect often expresses time as future from a past of the

prin-
cipal verb :
spor pxt ic hine ham brohte, I swore that I ivould bring him
ic

home (Gen., xliv, 32) ;

—
with auxihary pohtan pxt hit ofergdn sceolde,
:

they thought that would po by (Chr., 1053)

it
Jhvt sceoldon
—pold bodian,
;

wished that ihey should preach (Horn., 2, 20) ; Future perfect: pxt polde
pijncan pundorlic, gif sbnig sbr pam ssbde pmt hit spa gepurdan sceolde, that
would have seemed wonderful if any before that had said that it should so
happen (Chr., 1052).

Sequence of Tenses.
419. Principal tenses depend on principal tenses; historical on
historical.

Exceptions. I. Present —
Past, (a.) +
present narration or question of A
a past fact cart pu se mon pe p&re afed, art thou the man who was fed ?
:

(Boet., 3, 1) ;
—
comparison of present and past he is gen spa he pxs,he is :

still as he was (Ex., 334, 5). II. Perfect + Past

pii hsefst forgiten para :

poipnd pe ic pe sealde, thou hast forgotten the weapons that I gave thee
(Boet., 3, 1). III. Past 4- Present —
a truth in narrative: pa Sciddeds, pje
;

on odre healfe bugiad, ne geheordon, the Scythians, who live on the other
side, had not heard (the Roman name) (Boet., 18, 2); quasi oratio directa
—
in past narration ^ 413, 6.
:
Compare ^ 288, c.

MODES.
The Indicative, § 151.
420. The indicative is used in assertions, questions, and
assumptions to express simple predication.
(a.) Primary. It is the primary form, to be used
every where unless
there is reason for some other.
{b.) Real. — Since there is a special mode for what may be and might be,
the indicative is used in contrast to speak of things as real ox fact. So in
a protasis,
^431.
(c.) Imperative. —Tiie indicative future may be used for the imperative :

six dagds pu pircst, six days shalt thou labor (Exod., xxxi, 15) ;
ne pylt pu
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 191

me gcsajndan, Lat. noli me confundere, please not confound me (Psa.,

cxviii, 31). So in Greek (Hadley, 710) and Latin (Harkness, 470).

The Subjunctive, § 151.

The subjunctive
421. is used to express mere possibil-
ity, doubt, or wish.
The Teutonic subjunctive has the general range of the Latin subjunctive,
with the infinitive having a subject accusative. Compare ^ 293, a.
together
1. In declarative sentences (hypothetical): mere briutor dead, ray mm
brother would not have died (Joh., xi, 21) punigc pxr he punige, he may ;

dwell where he may dvvell=wherever he may dwell (^ctr., vi, 3, 1). So

in Greek (Hadley, 722) and Latin (Harkness, 48G).
2. Interrogative sentences (doubt) :
fipd nc m&ge pdfian, who can fail

to wonder'? (Met., 28, 43) ; hpi pu xfre polde, how couldst thou ever wish 1

So in Greek (Hadley, 720, c) and Latin (Harkness, 486).

(Met., 4, 33).
3. 1st person (exhortation or request) fare pe
Imperative sentences ;
:

on tunas, go we
towns (Mc, i, 38) up-dhebben pe his naman, exalt
to the ;

we his name (Psa., xxxiii, 3) ulon gdn, let us go (Mc, 14, 42) ;— 2d
;

person(comn^and) ne sperigen ge, swear not (/Elf. LL. 48) nellon ge

: ;

pesan, do not be (Matt., vi,16);— 3d person (wish, demand) si Gode lof, :

God sib si mid eopic, peace be with you (Ex.,

praise be to (Chr., 1009) ;

282, 25) ; beon gegaderode pa pxteru, let the waters be gathered (Gen., i,

9). So in Greek (Hadley, 720, a) and Latin (Harkness, 487).

4. Exclamatory (wish, abridged subordinates) : Ed la ! Jjxt hit purdc,
Oh ! that it might be (Met., 8, 39) ; Ed Id !
gif ic moste geefenl&can, Oh !

if Imight imitate (the blessed Lawrence) (Horn., 1, 432) Ed Id! gif pu ;

p&re hund, Ah if (=would) thou wert a dog (Horn., 2, 308). So in Greek

!

(Hadley, 721) and Latin (Harkness, 488, 1).

5. Li Co-ordinate and Subordinate clauses the subjunctive may every

where be used as in the above examples to express a separate possibility,

doubt, or wish. Disjunctives (doubt) : sam pe pillan, sam pe nyllan,
whether we will, or nill (Boet., 34, 12) ;
5/ hit man, si hit nyten, be it man,
be it beast (Exod., xix, 13). For adversatives, ^ 432 ;
for causals,

^ 433.
(rt.) Subordinates share in the general posBibility, donbt, or desire of their sentence,
and take the subjunctive iu many cases where it is not obviously the expression of either.

Hence the following discussion, §§ 422-434.

The Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses.

422. The subjunctive maybe used by attraction in clauses

subordiuate to a subjunctive.
(a.) Cases
of so-called attraction are mostly better explained as illogical
conformation with some of the other rules ponne pu &nig ping bcgite pxs :

pe ]m pene pxt me licige,

when thou any thing mayst take of that thou
192 SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES.

maijstknow {=knowcst) tliat may please vie (=/ like) (Gen., xxvii, 3).
Compare Latin (llarkness, 5'37), Greek (lladley, 738).

A. Substantive Clauses,§ 283.

423. The subjunctive may be used in a substantive clause
expressing something said^ asked, ViougJit, ioished, or do7ie.

(a.)The indicative is used iu the same clauses to emphasize reality or fact, § 420, 6.
These clauses ofteuest represent an inlinitive with a subject accusative in Latin and
(6.)

Greek, but sometimes in them also the subjunctive is used (Harkness, 549-558 Hadley •

703+).

424 — I. The clause may be a

subject, oftenest of a copula, impersonal
or passive.

(a.) An indirect assertion or question hit is sxd pmt he

dhofe, it is said
:

that he raised (up his hands) (Bed., 3, 16) ; ne pses me cud,

hpxder egesa
piire, it was not known to me, whether there was fear (of God) (C, 2710).
(b.) Something cognized: puhte him pxt fxgre stode pudubcam,it seem-
ed to him that a forest tree stood fair (C, 247, 17).
(c.) Something to be desired, as fit, necessary, enough, pleasant, etc. :

Jje ys betere,pxt an Jnnrd forpeorde, it is better for thee that one of

thy
members perish (Matt., v, 30) gedafenad pxt hi heard Idre be-
;
gymon, it

seems (priests) that they their lore heed (Horn., 2, 342).

425. — II. The clause may be an object.
{a.) An indirect assertion or question:
cpedad pxt pu sie hlxfdige, they
say that thou art a lady (Ex., 18, 15) sseged pxt hit come, he says that it
;

came (from God) (C, 683) he sxgde pxt Sarra his speostor p&re, he said
that Sarah was his sister (C,
;

158, 27) ;
—hpxt secge ge pxt ic stg, what say
ye that I am? Gregorius befran hpxder folc Cristen
(Matt., xvi, 15);
pd've, pe hwden, Gregory asked whether the people Christian were or
heathen (Horn., 2, 120) frxgn gif him pxre, asked if to him were (a
;

pleasant night) (B., 1319).

{b.) Object of cognition pende pxt se mxsta dxl pxre, weened that the
:

most was (aboard) (Chr., 911) gelyfe pxt hit come, I believe that it came
;

(from God) (C, 679).

(c.) Object of desire or fear {hope, heed, doubt, pray, etc.), see § 315:
ic pylle pxt he
punige, I will that he wait (John, xxi, 22) ; hopode pxt he
gesdpe, hoped that he might see (Luc, 23, 8) so onegan, fear (C, 110, 1) ; ;

begymad, heed (Matt., vi, 1) biddad, pray (Exod., ix, 28), etc.
;

{d.) Object done d8 symble pxt ic m pine metige, I do continually that I

:

meditate thy law=English emphatic form I do meditate (Psa., cxviii, 174);

see further ^ 406, a.

426. —
III. The clause may limit a noun or adjective sylle panne ddpjxt :

he nclle pcof be6n,ta.'ke the oath that he will not a thief be (LL. Cnut.,ii,
21) heo geornast bid pxt heo dfxre fleogan, she is earnest to (that she)
;

frighten flies (Ps., 89, 10).

 IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.—ADVEKBIAI.. 193

(a.) The clause is an appositive or genitive; in

most cases might be conceived as ad-
verbial of purpose or result. The same modal idea is here in a noun or adjective which in
I. and II. ia in the verb.

B. Adjective Clauses, § 28 3.
427. The subjunctive may be used in indefinite adjective
clauses.

Hypothetical lelative sentence (Harkness, 501 Hadley, 757) syle ;

:

pam pe pe bidde, give to him that asketh thee=if any one ask (Matt., v, 42) ;

gehyre se pe edran hxbbe, let him hear who has ears (Mc., 4, 9) pyrce ;

hpd pxt pazt he pyrce, odde do pset pset he do, one may work that, that (what-
ever) he may work, or do that, that he may do (Boat., 37, 2).

C. Adverbial Clauses, §28 3.

428. — I. Clauses of Place. The subjunctive may be
used iu indefinite adverbial clauses of place. Compare § 427.
Far, p&r pu freondd pene, go where thou hopest for friends (GH., 262) ;

hafd Uetsunge pmr Pufere, take a blessing wherever thou goest (An., 224) ;

pic geceos pxr pe leofost sie, choose a residence where to thee pleasantest
may be (C, 2723). Oftenest indicative puna p&r ]je leofost ys, dwell
:

where to thee pleasantest is (Gen., xx, 15); so with spa hpdr spa, wher-
ever (Chr., 1130) ; spa hpider spa, whithersoever (Mc, 14, 14).
429.— II. Clauses of Time.
The subjunctive may be used iu adverbial clauses of future
or indefinite time. (Compare Hark., 518-523 ; Hadley, 769.)
(a.) Future: ne gxst pu panone xr pii dgylde, i\\ou. goest not thence
before thou shalt pay (Matt., v, 26) ; ic pxs &r pam pe Abraham p&re,
I was before Abraham was (Jolin, viii, 58) gesprxc Beopulf, &r he stige,
;

Beowulf said before pmiiact par 6d pset ge iitgdn,

he mounted (B., 076) ;

stay there till ye depart (Mc, he sohte 6d he funde, he sought till

6, 10) ;

he found (the cup) (Gen., xliv, 12). In Greek, vpiv with an infinitive,
Hadley, 769.
(b.) Indefinite ponrie pii fxsle, smyrd Inn heafod, when thou fastest,
:

anoint thy head (Matt., vi, 17) bad, hponne peard reste dgedfe, waited,
;

(for the time) when the Lord should give rest (C, 1428) so with penden, ;

until (B., 1224) ; spd lange spa (Deut., xxii, 29); ]m hpile pe (LL. ^Edr.,
vi, 12).

430. — III. Clauses of Manner (intensity).

The subjunctive may be used in clauses of comparison
expressing that -which is imagined or indefinite, or descrip-
tive of a force (Hark,, 501, 4).

(a.) pass se muna, spilcc he pxre mid blade hegoten, the moon was as if
it were with blood washed (Chr., 734) bete spd hit riht sie, let him pay as
;

N
19-i SUBJUNCTIVE.— CONDITIONAL.— CONCESSIVE.—FINAL.
it
may be right (LL. JE\L, 38) strciigrc ponne rose sy, (I am) more fra-
;

grant tlian any rose may be (Ex., 423, 19) }m gesyhst mare Jjonne pis sy, ;

thou shalt SCO more than this is (John, i, 50), an extreme case.
{b.) Consecutive clauses, descriptive of a force: sj>d stcarc pinter pxt ic
durre lulian, winter so severe that I dare to stay at home (.^Ifc. Col.).
Compare ^ 434.

431. —IV. Conditional Clauses, § 283, jx 141.

The subjunctive is used iu protasis when proposed as
n,

possible, the inqjer/ect when assumed as tmrcal. (So iu Latin

nud Greek, Hark., 502+ Had., 744+.) ;

(The indicative proposes as real gif gi AbraJiamcs learn synd, since ye Abraham's
:
chil-
dren are (do his works) (John, viii, 39).)

(a.) Present :
gif mec hild nime, onscnd Higeluce, if me battle take,
send to Iligelac (B., 452). For inverted clauses, ^ 485, G, c.
{b.) Imperfect gif pu pivre her, nxre min brodor dead,
: if thou hadst
been here, my brother had not died (John, xi, 32).
(c.) So with on pxt gerdd pa:t, on condition that (Chr., 945) ; pid pam pe,
same (Gen., xxix, 27).

(fZ.) Negative condition liUon hpd beo ednipan gecenned, unless one be
:

born again (he shall not see God's kingdom) (John, iii, 3) so
nefne (B., ;

1056); nemne (Ex., 124, 12) nymde (C, 205, 19) butan pxnne, {pa) ex-
; ;

cept when (Men., 32; Sat., 391).

432. —V. Concessive
Clauses.
The subjunctive may be used iu a concessive clause.

Hpxt fremad, peak he gcstryne, what profiteth it, though he gain (the
whole world) (Matt., xvi, 26); pu scealt dreogan, pcuh pin pit duge, thou
though thy wit is good (B., 589) peak pu to hanan purde,
shalt suffer, ;

though thou wast a murderer (B., 587). For inverted clauses, ^ 485, 6, c.
(a.) The indicative is used in similar clauses. The English discrimination between the
first and second examples was growing.
(6.) So in Latin (Hark., 514+) for Greek, see Iladley, 8T4.
;

433. —VI. Final Clauses. The subjunctive is used iu

ckauses expressing purpose. (So in Latin and Greek, Hark.,
500+ ; Had., 739 + .)
(a.) Present : sete p/ine hand ofcr hlg, pxt hco hdl sy and libhe, lay thy
hand upon her, that she may be whole and live (Mc, 5, 23).

(b.) Imperfect :
devil) took the woman
genam pmt pif pxt he bespice, (the
(as aid) that he might deceive (the man) (Job, 166).
(c.) Negative clauses with py hrs, Lat. quo-minns, or py Ixs /e>Eng.
lest : ssblde scip, py Ixs ydd prym forprecan mcahte, fastened the ship,
lest the waves' force might wreck it (B., 1918) ; heron, py Ixs pe pin fot
xtsporne, they bear (thee), lest (so that less by that) thy foot may dash
against (a stone) (Matt., iv, 6).
 POTENTIAL, 195

434.— VII. Consecutive Clauses.

The subjunctive may be used to express a result.

Gifmon sie dumb odde deaf geboren, J)wt he ne mxge his synnd onsec-
,gan, if one be born dumb or deaf, so that
he can not deny his crimes {JE\t\
LL., 14). Consecutive modal clauses in spa pxt, see § 430, b. So in Lat.,
Hark., 501 ;
in Greek, wort with an infinitive (Hadley, 770).

The Potential, §§ 151, 1V6.

435. The potential expresses power, liberty, permission,

necessity, or duty.

{a.) In some cases it is only a periphrastic form of the subjunctive or im«

perative ;
in most cases it adds a distinct notion of power in some form.
(b.) The indicative
form of the auxiliary sometimes takes the place of the
but generally a subjunctive clause
subjunctive ending of the principal verb,
retains the subjunctive form of the auxiliary, making a doubly-expressed
or ivish : ic nu syllan polde, I now would wish to give
possibility, or doubt,
(B., 2729).
(c.) The principal verb takes the infinitive, except after com and habban,
where the gerund is used.

(d.) The principal

verb is often omitted, especially a verb of motion before
an adverb of place. Examples under each.
430. —
1. Mceg (^^ 176, 212), physical power; declarative: ic mmg —
pesan God, I can be God (C, 18, 35)
—
(hypothetical), ecide mihte Crist
;

pum'an, easily might Christ have dwelt (Horn., 1, 164) subordinate clauses, —
—
;

e. g. conditional gifheo meahtc, if she might, (she chose) (Bed., 4, 23)

; ;

final: heo polde hire edel forlMen, pxt heo meahte geearnian, she would

give up her estate, that she might earn (one in heaven) (same) principal ;
—
verb omitted : helle gatu ne mdgon ongedn pa, hell's gates can not (prevail)
it (Matt,, xvi, 18).
against
437. —
2. Can (^^ 176, 212) ne can ic cop, I know you not (Matt., xxv,
:

12; frequent). Intellectual power; —

declarative: ic can eop l&ran,\ can
teach you (Sat., 250) subordinate clauses;
;
— conditional: ponne he ne can —
ongitan, if he can not understand (Boet., 39, 2) principal verb omitted ;
— :

saga, gifpil cunne, say, if thou can (say) (El., 857) ; dydon spa hie cudon,

did as they could (do) (C, 232, 11).

438. — 3. Mot {^^ 176, 212), possibility through permission :

pxr ic sittan

mot sumorlangne dxg, there I may sit the summer-long day (Ex., 443, 28) ;

— duty mot ic him forgifan, should I forgive him (seven times)'? (Matt.,
:

xviii, 21)
—
necessity (rare) eallc pe inoton speltan,a.ll we must die (Exod.,
:

xii, 33)
;

—
subordinate clauses —
object: bxd pxt he moste niman, besought
;

that he
;

might take (away the body) (John, xix, 38) ; omission of principal
—
verb: gif{pe) Jtidcr moton, i(\vc thither might (go) (Sat., 302).
439. — 4. Dear, dorsle (^^ 176, 212), power of will in danger: ne dear
196 rOTENTIAL.— IMPERATIVE.

ford gan, I dare not

go forth (C, 54, 1) subordinate clauses result hit ; ;
— :

pxs to-gefultumiende, pxt him vion noht hefigcs gedon dorste, Lat. ipse
juvans, ne qui (iis) quicquam molesticE inferrct, he was helping, so that
no one might (dare) do anything grievous to them (Bed., 5, 11); rarely
auxiliary.
440. 5.
—pille (<^^ 176, 212). Present; declarative future indicative, —
—
see ^ 415 ; imperative ne pille pu pepan, Lat. noli plorare (Hark., 538),
:

please not weep (Bed., 4,29) ne pylt Jm, same (Psa., cii, 2). Imperfect
—
:
;

ic sund minum syllan polde, I to

declarative :
my son would give (if I had
one) (B., 2729). Subordinate clauses; —purpose, result ;
pses gepunod pxt
he polde gan to s», was wont to go to the sea (Horn., 2, 138) ;
— principal
verb omitted :
hpxnne pu me pyllc to, when thou wilt (come) to me (Psa.,
c, 1, and often).
441. —
6. Sceal, sceolde (^^ 176, 212) hu miccl scealt pu, how much :

owest thou? (Luc, 16,5. Matt.,xviii, 24) necessity under law or external ;
—
force be ure x he sceal speltan, by our law he ought to die (John, xix, 7)
:

— necessity for a purpose : ic hie sceal wrest gepinnian,pxt ic siddan mxge,

;

I must first dispel them, that I afterward may (bring light (Boet., 5, 3) a —
—
;

future sign, see § 415 imperative ge sculon herigean, IjZ.t. laudate, ]pra.ise
;
:

ye (the name of the Lord) (Psa., cxii, 3). Imperfect: spijlc sceolde sccg
pesan pegn, snch a warrior should a thane be (B.,2708);
— subordinate
clauses: he cpxd pxt helle healdan sceolde, he said that he should inhabit
hell (C, 530) —
passive forhtian pxt he gelxded heon sceolde,to fear that
:

—
;

he should be led (to hell) (Bed., 3, 13) result nyd pxt he hrxdllcur feran ;
:

sceolde, need that he should travel more rapidly (Bed., 3, 14) principal ;
—
verb omitted : ic him xfter sceal,! shall (go) after him (B.,2816).
442. — 7.
])earf,
need (^^ 176, 212), common as a notional verb, rare as
an auxiliary :
syle me pxt pxter,pxt me ne pyrste, ne ic nepurfe her feccan,
Lat. ut non sitiam neque veniam hue haurire, give me the water, that I may
not thirst, nor need {co7ne) here to draw (John, iv, 15).

443. — 8. TSton, putun, O. Saxon wita (^^ 176, 224, c), pres. subj. plur.
1st o{ pitan, to go. Compare Lat. camus, age, It. andiamo, Fr. allons ; —
imperative clauses putun gangan to, let us advance (B., 2648) utan to-
:
;

brecan, let us break (their bonds) (Psa., ii, 3) uten is in Layamon, but the ;

common form is the subjunctive with we : lete we peos ferde bilxue, and
speke we of Ardure, let we this host remain, and speak we of Arthur (25407).
The English pure auxiliary let is later yet.

For potential eom, i^^

451 ; 415, 6. For heebbe, W 453, a ; 415, 5.

The Imperative, §§ 149,151.

444. The imperative is used in commands.

Gd, go (Mc, 5, 8) gayig pu, go thou (Matt.,

; iv, 10) ; gad, go ye (Exod.,
V, 18); 7ie beod ge,he not yc (C, 194, 11).
 INFINITIVE AND GERUND.—INFINITIVE. I97

{a.) In hypotlietical sentences : secad and ge hitfindad, seek and (=if

ye seek) ye shall find (Matt., vii, 7).

(e.) Subjunctive for imperative, ^ 421, 3.

Indicative for imperative, ^ 420, c.

Potential, ^ 440; sculon, § 441.

/?j7/e,

(c.) So through the Indo-European tongues.

The Infinitive and Gekund.

445. Their forms, §§ 173-175, 177, 181, 352, V.
1. The infinitive in an rarely uses to micel is to secgan, there : is much
to say (Gii., 502) ; dfijsed bid to secan, it is
prepared to seek (Ph., 275) ;
so

B., 316 ; C, 220, 25 Ex. 187, 27, etc.

;
Grein.
2. The gerund in -ende appears in the later manuscripts of the Chronicle,

and spreads: Nero dgan to rixiende,'Ne):o began to rule (Chr., 49) he

sende to hodiende, he sent to preach (604) coman Crist to purdiende, they ;

came to honor Christ (2). See ^ 4G0. So in ^Ifric's Grammar.

3. The infinitive and gerund sometimes interchange in most of their uses,

if not all.
4. Tlie progressive future is rare ongedte hine hahbende Icon, he : knew
himself to be about having, Lat. se fuisse habiturum (Bed., 5, 8).
5. Future passive : ne tpeoge ic me gelibded beon, I did not doubt myself
about to be led, Lat. me rapiendum esse (Bed., 3, 13).
6. jElfric gives as the Latin future active amatum ire vel amaturum esse,
vis doctum ire, pilt j)u gdn
Anglo-Saxon /aran liifian, to be going to love ;

leornian, will you go to learning (^If. Gram., p. 25).

The English is a
true future=«o be about to love. Sure examples o{ faran or gdn, without
notional force, are needed from Anglo-Saxon literature. See ^^ 443 415, 4. ;

Infinitive, §§ 149, 151.

446. The infinitive is construed as a neuter noun. (So in
other tongues :
Latin, Hark., 548 ; Greek, Had., 762 + .)
447. — A
subject: hine ridan lyste, to ride pleases him (Boet., 34,
1.

on Sabbath days ?
7) ; dlyfd on Reste-dagum pel don, is to do well lawful
(Luc, 6, 9) sometimes with to : is dlyfed on Reste-dagum pel
to donne, it
;

is lawful on Sabbath days to do well (Matt., xii, 12).

448. —
Direct object.— (1)" Of beginning and ending (acts exerted
2.
establish right (C, 2, 17)
on other acts) ongunnon rsbran riht, began to
:
;

Romune blunnun ricsian, Romans ceased to rule (Bed., 1, 11) ;— (2) of

motive (acts moving to other acts —desire, seek, intend, expect, dare, dread,
I wish to go (Hom., 2, 372) ;
secad to (John, viii, 40) ;
etc.) :
pille faran,
ne dear ic faran, go I dare not
pencad (C.,243G); myntan (B.,712);
ceara (C, 2279) ;— (3) definitive object of ability, duty,
(Gen., xliv, 34) ;

habit (acts and states defined by acts) ic mxg secgan, 1 am able to say :
198 INFINITIVE.- GERUND.

(Cri., 317) ; cmton don, were able to do (C, 189) ;

he sceal spellan, he
ought to die (John, xix, 7) ; gcpunedon moder cygean, they were wont to
call (her) mother (Bed., 4, 23) ;
— (1) general motion defined by specific
motion :
/Icon gcpat, he went to fly
=: he flew away (C, 136, 23) ;
com
flcogan, came flying (89, 10); com gojigau (B., 710); co?n drifan, came
driving=fell (on a rock) (Bed., 5, 6) ; so with faran,feran, glldan, ndan,
scrktan, s'ldian, tredan, etc. See further under Participles, § 458, 2.

(a.) These forms niu to periphrastic forms of the future and potential, see §§ 415, 435+.

449. — 3. The infinitive is used as a final object to express

an act of the first object.

This occurs oftenest after verbs of

{a.) Cognition geseah rincd manigc spefan, saw many heroes sleep
:

(B., 729); leode secgan hyrde, heard people say (B., 1340); ongeate hinc
liahbende beon, he knew (himself to be having) that he should have (this
number of years) (Bed., 5, 8); so after seon, gehyran, gefrignan, findan,
{d)fandian, geinetan, etc. The direct object is sometimes omitted secgan :

hyrde, I heard say (B., 582). Teaching : Ixr us gebiddan, teach us to

pray (Luc, 11, 1).

(6.) hxd hine faran, bade him go (Chr., 1050) hutan men
Bidding :
;

gcpyrcean, ordered men to build (B., G9) so with {be)he(}dan, forbeodan, ;

etc. Direct object omitted hM fealdan ]jxt segl, orders to furl the sail
:

(Boat., 41,3).
(c.) Let: Iclon holm bcran,\et the sea bear him (B., 48) lictad pd ;

Itjilingds to me cummi, suffer the little ones to come to me (Luc, 18, IG).
So forlMan, alyfan.
(d.) Make : dcd hi calle beofian, makes it all tremble (Psa., ciii, 30).
(a, b, c.) With passives pws
gcsepen Mod peallan, blood was seen to
:

spring from the ground (Chr., 1100) hard and spyn synt forbodene to ;

xt-hrinenne, hares and swine are forbidden to touch (Lev., xi, 6-8) wish- ;
—
ing :
polde hyne genemnedne beon, he wished him to be named (Luc, 1,

62).
Note —This construction gives rise to the accusative before the infinitive, for which see
§ 293.

Gerund, §§ 173, 175.

450. The so-called gerund
usually answers to the Latin gerund, supine,
or ut with the subjunctive. But see \ 445, 3.

451. — I. The gerund after the copula expresses what must,

may, or should be done.
Mannes sunu is to syllanne, the Son of Man must be delivered
up (Matt.,
xvii, 22) his apostolds to farenne
;
pseron, his apostles were to go (LL.
-a^lf,49, 1) ; seo lufu is dd on mode to hcaldanne,love should always
be kept in mind (Bed., 1, 27).
 GERUND.— ATTRIBUTIVE.— OBJECTIVE.—ADVERBIAL. 199
(a.) The act may be done to or hy the subject.
(6.) Latin periphrastic conjugations in -rus and -dus (Hark., §§ 227-233).

452. — II. Attributive. The gerund is sometimes used to

describe or define a noun.
Nedd is to donne, there is need of acting (LL. JE,&r., vi,
42) gepeald ;

to gyrpanne, power of working (C, 280) m&l to feran, time to go ;

(B., 31G) mihte to forlxtenne, power to forgive (John, xix, 10 Mc,

; ;

2,10).
(a.) Latin genitive of the gerund (Hark., 563). v

453.— III. Objective. The gerund may be used as a final

object to exj^ress an act on the first object.
After verbs of having and giving : ic hwbbe mete to etanne,! have meat
to eat (John, iv, 32) ; si/ht mc hlaf to etenne, gives me bread to eat
(Gen.,xxviii,20) ;
ic sende fl&sc to etanne,\ send flesh to eat (Exod.,
xvi, 12).
Note nim past ic pe to sillenne hahle, take that I to thee to give have,
(Ap., 12) ic hsshhe pe to secgenne sum pjing, I have something to say
;

to thee (Luc, 7, 40), Lat. hac dicere habeo (Cic. N. D., 3, 39), Ov^iv

avTUTTUv ix(a (^sch. Prom., 51);

—
direct object omitted: hire syllan

etan, to give to her to eat, Lat. hihere dart (Liv., 40, 47), SoOijvai ^aytiv
(Luc, 8, 55).

(a.) Hence a periphrastic future I have to drink = I shall drink, 5 415, 5.

(6.) The gerund as genitive object is pretty common ondred to faranne, dreaded to go
:

(Matt., ii, 22) wished to see (siii, IT.) Other objects occur, § 448, 2).
;

454. —IV. Adverbial, l. The gerund is used to denote

the purpose of motion.
tit code se saidcre to sapenne, the sower went out to sow (Mc, 4, 3) so ;

often without to: gretan eode, went to greet (C, 146, 31); gepat
neosean, went to see (B., 115) sonde bodian, sent to preach (Bed., 3,
;

22).
(a.) The Latin supine in -um (Hark., 509).

2, The gerund with an adjective may express an act for

which any thing is ready.
Hracte Mud to dgeotanne, ready to shed blood (Psa., xiii, 6) fuse to ;

farenne, ready go (B., 1805); so gearu, rcope, spict, etc. Compare

to

hii pit;rc pu dyrslig ofstician bar, how could you be daring (=how

dared you) stab a boar? (^Ifrc), ^ 448, 2; gcarpe gehyran,rea.(iy to

hear (iillfrc.).

(a.) Latin supine in -u, and infinitive (Hark., §§ 570, 552, 3).

The gerund with an adjective may express an act in

3.

respect to whicli smy thing is pleasa7it,u7i2}leasaiit,€asi/^worth9/^

§§ 321, 302.
200 rARTlCIl'LES.

Gladii on to locicnnc, pleasant to look on (Boet.,G) grimllc to geseonnc, ;

grisly to sec (Ex., 57, 15) tVc on to findannc, easy to find (Psa.,lxxvi,
;

16) > pyrde to alditcnne, worthy to receive pardon (C, 6:22 Matt., iii, ;

11).

(a.) The Latiu supine in -«, for which often au infinitive (Hark., 570).

PARTICIPLES.
455, The Melation of the Forms.
1. The -nd of the present denotes continuance; the -en, -d of the
past
denote completion. The completed acts are naturally used to describe the
things completed, i. e., are passive.

(a.) A few past participles are active, druncen, foisporen, gesprecen,

etc.: beoj-e druncen, drunken with beer (B., 531, and o^ten) foisporen, ;

forsworn, perjured (Gen., xxiv, 8, and elsewhere) keom pus gesprecenum., ;

they thus having spoken (Nic, 27, and elsewhere) gchjfed folc, people ;

having believed (Horn., 1, 144) ;

so Gothic (Mc, xv, 28), Lat. potus,jura-
tus, etc.

(2.) The
participles have (1) adjective endings, and agree with nouns but the dif- ;

ference so slight between an act asserted as done by the agent, and as

is
descriptive of the
agent, that the participles are used (2) like infinitives, and (3) as abridged clauses.
The two last uses are less common in Anglo-Saxon than in Latin or Greek (Harkness, 5T1-
581 ; Hadley, 7S5-S0C).
(3.) Weak and strong forms, see §§ 362, 119, b.

The Comhmations.
456. A participle agrees with its substantive in gender,
niimher, and case, § 361.
A
participle may govern the case of its verb.
I. man rihtpls and ondrMende God, a man righteous and
Attributive :

fearing God (Horn., 3, 446) seo foresMe hoc, the aforesaid book (Horn.,
;

2,118).
(a.) Abridged. — Here belong many abridged clauses, ^ 281 onhjht :

xlcne man cumendne to pysum middanearde, hghteth every man coming

(who comes) to this world (W. P. T., 4).

(b.) Subject omitted :

—
persons ealrd libbendrd mbdor, mother of all
:

living (Gen., iii, 20) Godes gecorcnan, God's chosen (Hom., 2, 454)
;
;
—
things :
frumrlpan gongcndes and peaxendes, first fruits of that going and
growing (LL. ^If., 38).
(c.) Compounds with im- abound in the Teutonic tongues.
45'7. — II. Predicative
secgende pms,l was saying (An., 951) pies
: ic
;

first agdn, the time was gone (An., 147) fct sint gebundenc, feet are ;
 VERBALS. 201

bound (C, 24, 18) ; paldend licgad dredme bedrorene, the powerful lie be-

reft of joy (Ex., 291,8).

(a.) Hence the progressive forms, §§ 177, 411 ;

the perfect of intransitives, 55 16S, 416; the
passives, §§ 17S, 409.

458. —
III. Objective: (1.) direct object after verbs o^ beginning and

ending: geendude bebeodende, he stopped giving commands (Matt., xi, 1).,

(2.) Definitive after verbs of motion com ridende, came riding (Horn., :

2, 134) com gangende (Matt., xiv, 25, and often) cj?o?n gefered (Sal.,
; ;

178 perhaps never exactly the Germ, kam gegangen) pind pedende fxrcd,
; ;

(El., 1274) purhpunedon acsicnde, they

;
continued asking (John, viii, 7).

(3.) Genitive object after

verbs of emotion ondredon June dcsigendc, :

dreaded asking him, pundredon geseondc

i<poj3ovvro tizipwTuaai (Mc.,ix, 32) ;

dumbe specende, they wondered to see the dumb speaking (Matt., xv, 31).
(4.) Final object after verbs
of cognition hine geseah sittendnc, saw :

him sitting (Luc.,xxii, 56) geseah his hus dfylled, saw his house filled (St.
;

G., G) gehyrdon hine specende, heard him speaking (John, i, 37).

;

(5.) Final after having he hsofde hine geporhtne, he had him wrought
:

(C, 17,4). Hence tbe perfect in Teutonic, Romanic, Romaic, rare Gr., Lat.
(a.) TTiese correspond with infinitives, §§ 44S, 449, 453.

459. — IV. Adverbial. (1.) Time: ha pxccende geseah, he, when he

waited, saw (St. G., 4) ; nolde, gcladod, sidian, he would not, when invited,

go (Hom., 1, 128).

(2.) Cause: dyde aigder to dnum, tupurpende feondscipds, made both at

one by abolishing enmities (Ilom., 1, 106).

(3.) Concession :
syllad, nan ping gehyhtende, lend, though hoping
nothing (Luc, vi, 35).

(4.) Co-existence :
gccyrdon pa hyrdas puldrigcnde and herigcnde God,
the shepherds returned, glorifying and praising God (Horn., 1,33).

Such constructions are often abridged clauses, § 2S1.

(a.)

(&.) For the absolute construction, see §§ 304, d; 295, b.

Verbals.
4G0. 1. The Anglo-Saxon verbal in -ung, -ing (^ 233), is a true noun,
ic pxs on huntunge'^'EiUgX. I was a hunt-
e. g., governed by a preposition :

ing (iElfc).
2. The gerund in -ende (^ 445, 2) changed to -ing (Layamon, 2G47),

and hence the old English use of the form in -ing as a verb / am to ac- :

Oxford edition).
cusinge you (John, v, 45, Wycliffc,
3. The present participle in -ende changed to -ing; and, in English,

noun, participle, adjective, and infinitive (gerund) mix.

202 INTERJECTIONS.— CONJUNCTIONS.— COPULATIVES.

INTERJECTIONS,^ 263.
401. The interjection has the syntax of a clause, § 278, c?.

(a.) Compare vocative, (} 289, d; answers, ^^

39'J.

(Zi.) For the dative after so-called interjections, see ^ 298, b.

CONJUNCTIONS,^ 262.
Co-OEDINATE C O X J U N CT I N S.
402. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect sentences and
like parts of a sentence.

40 3. Copulatives.
1. And connects like clauses ;
cum and geseok, come and see (John,
i, 40) words, often an emphatic repetition litlan and littles
; :
litlan, by
and (Chr., 1110) ; sputor and spidor,worse and worse (Chr., 108G)
littles ;
—
correlatives feor and nidh, far and nigh (C, 177, 27).
:

a general sign of connected discourse

It is introductory to a sentence ;
— :

And ne forseoh pit cyrliscne man, (Hail to thee, Apollonius). And do not
neglect a plain man (Ap., 7) so Shakespeare, "Yet ask^ ; "And shall I
havef^ (Rich. II., iv, 1) and often beginning a lyric, Southey, Moore so
;
;

in German, Goethe.
Strengthened sunu and fxder mgder, son and father hoth (Hy., 7, 42)
:
;

and butu, and both (Ex., 125, 8) and edc, and also (Chr., 894) and cue
; ;

spa (896) and edc spa ilce (same), and also (Psa., xxx, 10; El., 1278)
; ;

and ealspd, and likewise (Luc, v, 33) and samod, and together (C, 456) ; ;

and sodlice, and verily (Matt., ii, 9) and to, (nine hundred), and (seventy)
;

too (C, 1224).

Correlative: and .... and,hoih. .... and (John, xii, 28) ;
so Wycliffe,
Mc, ix, 21, and often).

&gder (ge).... and (edc) both .... and (By., 224) bn {bdtpa) .... ;

and,hoi\i .... and (Ex., 64, 12).

ge . . . .
and, both .... and (C, 40, 31) samod .... and, both ....
;

and (C. 239, 27).

(a.) As
general connective, and may connect clauses having various
a

logical relations, and with or without other specific conjunctions.

Adversative God geseah pone deofol, and se deofol spd-peah pses
:

bcdihled Godes gesihde, God saw the devil, and the devil though was

deprived of the sight of God (Hom., 3, 448) and nd pe Iws, and never- ;

theless (Chr., 1011) ic pylle 7nild-hcortnysse, and nd onssegdnyssc,

;

I wish mercy, and not sacrifice (Matt., xii, 7) ;

so beginning a sentence
 COPULATIVES. 203

to enforce a contrast : And do you now put on your best attire? (Shake-
speare, J. C, i, 1).
Causal and heo hid hdl, believe, and she shall be whole (Luc,
:
gelyf,
and for pon 7ie, and not for that (Deut., i, 32).
viii, 50) ;

Distributive ipa/n and tpdm, by two and two (Mc, vi, 7). See ^ 392.
:

(i.) And is often an emphatic particle (Gr. /cai) sc pe nxfd, and pxt :

Pe he hsefd, him bid xtbroden, whosoever hath not, even that which he hath,
from him shall be taken away (Matt., xiii, 13) And pu pxre mid pjam Gali- ;

leiscean, thou alsowast with the Galilean (INIatt., xxvi, 69) so in Wycliffe ;
:

Go and yee, go ye also (Matt., xx, 4, and often) not in use now. ;

2. Bu, correlative with and; which see.

3. Eac, ec, eke ;
—
with like clauses eordan porhte,ltf eac gesccop, God :

earth wrought, life also created (B., 97). It is also used as an emphatic
particle alone, and with and, ge, hpiedre, ne, odde, spa, spilce, Jjcdh.
Eal spa, see spa.
Eornostlice, see sudlice, ^ 463, 8.
4. Ge —
with like clauses siv brxc ge stcorran forlcton, the sea broke,
;
:

and the stars ceased their light (Ex., 70, 33, rare) words ealde ge ;
— :

geonge, old and young (Jud., 166).

Strengthened xghpseder ge, both (^(ts. LL., 1) butu ge, both (C, 46,
:
;

30) ge edc, and also (Cri., 1170); ge edc spd same, and also likewise
;

(Met., 11, 10) ; somod gc, at once both (Bed., 2, 9) ge spylce, and so also ;

(B., 22.58).
Correlative: ge ge, both and (B., 1864) xgdcr ge . .'. .
ge, . . . .
;
.

hoth and (Job., XV, 24) ge

. . .
G?i^, both and (C, 752), see and. ; . . . . . .

5. Gelice, likewise he pundrode, and ealle ; gelice Iacdbum,i. e. laco- ;

—
bus, he wondered, and all (that were with him) likewise James (Luc, v, 9). ;

6. Ne, ne, with like clauses heorgds pxr ne muntds stedpe ne siondad, :

there hills 7ior mountains steep stand (Ex., 199, 6) ;

— general connective :

Ne ne eton ge, neither do you eat (Exod., xii, 8).

Correlative : ne . . .
ne, not . . . nor (Gii., 670).
ndder ne . ne (ne), neither
. . nor (Levit., iii, 17; Psa.,xxxiv, 12). . . .

nddor . . ne, neither

. nor (Matt., vi, 20) nor (repeated). . . . . . .

ne . . . ne edc ?je, not nor (also not) (Boet., 16, 1). , . .

nd {nalxs) pxt an ac edc spylce (spa) and nalxs Jmt an l)xt him . . .
;

pa fugelds, ac edc spd pd fixds, and not only that the birds (were sub-
ject) to him, but also the fishes (St. G., 9) ;
so Goth., ni pat ain . . . ac
jah (I Tim., v, 13).

Strengthenings, see § 400. Note piston and ne pendon, knew (not) and
hoped not (that they should see) (B., 1604).
7. Sam bid oferfrorcn, sam hit sy sumor sam pintcr, is frozen over
:

both when it is summer and winter (Oros., 1, 1,23), compare ^ 464, 5; spd
same spd, see after, spd.
Samod, see and.
8. Sodlice ;
—general sign of connected discourse : Sudlice Philippus
204 DISJUNCTIVES.—AD VEllSATIVES.

;w5, Now Philip was (from Bctlisaida) (Jolin, i, 41), see under and; simi-
lar are cornostlke (Matt., ii, 1) pitodlicc (iii, 11). ;

9.
Spa, correlative sprccan spa yfel spa god, to speak as well evil as
:

good (Nic.,6); for other uses o? spa, see ^ 473 ; spa same spa, hea.sts have
these natures the same as men (Boet., 33, 4) ;
eal spa, also (Matt., xxi,
30).
10. To, sec under and ;
pitodlice, see sodllcc.

46 4. Disjunctives, § 2G2.
1.
Aj)cter, mtcr, strengthens or/(/c, which see.
2. Elles :
bcgymad ; cllcs nxbbe ge mtdc, take heed ;
else ye have no
reward (Matt., vi, ^ 262, b. 1).
3.
Hpaeder : correlative with pe and oddc, which see.
See also § 397.
4. Ottde; — alternative clauses: hi nc mihton, odde Id noldon, they
could not, or they would not (Chr., 1052) -words fcor odde nca/i, ;
— :

far or nigh (C, 1029 B., 2870). ;

Strengthened dder odde on boclande odde on folclande, either on hook-

:

land or on folkland (LL. Edw., 1, 2) odde euc, or also (Psa., cxvii, 12) ; ;

oddc hpxder (Gen., xliii, 27).

Correlatives: odde . . .
o^e, either ... or ;
odde gcmeian,oMe getellan,
odde dpegan, either measure, or count, or weigh (LL. iE(ts., 1) ;

cuter . . .
odde, either ...
or (Hy., 10, 42) ;

hpxdcr . . .
0(/i:?e, whether ... or (Num., xiii, 20) ;

hpxder . . . odde hpxder, whether or whether (Gen.,xliii,

27)
. . .
;

uder tpegd .
odde, other of two (^either) ... or (By., 208).
. .

5. Sam: sa7n pe pillan, sum pe nyllan, whether we will or nill (Boet.,

34, 12).
G.
2>e,
or ;
— alternative clauses : is hit dlyfed pe nd, is it lawful or no ?

(Matt, xxii, 17) ;^words :

p'lfhddes pe peres, of female or male (Ph.,
357).
Strengthened :
geh&lan hpxdcr pe forspillan, to heal (whether) or to de-

stroy (Mc, iii, 4).

Correlatives :
pe . . .
/e, whether ... or (Mc, xiii, 35) hpxdcr
:
pe . . .

(Ex., 95, 8); hpxder pe . . .

pe (Matt, xxiii, 17) ; hpxder hpxder . . .

/e, whether ... or whether (Joh.,vii, 17).

465. Ad VERS ATI VES, § 262.

1. Ac, ach, ah, but ;— contrasted clauses : nis pis mseden dead, ac heo
slxpdiP) (Mc.,v,39).
Strengthened ac spidur, but rather (Ap., 20) ; ac nddcmd, but none the
:

more (Chr., 11^7) ac pedh hpxdere, but however (Horn., 1, 276).

;

2. Butan, see § 431, c/.

3. Git, yet, correlative with concessive pedh is not yet found in Anglo-
Saxon.
 CAUSAL.—ILLATIVE.— SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 205

4. Ono /ipxt, hut yet (Bed., 3, 24,

Smith's ed.).
5. }^)eali, yet ;
—contrasted clauses lir ne ciuton
: ; peak hie fela piston,

tliey did not know things (C, 179, 16).

before ; yet they knew many
Strengthened: and ne code pedh «i, and (=but) he did
not go in though

(John, XX, 5) and spa pedh, Goth,

;
sve pauh, and yet even so (Horn., 2,

448) ; (Met., 9, 38) spa pedh hpxdere, yet however (Psa.,

emn spa pedh ;

157); spd'^se (Gu., 934, and often) ac pedh hpxdere, see ac.
cxviii, ;

Correlative oftenest with a concessive although.

pedh (pe) . . .
pedh, although ... yet (Boet., 1G,3).
spa . . .
spa pedh, although . . .
yet (El., 498).
6. And na ])e lees (Chr., 1011) ;
ac nd Jte md (Chr., 1127). nevertheless;
/or ^on, notwithstanding (Deut., i, 32).

46 6. Causal. —Illative.
1. Nu, now that, since ;
—causal :
pu me ne forpyrne, nu ic pus fcorran
com, pray) that thou wilt not deny me, since I thus far have
(I
come
(B., 430) nu pe, since
;
that (An., 485).
2. Jia, since (causal) pa hie ofgifen hxfde, (now he could replenish the
;

earth) since they had given itup (C.,9C), see ^ 252,11.

3. Be })am l)e, by this that; because: ongist pu hi be pam P)e heo on
nihte seined, thou mayst know it because it shineth in the night
(Mandr.).
4. For ]3am ]j3 {pam^pan, pon), causal: for pam pe Drihten lehet
god,we will do thee good,/o?- this that (=because) the Lord has
promised good (Num., x, 29).
For l^am (causal) because (Boet., 19) :
;
— illative : therefore (C, 97).
5. bonne, since (causal) hpd sccal to his rice fon, ponne he broder
:

who shall to his throne succeed, since he has no brother (or chil-
ntrfd,
dren) (Horn., 2, 146).
G. l)y, therefore (illative) (C.,34, 21) ; pij /-e, because (Chr., 836).
Correlative :
p^J Pll pe, on this account . . because (Chr., 836).
.

7. For J-)y {ln,pe)

causal (John, vii, 22). ;
—
Correlative for pi .
for pan pe, for this reason
: . . . . . because

(Horn., 1,288).

Subokdixate Con unctions. .t

467. A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate

clause and the word Avith whicli it combines, § 278, h.

(a.) Most are really relative adverbs, or adverbial phrases modifying

a word in tlie prin-
cipal and another in the subordinate clause.
(().) The same
word or phrase may denote different logical relations between different

pairs of phrases, but we will follow our usual analysis of the subordinate clauses, § 283.
206 SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES.— DECLARATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

A. Substantive Clauses.
4GS. Declaeative Conjunctions.
1.
])det, substantive sign (the article of a clause).
1. With a subject clause: pAr gccijdcd pcard pxt God helpe gefrc-
mede, there was made known that God help gave (An., 91); cor- —
relative pxt or hit : nis pxt fcor hconon paU sc mere storidcd, it is
not far hence that the mere stands (B., 13G2) hit gelamp pxt (hie) ;

cpomon, happened that they came (El., 272); quasi-appositive

it — :

pedtdcen pxt hie gesohton, the fatal sign (was spread) that they
should seek (his death) (An., 1123).
2. With an object clause (a) accusative : ic put Jixt pii eart, I know
that thou art (El., 815) ;-:— correlative pxt or hit: pxt gecyded
mxnig pxt P}xt gepeorded, tliat the multitude shall show that it shall
—
happen (An., 1439); apposition: P)d peddxd to prxce ne settc,
pxt hie berxddon, he would not avenge the wicked dccd^ that they
deprived (of life the guiltless) (El., 496).
{b.) Dative to pam arod, pxt he nedde, ready for
:
this, that he ventured
(Jud.,275).
(c.) Genitive: hio mindful that she
268) ;
— correlativegcmyndig pxt gcsohte, sought
^a?5 pe pxs sculon hycgan, pxt pc,we should strive
;
(EI.,
for
this, that we, etc. (C, 398) ;— appositive :
crxftes, pxt pa me gct&hte, I
would ask knowledge, that thou teach me (An., 485).
{d.) jjaet is also used in final clauses, ^ 433 ; modal, ^ 473 ; consecutive,
^ 434 ;
to introduce a wish or lamentation, ^ 421, 4.
The uses oi pxt correspond with those of Goth. Jjatei, O. H. Ger. daz,
and generally with Lat. iit, quod, Gr. on, Cjq, 'iva, and uttojq, Sa.ns\i.jat,jdthd.
2. ]}cette<ipxt pc has the same uses as pjxt ; for
examples, see Grein.
3. 2)aet is, introduces an explanatory clause:
ongunnoa hi pxt apostoUce
Uf onhyrigean, pxt on singalum gebedum Drihtne peopdon,
is, they began
to imitate the apostolic life, that is, they served the Lord in continual
pray-
ers (Bed., 1, 26) mid fcdpiim brodrum, pxt is, scofenum odde eahtum, (he
;

lived) with few brothers, that is, seven or eight (Bed., 4, 3).
Nemlice is given by Koch and Thorpe for Lat. videlicet,\\\ie English
namely ; but it does not occur in the passages cited by them. ^Ifric
translates videlicet by pitodllce. Gram., p. 40.
4. Hu, how, object of cognition pe gehyrdon hu ge ofslogon„Vie heard
:

how (that) ye slew (two kings) (Jos., ii, 10) gesdpon hu he pxs astigende, ;

we saw how (that) he ascended into heaven (Nic, 18), frequent.

Prepositions sometimes govern clauses : siod ofer pxr pxt cild pxs, stood
over where the child was (Matt., ii, 9).
 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES— ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 207

•» 4G9. Intereogative Conjunctions.

1. Hpaeder: hefran hpmder folc Cristenp&re, asked whether the people

were Christian (Horn., 2, 120).

2. Gif Jrxgn gif h'lm pivre, asked if to him were (B., 1319).
:

3. Similar is the use of hpanon, whence; hpai7\ where; hpxnne, when;

hpider, whither hu, how, and tiie like, see ^

;
397-8.
4. For ne, ac, ah, hu, Id, as strengthening particles, see ^ 397.

470. — B. Adjective Clauses.

These are connected to their substantive,

1. By relative pronouns, "^^ 379-385, 427.

2. By relative adverbs, ^ 398, 2.

(a.) Adverbs of place connect to names of places of time, to names of ;

time, etc. on sumum dxge, pa pd Godes englds comon, on a day when

;

God's angels came (Horn., 2, 440).

C. Adverbial Clauses.

471. —L connectives are relative adverbs

Place. —The
pxr, where :

(^428); pxr pxr, North, sua hucr, wherever (John, xii, 26) ne mxge ge ;

cuman pyder ic fare, ye can not come whither I go (John, viii, 21) huer, ;

where (North., Matt., vi, 21) ; spa hpdr 5/;«, wherever (^ 428); spa hpider
spd, whithersoever {^ 428).
Correlative /;£?• . . .
/a-b?- (Matt., vi, 21).
472. — n. Time. Adverbial conjunctives mentioned under the sub-
1.

junctive, ^ 429
: ^r pon pxt (John, iv, 49, North.), xr pon pe (Jud., 252),
ier Pjon (C, 2, 20), xr, before (B., 676) ;
wr . . . xr (B., 1370) ;— oct Jjxt,

od, till (^ 429, a) •,—})onne, hponnc, pcndcn, spa lange spa, pd hp'de pd

(^ 429, h).
2. Others with prepositions : aefter pam pje ic arise, ic cume, after I arise

I will come (Mc, xiv, 28) mid pam pc (Horn., 2, 130), mid pij pc (Matt., ;

xxvii, 12), mid pfj, whilst (Bed., 1, 1) ;— of pon, since (Mc, ix. 20, North.) ;

— oa-mang (dmang) pam pe he Jmr pxs, while he was there (Chr., 1091),
on pam pe, while (Chr., 1050) ;— sict pan, since (B., 656), as soon as (604),
after that (100) siddon pat (Chr., 1128) ;— to pon pxt, until (B., 2591).
—
;

Without prepositions, pronominal: l)a, when (B.,632); pd

3. pd . . .

(Matt., ii, 3), /;a pd pd (Matt., iv, 2), pd pe pd (Chr., 1013), . . . . . .

when tlien
. mid pam pe
. .
;
—
pd (Hom., 2, 450), mid pij pe pd . . . . . .

(Ap., 5), on pam pe pd (Chr., 1049), dmang pam pc pd (Nic, 15),

. . . . . .

whilst then . on sumum dxge

. . pd, on a day then (Horn., 2, . . . . . .

—
;

446) sona pxs pe . . .pd, as soon after as then (Bed., 1, 12) J)ass . . .
;
;

pe, after that (Bed., 1, 11);

—
nu (with causal shade), now that (Sat, 387) ;
nu . . .
nu,x\o\v . . . since (C,,403).
208 ADVERBDVL CLAUSES.— CONJUNCTIONS OMITTED.
4. From nouns: hpllum (-on, -a?i) . .
hpllum (Ex., 15G, 30), hplle
.

. . .
hp'ilc (Hy.,3,44, 45), sometimes . . . sometimes; lid liplle pe pa . . .

hp'ilc , \\\\\\c . . . then (Oros., 2, 4, 5) ;

— sona spa . . .
spa, as soon as . . .

so soon (Bed., 1, 1); sona pxs Jje . . .

Jid, iis soon (;iftcr) as . . . then (Bed.,
1, 12).

473. — III. Maimer : esfter pam pc, after the manner that (Luc, ii, 24)
—eal
;

spa, see spa;

— on efn, efen jr/^a, likewise (Ps., 138, G) ;
—gelice :

elpendes hyd pyle drincan pxtan gclic6 and spinge ded, elephant's hide
will soak up water like (as) a sponge doth (Oros., 5, 7, 2)
spylce gelice and
—
;

seo p&re, such as if she were (Oros., 2, 4, 6) hu, see § 468, 4 ; ;

—spa :

hcod gledpe spa nxddran, be wise as serpents (Matt., x, 16) spa spa, so as ;

(Horn., 2, 452) gelicost spa, most as if (Ex., 53, 15)

; eal spa, wholly as ;

(iElfrc.); spa .pa, as soon as then (Ex., 200, 16)

. .
spa spa . . .
;
. . .

spa, as ... so (Horn., 2, 450). Before and after an adjective or adverb :

spa fela spa, so many as (^Ifrc.) ; spa lange spa, so long as (Mc, ii, 19) ;

spa same spa, just as (Oros., 2, 4, 8) etc. Interrogatives spa hp&r spa, ;
:

(to such place as)=wheresoever (Matt., xxiv, 28) with comparatives spa ;
— :

he hyd yldrd, spa he faegerra hyd, as it becomes older, so it becomes fairer

(Bed., 1, 1) ;— spilce, as if (^ 430).
(a.) Intensity such a degree that (Bed., 4, 28) {to) pxs
:
{to) pxs jjxt, to ;

pe, so far as (B., 2410, 1350) py py ' hid py heardra, pe spidor hedtad, \ . .

it becomes the harder, the

stronger they beat against it (C, 80, 8),
{b.) Comparison: J:)onne seo sdpul is ma ponne se lichama,i\ie soul is :

more than the body (Luc, xii, 23).

(c.) Consecutive :
spa, ^ 430, b ; pxt ; spd pxt, ^ 434.
474.—IV. Causal, ^ 466.
475. —V. Conditional:
gif, on pxt gerdd, pid pam pe, and the nega-
tive huton, nefne, nemne, nymde, bulayi pxnne, butan pd, are illustrated in
§ 431
—
pxr, if (C, 797) sc pe pille, whoever will, spd hpd spa, who-
—
; ;

ever, see hypothetical relatives, ^ 427) nxre pxt, if it were not that (Chr., ;

943) ono nu, if now (Bed., 1, 27)

;
ono gif, same compare gelice and, ; ;

^ 473, III an and and for if occur in Layamon, and are common in old
;

English.
—
476. VI. Concessive pedh, though, see § 432 spd forg'ifus gyltds, :
;
:

spd pe pidpe oft dbylgead, forgive us our debts, though we against thee often
sin(Hy., 6, 23).
—
477. VII. Final: pxt, and the negative Py Ixs pe, see ^ 433; to pam
pxt, to the end that (John, i, 31).

Conjunctions Omitted.
478. Copulatives are often omitted.
1. Where clauses are numbered by adverbs first secondly, etc : . . .

2. Where recurring words mark the related clauses edld, pxt ic earn :

ealles leds . .
., pxt ic ne mxg gerxcan, Alas, that /am of all bereft
 rKlJsCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 209

that /may not reach (heaven) (C, 275, 7) ; singad, singad, sing, sing
(Psa., xlvi, 6) ;
not so common as in English.
3. Between circumstances closely related, especially a climax he is :

ealrd hedhgesceaftd,frea xbnihtig, he is of power

rmegnd sped, heafod
the essence, head of all high creatures. Lord Almighty (C, 3).
4. Between antithetic clauses or words :
pudu bxr sunu,fxder fyr, wood
the son bore, the father fire (C, 2887).

(a.) Sometimes they

are omitted from part only of a row of copulates :

fijr,forst, hcvgel, and sndp, fire, frost, hail, and snow (Ps., cxlviii, 8);
—
especially between sets of pairs
:
frige and peope, sedele and unxdele, free
and serf, noble and unnoble (Ap., 12).

479. Disjunctives are seldom omitted.

Sometimes between sets of pairsgif pind cymd pestan odde edsian,
:

Sudan odde nordan, if wind come from west or east, (or) from south or
north (C.,50, 10).

480. Adversatives are often omitted.

Between antithetic clauses or words, especially between a positive and
negative : ne gelyfe pe . . .
pe sylfe gehyrdon, we do not believe (on
your report), we ourselves heard (John, iv, 42).

481. Causals aud illatives are very often omitted, John, ii,

25 ; Gen,, xi, 30.

482. PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX.

Substantives.
Agreement.
I. A predicate noun denoting tlie same person or thing as its subject,

agrees with it in case, § 286.

II. An appositive agrees in case with its subject, § 287.

Nominative Case.
III. The subject oio, finite verb is put in the nominative, § 288.

Vocative Case.
IV. A compellative is put in the vocative, § 289.

Accusative Case.
Objective Combinations.
V. The direct object of a verb is put in the accusative, § 290.
VI. Impersonals of appetite or 2}(ission govern an accusative of the
c.
person suffering, § 290,
o
210 rRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX.

VII. Some verbs of asking and teaching may have two accusatives,
one of a person, and the other of a thing, § 293.

Quasi-predicative Combinations.
Vin. The subject of an infinitive is put in the accusative, § 293.
IX. Some verbs of making, naming, and regarding may have two
accusatives of the same person or thing, § 294.

Adverbial Combinations.
X. The accusative is used to express extent of time and space after
verbs, § 295.
XI. The accusative is used with prepositions, § 295, c.

Dative and Instrumental Cases.

Objective Co?nbinations.
XII. An
object of influence or interest is put in the dative, § 297.
XIII. Verbs of granting, refusing, and thanking may take a dative
and genitive, § 297, d.
XIV. Words of nearness and likeness govern the dative, § 299.
XV. The instnimental or dative may denote an object of mastery,
§300.
XVI. Some words of separation may take an object from which in
the dative or instrumental, § 301.

Adverbial Combinations.
XVII. The instrumental or dative may denote instrument, means,
manner, or cause, § 302.
XVII. The instrumental or dative may denote price, § 302, c.
XVIII. The instrumental or dative may denote measure of differ-
ence, § 302, d.

XIX. Tlie instrumental or dative may denote an object svj-orn by,

§ 302, e.

XX. The comparative degree may govern a dative, § 303.

XXI. The dative may denote time when or place where, § 304.
XXII. A substantive and participle in the dative may make an ad-
verbial clause of time, cause, or co-existence, § 304, d.
XXni. The dative with a preposition may denote an object of influ-
ence or interest, association, mastery, or sejoaration or an instrumental,
;

ablative, or locative adverbial relation, § 305. Instrumental, §§ 306-308.

 FKINCirAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 211

Genitive.
Attributive Combinations.
XXIV. An attributive genitive may denote the possessor or author
of its subject, § 310.
XXV. An attributive genitive may denote tlie subject or object of
a verbal, § 311.
XXVI. An attributive genitive may denote tlie whole of which, its
subject is part, § 312.
XXVn. An attributive genitive may denote a characteristic of its

subject, § 313.

Predicative Combinations.
XXVin. A predicate substantive may be put ia the genitive to de-
note a possessor or characteristic of the subject, or the whole of
which it is part, § 314.

Objective Combinations.
XXIX. The genitive may denote an exciting object, § 315.
XXX. Verbs of asking, accusing, reminding, may take an accusative
and genitive, § 315, «.
XXXI. Verbs of granting, refusing, and thanking may take a dative
and genitive, § 315, 5.
XXXn. The genitive may denote an object affected in part, § 316.
XXXIII. The genitive may denote an object of separation, § 317.
XXXIV. The genitive may denote an object of supremacy or use,
§318.
XXXV. The genitive or instrumental may denote the material of
which any thing is made or full, § 319.
XXXVI. The genitive in combination with adjectives may denote
measure, § 320.
XXXVII. The genitive in combination with adjectives may denote the
part or relation in which the quality is conceived, § 321.

Adverbial Combinations.
XXXVIII. The genitive may denote by what way, § 322.
XXXIX. The genitive may denote time when, § 323.
XL. The genitive may denote means, cause, or manner, §§ 324,
325.
XLI. The genitive with a preposition is sometimes used to denote in-
strumental, ablative, or locative adverbial relations, § 326.
212 PRINCIPAL EULES OF SYNTAX.

Peepositions.
XLII. A preposition govems a substantive, aud shows its relation
to some other word in the clause, § 337.

Adjectives.
XLIII. Au adjective agrees with its substantive in gender, number,
and case, § 361.
XLIV. The Tveak forms are used after the definite article, demon-
stratives, and possessives and often in attributive vocatives, instru-
;

mentals, aud genitives. Comparative forms arc all weak, § 363.

Pronouns.
XLV. A substantive pronoun agrees -with its antecedent in gender,

mimier, and person, § 365.

Adverbs.
XL VI. Adverbs modify veris, adjectives, and other adveu'ls, § 395.

Verbs.
Agreement.
XLVII. A finite verb agrees with its subject in mmler and 2^srson,

§401.

Voices.
XLVin. The active voice is used to make the agent the subject of

predication, § 408.
XLIX. The passive voice is used to make the direct olject of the action
the sulject of predication, § 409.

Tenses.
L. Principal tenses depend on principal tenses, historical on histor-
ical, § 419.

Modes.
LI. The indicative is used in assertions, questions, and assumptions to
express simple predication, § 430.
LII. The subjunctive is used to express mere possibility, doubt, or
wish, § 431.
LIII. Tlie subjunctive may be used by attraction in clauses subor-
dinate to a subjunctive, § 43fi.
 PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 213
LIV. The subjunctive may be used in a substantive clause express-

ing something said, asked, thozight, icished, or done, § 423.

LV. The subjunctive may be used in indefinite adjective cUiuses,
427.
,§
,' L"\T!. The subjunctive may be used in indefinite adverbial clauses
of place, § 428.
LVII. The subjunctive may be used in adverbial clauses of future or
indefinite time, § 429.
LVIII. The subjunctive may be used in clauses of comparison ex-
pressing that which is imagined or indefinite, or descriptive of a force.
LIX. The subjunctive is used in a protasis when
i)roposed as pos-
when assumed as tinreal, § 431.
sible, the imperfect
LX. The subjunctive may be used in a concessive clause, § 432.
LXI. The subjunctive is used in clauses expressing purpose, § 433.
LXII. The subjunctive may express a result, § 434.
LXin. The potential expresses power, liberty, permission, necessity,
or duty, § 435.
LXIV. The imperative is used in commands, § 444.
XLV. The infinitive is construed as a neuter noun, § 446.
XL VI. The gerund after the copula expresses what must, mat/, or
should be done, § 451.
LXVII. The gerund is sometimes used to describe or define a noun,
§453.
LXVni. The gerund may bo used as a final object to express an act
on the first object, § 453.
LXIX. The gerund is used to denote the purpose of motion, § 454.
LXX. The gerund with an adjective may express an act for which
any thing is ready, or in respect to which any thing is pleasant, tinp)leas-
ant, easy, icortliy, § 454.
LXXI. A participle agrees with its substantive in gender, number, and
case, § 456.
LXXII. A participle may govern the case of its verb, § 456.

Interjections.
LXXIII. The interjection has the syntax of a clause, § 46L

Conjunctions.
LXXIV. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect sentences or like parts
of a sentence, § 4G2.
LXXV. A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate clause
and the word with which it combines, § 467.
214 AlUi.VXGElIENT OF WORDS AND CLAUSES.

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND CLAUSES.

483. General rules for the arrangement of words and clauses are found
in every language.
The Latin order is, 1. subject; 2. attributives; 3. adverbial factors; 4.

5. verb.
objective factors ;

Tlie German is, 1. attributives; 2. subject; 3. adverbial factors; 4. ob-

5. verb.
jective factors ;

The Anglo-Saxon is, 1. attributives ;

2. subject ; 3. verb ;
4. objective fac-

tors ;
5. adverbial.

Deviation from the general rules is frequent in all languages. This is

either rhetorical or poetical, for perspicuity, emphasis, or euphony, or

historical, preserving relics of old habits of the language. When any word
is removed from its normal place, its attraction may take other words from
their places.

(a.) These deviations are generally freest in the early literature of early nations. Objects
are there presented concretely with many attributes picturesquely grouped, and inverted
constructions and unusual combinations are sought as part of the art of the poet and ora-
tor. There is hardly a conceivable collocation of which examples may not be found in the
Anglo-Saxon poetry, and the artificial meters and ornate periods of the Greeks and Komans.
Very much of this freedom is still retained by the English poets and ornate prose writers.
But the tendency of advancing speech is to an analysis of objects of thought, and to the use
of simple clauses, orderly arranged.
The inflected languages allow more freedom in the placing of adjectives. In other com-
binations, the separable signs of inversion and of specific relations, possessed by the later
analytic languages, would seem to leave them freer.
(&.) The additions of Alfred to Orosius, and his prefaces, have been specially studied as
models of natural arrangement in Anglo-Saxon.

Predicative Combinations.
484. — 1. The subject precedes the predicate.
(a.) So throughout the Indo-Eiu-opean tongues ;
in the Semitic the verb leads.
(6.) The rule holds for quasi-clauses, § 281.

2. The copulative verb or auxiliary precedes the predicative noun or verb.

485. Exc€2otions.

1. Declarative clauses.
(a.) Emphasis. The verb or
predicative noun may begin a clause for
emphasis :
(verb very common in
poetry, rare in prose) stod se j>rada boda,
stood the fell envoy (C.,686); pxs se feond ful nedh, w&sihe fiend full nigh

(C.,688);
—
(noun, not very common even in poetry) mycel ts se fxder,
great is the father (St. Bas. 6) ; para pxron six stxl-hrdnds, of these were
six decoy deers (Oros., 1, 1, 15).
(J).)Attraction. When an object or adverbial factor begins a clause, the
predicate is often drawn before the subject: (direct object) /eZa spclld him
sdidon pa Beormds, many tales to him told the Beorms (Oros., 1, 1, 14) ;
—
 PKEDICATIVE COMBINATIONS.—EXCEPTIONS. 215

(dative) and him pxs a.

pid see, to him was always a wide sea (1, 1, 13) ;
—
(adverb) ne mette he &r nan gehun land, not met he before any inhabited
land (1, 1, 13) pa for he nordrihte, then went he northward (1, 1, 13) ; peer
;

sceal beon ^e6?n?jc, there shall be drinking (1, 1, 21); p&r is 7nid Estum

pedp, there is among the Esthonians a custom (1, 1, 21) ;

on pdm morum
eardiad Finnds, in the moors dwell Finns (1, 1, 16).

(c.) Inserted clauses are often inverted tc pat, cpxd Orosius, I know,
:

quoth Orosius (5, 1, 1, and often ;

but in Alfred's own narration, he cpxd, 1,
1, 16). See also correlatives, ^ 485, 5, a.

2. Interrogative clauses.
In interrogative clauses the verb regularly precedes the subject, unless the
subject contains the interrogative pronoun (so in other tongues) lufdst :

pu Tne, lovest thou me? (John, xxi, 15) ;

but with an interrogative par-
ticle there is often no inversion. See, for examples, ^^ 397-399.
Questions of suggestion with no interrogative particle occur odde pe :

odres sceolon abidan, or we for another shall look ? (Matt., xi, 3).

3. Exclamatory clauses.

Exclamations with interrogative words often have the verb before the
subject ed Id ! hu unprest is pela, alas how unstable is wealth (Chr.,
: !

1087) ;
often : ed Id, hu egeslic peos stop is, how awful this place is

(Gen., xxviii, 17) ;

so in other tongues, ^ 421, 4.

4. Imperative clauses.
In imperative clauses the verb precedes the subject (so in other tongues) :

hdl p&s pit, be thou whole (Matt., xxvii, 29) purde god se ende, may ;

the end be good (Chr., 1006). The subject sometimes precedes a sub-
junctive form sib si mid eopic, peace be with you (Ex., 282, 25)
:
;
for

other examples, sec ^ 421, 3.

5. Co-ordinate clauses.
The verb often follows next to the conjunction: and licgad pilde moras
pid edstan, and lie wuld moors eastward (Oros., 1, 1, 16) and berad ;

pa Cpends hyrd scypu ofer land, and the Cwens bear their ships over
land (1, 1, 17) ac him pxs peste land,h\it. to him was waste land (1, 1,
;

b.
13). Compare ^ 485,
(a.) Correlatives often have the second clause inverted :
ponnc his ges-

treon bebd pus panne hyrd man hine ut, when his wealth
eal dspended,
is thus all spent, then beareth one him out (1, 1,22). Parallelism is
a marked feature of poetry the second clause is often inverted gdr-
;
:

ocean roared, beat the sea waves

secg hlynedc, beulon brimstredmus,
(An., 239).
6. Subordinate clauses.
(a.) Substantive clauses generally have the subject first, even though
an interrogative (in oralio obliqua) he dxode hu p&re peode : nama p&re,\iQ
asked what the people's name might be (Horn., 2, 120).
216 ARRANGEMENT.— ATTRIBUTIVE COMBINATIONS.

{[>.) Adjective clauses are inverted when the relative is governed by -d

eal fix.sc, on pam pe is lifes gdst, all flesh in which is the

preposition :

breath of life (Gen., vi, 17) ;

—sometimes with no preposition: &nne,])am

pxs ludas nama, one, to whom was Judas a name (El., 584).
(c.) Adverbial
clauses of place and time are rarely inverted :
ponne
p&r bid man dead, he lid, when there is one dead, he lieth (Oros., 1, 1, 21) ;

—modal sometimes :
spa stod se deofol spa spa dcd se hlinde, so stood the
devil man (Horn., 2, 446)
as doth the blind conditional and conces- ;
—
.sive, if hid se tor pyrel, be the door opened (Jul., 402) ;
without sign :

nxfde he nsefre spa mycel yfel gedon, had he never so much evil done
(=though he had) (Chr., 1087);
— sometimes with: nsefde he peak, he had
not though (Oros., 1, 1, 15).

7. Quasi-clauses.
(a.) Participles sometimes precede their subjects : ealle niht spincende

pe, all night toiling, we (took nothing) (Luc, v, 5) ;

—absolute : rixiendum
Eddbaldum, Eadbald ruling, (Mellitus departed) (Chr., 616).
{b.) Factitives sometimes precede for emphasis bearnleasne ge hahbad :

me gedonnc, childless ye have made me (Gen., xlii, 36).

486. Exceptions to the second rule are frequent, § 484, 2.

Gefaren hxfdon, they had gone (Bed., 1, 23) he gyldan pille, he will ;

pay (B., 1184) oferseon m&ge, may look over (Oros., 1, 1, 18) cal
; ;

pxl his mun erian mxg, all that his man may till (1, 1, 16) pser hit ;

smaUst p&re, wherever it smallest were (1, 1, 16); odde hyt eal died
but, till it all laid is (1, 1, 22) ; polde hyne genemnedne beon, wished
him to be named (Luc, i, 62). So in the old French and other early
Romanic tongues (Diez, 3, 439).

At'teibutive Combinations.
487. Attributive adjectives or genitives stand next before their
substantive, appositives or preposi.tions with their cases next
after.
So in the Teutonic tongues. In Latin, attributives generally follow their substantive.
The Greek is freer. The old Komanic were free, the new have different habits for
different words (Diez, 3, 433).

1. Before. Descriptives pilde moras, wild rnoors (Oros., 1, 1, 16);

:

hpxles Jarae, whale's bone (1,1,15); definitives, pronominal on — :

sumum stopum, in some places (1,1, 16) heard spedd, their wealth ;

(1,1, 15) ;
—
numerals ipd7n pucum, in two weeks (1, 1, 16).
:

2. After. Appositive his hldforde JElfrede, (said to) his lord, Alfred
:

(1, 1, 13) ; Sidroc, se geonga, Sidroc, the young (Chr., 871), so in

Romanic (Diez, 3, 431);
—
with preposition: red/ of hserum, garment
of hair (Matt., iii, 4).

488. A definitive precedes a descriptive.

 ATTRIBUTIVE COMBINATIONS.— EXCEPTIONS. 217

-Se hetsta hpxl-huntad, the best whale hunting (Oros.,

1, 1, 14) pa pildan ;

hrdnds,i\ie wild rein-deer an mycel ed, a great river (1, 1,

(1, 1, 15) ;

13) J)one ylcan s&s earm, (they have) the same sea's arm (1, 1, 12)
; ;

frarn his dgnum hdme, from his own home (1, 1, 13). So in other
tongues.
489.Of definitives, quantitatives precede dcmonsti'atives,"wbicli
precede possessives, -which precede articles, which precede nu-
merals.

Quantitatives: eal peus jwruld, all this world (C, 604); ealle Jus
spedd, all his goods (Oros., 1, 1, 22) ;
ealle pd men, all the men (1, 1,

22) hutu pd scypu, both the ships (Luc, v, 7) healfne pone speoran,
; ;

half the neck (Jud., 105; Mc, vi, 23) ; sume pd bocerds, some of the
scribes (Matt., ix, 3) ;
mid fedpum pdm getrypestum, mannum, with
a few of the truest men (Ap., 6) xnig oder ping, any other thing
;

(John, X, 29). So in Romanic (Diez, 3, 438).

Demonstratives :
l)ds mine pord, these my words (Matt., vii, 24).
Possessives : mhi se gecorena sunu, my (the)chosen son (Matt., iii,

17).
Articles on p&re dnre mile, in the one mile (Oros., 1,1, 22) on p&m
: ;

odrum prim dagum, in the second three days (Oros., 1, 1, 13 Chr., ;

897). So in Romanic (Diez, 3, 436).

{a.) Forma (first) and oder (second, other) are sometimes used in the
plural describing a class, and are then arranged as descriptives, ^ 488 pd ;

preo forman gebedu, the three first prayers (Hom., 1, 270) tpegen odre ;

mdnfulle, two other malefactors (Luc, xxiii, 32), so in other languages ;

iiTTu.TUQ iaxurac, Lat. septem novissimas, the seven last (plagues) (English
Bible, Rev., xv, 1 ; xxi, 9) ; I read to Albert the three first cantos of the
Lay of the Last Minstrel (Queen Victoria, Life in the Highlands, p. 40) ;

our two eldest children (Same, 76, 234) tivo other keepers (Same, 70) ; ;

in den scchs erstcn conjugationen (J. Grimm, D. G., 1, 1038) les onze pre- ;

miers chapitres, the eleven first chapters (Renan, Hist. Sem. Lang., 1, 27) ;

las dos primeras partes (Don Carlos, quoted in Motley, R. D. R., iii, 193) ;

las cuatro primeras (Don Quijote, 352) ;

i died primi libri (Diez, 3, 436).

(6.) The English a, an, after many, such, half, too (great), so (great), how (great), as (great),
etc., is in the Old English, but not in Anglo-Sason: manig burh, many (a) town (Oros., 1,

1, 20), etc.

490. JEJxcejytlons.

1. Descriptive adjectives sometimes follow.

(a.) Two descriptives the substantive often stands between (so in the
Romanic tongues [Diez, merds fersce, very large seas
3, 435]) :
spide micle
fresh (Oros., 1, 1, 17) tamrd deora unbebohtrd, tame deer unbought (1, 1,
—
;

1.5); often with a conjunction: god man and chbne, good man and pure

(Chr., 105G) ;
—
sometimes both precede: pam fwgerestan reddan hlpc, o^
218 ARRANGEMENT.— OBJECTIVE COMBINATIONS.
the fairest red hue (Gt. G., 1); for p&m mistlicum and manigfealdum
peoruld-bisgum, for tlie various and manifold secular occupations (Boat.,
Prof.) ;
—
sometimes both follow calru pingd, gesepenllcrd and ungesepen-
:

licrd, of all things seen and unseen (Horn., 1,274).

(i.) In poetry: gUd-egesa gri77i, fue-har grim (B., 2650); magopegn

modig, hero spirited (B., 2757) mlhtig (1519), etc. Poetic inversion is
;

used in all languages (Dicz, 3, 430).

2. Definitives often follow,

(fl.) Quantitatives
Jjxr medo genoh, there is mead enough (Oros., 1,
: bid.

1, 20) ;land eal hyrad, those lands all belong (to Denmark) (1, 1, 20)
J)ds ;

land eal, all lands (Sal., 185) ure ealrd moder, mother of us all (Bas. Hex.,
;

11); ?«a^orfnA;mzce/, great youth-throng (B., 67); manig (B., 838) heard
legrd edgan, eyes of them both (Gen., iii, 7) (b.) possessives, in poetry ;
— ;

often: peoden min, master mine (B., 365);

hldford Jnnnc, loxi thine (B.,
267); stnne, his (B., 2789); userne, our (B., 3107) eo/'erwe, your (B.,
2889)
—
(c.) numerals, rare {pd?n wdelestum ceastrum dnes pana prittigum,
;
;

with the noblest towns, thirty less one (Bed., 1, 1). So sometimes Romanic
derivatives of totus, tantus, talis, and possessives (Diez, 3, 436, 437).

3. Genitives partitive aud characteristic freely follow.

Numerals (regularly) tpentig scedpd, twenty of sheep (Oros., 1, 1, 15) ;—
:

other words (occasionally) on ktre healfe psus mores, on the other side of
:

the moor (1, 1, 17) ndn ping grenes, nothing green (Exod., x, 15) fevper
;

—possessive and
;

circulds hpites hipes, four circles of white hue (Chr., 1104) ;

other genitives may sometimes follow, ^^ 310-313,

4. Appositives in the genitive are often
separated by a governing word :

Aldpulfes dohtor pxs ajninges, dvLUghter of Aldwulf the king (St. G., 18):
this was common as late as the Morte d'Arthure.
5. Any attributive may be
separated by words which modify it, from its subject. Poetry
allows the interposition of parenthetic clauses even, between the adjective and noun.
6. For participles and adjectives in quasi-predicative combinations, see 4S4, b.

491, Objective Combinations.

1, Objects follow the verb ox iwedicate adjective.
2, A genitive follows a dative which follows an accusative.
For. the factitive object, see §§ 484, h ; 485, 7, h.

Hi brohton sume pscm cyninge, they brought some

to the king (Oros,, 1,

1,14); beneeman nergendne Crist roderd rices, io deprive the Savior

Christ of heaven's kingdom (C, 286, 3) ondred he him ]ms, he took ;

dread to himself at that (John, xix, 8). A

dative and genitive are seldom
found after the same verb, ^ 492, 3. See after adjectives, §^ 315-319.

492, Exceptions.
1. Emphasis. An object often begins a clause for emphasis :
/a deor hi
hdlad hrdnds, those deer they call rein-deer (Oros., 1, 1, 15) ;
sometimes
 ADVERBIAL COJIBINATIOXS. 219

a repeating pronoun follows pd ted hi brohton sume pxin cyninge,

:

these teeth they brought some (of) to the king (1, 1, 15).

(a.) So the interrogative regularly hpxt godes do ic, what good must I
:

do"? (Matt., xix, 16).

2. Relics. In German objects precede their verb, and their order is (1)
dative, (2) accusative, (3) genitive.
(a.) A
genitive object very often immediately precedes the verb or adjec-
tive. For examples, see ^^ 315-319.
(b.) The dative of the personal pronoun generally precedes impersonals
and copulatives him puhte, it seemed to him (Oros., 1, 1, 14) him pxs, to
:
;

him was (=he had) (1, 1, 13).

(c.) A direct object often stands between the subject and verb pe hit :

pilon,we it knew (Oros., 1, 1, 11) pe spyfteste hors habbad, who swiftest

;

horses have (1, 1,22).

(rf.) An object
often stands between the auxiliary and verb Hi magon :

cyle gepyrcan, they can cold produce (Oros., 1,1, 23).

3. Attraction. Inversion of one part of the predicate draws others.
Two objects very often precede the verb :
fela spelld him sxdon, many
tales to him told (they) (Ores., 1, 1, 14). See more examples, ^^ 297„ a,
315, a, i.

(a.) The relative is regularly attracted to the beginning of its clause :

gdrsecg, pe man Cpen-sai heet, the sea, which one calls Cwen-sea (Oros., 1,
1, 11) ; gafole, pe pd Finnds him gyldad, tribute, which the Finns to them
pay (1,1,15).

493. Adveebial Combinations.

1. An adverb follows its verJ, but precedes its adjective or
adverb.
2. A preposition with its following (attributives +) Hotin
follows next the word to which it shows the relation.

494, Exceptions.
1. Emphasis. Any adverbial factor may begin its clause for emphasis.
On p&m landum eardodon Engle, in those lands dwelt Angles (Oros.,
1, 1, 19) ; Edsteperd hit mcvg bion syxtig mild brad, eastward it may
< be si.\ty miles broad (1, 1, 16) Ne mette he, he met not (1, 1, 13).
;

Adverbs of time, place, order, very often begin a clause pdfor he,
(a.) :

then went he (I, 1, 13) pyder,he c/^^pt^, thither, he said (1, I, 18); panne
;

xrnad hi ealle, next run they all (1, 1, 22).

{b.) Interrogatives regularly begin their clause :
hp&r is heard God,
where is their God"? (Psa.,cxiii, 10).
2. Perspicuity. When two or more adverbial factors modify the same
word, their order is free. They are usually some before and some after
the word pd he piderpcard scglude fram Sciringes heale, when he
:

k
220 ARRANGEMENT.—ADVERBIAL COMBINATIONS.
thither sailed from Sciringsheal (Oros., 1, 1, 19) ; ealle pa hpile he sceal

scglian be lande, all the while he must sail along the land (1, 1, 18).
{a.) In German the order is (1) timr, (2) place, (3) cause, (4) co-existence, (5) modality or ne-
gation, (G) mamicr, all before the verb. There is more or less approach to the same order
in Anglo-Saxon.

3. Old habits, (a.) Adverbial factors are very often found betvreen
the subject and verb : pa hpxl-huntan fyrrest farad, the whale hunters
furthest go (Oros., 1, 1, 13) ;
he from his dgnum home for, he from his
own home went (1, 1, 13) ;
so regularly the negative :
hy ne dors Ion,
they durst not (1, 1, 13).
{b.) Adverbial factors are very often found between an auxiliary and its

or the copula and predicate

t^crb, : he mihtc onfeoper dagum geseglian, he
might in four days sail (1, 1, 13, and everywhere) ; pmt land is eastepeard
hrddost, the land is eastward broadest (1,1, 16).
(c.) The adverb before its adjective or adverb is regular :
hyrd hyd but
spate god, their hide is
very good (1, 1, 14).
{d) The preposition is sometimes separated from its case to take the
place of an adverb Se here him fiedh beforan, the army him flee before
:

(Cjir., 1016) pe he on bude, vjh.ich. he dwelt on (Oros., 1, 1, 18) pe heora

; ;

spcdd on bead, which their riches are in (1, 1, 15; 1, 1, 22). Sometimes
it follows its case hi pyrcad pone cyle hine on, they produce cold on
:

him (1, 1,23) ne dorston p&r on cuman,they durst n-ot there on come (I,
;

1, 13).

4. Attraction. Relative adverbs begin their clause hus,panon ic code, :

house whence I went (Matt., xii, 44). For other cases, see § 485, b,
and examples in ^ 494, 2.

495. Akeangement of Clauses.

1. Co-ordinate clauses are free to follow the order of thought.

{a.) Courtesy. — Copulate subjects of different persons should have the

person follow the third, and the third follow the second.
first
" "
A royal speaker may perhaps be an exception I and the girls," I :

and Alice" (Queen Vict., Life in Highlands, 173).

Subordinate Clauses.
1. Substantive clauses regularly follow their leading clause. For ex-
amples, see § 468.
2. Adjective clauses regularly follow the word they describe. For ex-
amples, see ^ 470, and sections there referred to.
3. Adverbial clauses freely take any place in the sentence according to
the demands of emphasis, perspicuity, or euphony. They incline to the
order of adverbial factors of a clause, ^^ 493, 494.
(a.) Conditional and concessive clauses oftenest precede. Examples,
^^431,432.
 CLAUSES. 221

(6.) Insertion.
—
Leading clauses are sometimes inserted in subordinates :

and nordepeard, he cpxd,p&r hit smalost p&re, pxt hit mihte heon, etc., and
northward, he said, where it was narrowest, that it might be (three miles
broad) (Oros., 1, 1, 16).

(c.) Variations are found with

substantive and adjective clauses after the

analogy of substantives and adjectives, ^^ 485-490.

 PAET IV.

PEOSODY.

49G. Prosody treats of the rhythm of Poetry.

497. Rhythm is an orderly succession of beats of sound.
This beat called an ictus or arsis, and the syllable on which it falls is
is

also called the arsis. The alternate rennission of voice, and the sylla-
bles so uttered, are called the thesis.

498. Feet are the elementary combinations of syllables in verse.

(a.) Feet are named from the order and make of their arsis and thesis. A monosyllabic
arsis-\-A. monosj'llabic Ui£tiis is a trochee ; -fa dissyllabic thesis is a dactyle, etc.

Stress. In Anglo-Saxon these depend on the accented syllables, which are deter-
mined by the stress they would, if the passage were prose, receive to distinguish
them from other syllables of the same word, or from other words in the sentence.
Accent is therefore verbal, syntactical, or rhetorical. An unemphatic dissyllable may
count as two unaccented syllables, like the second part of a compound. Secondary
accents may take the arsis.

1. A tonic is a single accented syllable-fa pause.

2. A trochee is an accented+an unaccented syllable.
3. A dactyle is an accented+two unaccented syllables.
4. A paeon is an accented+three unaccented syllables.
5. A pyrrhic is two unaccented syllables a spondee is ; two accented ;

an iambus an unaccented+an accented an anapaest is two unac-

is ;

cented-fan accented a tribrach is three unaccented a single unac-

; ;

cented syllable is called an atonic; and unaccented syllables prelim-

inary to the normal feet of a line are called an anacrusis (striking up)
or base.

(6.) Time. The time from each ictus to the next is the same in any section. It is
not always filled up with sound. More time is given to an accented than an unac-
cented syllable.
(c.) Pitch. The English and most other Indo-Europeans raise the pitch vrtth the
verbal accent the Scots lower it. With the rhetorical accent the pitch varies every
;

way.
(d.) Expression. Feet of two syllables are most conversational; those of three are
more ornate those of one syllable are emphatic, like a thtui or the blows of a ham-
;

mer. The trochee, dactyle, and pseon, in which the accented syllable precedes, have
more ease, grace, and vivacity. Those feet in which the accented syllable comes last
have more decision, emphasis, and strength (Crosby, § 095). The Anglo-Saxon me-
ters are trochaic and dactylic the English oftener iambic and anapsstic.
;

499. A verse is an elementary division of a j^oera.

 VEESE.— C^SUKA.—RIME. 223

It has a twofold nature ;

it is a series of feet, and also a series
of words.
(a.)As a series of feet, it is a sing-song of regular nps and downs, snch as children
sometimes give in repeating rhymes.
As a series of words, each word and pause would be the same as if it were prose, as
persons who do not catch the meter often read poetry.
The cantilation never is the same as the prose utterance lines in which it should be ;

would be
prosaic.
The art of versification consists' ia so arranging the prose speech in the ideal frame-
work of the line that the reader may adjust one to the other without obscuring ei-
ther, and with continual happy variety.
(6.) The manner of adapting the arsis and tliesis to the prose pronunciation is different
in different languages. In Sanskrit, and classical Greek and Latin, the arsis was
laid on syllables having a long sound, and variety was found in the play of the prose
accent. In other languages, including modern Greek and Latin, the arsis is made to
fall on accented syllables, and free play is given to long and short vowel sounds, and
combinations of consonants. The Sanskrit and Greek varied farther from prose
speech in the recitation of poetry than modem habits and ears allow.
The Hindoos
still repeat Sanskrit poetry in recitative.

500. Verses are named from the prevailing foot trochaic, dactylic, la^n-

bic,a.ni anapcBstic, etc.

Verses are named from the number of feet. A monometer is a verse
of one foot a dimeter of two a trimeter of three a tetrameter
; ; ;

of four ;
a pentameter of five a hexameter ;
of six ;
a heptameter
of seven ;
an octometer of eight.
(a.) A verse is catalectic when it wants a syllable, acatalectie when complete, liypercata-
lectic when redundant.
501. Caesura. —
Anglo-Saxon verses are made in two sections or hemi-
stichs. The pause between these sections is called the caesura. A foot
ccESura is made by the cutting of afoot by the end of a ivord.

(a.) Expression. The character of versification depends much on the management

When the weight of a verse precedes the caesura, the movement has
of the cMsuras.
more vivacity ; when it follows, more gravity.

502. Rime. — Rime the rhythmical repetition of letters.

is

Nations who unite arsis and prose accent need to mark off their verses

plainly. They do it by rime. Other nations shun rime.

1. When the riming letters begin their words, it is called alliteration.

2. When the accented vowels and following letters arc alike, it is called

perfect rime (= rhyme).

When it is called half rime.
3. only the consonants are alike,
4. When the accented syllable is final, the rime is smgle ; when one un-
accented syllable follows, the rime is double when two, it is triple. ;

Line-rime is between two words in the same section. Final-rime

(a.)
between the last words of two sections or verses.

503. Alliteration is the recurrence of the same initial sound

in the first accented syllables of words.
1.
—
Consonants. The first initial consonant of alliterating syllables must
be the same, the other consonants of a combination need not be;
22-1 ALLITERATION.

Beopulf: bremeWhhid (B., 18) Caines cynne'.'.cpealm (107) Crls- ;

:
;

tenrdwCyriacus (El., 1069); cudeWcniht {B., 372) funden::frdfrc ;

{!) frxtpum fiet (2054); geong gear dum:: God (13); geogodc::
; : :

gleapost (C, 221, 1); grimma gxst :

(B., 102); heofenum : hlceste

(52); hxledd :
hryre'.'.hpate (2052); hn'UanWhrmgum (Rid., 87, 4) :

sijdlice'.'.speotolan (B., 141); scearp :

scyldwscdd (288); scridende ::
sceapum (Trav., 135) Scottdwscip (Chr., 938) peodwprym (B., 2) ; ; ;

pen plcnco'.'.prxc (338).

:

2. —
Vowels. A perfect vowel alliteration demands different vowels
—sometimes
:

isig:utfus::xdelinges (B., 33) ; the same vowels repeat:

eorld eordan:
eoper (B., 248). : :

(a.) sc, sp, or st seldom alliterate without repeating the whole combina-
tion but: scyppend:: serifen (B., 106); spere
; :
sprengde:: sprang (By.,
137); str&ld storm:: strengum (B.,3117).
:

{h.) Words in ia-, io-, iu-, Hie-, alliterate with those in g-. They are
mostly foreign proper names. See ^^ 28, 34.
Iacobes::gode (Psa.,lxxxvi, 1, and often) lafed gumrtncum (C.,1552) ; :
;

Iorda7je::grene (C, 1931) lobes:: God (Met., 26, 47) goda gedsne ; ;
:

::ludas (El., 924); Iuded::God (El., 209); gledp Godc::luhana :

and often); gomen geardum::iu (B., 2459), so frequently

(Jul., 131, :

iu^geo, gio (formerly) and its compounds; Hierusolme:: God (Ps. C,

GO, 134) gongad gegnunga ; Hierusalem (Giith., 785) written gold
: : :
; :

Gerusalem:: luded (C.,260, 11).

(c.) It is said that p may alliterate with s by Dietrich (Haupt Zeit., x,
323, 362). No sure examples found. C, 287, 23, is
a defective line.

504. A perfect Anglo-Saxon verse has three alliterating sylla-

bles, two in the first section, the other in the second.

Yrum'\sceaft'' \ Yir'\d^ || Yeorr'\arC \ recc'\an' (B., 91).

the origin of men from far relate.

(a.) The repeated ; the one in the second

letter is called the rtme-htter

couplet the chief-letter, the others the sub-letters. The o^feorran F

in the line above is the chief-letter the in frumsceaft and frd the ;
F
sub-letters.

(b.) One of the sub-letters is often wanting.

(c.) Four or more rime-letters are sometimes found.

Itednes . . "Leohte . .
||
. . liete . .
"Lange (C, 258).

In pairs :
Pxt' he \
God'e \ pold'\e' \\ geong'\ra^ \ peord'\an\
that he to God would a vassal be (C, 277), where g-

and p both rime, and so often.

505. The Anglo-Saxons used line-rime and final-rime as an oc-

casional ffrace of verse. See §511.
506. Verse in which alliteration is essential, and other rime ornamental, is the pre-
vailing form in Anglo-Saxon, Icelandic, Old Saxon. Specimens are found in Old High
 COMMON NARRATIVE VERSE. 225
German. Alliteration in these languages even ran into prose, and is one of the causes
of the thoroughness with which the shifting of the initial consonants has affected the
whole speech, § 41, B.

50 / . final rime, and with alliteration as an occasional grace, is the common

Verse with
form in English and the modern Germanic and Romanic languages. It is common in the
Low-Latin verses of the Anglo-Saxon poets, and it is by many supposed to have spread
from the Celtic.

CoMiroN Nakkative Vekse.

508. Beda says of rhythm: "It is a modulated composition of words, not according
to the laws of meter, but adapted in the number of its syllables to the judgment of the ear,
* •
as are the verses of our vulgar poets. Yet, for the most part, you may find, by a sort
of chance, some rule in rhythm; but this is not from an artificial government of the syl-
lables. It arises because the sound and the modulation lead to it. The vulgar poets efi'ect
this rustically, the skillful attain it by their skill." Bed., 1, 57. These remarks on the —
native poets are doubtless applicable to their Anglo-Saxon verses as well as their Latin ;

and whatever general rules we may find running through these poems, we may expect to
findmany exceptional lines, which belong in their places only because they can be recited
with a cadence somewhat like the verses around them.

509. The common narrative verse has four feet in each section.
A. 1. An
arsis /a//5 on every prose accent, § 15, and the last syllable of
every section. But note contractions below, 7.
2. At least one arsis on a primary accent, or two on other syllables follow

the chief alliterating letter, ^ 504.

3. An arsis should fall on the former of two unaccented syllables after an

accented long (the vowel long or followed by two consonants), and on the
latter after an accented short.

acyld'\wn bi\acer' e\de\ || acynd'\an' ge\ner'e\de' (Rime Song, 84).

4. An arsis should not fall on an unaccented proper prefix {a-, he-, ge-,

etc.,'^ 15), or proclitic monosyllables {be, se,pe, etc.), or short endings of

dissyllabic particles {nefne, odite, ponne, etc.),
or short tense-endings between
two accented shorts in the same section.
5. An arsis may fall on a long, on a short between two accents (after a

long frequent, after a short, less so), on the former of two unaccented shorts.
grorn' |
torn \ ^rsef'\ed\ || ^rwft' \ rxft' hxf\ect' (Rime Song, 6G).

spylc'e I gi' |
gant'' |
as' \Pa' pid \
God'e \punn' \
on' (B., 11'3).

xiip'\e' I niht'-\peard'' || nyd'\e'' \ sceol'\de^ (C, 185, 1).

pord' purd'\i' \
an. ||
Veol \
him' on \
inn'
(C, 353). |
mi^
burh' \ tim'\bre' \
de^ (C, 2840). Rare with short penult of trisyllable.

B. 6. The thesis ismute or monosyllabic but syncope, ; elision, synizesis,

or synaloepha is often needed to reduce two syllables.

7. An
anacrusis may introduce any section. It is of one syllable, rarely
two, sometimes apparently three, with the same contractions as t'he tkesis.
Let'on p(d) ofer
I \ fif'el \
pxg' \\ fdm'\i'ge | scrur\an' (El., 237).
puld'or\-cyn'ing\es'' \ pord' || ge)peot'an pa Jm pit'(S)gan pry \ An., 802).
\ \ \

Bpic'dd\{e) ymb' pa \ sap'\le' \\pe) hire &r' pa aien'ie) on\ldh' (C, 607).
\ \

P
22G COMMON NARRATIVE N'KKSE.

Synizesis oi -annc,-lic,-scipe,pendt'n,-A\\([ the like. Sj/nalaepha oi'

ge-,
pc, and the lilcc.

Borh' is I
me' to | Becg'\an7ie^ \\
on' \
scf'an \ mhi'\u7n' (B., 473). .

prxtlic'ne \ pund' or\-ma(td'\ran'' || (B.,2171).

{yrd'\-scar'o |
fus' \
lieu' \\ (B., 23-2J.
eaht'lo'don | eor/'|-5Cijoe^ || (B., 3174).
pcs'an \pend'en ic \peald'\e'' || (B., 1859).

pegn'ds I synd'on ge\-ppivr'\c' || (B., 1230).

/lar'a Jjc \ piit spa \ inic'\lum^ \\ (C, 2095).

pxt niifre )Grrend'\cr spa \fel'\a' || ^ry'\ra' ge\frem'e \
de" (B., 591).

So we find hpsedere (B., 573), dissyllabic ; hine (B., 688), ofer (B., 1273),
monosyllabic ;
and many anomalous slurs in the thesis or anacrusis.

8. The order of the feet is free, varying with the sense. In later poetry,
as more particles are used, the fuller thesis grows more common.
9. The Anglo-Saxons like to end a sentence at the cfcsura. So Chaucer and his French
masters stop at the end of the first line of a rhyming conplet. So Milton says that "true
musical delight" is to be found in having the sense " variously drawn out from one verse
into another."
10. The two alliterating feet in the first section, and the corresponding pair in the sec-
ond section, are chief feet. Some read all the rest as thesis.

510. Irregular sections are found with three feet, or two.

1. Sections with contracted words where the full form would complete the
four feet.
hedn huses^^hea\han' \ hu'\ses^ (B., 116).

deddpic seuii=^dedd'\pic^ \ seo'\haii (B., 1275).

2. Sections with three feet and a thesis :

prym' {ge)\-frun'\on' (B.,2).

\

Uf i
edc' {ge)\scedp' (B., 97).
I

Heyne finds in Beowulf feet of this kind with a-,

xt-, be-, for-, ge-, of-,
on-, to-, purh-. Similar sections with proclitic particles are found : men' \

{ne)\cunn'\on' (B., 50); (be)\yd'\ldfW (B., 566); Let' \ {se)\heard"\a' (B.,

2977) ; {pe)\him' \ pxt' \
pif (C.,707).
3. Sections with Proper Names. Foreign Names are irregular :

Semf I
and' \
Chain' \ (C, 1551), and so often.

4. Sections with two feet and a thesis :

man \
{ge)\pe6n (B., 25). Loth' \ {on)\fm (C, 1938).
51L. found occasionally in most Anglo-Saxon poems.
Rhyme is few- A
contain rhyming passages of some length. One has been found which is
plainly a Task Poem to display riming skill. All sorts of rimes are crowded
together in it. It has eighty-seven verses.

LINE-RIME.
Half-rime : sar' |
and' \
BOx'\ge''; ||
siisl' \J)rop'\ed'\on\
pain and sorrow ; sulphur suffered they (C.,75).
 LONG NARRATIVE VERSE. 227
Perfect-rime :

Single :
Jidh' \
mdh' \fiit'\ed\ \\jian \
man' | hpU'\ed\ [62).
foul fiend fighteth, darts the devil whetteth (Rime-song,
gdst'\d'' \peard'\urn. || HiBfd'\on' \ gleam and dream',
|

They had light and joy (C,

Double /rod'jne" and
:
\ o-od'jne' || feeder \ 'Un'\pen'\es\ [12).
wise and good father of Unwen (Trav., 114).
Triple :
/er'iedje' and | jier'ejde". Ftf\ten\a' |1 \ stod'—,
(God) led and saved (C, 1397).
FINAL-RIME.
Half-rime :
spd' lif \
| spa \
dea.&' , \\ spa Mm \ le6f'\re' \
bi&'.
either life or death, as to him liefer be (Ex.,
37, 20 ; Crist., 596, and a riming passage).
Perfect-rime :

Single : ne' \forst'\es'' j/nsest', ||

ne \fyr'\es'' blesst',
no frost's rage, nor fire's blast,
Double: ne) hasgl'les' \ hryT'\e\\\ ne) hrim'\es' \ rfryr'le',
nor hail's fall, nor rime's descent (Phoenix, 15,
16 ; Ex., 198, 25, where see more).
Triple: hlud'\e' \ hlyn'e\de^; || hledd'\o7-^ \
dyn'e\de\
(The harp) loud sounded ;
the sound dinned (Rime-song, 28).

Long Narrative Verse.

512. The common narrative verse is varied by occasional passages in

longer verses. The alliteration and general structure of the long verse is

the same as of the common ; but the length of the section is six feet. Feet
are oftenest added between the two alliterating syllables of the first section,
and before the alliterating syllable of the second section.

Spa cpxit anott'\or on mod'\e\

\ \ \ ||

ge) swl' him' sund'\or^ set run'\e\ I | \ {|

TiY' bid se'pe his tre6p'\e' ge\heald'\ed\-

1 \
\\

ne) sceaV \ n&f're his \

torn' to \
ryce\ne''
heorn' of his 'bre6st'\u7n' d\cyd'\an\
\
|

nemd e he xr' pa \i6l'\e' cunn'\e\ \

\ \

eorl' I
mid' gefremm'\an : \ eln'\e'

pel' bid pam' pe him a/je* sec'\ed\

I \ |

frdf'\re^ to | F<W|er' on \ hcof'on\um\

peer |
us^ \
eal' seo \
{.vst'nung \
5/«7j<i |erf' (Wanderer, 11 1+).

(a.) Sometimes a section of four feet is coupled with one of six :

ge) pinn'les^ | pid' |

heor'd | pald\end^ \\ pit'\e^ \
pol'\iad^ (C.,323).

(6.) Four or more alliterative letters are found oftener than in common
verse. Three seldom fail. A secondary weak alliteration is some-
times found in one of the sections.
228 ENGLISH PROSE RHYTHM.

Cc.) This verse is rather a variety of the Common Narrative than another
kind.

513. The Common Narrative

is the
regular Old Germanic verse.
Rules of § 509, are rules of that verse. In the 5th
1, 2, 8, 4, 6, 7,
tlie Anglo-Saxon uses greater freedom. It also corresponds with
the Old ^
orse /orni/7'clala^. In it Old English alliterating poems
are wi-itten.
/;*' a I
som er \
sea'|on* whan) soft' ivas' the so?m'|e^
|| |
\

/) shape I
me in shroud'\es^
\ as) I a shep'e wer'\e'' {| |
\

In) hab'ite \
as' an \ hcr'c\mite^ \\ un)hol'\7/ of \ work'\es''
Went' wyd'e in pis ivorld'
I \ \
|| ivond'\res'' to \ her'\e\
Ac) on a May' morn yng\e^ | \
|| ori) Mal'\uerne \ hull'\es'
Me' by\fel' a \fer\h/ || of) fair' \i/ me \

thou-^t'\e\
Piers the Plowman, 1-6.

(a.) The anacrusishas a tendency to unite with the following accented

syllable, and start an iambic or anapastic movement. The change of
inflection endings for prepositions and auxiliaries has also favored the
same movement. In Oht English it often runs through the verses.
See Final perfect-rime,^ 511.

Alliteeative Pkose,
514. Some of the Anglo-Saxon prose has a striking rhythm, and frequent
alliteration, though not divided by it into verses. Some of the Homilies of
^Ifric are so written (St. Cudbert). Parts of the Chronicle have mixed
line-rime and alliteration.

515. Verses with the same general form as the Anglo-Saxon continued
to be written in English to the middle of the fifteenth
century. Alliteration
still found as an ornament of our
is
poetry, and the old dactylic cadence runs
all
through racy Anglo-Saxon English style.
So they went up to the Mountains to be|hoId the gardens and orchards,
| |
I!
| |

The vineyards and fountains of water; where also they drank and washed themselves,
I | |
II
| | |

And did freely eat of the vineyards, Now there were on the tops of those Mountains,
| | |
p
| | |

Shepherds feeding their fioclcs ; and they stood by the highway side.
The pilgrims therefore went to them, and leaning upon their staffs.
As is common with weary pilgrims, wlien they stand to talk with any by the way,
They asked, Whose Delectable Mountains are these?
And whose be the sheep, that feed upon them ? Buntan, Pilgrim's Progress, —
 INDEX OF WORDS.

For COMPOUNDS, look at the simples.

[The figures refer to sections. V
prefixed, marks a root prefixed, marks a suffix ;
— ;
—
suffixed, marks a prefix or ; < >
is placed between two words when one is derived

from the other, the angle pointing to the derived word means equivalent to.] ;
=
Aprelis, 38. hdd<Cbidan.
ANGLO-SAXON. «?7irsf, 229, 243. bal(d)sam, 50, 270.
a, 14, 16, 23. ('«•/«;, 229. hannan, 208.
— <a, 228, 240, 26S. (ir?an, 297. fc«<, 230.
—a<an, 228, 240, 268. drtst, 233. bxc-ere, —estre, 208, 228.
—a<jan, 228. <lriea.s, 229. bxclinga, 251.
—a, 246. arn<CJrnan. bsed<^biadan.
— «, 251. aron, 213. bscftan, 257, 334.
drste/, 229, 235. 6^r, 230.
«, 24.
—a, 251. ass-a,
—
268.
c,
— 6^re, 229, 243.
d—, 15, 254. dstellan, 189. bxrfot, 266.
d, 129, 254. <Jf , 228. biern-et,
—Mn<7, 233.
abbudisHC, 232, 26S. <i/'a, 254.
abu/an, 25T, 334. apacan, 267. bedcnian, 297.
db&tan, 341. ({/rfer, 136, 464. bead?*, 32, 90, 228.
ac, 260, 262, 397, 465. dpiht, 136, 389. beaduldc, 233.
aean, 207. axe, 35. 6e«/i<b?(jan.
cu;h, see ac. 6e«/(, 230.
dcsian, 292. X, 14, 16, 23. 6ca?tf, 36.
dctreo, 266. ^,24. bealu, 30, 32, 30 ; —ffcs, 242.
ddiine, 258. &, 100. 6car», 230, 234, 203.
—ad, 228. ;?,129, 203. bedtan, 208.
dder,4U. &—, 254. bexftan, 257.
ddsparing, 26C. a-rcr, 228. bebeodan, 207.
a/, 129. xdeling, 228, 235. becijme, 299.
jEdelpulfing, 237.
dgan, 212.
tigegn, 258. a?/—, 129, 254. — healfe,—foran,
be-edstan,
334.
-^eontlcui.
etc.,
(igen, 366. ;g/re, 251. 141, 490.
dgeii, 341. a-/t, .331.
tecre?!,
be-heanan,
—hindan, —neodan,
dgyldan, 297. a/ton, 252. 257, 334.
n)i, see ac. a'/temest, 12Y. helgan, 203, 290.
rtA, 212. a/f^r, 15, 126, 129, 255, 328, 331, 6e»an, 203.
dhsie, 35. 472, 473. 6e?wf, 228.
flfti, 136. mftera, 127. 6eo, 100.
dfcte, 36, 212. ff/ter/jcardfjs, 251. beudan, 206.
dhpxder, 136, 391. ^Bjr, a;(7rM, 82, 228. bedgan<^b ligan.
—al, 228. &g—, 254 ; —hp&, —lipxcter, bedn, 177-182, 213, 286, 298,
«?an, 207. etc., 136, 390, 391, 403. 415.
dinang, 341. ^qder, 136, 463. ieoran<^6eran.
—an, 251, 257. a-'l—, 259. beord, 230.
an.—, 15. 130, 392.
^?<;, beorgan, 191, 204.
an, 254. —en, 268.
lelf, beornan, 204.
aiKCunnan, 212. xlmeahtig, 266. bep&ctc, 1S9.
— <in, 247. i8n«, 14.5. 6er-an, 200, 319 ;
— e, 22a
«n, 136, 138, 366, 386. *n?(/, 136, 387, 489. bere, 230.
— ana, 175. ar, 126, 259, 332, 472. berga7}=benrgan.
aricor, 270. d:reHt, 127, 129. bernan, 24S.
aJMf-,15, 254,328, 330. a-rn, 229. berninq, 233.
anrf, 138, 139, 262, 394, 46.3. xt, 15, 2.%4, 328, 333. berstan, 192, 202.
andlong, 2.W, 329, 330. a-t— 257.
, bcKt'trgian., 297.
and nd pi Ixk, 405. a;<<c<an. be.'itdan, 258.
andspar-ian, 15, 297 ;
—w, 2C5. setforan, 333. 6efra, 6c«a«, 129.
dnedge, 266. be<te, 189.
dn^-ged, 266. &, 27, 30. betpcdhs {x), —tpeonum, 258,
rin/iewJe, 260. M, 141. 329, 334.
dn«, 262. fcacan, 158, 191,207. bctpuxt, 49.
230 INDEX OF WORDS.
he f)am pr, 4G6. byre, 84, 86. gecynd, 235.
M., bi, be, 15, 4S, 25J, 25T com- bJ/r/ian<6«o«ian. iryiierlce, 229, 235.
pounds 3S4.lit
;

cyning, 268 ;
—dom, 229.
biiian, 205, 315. c, 27, 28. fi/rde, 298.
biddan, 19a. ;— ,
250. cyrnel, 236.
6'-7<6i. can, 176, 212, 437. cyssan, 188.
biUiS, 35. arcern, 229. •^.s^ 35.
bindan, 102, 201. rarJ— ,
—ca«, —fugol, etc., £6S. f}/ste, 35, 189.
binman, 257, 334. (•<}«ern, 268.
f/jrW — bergan. 268. d, 27, 29.
birst, 35.
<;a«,
cealf, 82.
— d, nomi, 228.
biHceop, 43 ;
—
J'wre, 235. ccar-ful, —le&s, 243, 266.
—d, comp., 255.
h!7, 230. 35.
e*(?d.s — d, verb, 455.
fc?,ton, 205. tv««ter,'33, 90, 101, 270. dn/aji, 207.
tjter, 230. cede, 189. ge-dafcnad, 299.
bitm; 242. ccnnan, cende, 183, 189. dar=:dea»".
bl&cern, 229. ceorfan, 204. d^d, 90,231.
blandan, 208. cc6sa«, 197, 206, 286. ge-d&de<Cd6n.
bl&tan, 208. ceopan, 206. 'dag, 71, 229 ;
— cs, 251.
bl&pan, 208. rfrfan, 205, 297. dicgesege, 265.
ftLsi/, 269. cild, child, 34, 41, 82, 268 ; d«(irf, 228, 234.
fc/et, 35, 208. —had, 235 ; —isc, 228, 241. dc&f<Cdvfcm.
Uii'an, 205. <-Zd, 100. dedg, {h)<jdugan.
/y/We, 321. cWnheort, 2CG. dear, 176, 212, 439.
/;/mii, 104, 105. clcofan, 200. dearnvnga, 251.
Uinnan, 201. eh/, 269. delfan, 203.
35. clt/an, 205. denian, 297.
fcjfss,
blddredd, 266. climban, 201. de?n — —
a. end,
— cr<", 232.
fc;6mo, 234. clingan, 201. ge-denra^don.
fctetan, 208. cZ?p«e, 189. 'dcofolcund, 229, 241.
btopan, 208. clipuian, 188. de6g<^dedgan.
clype, 98. dedj)c, 251.
66^ 90, 100, 269. cnapan, 208. dcor, 41.
ioccre, 228. cnedan, 199. deorcunga, 251.
fcoja, 32, 230. cneodan, 206. deor/an, 204.
bogan, bod, 224. cnyssan, 188.
—der, 228, 252, 255.
coin, 35. derian, 188, 297.
Wife, 189. cor^M^ceosan. dn/p, {y)<^d6n.
bonnan<Cbannan. gecoren{n)e, 119, 107. ilipjian, 188.
hdn<Cjbdgan. corfcn<^ceorfan.
— d(, 228.
bdsom, 50. crdpan, 208. dohte<^dugan.
box, 270. era;/*, 229, 269. dohtor, 100 ; —I'M, 93.
brsegdan, brtedan, 202. credo, 270. —ddm, 229.
crebdan, 206.
bredtan, 208. crcopan, 191, 200. dow, 160, 168, 17T, 213, 225, 29T,
fcrcran, 199, 200. criiiean, 201. 406.
bredan, 202, 224. cringan, {eg), 201. dors^e^dMrmn.
bregdan, 202, 220, 224. cr^pp, 194. dragan, 207.
brengan, 209, 210. «>, 91, 100. dranc<jlrincan.
breodan, 206. cwrf, 297. dr<J/-,230.
breomu, 11. c?M(?, 37, 176, 212. dr^dan, 208, 218.
breotan, 206. cWes, 166. dr^/an, 248.
breopan, 206. 191, 200.
cuman, dreahte, 189.
brimo, 77. —cund,
229, 241. dreccan, 209.
bringan, 201. eunnan, 212. drencan, 248.
brinnan, 201, 204. euron, 35, 197. drenctc, 189.
frrop, 91, 100. cp&don, 197. dreogan, 206.
broccn <^brecan. epealde, 189. drebjMn, 206.
l)rocen<^brucan. epeahn, 234. drebrd<^dr&dan.
bidder, 41, 87, 100, 228, 232; cpeartcrn, 229. dreosan, 206.
—/!<irf, 229. cpeccan, 209. drepan, 191, 199, 220.
brohtc<^bringan. cpcden<jspedan. drlf-an, —t, 193, 205.
brohtes, 160. cpedan, 192, 199, 397. dWnc, 231.
br'ucan, 206, 300. te<Cepeccan,
(•/ie7( drinc-an, — /), 194, 201.
fcw, D66, 463. cpelan, 200. dropen<Cdrepan.
fcw/a??, 257, 334. cpellan, 209. druncen, 455.
b'ngan, 206. ge-cpeman, 297. drurun <jireusan.
b-arpaii, bugav, bfikm, hf(pian, cpert, 228, 268. drii, 100.
b^'in, bum, 221, 224. cpiman, 200. d?//a?), 206.
huUuca, 236. cpincan, 201. dugan, 212.
(vi/ri;, 100, 101. t-pisi, 35. diin, 101.
6^i«f«i, 45, 257, 334, 393, 4S1, 4C5. c/)om gefered, 458. dMr(J, 93.
?;?/.«?/, 360 ; ^d, 489. cycen, 230. durran, 176, 212, 439.
hj/cgmi, 211. cycene, 239. dpealde-ddpellan.
t^j/a", 243. cydde<Cji-ydan, 297. dpelan, 200.
7)7/(7(;?K, 232. cymeni^cuman. dpellan, 209.
h'jrd<Cheran. cyn, 101,229. dpinan, 205.
 INDEX OF WORDS. 231

dyde<Cd6n. —es, verb, 166, 225. fiopan, 208.

dypte, 1S9.
— 228. flugon, 206.
d'jrstig, 454.
— e«a, 228.
c«,
'iWgan, 248.
—esl, 228. yo(ior, 232.

C, 14, 16, 23. esoJ, 41. fofc, 101.

—e<a, 22S. —estre, 228, 268. /(W, 208, 210, 224, 247.
—e<a, verb, 164. — cf, 228. f<md<^fuulan.
—c<CJa, 22S, 243, 2C5. etan, 192, 169. for, 15, 254, 255, 328, 337.
— 265. —ettan, 260. for—, 15, 254, 265; —beodan,
—c<i,
e<2a, verb, 160.
297 —gifan, 207 ; —gifemi-
;
—
/, 27, 30, 41. 242 —gitan, 28 ; Jco-
g f ost.
— e<'aM, 22S, 240, 263. faccnstscf, 229.
lia,
sa», 197
;

standan, 299
—
ed, 100. fdhai\>fun.
— s/iorcn, 455;
;

— pt/rjian, 297.
;

«'«,oh, 263. fa)id<Jindan. fm-an, 252, 257, 328.

edt, 254, 262, 335, 394, 463. fangan, 216. /ord(i, 93.
e(tde^=edde. etide, 1'24. /ara;i, 191, 207, 445. fwd, 15, 129.
f djs, 95. /ar6M, 228. /ure, 15, 129, 254, 255, 328, 337.
euyaealf, 266. fxder, 228, 232. fore-rinel, 232.
eaTifa, 13S, 139. f£gon<^fcdH. fore-peard, 129.
eal, 33, 136, 251, 259, 395, 490. Mr, 37. for hpam, 260.
cd Id, 263. /or intingan, 337.
eald, 124 ; —fxder, 265. —/iPSt, 229, 243. form^a, 126 e«i, 127. ;
—
Miies, 251. fiesten, 269. /or /jam /)c, 460.
eallunga, 251. /a-^, 73. for Pii, 466.
cai/ie /"ejif, 251. fedlK^feoil. ./(/f, 41, 84, 100.
ealofxt, 265. feald, 209. fox, 268.
ea?J!P<J, 463, 473.
— /mJtZ, 143, 229, 245. /ram, 15, 254, 338, 409.
eaJ jb<i, 483. fealdan, 208. fr&, 254, 255.
eam=^eom. /(aide, 1S9, 209. frxipe, 100.
ear, 269. fealh<Cf(lga-n: frxtpian, 224.
eardigean, 28. feallan, 191. fremian, 297.
e<ire, 98. fealupe, 117. freinman, 188.
earni, 33. fed(pa), 136, 395, 489. freogaii^frcdn, 47.
earn<^irnan. /ea.(;, 36. freogan^reon, weak</rt.
eart<ji(ym. /eccan<C.fecian, 34. freo'nd, 87, 100 ; -^Men, 229,
ednt, 251 ; —an, 252 ;
— emcs^ fecgan, 199. 235 ; —scijje, 229.
129; —erne, 228. fed{cd), 190. frebsan, 197.
cdp, 263. /e'ieis, 228, 232. fretan, 199.
ejfe, 189. feg-an,
—
can, 247. /rt, 115.
ed — , 15, 254 ; —nipian, 15. /ck, 129, 186, '251. fricgan, 199, 215.
—ed, 22S, 243. feld, 269. frtdan (Grein) ?

cdda, 262. /cZdfJ, 93. frignan, 202, 217.

c ;ei, 101. /cW, 36. frinan, 202, 224.
efen, 15, 259; —peorcan, 267; fclqan, 203. fringan, 35, 201.
—l&can, 299. fcllan, 209. from^raTn, 15.
(f/j^, 263. ge-frngen 199.
(i),

c/f, 15. /CO, 37. fruma, 129, 140.

fif/csa, 228. /c6^, 100. fugol, 79 carl-fugol, 268.
:

189. fcohan, 109. /?««, 15, 259 —fyilan, 267.

dVite, 35,
«<-,259. feohtan, 204.
— /m!, 229, 243.
;

— ei, 22S. /eohtldr, 229. ftmdorK^fuidan.

—ele, 228. fcoK^fcallan. furdor, 129.
ElUitig, 223. fedl, 25.
— ms, 242.
c«ie«, 129, 262, 464; — 7(f «, 136. feold-Cfealdan. /(/k/c, 189.
—eU, 223. fediK^fcultan, 199, 247, 29T. fijlgian, 297.
embc, 328, 360. fcdn<C^feogan, weak. fijtstan, 297.
—en, 455. /c6)id, 87, 100. ///rra, 129.
—tvia,228,
244.
268,
/cor, 124, 129, 251, 254, 259, 336, fys-an,
— rfe, 189.
ende, 269. feorran, 252.
— e?id«, 228, 4-15, 400. /coper, 47, 138+. <7, 28, 34, .503.
endleofan, 138. fera7i, 248, 297. —J—, 250.
ii«firi-e, 86, 238 ; —isc, 228, 238 /esf, fet<i/dn. .(/(J, 298, 41.5.
241. fidel-ere, -estre, 26S. gaf<.gifan.
eode, 37, 213, 225. /rferw, 100. galan, 207.
eum, 168, 177, 213, 225, 066, 298, /if, 37, 13S+. ,7<ira, 208, 213, 225, 247, 286, 445.
314,416,451. )?«/fa?!, 201.221. (jandra, 26S.
e(rrnad<^irnan. /iras, 100, 208. gangan, 208, 213, 214, 210.
eornosiltce, 463. fitan, 109. gdrledc, 266.
eop, 130, .".60. /Ji;en, 232, 268. 5r<i«, 208.

edper, 132, 490. .(;^rf, 208.

eo/Jic, 130, 366.

Jledh<Cflt'<'>n.
jUdt<Jlcbtan. .^.TSf, 85 cr?), 229.
;
—
—er, compar., 122-129, 255. Jleogan^fleon, 206. <7^<, 268.
—er, 228. fleohanyjledn, 192, 200. j/c— ,15, 254, 262, 403; frnV —
—ere, 228, 268. fle?ihin, 200. rfrw, 77, 100 ; —cynd, 235
—ern«, 228, 245. jU'op<C fli'ipan. —/icnrfc, 250, 339; /tP(5,13fi
—
—eru, 228. jntan, wr>. —hpxder, 391 —hpilc, IVM
— gen., 62, 251.
es, jlidnzrzjlcdn. -lie, 299 ;
— ite, ;

463, 473 ;
 232 INDEX OF WOKDS.
—lienes, 2X5 ; —litlian, 249
— lomi, 259; —Ujfed, 29S
; hehban, 207.
— nticlian, 249 iiiAinn, 258
— ; ;7<"w, 37, 91,100, 208.
GV?rt», 2:!8.
207.
/ic/erf,

— n&taii, 37 Ki/irf,' 2C9

;

— ;

grafaii, 207.
heflgtpvie, 229.
hcgian, 188.
— mlit, 190;
;

sprcfen, 455;
— ;

graiioi, 2U4. 159, 218.

— Kpeoru, 100;
—
,v:;>eos^r«, 9ii, gr.i'da)!, to cry, slionld be per
/ic/if,
/tcia/!, 200.
100 —timbru, 100 ; —pingct, hapsiu 208. helian, 188.
;

235; —jbo/if, 228,234; — f?r^d/(r, 228, 315. /ic?j)an, 32, 203, 297.
409; —piht, 235;
/)«'/if,
pi'i, 29S.
— gra-f, 230. /jcn, 208.
For otiiei' words in ge—, .lycavs, 51. hcnep, 41.
drop ge —
aud look for the grStan, 208.
,
heng<^hangan, hOn,
rest. grrdiian, 200. hcd, 37, 130.
re, 24, 2S, 3T, 130, 3C6. grcdtaii, 200. /(CO dajjfe, 251.
'g,d, 261, 399. grc('>p<^gr6pan. hedf<^hcafan.
veaf<i_gifan. grettc, 35, 189. hen/en, 234.
gcatp<^gilpan. grimman, 201. hculd<^hcaldan.
gcdn, 15. griiidan, 201. heonan, 252.
gringan, 201. lieorcnian, 297.
'qc<'ip<ige6pan..
'./a'n-, 28; — da!(7, 229, 239. gripan, 205. /icorfc, 209.
23, 251.
r/Cficrf, grtsan, 205. hc6p<Jieapan.
(jenrpc, 100, 454. f/ro/, 230. her, 252.
prar, 28. grdpan, 191, 208. /i(;rf, 209.
gcatpan<^geatpe, 100. grund, 230. lierian, 224.
J/c.'/'i,
15. gryndan, weak. horpan, 224.
gryrehptl, 265. hest<Jtdn.
gen, 15. gulpon<C.gilpan. hi, 306.
f?<i/ia, 251. guma, 41, 268. hicgan ijj), 211.
^e«<7,213. yum-cyn, 265 ; —man,. 208 :
/ij'der, 15, 252=/i2(fer, 12G.
genoli, 490. —pegn, 268. H^c— 503.
,

<7c6, 252. gurron<^girran. h'ig—hii, 28.

J7e6f , 28. gy+, see f;i+. /i?'!;,
203.
gcogud, 28, 235. ffjy(7en., 228, 268. hindan, 252, 255.
(;coi, 28. £/^/ide?!, 244, 313. hindenia, 120.
geond, 15, 28, 133, 255, 32S, 340. gl/meli/st, 235. /imc/e?-, 129.
geondan, 257. i/'/rdc, 189. /(!>(/«, S3, 231.
geovff, 28, 124, 22S. J7i/«, 262. /(tz-ei, 229, 235.
f/eo ng<C_ ganga n. A?s, 307.
iieiingan, 201. 27, 28, 31, S3, 35+. Art, 130, 287, 300.
aeiingling, 228, 236.
— 14,228.
7i,

7t, hlmlan, 207.

gidpan, 206. /w, /«/, 263. hldf-dige, —ord, 208.
gcvrran, 204. habban, 37, 168, 222. hleahtor, 33, 57.
'gevtan, 206.
— /«M, 229. hledpan, 208.
frer, 28. haldan, 208. hledt'dhleOtan.
(/e.w, 28, 261, 399. halettan, 250. hlehhan (i, y) (6, a), 20T.
jyt'ta, 251. /(dm, 71,101,251. hleudrcdc, 298.
f//c, 225. hdm-peard, 229, 251 ; —peardes, hleuiK^hlcopan, warm.
gielan, 203. 251. /(^potaM, 206.
gieng, 213. /tawrt, 95, 231, 208. /(/e^f, 35.
(7?y, 260, 262, 469, 475. 92, 228, 267; —gepeorc, hliccan, 199.
/jflSJid,

(7)/a?i (i«, eo, io, y), £8, 199, 297, 266 ; —sellan, 207. hlidan, 205.
'gifta, 100. hanyan, 203, 216, 224. hllgan, weak.
o)f», 88, 228, 231. /(as, 50, 57. Idimmcm, 201.
'yihlan (ie, y), 203, 297. /idtaJi, 208, 280. hlbpan, 208.
gillan, 203. hdtian, 249. AZijtoH, 206.
gilpan {ic, ij), 203. /(dMf 219.
hhjsb^re, 243.
giltan, weak. /(a-fiftc,108, 169, 415, 410, 453. hlijstan, 297.
ginan, 205. /ia-/de, 108, il7. hndtan, 208.
ginnan, 201. /ia-Zte, 189. hncdp>an, 208.
gwng-^gangan. Aa-^p, 86. hnigan, 205, 297.
gipan, 199. /(&;?<, 269. hnipan, 199.
girranz=georran. Iid'nt<^hd!i. hnttan, 205.
girpan, 224. hditan, 249. hoqode, 211, 222.
<7!.sf, 28. 235.
/(a*<!{, /io/i, 100.
;?)?, 28, 465. /(e,24, 130. /(<irt, 208, 216, 224.
f/!^, pron., 130, 287, 360. hedfan, 208. hoppcstre, 268.
gitan (ie, y), 199. heafod, 41, 79 ; —^nan, 266. horsern, 229, 239.
f!lAd<^qli'dan. hedge, 251. //().<i«, 37.
(/(/Tf/, 106, 125. /(ca/i, 118, 124. hrade, 454.
glcdman, 229. healdan, 208. hrankjirinan.
gl'idan, 205. /iea?/, 147, 394. hrdp, 100.
gnagan, 207. healJ lie pone, 489. /(/•a-rf, 125.
gnidan, 205. healp<ihelpan. hreds<^hreusan.
P'V, 129 — 228. hedri^hedd, -pp. to exalt (weak). hrcddan, 188, 189.
god-cund,
;

229
»!es,
— 229 —heard, 229, 243. hrcodan, hrcodeii, 200.
— 229, 266
/fc,
;

;
—«pei, 266.
Ze<i«, ;

hearp-ere,
—
e«trc, 268. hrcofan, 200.
golclfmt, 31.^ heauod, 30. hrcosan, 197, 200.
goldsmid, 260. hedpan, 208. hreopan, 200.
 INDEX OF WOEDS. 2ot>

hrgpan, Ons. innan, 252, 257, 32S, 329, 341. 1

—lice, 251.
hrinan, 2(i5, 293. inne, 252. qe-lice and, 473.
hrindan, 201. innema, 126. ^icorfc, 299.
lirvpan, 20S. imiera, 129. licgan {licgcan), 102, 199, 248,
hroren<^hrebxan. innian, 57. 286.
hruron<^hredsan. mW, 341. Jldan, 205.
hriitan, 206. inpeardlice, 15. ;Won, 197.
hrpman, 248. io=eo, 33. lid, 37.
M, 252, 2G0, 262, 397, 46S, 4C9. to—, 503. ;j<ia«, 205.
hit, Interj., 263. '/o, 25. it/an, 205.
htcdan, hxidon, 200. irnan, 204. lifian, 222.
—hitgu, 136. iS<[«om, liget<Clicgan, 193.
hnlic, 135.
— wc, 228, 241. +(i/ian, 205, 297.
lmlpon<Chelpan. tsgicel, 200. ?!«(«;, 270.
13S+. Mt— 503. limpan, 201.
huiid,
hunt-ad,
— btt,
— nad, 233. ,

iw, 252, 390.

— 228.
i?H<7,
hCtsincle, 22S. n(i-, 228. h-Unnan, 201.
AiMi, 37. jM/ir/, 28. litlian, 249.
hpA, 135, 377, 382, 390. litlum, 251.
—hpd, 13G, 390. ;, 27, 29, 33, 35. lofsuni, 242.
hpanan, 252, 260, 4G9. —l<ra, 228. lomp<Clvmpan.
h panne, 252, 469. Id, 260, 263, 397. lucan, 200.
hpxder, 126, 135, 260, 878, 4W, —Ide, 229. Ziz/ede, 38.
469. ?«ca?!, 101, 208. luf-ian, 1S3 ; —igmn, 3G.
A/>^)-, 252, 260, 469. ldd<^ltdan. luf-sum, 242 —t^mc, 229, 242.
;

hpxt, 125. ldgon<ilir<ian. Lundenisc, 241.

///-a^i, 135, 263, 377, 382. laguflod, 205. lunge, 97.
hpset godes, 312.
hpxthiigu, 136, 390. lamb, 82, 268. iws, 91, 100.
hpelati, 200. lamp'CJimjmn. 209 — fc^rc, 229.
hpeorfan, 204. land, 101 ;
— «ia)), 26G; —sceap, ;j<.s«,

iittaJi, 206.
;

hpetan, 199. 229, 235 ; —scipc, 38, 205. hjccan (Grein) ?

hpetstdn, 266. ?an7, 124. gelj/fan, 297.

/'/'i, 135, 252, 260. langad, 297. ?2/.si«e. 290.

/(/-Wer, 252, 260, 262, 409. /^(•an, 250. Zi/i, 129, 136, 3C5.
A/'i/e, 262. I^ce-cra-ft,
—cyn, —dom, 235. /yte?, 129.
hptlum, 251, 262, 472. l^dan, 248. i^sde, 189.
Iipiiutn, 205. l^g<licgan. ?^a;«e, 189.
7t/'0M, 135, 395. l£hte<j&can.
hpopan, 208. l&nan, 207. «!, 27, 30, 33, 35, 44.
hpnrfon<Jipeorfan. i/gran, 292.
—m<[r/ta, 228.
hpylc, 135, 378, 332. ?2;.s, 259, 342, 393.
—ma<Cman, 22S.
hi/cgan, 211, 222. Ixssa, 127, 129. mi«, 129, 2.'il.

fti/ffc, 86 ; —sceaft, 220, 235. mstes, 166. viacian, 286.

hijldan, 248. ?a•^ 128. mddm, maddum, 290.
J)(/>mu, 248. ?a>^a« (e), 208. mdg-a, —e, 208.
hpran, 183, 1S9, 297. Ixtema, 126. magan, 212.
hyrcnian, 250. ledg<Cle6gan, 3S. vidgon, 212.
ge-hymed, 243. leahan, 207. magu, 231.
ge-h^rsum-ian, 297. ifdji, 207. 84, 100, 101, 136, 389
lednian, 297. — cjW,
r/i«n,
—cyn, 229;
;

A!/rte, 1S9.
hyse-cild, 268.
— 229, 243, 400.
ie<iN,
—cpelere,208;
260 — 208. ; c«»u;,
lcdt<Cliitan. ge-man, 212.
1, 23. leccan, 209.
— 229.
jjidJi,
2,24. iccgan, 188, 209, 248. rnanfj/, 136, 395, 489, 490
— <?, 22S, 240, 263. Z^tJ*-, 189, 209, 224. —feald, 229, 266.
;

—<Oa, 228. iegrde, 189. indra, 129.

ia^zea, 33. lendenu, 100. mdpan, 208.
—ta, 246, 247. leddan, 200. m&den-cild, —fifmme, — iJiovi,
m— ,
."503 ;«fldc, 86. 269; —hdd,2'l9.
w, 261. ;(-'<V, 297. mxg, 176, 212, 436.
?<i, 25. ;<;()/•«/», 206. mdig, 208.
w, 41, 130, 306. ico/rtrf, 222. m^gden, 228, 236.
idxges, 251. leofen, 228, 232. 7»i^i/rf, 228.

jdc«, 101. ?P07an, 192, 194, 20C. nuegenheard, 229, 243.

- 164. lenhte, 189, 209. m&gr&den, 229.
j</,

f^=e<i, e5, 25. leolr, 159, 208, 218.

— TO/gi, 229.
—ie^aja, 228. leomd, 77. mSraian, 250.
— ?jr, 228, 243. icwcf, l.')9, 208, 218. rjii^st, 129.
— iffe, 268. fnr-leosan, 197, 200. ge-mittan, 290.
—ih, 228. ^(o^ 208. »!«, 24, 37, 130, 366.
— ?Vi^ 228, 243. laian, 192. meahte, 176, 212.
in, IS, 2.'S4, 328,341. ?««, 208. Micarft, 33, 80, 268.
iVf, iivcer, inrit, 130, 132. letan, 208. TO«c, 130, 366.
—ing (verbal), 228, 460. Uhhan, 222. medema, 126.
—iiig, 228, 237. 269. melcan, 203.
in viiddum, 258. —
itr,
ifc, 133, 130, 229, 241, 242, 302. meltan, 203.
234: INDEX OF WORDS.
viemicn, 2GS. , w*!, 463. nferflcopan, 207.
tiu'odo, 3S. ««<*/(, 124, 251, 259, 341. dlfrian, 35.
mtoiuc, 32, 50. be-nrali, 212. o/t, 251.
vieornan, 204. nciVibiir, 266. of-puhte, 297.
tiwople, 230. nedlilmnd, 259.
— oi, 228.
merde, 189. neahlsbhtc, 299.
i/i(>re, 38. neahtes, 251. oleccan, 297.
')tu'r-e,
— inc,
— ihe, 2G3. nealles, 261. on<^?(?i/tan.
iiieritje, 2(is. nedn, 252. on, 15, 254, 257, 323, 341, 350;
vittan, 199. ne<Jr, 344. —bxc, 251 ; bi(t<tn, 257, 323,
ntetor, 50. ncarpc, 251. 341 ; —dred, 298 ; —ef(fi)n,
•»««(•, 1S9. nodes, 251. 258, 341, 473; —foran, 328,
1)1^ pincp, 297. ge-nedan, 37. 341 ; —
/oii, 299 ; —gcdn, 251 ;
129, 394, 490.
•Mifoc;, «p/-a,
—
c, 268. —gegn, 253, 323, 341 ; '/c-
—
9«iV?e 251.
i)i(J, «(•//!«, 259, 345. nionjr,258, 328, 341 ; —in-
'inifUan, 249. Ji€/t, tielist, 344. nan, 257, 341; —lihan, 297
miclum, 251. nclla7i=znrllan. — 258 — Viang, 341
15, 254, 255, 323, 343, 472. mmde, 189, 280. 472
liifte,
—niiddan, ;

341 — .swn-
-)»/(/,

«(«(?, 228. tiemlice, 408.

;

rfron, 251
— vfan, 257, 341
;

iiiidde, 114. nemn<?,35, 259, 431.

— Mppan,257,328,341; —pxg,
;

iiiid-dxg, 20G.
midlen, 239.
neodan, 252, 257, 340.
motan, 206, 300.
— 251. 247.
mutan, 205. »wr-e,
— — —law, — ond, 202.
6;i,

mi^an, 205. — ?>/aw, — ecte, (7«n, ?c,

igean, 28, 36, 160, ono, 202, 405.
mi'hte, 212. 1S3, 247. ono nu ono gif, 475.
mildheortnes, 235. —165, 228.
w*"*, or—, 15, 254.
;

ge-miltsian, 297. ge-nesan, 199. —or, 228, 242.

iHi/i, 130, 132, 367, 490. Wse, 261, 399. ortgcard, 266.
7)1 i«
sc, 4S9. ne^eie, 232. 6.s<re, 270.
1/iiS, 15, 254, 250. wirfe, 129.
— o<, 228.
iniadon, 267. nidema, 126. ox'rt, 97.
?»(>'/, 269. ni<^er, 15, 255. Oxendford, 205.
vwdor, 100. ntgan (Greiu) ?
nigon, 138-}-. J>, 27, 30.
Monandasg, 2C5. nihtcgalc, 267. palant, 270.
morgen, 100. niht-'hnvfen, 260. persuc, 270.
wkXsJc, 30, 176, 212. nillan, 212. ^n'stoi, 43, 270.
motan, 176, 212, 433. nim, 172, 298. pluma, 41.
7(i?frf, 24, 37. nimaii, 173, 200, 246. pri'jfian, 280.
viugan (a), 212. nimanrw, 173.
inuiiec,
— c?i, 268. m7n«, 104, 170. 27, 29.
iiiurctra, 228. nimcnde, 173. — r<ra,
?-,

223.
«i((s, 90, 100. niotan, 200. —r<:h, 252.
)ii.///^rf, 22S. ntpan, 205. —ra, compar., 120, 255.
mgnte, 189. niton (e, V), 212.
lii^J'c, 232. no, 201. rafan, 207.
no/j?, 261, 400. rarK^rinnan.
n, 27, 28, 29, 35, 42-51. iioht.c<^>uah, 212. rdpinde, 236.
n— 254. noWc<ii?'Han.
— n—,

,
250. Mom=?iam.
JV?.s<^rt,'*rt/i.
ri:>(/an, 203, 297, 300.
w<na, 228. won, 270. ri&dels, 223.
«<;i2, 228. —rMen,
— JW, 175, 228.
n(w-rf,l29; —frjic, 245;
245.
—peard,
j%-a, — 229.
263.
nu, 261, 399, 400. — nw, 228. j-^2)te,189.
e,

nabban, 45. nw, w(/, 24, 252, 262, 406, 472. r^ran, 243.
—warf, 22S. nw?ne»i, 173. r^sf?«, 189.
lu'igan, 212. nymde, 431. reahte<yeccan.
«<i/iff, 212. mjtan, 212. rec, 85.
linia-s, 201, 400. rccaji, 189, 210.
7iarn, 166. 0,23. reccan, 209.
naTMfl, 228. —o<w, 205. -red («), 229.
IJMOlfi, 171. —o<«a, 228. rfld (x)<jrebrd.
166. —o<iy<i, 228. redestrc, 263.
—
'))driM7i,
?t«M, 252. 6,24. rer/oi, 270.
«««, 45, 261, 387. —d<aja, 228, 247. reocan, 206.
ge-ndpan, 203. o— 254. reodan, 206.
napilit, 261, 389, 400, — oc,
,

228. rcofan, 206.

«i:'(ii, 228, 232. oc^aoaw. rcbn<Crcdpon, 203.
n^h, 344. —od, 228. reord, 159, 203.
n^ /«(/, 136, 387. orf,15, 254, 328, 347, 472. reotan, 206.
nxrende, 213. —nd, 228. >-es«e, 189.
iiigre pxt, 475.
odde, 35, 202, 404.
— rtce, 229.
?ias, 45, 213, 261. — 6rfe, 245. rioe, S3, 101, adj., 12S.
~nd, 455. Oder, 37, 126, 136, 140, 142. ridan, 205.
ne, 261, 262, 397, 399, 400. 6d!/pan, 297. 9-i7t<e, 189.
~)le, 251. o/, 15, 254, 329, 348, 473. rihtpU, 229, 242.
ne—, 254. ofer, 15, 126, 252, 255, 328, 349. +ri7JijJ«n'j 201.
 INDEX OF WORDS. 235
rinnan, 51, 201.
236 INDEX OF WORDS.
stincan, 201. s{}—ste=seo. ipenen, 13S+.
gtiniian, 201. nil!/, 290. <;'e//, 138+.
.stiii'tnn, '201. Ki/Uan, 188. tpentig, 138+.
Mod, 207, 29S. ,s}/i?a«, 209, 297. f;>i!;, 269.

Monde, 207. .lyngiaii, 250. ^/'i/ia, 145.

sU'if),207. .'iJ/?l<=,SMld. ry/irf, 206.
stradau, 20S. syrpan, 224. ^//t^ 230.
straiKj, 124.
— ^^r/ic, 229, 242.
stranijlUe, 251. ^ 27, 34, 41, 50. f^M, 138+.
Strcrcan, 200.
— 228.
(,
— «^»ic, 138+.
Mredan, 202. —t<tpa, 130.
streijdan, 202. —to, 126, 228. 10, 14, 27, 29, 194.
Mrc'hh; 200. f<t, 95. —
i&, rf,

/), rf, 194, 228.

streng(t, 235. ta(;a?i, 207. /)«, 252, 262, 406, 472.
streiiije, 114, 124. /)a /irfo forman, 4S9.
strcmju, 235. taimn, 222. pah<^l>icgan.
stricati, 205. —iania, 126, 228. pdk {g)<ipilMn.
Ktrtdan, 205. —torn, 126, 228. panan, 252, 262.
siriidan, 20C.
— toto, 126, 228. pances, 251.
Htiipian, 297. /'igcaw, 248, 292. patician, 297.
stiicccmMum, 229, 251. ^^/i^e, 189. pand<^pindan, 201.
s/.'/'^c, 1S9. panne, 252.
sf!int<^standan. /)a?-/, 212, 442.
sti)ran, 297. ^caWf, 209. /)(is rai/ie, 489.
sj/caH, 206. feam, 230. p&h<^pihan.
sndon, 197. <(!(ir, 269. p&tn bdrivm, prim, 489.
sndemest, 129. feia, 251. /)^r, 252, 262, 397, 471, 475.
siiderne, 245. be-teldan, 203. pxrsc<iperscan.
sfidman, 235. ieZton, 188, 189, 209, 222, 2S6. pxs, 252, 262, 323.
siidpeard, 245. —time, 229. /)a;f, 133, 134, 287, 368-380, 434,
siigan, 206. ^en, 138+. 468, 473, 477.
sit()udc<j<piriian. —tedda, 140. /)«< IS, 468.
sum, 136, 148, 3SS. teon<Ctlhan. j6^«c, 468.
— .SM7H, 229, 242. tcon, 206, 247. /)e, rel., 134, 380.
swme /)a, 489. <c6h, weak. i&f, conj., 262, 464.
sunme dxl, 251. — <e/-, 255. j&e, 24, 37, 366.
sumord, 93. ?eran, 200. ^e, 262.
smnorlwcan, 250. «rfa?i, 299. peah<Cipicgan.
SKHM, 92, 228. <?<<M?)., 297. pt'dk, 262, 476.
si'ipan, 206. —/?>/, 245. pedlK^pebn.
134, 252, 262, 380, 430, 434, il'fjroi, 205. peahte<^ peccan.
•s/jfJ,

463, 473, 476.

— tigoda, 140. pearf, 212, 442.
spa-hpd-spd, 136, 382, 475. ii/iaji, 205, 220. pec, 37, 130, 366.
s/>(i /(/'"' ^r") 471. tihd<^tihan. peccan, 209.
«;'a hpider spa, 471. til,259, 351. pegon<^ picijan.
.s;;a ^/>?7c .«/'«, 136, 382. timber, 50. pen, 37.
.<t;>(i .s/>«,
287. timpan, 270. penc{e)«n, 209, 216,
spApan, 208. te, 15, 254, 328, 329, 852, 463, 472, pendeii. 202.
updfan, 208. 473. penian, 297.
sp^fan, weak. ^')— 254., ge-peoht, 228.
spefan, 199. to-dsege, 251. /)e<)», 206, 220.
s/jfiOi,228. to-edcan, 251, 258, 352. pe6n<ipedpan.
uperier, 263. to-ealdre, 251. peos, 374.
spe'lan, 200. to-foran, 257, 352. pebtan, 206.
apelgan, 203, 220, to-giedere, 251. —a,
/)€o;>,
— e, —en, 208.
spellan, 203. to-geqiwn, 258, 352. pebpan {p, weak.
Kpeltan, 203. to-middes, 251, 258, 329, 352. pebp-boren, 2&Ij;
e, i),
— /wJrf, 235,
.sycor, 268. to-nihte, 251. pebpian, 297.
speorcan, 204. to-peard, 259, 352.
— rfer,228.
speorfan, 204. to-pidere, 255, 352. perscan, 202.
upeoMor, 100, 232. j6es, 133, 374.
sperian, 207. ?6rf, 37, 41, 86,100. picg{e)an, 199.
sptan<jipi;jian, 224. tojra, 230. /)«er, 252, 262, 471.
spican, 205. togen<Ctcdn, 200. pigcn, 199.
^'/jm/, 37, 123. frWrf, 199, 298. piqnen, 268.
sptfan, 205. tredan, 199. /)j'/!a?!, 205, 220.
aplfjian, 'i'ii. <r€o;j, 100. /)tn, 37, 132.
spile (i)), 133, 375. treopcyn, 229. pincan, 211.
spjfcc, 262, 380, 392, 473, 463. tredpian, 297. pindan, 201.
spimman, 201. treopsian, 297. /»mflr, 287.
spinean, 201. frwcs (/c, 7/), 199. pingan, 201.
spindan, 201. ge-tri/pe, 297. pibn=pebn, 20C,
spinean, 201.
— ?tf, 228. /)is, 133, 374.
npinpel, —e, 233. ??e^p, 197, 206. /w'sse, 35.
spogan, 208. <«?!,r7e, 95, 231. pohte<^ pencan.
fpi'ii/ian—xptgian. <«r/, 100, 269. ponne, 262, 466, 473.
epTjlc=Kpilc. fpa, 138+. /)or/<f, 212.
 INDEX OF WOKDS. 237

prupan, 20S. iix, 130, 3C6. pexp<C.peaxan.

prcd, 100. 37, 130, 132.
i!(ser, pic, 101.
iiserne, 490. pican, 205.
preddes-Cpredgan.
preAoan >
predn, preupie, 35, //.SMT, 130, 306. picc-a,
—
e, 268.
weak. ut, 15, 254 —an,
252, 257, 329, pMe, 251.
pre6<iprt. 357;
— ;

e, 252; -ewa, 126. pidgil, 38.

preotan, 206. utan, 205, 224, 443. pzrf, 15, 254, 255, 328, 329, 359,

preiUyw, 138, 141, 200. vtcpearcl, 129. compounds, —

seftan, fo- —
ittian, 57. ran, etc., 257, 328, 329, 359 ;
prei'>p<iprdpan.
preopan, 206. M<on=Mian. — sacan, 297; —
standan, 299 ;

139,141.
/)rt, 41, 13S, ^pinnan, 299.
prifi/ldan, 24S. ;), 10, 14, 27, 30, 31, 35, 2, a. pider, 15, 255.
pritidanz=printan. —p<va, 228. pi/, 208 —freond, 208 ; —?«(?,
;

—p<vjd, 228. 233 -He, 241 —Tiian, 229,

pringan, 201. ; ;

prititan, 201. —pa<p, 228. 260; —pegn, 2GS.

pripa, 145. ;>(«, 263, 29S. pi/estre, 268.
pruen<Cpperan. paean, 207. ptgan, 205.
pit, 24, 130. pacian, 248. pigsviid, 229, 232.
pulite<CPjj7u:aiu ;>ada7j, 207. (ge)piht, 136, 235, 269, 389,400.
punder, 50. pdgon.'Cpegan. pi7e 298.
punian, 188. walla, 225. piiicwi, 167, 212, 415, 440.
puren<^pperan. pimman, 268.
pur/an, 212. 7>nn— ,
259. pirt, 269.
/)wr/i, 15, 254, 32S, 329, 353, 409. 328, 358, 393,
pana, 107, 259, pindan, 201.
^M-S 252. 229.
—pare, 80, 101, pMie, SO, 100, 232.
pusend, 138+. paJican=zpaxan, 207. pinna7i, 201.
ppeahan^ppedn, 207. pdt<^pUan. pintrd, 93.
ppegen<^ pped n. pdum-Cpapan, 208, 224, d. pircan, 211.
ppehd<Q}peahan. psedla, 107. —pis, 229, 242.
ppeorhtertie, 229. pxf<ipefan. pisdom, 235.
ppeoton<CppUan. p^n, 37. pisse, 35, 212.
pperan, 200, 224. pstpned {pdtpcii—, pip—) p!.s<c, 35, 212, 298.
ppiiige, 201.
—ma?j, — did, etc., 268, 209. piY, 287.
ppttan, 205. parr, 125. pitan, 212.
pp6h{g)<Cppe&n. psbre, 109-<pc«rtn. pitoJi, 205, 212.
pporeiK^ pperan. pies<^pesan, 168, 417. pitledst, 235.
py, 133, 262, 3T4, 466, 473. pxstm, 234 ; —b&re, 243. pitnian, 250.
/)^ tes /)P, 477. pxt-a,
—
e, 228. pitodlice, 261, 463.
/)j/rfer, 471. pe, 37, 130, 300. plitan, pldt, 205.
;)!/fc,133, 375. pea, 263. poc-i^pacan.
^i/Jen, 268. pe{a)hte<^peccan. poldes, 176.
/)i/??c, 136. pealcan, 208. pop, 57.
^(/iiJo, 133, 375. pealdan, 208, 300. porri, 73.
pijncan, 211, 216, 286. peallan, 208. porden<Cpeordan.
pyringds, 238. —peard, 229, 245, 259, 359. por{u)hte<^pyrcan.
/)?/«?«;, 136. peard<^ peordan. priec<^precan.
pppan^zpeopan. pearm, 228. prxcca, 107.
pearmian, 249. prwee, 88.
n, 14, 22, 23, 32, 35, 50. pearnung, 228. predh<^preun.
—u (0), 228, 205. pettxan, 207, 298. precan, 199.
— w, 228. pebb-a, —e, —ere, —estre, 268, preccan, 209.
— <M, 228. peccan, 1S9, 209. prehte<^pre.ccan.
—u<d, 228, 240. pedldc, 229. precm, 206, 220.
—u<vid, 228. p«/an, 199. prtdan, 205.
?«, 24, 32. pegr i(i, 263. pridon, 36.
—uc, 228. pegan, 199. pridan, 205.
— ?<d, 228. pekte<^peccan. prthan, 205, 220.
<>rfe,37,212. pel, 251, 259, 263, 298. pringan, 201.
7i/an, 252, 257, 354. peifKn, 267. prtt'an, 205.
t//aJi«, 252. pelerds, 100. pritbuc, 26.").
-ul, 228. peh'gr, 243. prolan, 208.
— Mm, 251 . pernde, 1S9.
— pw, 228.
mi, 15, 242, 254, 400, 456. pem/«, 298. pudnp-e, 35 ;
— ot, 263.
nnc, 130, 287, 300. peolc-C pealcan. pM?/, 70, 208.
nncer, 132. peop<Cpepan. pundrum, 251.
nncli^ne, 266. pew, 129. punian, 286.
7uider, 15, 126, 255, 328, 355. peorc{e)an, 211. purpe<C peorpan.
under neokan, 257, 355. peordan, 204, 286, 415. put-an,
— on, —itH, 176, 224.
7i7idermnM, 229, 239. peorpan, 204. P!/«/, 268.
— Mnjr, 228, 400. peoruldd, 93. pyllan=zpillan.
gc-unnan, 212, 297. pepan, 208. pyn, 91,231.
untreupd, 205. percan<^ pyrcan. pyrMtim, 229.
itnpis, 205. pergan, 45. pyrcan, 211, 224, 24S.
i«;j, 15, 2.'>4. per-pnlf, 206. pyrde, 243.
vppan, 257, 328, 35C. pesaH, 197, 199, 213, 225, 286. pyrvian, 248, 249.
—Mr, 228. pe,«<,251 a?;, 252 ;
:
— —
emeat, pyrnan, 297.
Are, 130, 132. 129 ; p^teJi, 269. pi/rs, 129.
 J.OO INDEX OF WOKDS.
?/, 14, 23, 32. (hiuthus, 228. jw, inflected, 213.
I>, 24, 3-.'. (fj'rfa, iuttectcd, 168. in, 254, 341.
i/can, 1S9. rfAs—, 254.
—drA 252. innanOj 252.
//(t, 37, 124. is, declined, 130.
lUfel, 129. dw (to), 284, S52. is,verb, 213.
^hte<J)can. ite, declined, 130.
ylc, 133, 130, 3T5. <', 18, 24, 26, 71, 168, 100. ip, 262.
vMan, 248. ci, 18, 168. J'w, 18, 158.
ymbifi), 15, 25-1, 202, 32S, SCO: Cis, 130. mp, 254; —a, .3.56.

—iitan, 257, 300. —iza, 228; izei, 3Sl.

ijmn, 43. /, 19. izvar, 132.
jlppaii, 57, 243. ./•rtdf r, 228. izv-ara, —is, 130.
yrman, 248. fairra (fcor), 129, 251, 254, 336,
falps, 229. J, 19.
i/faJi, 24S. faran, 248. ja, 201.
farjan, 248. jafcat, 262.
GOTHIC. /«(>.)•(/or), 254, 337. jah, 202.
/"rtwra (.foj-f), 129, 254, 337. ;Vi?, 261.
«, 18. fidvor, 47, 139. jdim, 133, 255.
—a, 71, T2, 22S. /ir)(/, 139. /«<;<7, 28.
—«<— or — ba, 251.(/ .fm— , 254. jttks, 228.
—a>A.-Sax. — 262. fram, 254. JM.s, 130.
—«— 267. c,
frunia, 126. 7M<, 130.
,

a.f (()/), 254, 348.

— /«, 194. jitpan, 202.
afar {after), 331. /ttiis, 229.
aftumista, 127. t, 19.
((,f7M, 22S. —k, 130.
<ilit,iu, 130. (J'J^n{g), 19, 28. kimds, 229.
ulititdan, 123. f/a— , 254. fc^tni, declined, 83.
«!, 18, 33. gaggan, 213. 212.
— «?', 160. galan, 248.
^•^/?^^a,
^re;i,s, 228.
<h', 18, 24, 158, 150. 34.
^tinlif, 139.
firard.s,
i^ift-a,
— (ii, —65, 23, 228; de- /, 19.
t'lins, 1.39. clined, 88. —1, 230.
<;?> (;?r), 332.
goljan, 248. Idian, 159.
aip-paii, 202. gredags, 228. Idikan, 159.
</!(', 254, 261. gudjinassuB, 228. ;«?X-,s, 229.
(livs, 228. Idildik, 159.
a/;, 262. /(., 19, 33. Za?7o, 159.
ntrs, 228. ImihAit, 159. Idilot, 159.
an, 262. hdiliald, 159. lasivs, 129.
anfi (on), 254, 341. hdim, 24.
—Idus, 229.
and, 254, 330, 347. hairdeis, declined, 63, 231. — ierfcs, 229.
ansts, declined, 89. hiHtada, 219. ?e?aw, 159.
anpara—, 126. hnitan, 159.
— arja, 228. haldan, 159.
Ubaini, 228.
rt« (xt), 254, 333. /iaJMt, declined, 95. w,19.
aw, IS, 33. kandu, 228. md-ists, —iza, 123.
—an-, 211. hardiis, 110, 229. wiajis, 229.
<>«, IS, 25, 93, 15S, 159. harjis, declined, 83. marei, 38.
I'luk {edc), 254, 335. hciulis, lis. tneina, 130.
az'jo, 51. /!(3r, 252. meins, 132.
hepro, 252. —we?, 229.
19. /iidre, 252.
fc,
m?"'7;!a, 114.
—ba, 251. hindana, 252. ™?V(;!S, 114, 228.
baira{da), 219, 228. hindunia, 126. mifc, 130.
36. /irre, 135.
/'((?/).?,
«iM, 130.
/«(/«/, 158. hvadre, 71, 252. m.issa — ,misso, 254.
228. Iivi'iica, 262.
/;a/td!',
-(?!,?/) (mM), 254, 343.
ham, 228. //(((», 262. munps, 24, 228.
barnisks, 228. /(Del)', 262.
bdimn, 213. /luas, 135.
fcfhf(7, 158. 7ty«/),
—j-5, 252.
w, 19.
wim, inflected, 100.
fc?, 254, 334. hvapara, 126. namo, 228.
hmgan, 158. /ti-e, 71. nasida, inflected, 168.
blinds, declined, 107. /tfw, 135. nasip{a)s, 175.
hdkurcis, 228. nasja, inflected, 165.
brothar, 228. !, IS, 33, 158. nas-jan, —ida, —idedum, 100.
buiinm, 15S. ?>(}?, 159. »J(? «iw, 201.

Uundum, 168. )6a, 262. )!e/iy {ncdk), 344.

«— ,
254. nehva, 261.
— 19. 219.
</,

</a,
nWja, 213.
igqar, 132.
»?e»«j(iM, inflected, 171.
w^/)ia, 228.
168.
rfarf, —is, 130.
i'gq-ara, mi, 254.
229.
oVffls, ?ya, 130. nim, inflected, 174.
daiman, 212. declined, 130. 105.
rfc, nima, inflected,
daursta, 212. iX-ei, 3S1. niman, 175.
 INDEX OF WOKDS. 239

iiiman(l{a)v, 175.
 240 INDEX OF WOEDS.
—wiOJii 229. thuaundig, 139. einn, 139.
mero, 123.
viext, Vl'i. — ?«, neuter, 72.
eA-, declined, 130.

cllifu, 139.
«il, lao. ?/nifc?, 254, 360. 175.
—enne>—e)ide,
tniil, '.'54. tin—, 254. (7J<!r, 331.
viik(mic),V23,U0. er, 130.
W4", 130, 132. ?»!<, 130. er—, 254.
mis—, 2W. unca, 132.
unccr, —o, ISO. —faldr, 229.
»ia»i, inflected, ICC. mular, 355. —fantr, 229.
7i<?»i), iullected, 171. ^!)i^ 254.
fiarri, 254.
w, 2M. //;>, 254.
Jimm, 139.
ncn'da, iuflected, 16S. 130.
iicr-jan, ida,
— —
idun, ICO.
?>*•,

i>.vrt, 132.
/ynV, 139.
/or—, 254.
oieriii, iullected, 105. uner, 130. /ram, 254.
vi, 25i. !(<, 254.
/rum, 126.
nigtm, 139. —fuUr, 229.
w(»i, iuflected, 174. we, 203. ./««, 242.
viman, 175. «e, pronouu, 130. /^r?, 254.
itimand, 175. wer, 229.
itimannias, 175. H•(<^ iuflected, 212. i7- 254.
inflected, 170.
»M"7>i«, wi, 1.30.
fliiVj/; declined, 88.
«»««,inflected, 105. ?«!rf, 254.
numan, 175. -lotsi, 229. /tam', decliued, 95.
M)i'«, 130.
— o, 251. H'M?/, declined, 70.
/lar-f/r, 229.
hedan, 252.
obhar, 252. wuimia, 231.
/ierfra, 252.
251.
—
oA-,
/(i5r, 252.
— wr, 123.
123.
6s(,
OLD FRIESIC. /tt'rr, declined, S3.
hundrad, 139.
6>/, 30. hvadan, 252.
radur, 23. 6ii«d, declension, 107. /(war, 135, 252.
/ii-'iJrr, 126.
.S 213. —e<C—ja, S3.
.stn/i — ,
254.
/i«a<, 135.
/iDcr<, 252.
sama, 133, 254. .^si, declined, 70.
—scaft, 229. — ?, adv., 2E2.
scaic6-da, —dun, IGO. hona, decliued, 95. », 254.
scrtM'ow, ICO; iuflected, 1G5. hornar, 82. ?a, 201.
-scepi, 229. Iiica, hwct, 135. id—, 254.
.Stf, 132. 254.
?'n»i,
sWi.s, 139. 7>/, 202. it, 130.
settian, 24S. jeve, decliued, S8.
s?<r, 137. 160 ; inflected, 165.
fcai^a,
s?'i)K/», 139. kindera, S2. kallada, 160.
{(tnt)sibu7ita, 139. kolludum, ICO.
s/)i— , 254. declined, SO.
iierf, kynni, 229.
stn, 132.
sind, 213. SMnw, decliued, 93. —laus, 229.
sinduin, 213. Zefl-r, 229.
sittian, 24S. tigosta; 140. ;ca-r, 229.
s?//m, declined, 93. itir, 229.
w, neuter, 72.
254.
?f, —madr, 229.
?(?— , 254.
OLD NORSE. — 229.
77i(ii,
^f /tan, 139. 254.
TTiaf,
to, 254. a, adv., 251. vieiri, 123.
^je^y, 139. a, 254. ineistr, 123.
(ant)tiu-lifta, 139. a<>, 254. mcr, 130.
rce/ia, 139. of, 254. mik'^vxei, 123.
tuentig, 139. ajid, 254. wi?A;, 130.
annar, 126. min, 130.
l)=th. — ar, 123. minn, 132.
a«f, 123. mm — , 254.

-th=—d,19-L ust, declined, 89.

thatian, 252. at, 254. naw, inflected, 1C6.
—
orf, 252. dtta, 139.
?/iar,
</)(«-<,
—M, declined, 133. a?<fc, 254.
naimi, iuflected, 171.
ne, 254.
« 4,130. iiedan, 34G.
//(?c,130. ?)>.f, 30. ?j«m, inflected, 165.
thin, 130. h^r, 229. nf7?i, imperative, 174.
thit, declined, 133. bh'wd, declined, 107. nema, 175.
thoh, 202. nemandi, 175.
tliria, 139. dagr, 229. w^-mi, inflected, 170.
thr'Uip, 139. rfomr, 229 niw, 139.
/A«, declined, 130. numian, 175.
thurh, 254. eda, 260.
 IXDEX OF "VVOKDS. 241
ok, 262. HIGH GERMAN, —hart, 229.
okkar, 130, 132. MOCTLY ftfej-, 269.
okkr, 130. heialt, 150.
ir, 254.
OLD HIGH GERMAN. /i(;i7, 269.

OSS, 130. —a, 251, 252. /ie?'7?i, 24.

d<ar—, 254. — ZiCjY, 229.

—rad, 229.
afcn, 254. /i(;ra, 252.
rann^ 2'29.
— «iT, 2^0.
aftar, 331. /wrof, 252.
/(crr, 269.
«/ir<?, 209.

s«, declined, 133.

a«, 262. 7«'aZf, 159.

*a»>i ,
—
254. ana, 254. /nar, 262.
andera. 12C. hinana, 252.
samr, 133, 229.
«ni, 254. decliued, 83, a.
/ijrff,
scapr, 229.
awW, 202. hoh, 118.
sefia, 248.
«m/!, 254. hottpit, 41.
sex, 139.
az, 254. huieo, 262.
*i, 254.
hxcaiiana, 252.
s/aw, 139.
6?, 25. Incur, 252.
sinn, 132. Dadu — 32. hwar-a ;
— of, 252.
si'dtvji, 139.
,

halo, 32. /(Mctz, 135.

A/<?a, 248.
bezcrroro, 127. hwcdar, 126.
sntjrfc, 229.
i?a?f, 269. /iit'er, 135.
decliued,93.
so7ir,
buck, 209.
—staff, 229.
buocheri, 22S.
— — •(•< 277ia, 106.
sw, decliued, 133.
j'a, 261.

1C3. cA, see ^•. ffcM, 262.

fnWn, IGO; inHected,
iezito, 262.
?aZrfr, 1 75.
danana, 252. ?7i, 41.
tel, inflected, 1C5.
daiita, 202. in, 254.
ielja, IGO.
til, 351. (/<(/-, 252. mw, 262.
«i(,139; ?i!f, 139.
— (tai--(t ,• —of, 252. 2o/i, 202.
rfflz, decliued, 104. —ira, 82, 223.
t'ddum, ICO. ?«- 254.
daz, 46S.
«//, 139 —tilt, 139.
,
;

tugasti, 140.
decliued, 104.
(Zer, iwarer, 132.
diner, 132.
tutt^(gu, 139.
dtser, 133. jfM, 252.
«yei>, 139.
rf/", declined, 104. jiing, 28.
padan, 252. do, 25'.'.
junkilinc, 223.
(/o/i, 262.
/)«f//vj, 252.
dri, 41. A:a—, 25.3.
/)«(-, 252.
rf«, declined, ICO. te7w, 37.
/)af,
/«;r, 130.
decliued, 133.
durah, 254. /;ei&,
— H-, 32.

jb/X-, 130. kind, 41.

262. ^^^>pc, 269.
pin, 130. crff/o,

pinn, 132. I'dilinc, 223. komo, 41.

fJio, 262. tr«/«(f/i7Y(fO, 229, 269.
/)!Y, 1.30.
/)«, 200. CO, 254. 229.
c/ijfnc?,

prettian, 139. ciigar, 254. cliunni, 2'J9.

priatigi, 139. esilinchilin, 228. kunni, decliued, 83, a.

A>-Ir, 139.
/n/is, 36. —I, 236.
/>«, declined, 130.
pic^und, 139.
— r«;?, 229. — ?aos, 229.
/«r, 2.53. leiche, 269.
?7— 2i54. fater unscr, 381. — 229.
,

m//c, decliued, 70. /f r, 254. — 229.

Zej/i,
i?7j,
urn (ymbe), 254, 300. festc, 269. —liche, 251.
iMidr, 355. /tia, 25.
{tngr, 28. —M, 2-29. viagati, 22S.
i(»iz, 254. /ora, 254. -^lahal, 229.
vpA, 35G. fram, 254. — maJi, 229.
•7'/)j>, 254. fnimi, 126. T>i(t«fl, 24.
IT-, 254. /u»w, 242. mari, 38.
I'lt, 254. fuotisal, 223. viiliw, 32.
/t(oz, 41. w?J!e>', 132.
f«nr, .353. /mW, 253. mis—, 254.
xt'tr, 130. Diif (, 254.
Jt'jrr, 132. gancrit, 1 75. TOM</t, 209.
I'e, Swed., 263. gnnmnaner, 175.
ver, i;{0. 213.
(/«/!, «aw, inflected, 1C6.
w?rf, 254, 359. gcsicht, 269. iidmi, iuflected, 171.
—tU, 229. i7m, 252. ne, 254.
l»V, 130. grwmi, 114. 7ieben, 2>'5S.
gutin, 228. ?i€i«, 261.
i'rfar,!.'50,132. neman, 17.').

itdr, 130. /m^taJ?, 1.59. nemanti, M!i.

vA-tor, 130, 132. liana/, 41. neme, inflected, 170.
ykkr, 130. /(((HO, declined, 95. nerita, inflected, 16S.

Q
242 INDEX OF WOEDS.
ncri-ta, —tinnes, IGO. imrmmfja, 228. c=(, 27.
nerjan, If.d. —wart, 2'29. camera, 35.
iifi-jv, iuUccteil, 105. »t", 203. cannabis, 41.
iii, '154. iocj/i, 269. capwf, 41.
vidar, 255. «wr, inflected, 212. career, 229.
tiieo, '201. wela, 203. casti-iim {ceaste)-),53, 34, 270.
nim, inflected, 174. — urr?, 229.
— fc, 133.
nimu, inilected, 105. »'?'(7(Y, 209. centum, 1.39.

nu, 26-2, 202. iridar, 254. centuria, 139.

toise (M. II. G.), 229. Christits, deciiucd, 101.
o. 251. intlf, deoliued, TO. cineris, 35.
od—, 202. wi'tste, 209. criro, 252.
oh, 262. civilis, 34.
—or, 12.^ zdhie,2C,0. — c-i, 236.
—bst, 123. Zand, 37, 41. CO—, 254.
zar, 2.54.
ostroni, 228. —CO, 228.
254.
^fic, ccelitus, 63.
7)rtZ-M, —aioes, 61. zi, 254. cceheMi~>cenileau, 36.
yjrfn, 229. zur/osto, 140. collum^cuu, 41.
/;t, 254. 2«o, 254. com, 63.
jiim, inflected, 213. zweig, 209. condemiw, 38.
plint, declined, 107. contra, 359.
LATIN. correctum, 38.
—rat, 229. credo (crerfa), 270.
a, IS, 38, 2.
r&mal, 22S. — a, neuter, 64, 72. C16TO, 254.
—CM?lg«C, 130.
—rlh, 229. —a<a, 228.
a, 18.
.sa«f, 209.
— tume/i, ICO. — 1'«— 160. ,
(7,19.
da«wo,
salpu-n, ota,
— sam, 229.
ab, 2.54. — dc, 63.38.
abbati.isa, 268.
sama, 2.54. decern, 139.
(£<;m.s, 228.
.srtwn', 2.54.
CM?, 254.
dentis, 37, 41.
.samio, 133.
admir-e, —or,
— ation, 87. dexter, 120.
«««, 24. 18. dtOT, 158.
rt!,
sc:=sh, 34. diligo, 38.
cevo—, 228, 254.
w;ff/^ 229. dingua, 139.
age, 443.
schdrpe, 209. ni/j-o— , 228.
dw, 254.
sci7, 209. docMz, 100.
ai, 18.
senfti, 37. — a;=ar, 36.
doctum ire, 445.
.Si, 213. domo—, 228.
sf'n— , 254. aliqids, 130.
a?Zons (Fr.),443.
domunculo , 228. —
slner, 132. alter^ts, 120.
donum, 175.
—sniid, 229. dulcis, 41.
so, 134.
aviatum ire, 445.
amatii.rum
— dwm esse, 445.
— s?aj;i, 229.
esse, 445.
diio, 139.
amavi, 100.
steinoht, 228. (M?(6 — 254. duodeci'm, 139.
steoz, 159. 254.
,
— dt(«, 451.
a« — 254.
f«i,
steroz, 159. ,

«<!'o?, 159. ancora {ancor), 270. c,18.

stozan, 150. andiamo e,18.
(Ital.), 443.
««>iM, declined, 93. ^n*-c<is, declined, 101. —6, ablative, 251.
—dneo — ,
228. cc^m«s, 443.
iac, 229. edo»iW, 228.
anguia, 228. 38.
tarnunkiin, 251. ante, 2.54. efficio,
to«, 108. ei/o, 41 ; declined, 130.
aper, 35.
teto, inflected, IGS. «:, 18.
aperio, 38.
41.
<?>;>•, e7»i«, inflected, 1 74.
Aprtlis, 38.
torf, 209. —ar= — aZ, 36.
emem, inflected, 170.
—tuom, 229. — ard (O. Fi-.), 229. emcndo, 175.
<?<0H, 213. cmcntis, 175.
—dri-i-io, 228.
emt, inflected, 100.
-As, 101.
M, 71. cnio, 105.
asinvji, 41.
M&ar, 252. emptvs, 175.
i''f, 254 —a.*?™—,
IS.
228. — c?i<;
—
aw, 228.
aw, CO magis, 374.
<V/a»i, 356.
audlvi, ICO.
umpi, 254. episcopiis, 43.
Mil—, 254. ?>, 19, 3,5. epistola {pistol), 43.
unsarer, 132. baUannim equus, declined, 70.
itMi — 254.
(.balsam), 270.
bellieo—, 228.
— 122, 129, 228.
er,
,
— cr<os,
untar,
!/»•—, 254.
3.55.
—6?, 63, 2.5-1.
— 229.228.
««, 254.
6i6ere dar?, 453.
bibitiirvn sum, 415.
—crn,
cs,101.
brevity, 37. espaee (Ft.), 48.
—veste or. II. G.), 229.
brief,
— er, 37. est, 213.
262.
buxus, 270. et,
7/.-, 30. ca:, 254.
xmjfc, 209. (!,19. ca;— ,48.
 INDEX OF WORDS. 243
exclude, 4S. laterna, 229. pater, 38, 228.
exsulto, 38. legionis, 228. pecten, 228.
externo—, 22S. ?C70, 38. jJcA'.s, 41.
extra, 228. Icgionis, 228. pensionis, 34.
extrdneo—, 22S. liberal, 36. i)«-, 254.
librdrio—, 228. per—, 254.
/, 19, 35. -;rc, 229. pcren—, 254.
facio, 38. lilimii (iilie), 270.
facillimo — ,
12C. — (/'/)iO — , l'J6.
jpej-(7i< lectum, 415.
pemicus {persuc), 270.
fera, 41. lingua, 139. Petrus, declined, 101.
fcro, 228. literal, 36. planus^piano, 41.
—ferits, 229. lucerna, 229. plenus, 229.
/ints, decliued, SC. Uqms, 41.
forvio — , 228.
poetastre (Fr.), 228.
porro, 254.
/rater, 38, 41, 228. Mi, 19, 35. potior, 300.
fraxino—, 228. machina, 35.
fregt,
— imiis, 15S. mayor, ws, — 123.
jMtus, 455.
l^ro-, 40, 254.
fructiis, decliued, 93. maniw, 22S. primus, 126.
//•uor, 300. Jfassinisna, 35. priusquam, 332.
fii(ia, 228. mip, 130. pro, 254.
/%?, —imus, 158. med'^rne, 130.
fuqio. 15S. viedio , 228. — jjrununi, 41.
pulcherrimo — , 126.
/«j, 160, 213. Hi*?", 130i
/uisse habiturum, 4A5. —»ic«<—«!«??, 228. <r,19.
mentis, 228. 5Mee, 135.
f/, 19. metrum, 50.
qualisque'^quclque, 143,
—yena, 229. metis, 132. 123.
quarto—,
—gen-US, —eris, 34, 22S, 229. nuVi?', 130.
— (;m«?", 139. viillia, 139.
quatum; 139.
— 133.
g?/e,
((;)>w?)ie«, 228. mirac-Ie, —ulcus, 37. questionis, 34.
— »(o, 228. 5i«', 379.
A, 19. modnlationis, 34. qtiinqut, 139.
Itabeo, perfect, 458. mulgco, 50. 5!H's, 135, 379.
luec dicere habco, 453. niulHcd vir, 394. quisque, 133.
Hecuba, 35.
5Moa(/, 333.
Herodes, declined, 101. «, 19. r/twfZ, 135, 4CS.
hie, 133, 252, 374. •nationis, 34. quomodo, 252.
hinc, 252. natura, 34. 5Mt{«i, 252.
/jotfie, 130. — — 228.
jj^-Mfo ,

Aomo, 41, 71 ; decliued, 95. Ji^", 254. r,19.

hiic, 252. ?(c— 228. rapiendum
,
esse, 445.
Iiymnus, 43. we, 254. regina, 228.
nebula, 35.
?, 18, 228. — «f, 228. regula
rfa;, 228.
(rcgol), 270.

i<jd, 228. —no, 228. —TO, 228.

18. «o6)S, 130. —i-us, 451.
— t—,160; —i— ,267.
t,

?M??, auxil.,420.
ignis, 228. (g)nomen, 228. .5, 19.
in, 254. ?io?!, 201 ; Jf?*?, 345. .sYfite, 38.
»»—, 254. nfljia (i!o«.), 270.
—ina<jS,nja, 228. «os, 130.
Sarmatce, 50.
scientia, 34.
tndc, 63. luistcr, 132. scolynws, 50.
infero, 38. nostr-i,
—
M7?!, 130. scutrisco — , 228.
insidia, 228. nous (Ft.), 366. se, 63, 132.
inter, 120 ; /j«ec, 355. vioypm, 139. secundum, 331.
—io<ja, 223. novus, 139. securus, 34.
— ion<^jaii, —
— ?or, 123. 228. »i«, 228.
—nu<:i—na, 228.
sccfco, 158.
«ed-2,
— j'witts, 158.
xce, 158. w«»ic, '.'52.
se^a, 228.
— !«co— 228.
— f8S«, 232. ,

0,18.
scm(pcr), 2.54.
254.
—issimo—, 126. — noun. 228.
.sc?«?, 41,
septem, 139, 489.
j«te, declined, 103. — 0,
o, verb, 228. septuaginta, 1 39.
ita, 2.52. o, 18. septumus, 120.
iterum, 254.
— o, ablative, 251. sea;, 139.
ob-{-fcro, .'!5.
«;, 254.
.7, 19. ureanvs, 34. .seV, 252.
jam, 252, 262. oc^*, 139. s<?«, 213.
jocuiC>gioco, 34. oe, IS. similis, 133.
Jove'^Oiove, 34. 0?', 18. simul, 254.
jiigo—, 228. oinf>s^nnu8, 139. sinister, 126.
jfwra<JM, 455. <jn<^—an, 228. soccr, 208.
juvenis, 28. o^Kvs c«?, 212. Hocrus, 208.
solar, 36.
19, .^5.
—
«, ;), 19, .-!.•>.
solidariuJi, .'?4.

— Ja,236.
i,
228.
palatitim {palant), 270.
/larj'o, 38.
smnmia, 228.
spatium, 43. »
2-14 INDEX OF WORDS.
spatula, ."5. <r,18,3S. 139.
^f,
sfatufi, 22S. u7()of , 22s>. tTTTa, 131).
stellar, 30. ai, 18.
^t,
18. tCTi, 213.
.iit-m, inllectcd, 213. alFei, 254. trepoc, I2G.
Huper, '25-.', 254. alFttJi', 228. 202.
miper-iw,
— —
no , 252. — aiva, 228. t-'rt,

tx'«, 228.
xtirdastro—, 22S. ci/ia, 254. eu, 18,38.
.si(w,s 132. u/itA7(o, 50.
i><jrisco—, 22S. ufi<j>i, 254. ?, 19.
;ii', 202. Cuyoi/, 228.
^19. ui/— 25 1.,

taberna, 229. til/a, 254. 38.

fa^j's, 133, 490. ui-Ti, 254.
— 18,228.
ti,

»l,

torn, 252. c'.7r6, 254, 348. .'/.declined, 103, 03.

tandem, 262. uffTijp, 48. II, declined, 103.
faji«!(.s, 490. FaiTTi/, 228. rj ; a), (0 ; ij, 158.
f ?, 130.
til', 18, 38. r/,18.
rJO-fe- 130. ai<(Tif), 254. ti/ueir, 130.
—ter, 22S.
tetini,
—nius, 15S. 19.
>;jUfT£pof, 132.
—
41, 254.
thesaurus, 34.
—
/3,

/3a(7t\(i'V'a, 223. — Dpo-f-io,

fl)Ui ,

228.
228.
h",
I3ifi„fii, 213. ripwv, 229.
<iii, 63, 130.
nv, 18.
f'fjMS,490.
trans, 254. 19.
76, 130. 6*,
tredccim, 139. — yevtp, 220. ye>W0nM', IGO.
fr«s, 41, 139. Seaii/a, 228.
^ei-or, 228.
trifjinta, 139.
'yXuKiT, 41.
— yei^, 03.
—fit (Umbriau), 63.
— —
ti«, don, —din, 22S.
7i/w/UOi'09,228. t^epMot, 223.
W,p,41.
*ii, declined, 130. 228.
d, 19. t*privus,
<i«— , 130.
—be, 254. (5)yj, 254.
turn, 252.
— turn ire, 445. dibttxa,
— net', 15$.
— deiKfVfjLi, 158. 1,18.
—
— turumsum, 415.
titrufi
—fuisse, 445.
esse,
dtKa, 139. 228.
i,

— ««s, 63. 6)';, 252,202. f, 18.

254. iVa, 408.
—tiiti, 22S.
d((<,
139. — 11-^,228.
/t(MS, 132.
a.-o,
(<)F)eiKOCTi, 139.
— (o<ja, 228.
tympanum {tim2)ane), 270.
duJdeKa, 139. tVwoe, declined, 70.
FtV/iei', 158.
«, 18, .3.5.
18. — 228.
n=^v,
— .30.
4.54.
— e<— ac, 228.
e,
— (cr(7a,208.
<o-Ko,

?/,
e, 03, 132.
«, IS.
160. t/Sdojaoc, 120. K, 19.
—ui<fui,
ij36o)xi]KovTa, 139. KujLiupa, 3").
Uli/sses, 139.
WJirfe, 03.
eye'i^eTo, 397. KtSpif or, 228.
undecim, 139. t7u>,declined, 130. -no, 228.
e^pa, 228. Kiir, 135.
vmis, 386.
-.MS, 101, 228. e£>ei, 21. KOVTf, 139.
tJf, 252, 468.
t^o^ta(, 157. KOT^pOS, 120.
wterMS, 126. ei, 18,24.
262. \, 19.

V, 19, 30.
ej,
eif]!', 213. — XiK, 229.
ve, 254. e(Kai'09, 228. X071K69, 228.
vertere, 229. (c!F)£i(iO(7i, 130. \l'K09, 41.
resfer, 132. el/i.', inflected, 213.

t)i, 254. clfii, 158,213. M,19.

vi-Cful, ICfl. e;t<ti'5, 139, 3S0. Maa'afatTO'nc, 35.
'EK(i/3ri, 35. 123.
videlicet, 468. /ifc7({rT0i',

t)W?', inflected, 212. tKaTOf, 139. /uei^oi', 123.

vidimu.% 15S. tKif/jo?, 208. fiiaaon, 228.

{dyviijinti, 139. t/io?, 132. fiera, 254.
229. 130. /uiinf, 228.
—vo<—
t'ir,
t'a, 22Sk
^/loi^,
61/, 254. /uJJTif, 228.

w6i!S, 130. —ev, 228. /urixai't'/, 35.

vos, 130. fcV6e«a, 139. —MO, 228.

w«<r-f, — Mm, 130. feVepoi, 255.
— yuoi', 228.

vu—p, 30. f v&a, 252.

f^««^e, 252. 1/6,228.
'^vtiiv, 252. Ptfav, 139.
GREEK, declined, 93.
tw, 254. vfKi/r,
a, 18 eyvea, 139. i'i>e, inflected, 174.
a—, 254 evos-, 254. 175.
— u, neuter, 64. tf, 254.
I't'/ueii',

ve/iriTut, 175.
 INDEX OF WORDS. 245
vt>oi;Mi, inflected, 170. <r, 19. —a, —a, 223.
I't-'/ioi'To?, 175. 132. a—, 254.
vefioi,
—inflected, 1G5.
fjLi,
cror,
CTTraTtiXr), 35.
— ai>(S, 18, 02.
I'ti't'/ifiKa,inflected, IGG. 228. v/ak, 228,
i'ei'6^i(tiKo)itii', inflected, 171.
— o-(To,228.
<T<J<iiij,

Vag, 228,
«: For, 139. CTu, declined, 130. ar/iK, 228,
i/e^e\n, 35. avv, 63. /agh, 228,
vn— — (Tum, 228. «;;'ra, 228.
— vi,22S.
,2.54.
ocjxo, a(puii, inflected, 130. —at, 62,
iv<.vj, 228. cr<pojiT€poi-f 132. atas, 252,
—vo, 228. «f?, 202,
—vv, 228. ittra, 252.
rvv, 252.
—
T, 19,
<Ufta, 262.
fu), 130. — TOTor,219.127.
rat,
adhi, 254,
•vail, 130. T^KVOV, 1 75, an—, 254.
I'otiTepor, 132. —rep, 228. —an, 228,
Tfpei/of, 228. ami, 254, 262.
fuv, 254. TfTa(i')/ia,
— fiiv, 158, ani>n7, 255.
TtTTaper, 139, an-j-ta, 103.
18,38. TrjXiKor, 133. antard, 120,
— o—
o,
228, 2G7. odov, 322, aj)(«r<ana-tara, 255.
,

6,^, TO, declined, 63, 103.

—
Tt}<;

T(, 228. &pa, 254.

o, declined, 103. Wy„^i,213. «6A(, 254,
oa, 2G3. Tifji-donev,
— S/Mev, 24. —am, 62,
ama,
oaoi;, 322. T<c, 148,386.
— 63,
ams, 62.
'Odvatreu^, 139.
oi, 18.
—
TO, 63, 103.
rop, 228. —aja, 22S.
—ardnja, 223,
Foi6a, 1.58; inflected, 212. T09, 175.
oFir, declined, 89. T^Te, 2.52. «t'a, 254,
FoK-ja, 228. Tptic, 139, declined, 130,
ai'<i'7«,

OKTIU, 139. rptutioi'Ta, 139. avis, declined, 89.

ofior, 133. TptaKaideKaj 139, Armd, declined. P."?.

— oi/, 228. Ti', declined, 130. declined, 70.

«C*i'a^,

owo)?, 4G8.
— 228.
Ti/, dcvu, declined, 88.
Toir, 252, mhtdn, 139,
—09,101.
Of, ri, '6, declined, 103.
— a.s, 228; ap,62.
—
or, 132. 18. asmadl'ja, 132,
oa<Ta, 228.
—
•/,

u, 228, asnid'kam, 130,

St<,4G8. il, 18. asmti'n, 130.
ou, 18. F,18. c/.sm?, inflected, Sl.'J.

oi;<^oo,24. Fa, Foi5a, etc. See u, oi&a, etc. asnie', 130,

ovaif 2G2. I'juc'f, declined, 1.30. aha, 130,
litppv^, 48, I'^teTepor, 132.
aluim, declined, 130,
i'7r<;p,252,254. «/it, 228.
d, A, 18.
TT, 19. I'TTi/or, 228.
254,348.
— ^<, 228.
n-aiSioi/, 228. i/TTci,

i'O-Tepor, 254.
-a, 02.
Traidt'crKor, 228.
dtvu'm, 131.
7rar(6)9, 228. — (i9i«<— auj:*i, 223.
TTtip, 254. 0,19.
dv'is, 254.
Trapd, 254, 333. (ptperai^ 219.
0(->a), 22K.
«iM, 22S.
TTtipor, 254.
TTefTC, 139. 0er;7a>, 158.
7rt"06V7a,
—
/icy, 158. (ppdropo^, 228.
i, i, IS.

^f<pu>ta,
—
nev, 158. 01/7^,228,
i>aina, 139.
y/i, 158, 213, 228.
TTfpa, 254. 0t''u>, 213. — ?, 228.
wepai/, 254. tptoytOj 158.
'itara, 254,
wepi, 254. 228,
X, 19.
IndrdnV,
ireiitfo^aij 158. 18,
t, i,
TrXtur, 229. X'Xioi, 139.
2-52. xwpcf, declined, 88,
-i<-jd, 228.
ndOev,
TTotfl, 135.
««, u, 18.
TTor, 252. u, 18, 38,
-«,228.
•JTOlflirV, 71. w, ablaut, 158,
18, H*, 63, 254,
iroiniji', declined, 95, oj,
udcin, 228,
wKiif, 228,
•no'^i 13.5,

jroTt, 252,
— «)r<^— <i)T, 251, /i'/;a, 254.
updri, 252,
TTov, 135,252, wc, 252, 408, 18,
r<, -u,
TTpo, 254.
7rpo/io9, 120, SANSKRIT
irpwTo, 123. AM)
TToir, 252.
IXDO- EUROPEAN PA- e<ai, IS.
RENT SPEECH. e'ka, 139 ; —dacan, V.i?.
p,19. ena, 139.
228. [Parent Spttch in i^oman.]
—pa, e'mr, 158, 213.

—po, 228. 158.

fpijfuufxiy a, a, 18, 41.
— a, neuter, 72.
e'va, 228.
^»as, 254.
 246 INDEX OF AVOKUS.
di, M, 18. — C», 228. pwrcls, 254.
()<aii, IS. tuturjd'm, 158. pur, 220.
du, iiu, 18. tublijam, 03, 130. ;«•«, 254.
— f(', 219.
prathamd, 126.
I:, k, 19. C<'<ta, 104. /)/<!), 19.
—k, 23G.
^'<tva, 130. phalind, 228.
kd, 135. f<=/ir(, 104.
—ka, 228. teirinu'i, 158. fc, b, 19.
kat, 135.
ti'bhjm, 104. \/bandh, 158.
Aator*';, 126. ten'ain, 104.
katatar, 139. — C)-a<—Ira, 252. i;«f></w(;/ta,153.
habandhimu, 158.
Vkar, 158, 160. trajudacan, 139. Vbudh, 158.
karo'mi, 15S. 139.
i:!5.
/)•!',
bubhug'itnd, 158.
itw, •/?)•?", 139. 6«6A6''(7'a, 158.
hrd'mi, 158. trim(;at, 139.
kiitas, kittra, 252. — Ccrt>— ta, 103. bd'dli&mi, 158.
kiirmds, 15S. tvadi'ja, 132. &/J, bh, 19.
i'iti'a, C-t.
Cz'awi, 130. \/bhag', 158.
Ct'iyVJ, IBO. bhavdmi, 213.
iA<k,]9. /re, 130. bhdrate, 219.
bhdrdmi, 228.
r?, g, 19,
-ga,130.
c;i<t, 10. — 6/i?, 63.
—tlias, 165. 62.
V9<i>f/'i9cimi, 213. 6/m'.s,

v/j/en, 223. rf, d, 19. bhvgna, 175.

jrww, 38. dakan, 139. Vl'liug', 158, 223, 243.
Vena, 223. dakauta, 139. bhug'd', 228.
gnd'man, 22S. dadhdvii, 213. bimg'd'mi, 158.
ddcan, 139. biw'g'aja, 158.
;7/<gh, 19. bhOg'djdini, 248.
— ^flf/id, 130.
didifima, 158.
dide'ca, 158. bhjavts, 63.
Vghar, 223. \/rfrC 158, 243. blijdms, 63.
gliarma, 228. dii'd'mi, 153. V'bhrag', 158.
-/r/t, 229. bhrd'tar, 228.
?;, u, 19. 'i««i', 228.
de'iuja, 158. m, m, m, 19.
/.:'(=ch)<:i^, 19. ma, 130.
k'atvdr, 1B9.
degdjaTni, 245. —
A/fc'J^ 15S.
!?wa, 130, 139. —»ia, 103.
))i«,
120, 223.
k'e'tami, 158.
dvd'dacan, 139.
((2)«?:, 254.
—wireia, 103.
itt('<<?, 228.
*7<^•'<k, 19. {d)vim.{da,)cdti, 139.
madi'ja, 132.
tt<dh, 19. madhu, 38.
j;'(Englishj)<g,19.
madhjd', 228.
^dnas, 228.
n, 19.
— 223.
g'igdmi, 213. —
/),
(M , 254.
5na9i,
y/man, 228.
— m^ 1T5, 228. mdina, 130.
i?'/i<g,91.
nanama, inflected, 16i>. vidhWt'ha, 123.
•>7<n. iianamma, inflected, IGG. mdhljams, 123.
ndma, inflected, 174. mdhjam, 130.
<,?/i<t.
•

ndmandja, 175. Wfi, 03, 130.

ndmantja, 175. 7Ji(J7)i, 03, 130.
rf, dA<d. ndmant, 175. mithds, 254,
ndmdmi, inflected, 105. mrig', 50.
n<n. namami, inflected, 165. ?n^, 130.
i<t, 19, namaim, inflected, 170.
—to, 139, 163, 223.
ndmejam, inflected, 170.
63; declined, 104. im{m)td, 175. /a, 252.
tof,
ndvan, 139. >, 262.
to,to, 163.
navas, 130. — ;a, 228.
tata'iut, 153.
nas, 130. ./aC, 463.
ta'-tas, —tra, 252.
/((««, 130. /a?/((/, 403.
tatinimd, 158.
—ni, 228, 255. 104.
Vtan,
— 158. — Mt«, 228.
jrtf/,
262.
to-Wd, 126.
tar, 139.
mi, 252. —
?«(/,
iare, 223.

—Car, 228. nemimd, inflected, IGO. jajji, 262.

nemjd'm, inflected, 171. .;a.b-, 104.
—tara, 12G.
Ja, 104.
—fas, 165. P, P, 19. — ;«>i, 228.
tasmdi, 104. Vpa, 228.
7)f,7a, 228.
ta-smin, 63. pank'dn, 139.
to.ya, 104. jujdm, 130.
yj(^ra, 254.
tdilr'ks'a, 133.
juvan, 23.
pdram, 2.54.
juvd'm, declined, 130.
Ctiva, 130.
— ti, 228.
yjtfr^^, 254.
254.
jm'madi'ja, 132.
/^''r?',
Hrd'mi, 158. jus'me', declined, 130.
v'jo'i'', 248.
'iros, 254.
pdrdjdmi, 243.
'issar, 139.
iJiWr, 228. — r<r,126,
r, 19.
J-a, 228.
 ENGLISH INDEX. 247

?,1?, 19.
—tyd, 228. — sas, 62.
sasdda, 15S.
V, V, 19. f<k,19. sa/itf, 63.
va, 130.
—in^'i, 139. .sakasra, 139.
^vaks', 15S. —faff, 139. ,>.«, 63, 104.

vdks'dmi, 15S. f vafwra, 203.

— 254.
.s<iA;(h7i,
xdrni
V»ari, 228.
t>dm, 130.
trafrw, 208.
—sums, 254.
02.
,

vajdm, 130. .s'=s/^<s, 19. —sds, 62.

vavdks'a, 15S. 189.
s'rts', Sind/m, —ka, 228.
vavaks'irnd, 15S. s'as'tha, 1'23. sidd'mi, 158, 248.
ras, 130. sedimd, 158.
— vas, 1G5. 19. v/.s«, 228;
t-i— , 254. —
s, s,
s, 62. sinins, declined, 93, 22S.
Vl"'rf, 15S. sa, 63; cleclincd, 104. Vs«/i^, 228; —turn, 223.
vidmd, inflected, 212. sa— ,
03. S7na, 130.
vidjd't 228. y/sad, 15S, 2-i -i. .5m«.s, iuflected, 213.
{d)i}im{da)cati, 139. sdddjdmi, 2mS. sjdm, 213.
vividmd, 15S. «at/r«, 22S. .sea, 63.
vividmasi, 212. sniui', 254. svadija, 132.
rivaidmd, 212. sapta{da':a)t'i, 139. v/si-«p, 228.
vive'da, 15S. saptdn, 139. svdpna, 228.
rtras, 229. saptamd, 120. — 6i'a«, G2.
> e'f/a,
iuflected, 212. 63.
,saj;j,

ijnY, 229. srtTOrt,133. 7i<gh, 19.

vi'iddhi, 3S. jaiJitV, 254.

ENGLISH INDEX.
[The figures refer to pages.]
a, how made rule for use of. accuse, syntax of, 150.
; 207,208; arrangement, 216,
history of. 11, 12, aud sec in- action, siiftixes of, 124 with ; 220.
dex of words. subjunctive, 192. adverbial compounds, 134.
active voice, 77, S3-|-, 1S7. adversative sentence, 141
a-group of letters, 7, 20. ;

«-stems, see stem. address, with dative, 14S. —conjunctions, 202, 204, 205,
n-umlaut, see uvilant. adjective, 34; declension: def- 200.

d, history of, 12. See index of inite, indefinite, 50 ; weak, X, 11, and see other index.
words. strong, 50, 58, 59, 00, 173; e8, 13, and see other index.

«-stems, see stem. paradigms, 50, 5S, 59 hist, ; .(Elfric's futures, 197.
abbreviations, 5. of, 57, 59 Northumbrian, ; affirmation, particles of, 132,
ability, +iiitinitive, 197.
01 comparison, 02, 05 suf-
; ; 184.
ablative, 35, 129, 148, 151, 152, fixes, 125, 120 prepositions ; age, syntax of, 154, 157.
153, 154, 157. aud prefixes from, 132 ; agent, forms to express the,
ablaut, table, 7, 9, 23; hist, and equivalents of, 139 ; predi- 123 dative of, 151.
;

comp.etym. 79-80; conjuga- cate, 142 ; appositive, 143 aggregation, syntax of, 1.54.
;

tions, 83, 99, 100, 102, 103, 105, with dative, 149, 151 ; with agreement, of case -endings,
"

107; mixed,116; stems from, use of

genitive, 155, 150, 157 ; 142-1- ; adjectives, 172; pro-
122. forms, 173 ; agreement of, noun, 174; verb, 185, 180;
above, 161. aud other syntax, 172-174 ; participles, 200.
abridged sentences, 140; clau- article with, 170; with ger- ai=i, 15.
ses, 200. und, 199; arrau^'eraeut,'21S, aid, syntax of, 149.
absolute case, comp. sj-ntax, 219. alas, 133.
152, 201. adjective clause, 140; si;bjunc- alder-, 154.
abstracts, gender of, 37; de- tive in, 193 ; conjunction in, Alfred, 1.
clension of, 45, 53. 207 ; arrangement, 210, 220. alliteration, 223 -|-; conso-
acatalectic, 223. adjunct, 157. nants, 223 ; vowels, 224 ;
accent, rules for; proof of, 0; advantage, with dative, 149. comp. hist, of, 224 ; in prose,
variation from, 9; hist, of, adverbs," 34 ; comparison of, 22.5, 228; of R<i, 17; affect-
in Sanskrit, Greek, etc., 30; 02 ; numeral, 77, 1S2 ; from ed shifting, 225; secondary,
kinds of, 30 in prosody, 222.
; radicles, 33; derivation, 128, 227 : in English, 228.
accents written, 5; with con- 129; correlative, comp. cty- aljihabet, 4.

sonants, li». mol., 129, 130 equivalents ; am, 114, 115; as future sign,
accompaniment, see assoeior of, 139 syntax of, 182 -|- ;
; 189; as perf. and pluperf.,
tion. pred., attrib., interrog., de- 189 ; passive, 187, 1S9 ; peri-
accusative, 34; syntax of, 145 mons., expletive, emphat- phrastic, 89.
-148; cndinsr, 35; predicate, ic, 183; adverbial conjunc- an, history of, ISO.
142, 147; -t-in)initive, 142, tions, IS-t negatives, 184 ;
; a7t-stcms,"see stems.
147, 198 two accusatives,
; arrangement, 219, 220. anacolutlion, 141, 143.
146, 147 -t-genitivc, LW ; adverbial
; combination, de- anacrusis, 222, 225.
+dative, 151 ; in adverbial fined, 137, 138, 140 accusa- ; anapiest, 222, 223.
combinations, 148 after tive
; in, 148; dative in, 161, anastropbe, 141.
nearness, l.W compounds, ;
1.52 genitive in, 158; ar- ; Antrles, 1.

134; with propositions, 148, rangement of, 219, 220. Anglo-Norman, 1.

1.59; >dative, 175; arrange- adverbial clauses, MO; mode Anu'lo-Saxon, history of, 1 f ;

ment of, 218. in, 193+ ; conjunction in, classic, 11.

248 ENGLISH INDEX.
animals, gender, 135. bifurcation, 28, 123. complete sentence, 141 ; com-
nnteccdcilt, 17y, ISl). brachylogy, 141. position, 158.
antinieria, 141. hnujimrt, ii'i. complex sentence, 139, 140.
aorist, S2. breakiug, defined, 9, 14; cuu composition, 78, US, 119 de- ;
—
a phoresis, 9, 30, C7. merated, 20 cases of, 11, IS,
; fined, 134; nouns, 134; verbs,
apocope, y, IS, lt», 31, 47, 57, 6G, 75, 95, 97, 99. 1(10, 102, 1(13 134, 135, 15S ; in teuse, 81, 82 ;

G7. 107,108,111,112,114; stems with un-, 200.

npodosis, 141. from, 123. compounds, gender of, 37; de-
aposiopesis, 141. hnitherlumi, 121. fined, lis.
apothesis, 10, 53. '•>, Bulgarian, 3. compound sentence, 139, 140,
appetite, syntax of, 145. 141 ; subject, 1S5.
appositive, i:i7, 14'i rules, ex- c, described, 15, 16, IS theme
; ; concessive clauses, 174, 194,
amples, and comp. syntax. in. 111, and see other index. 201, 208, 216, 220.
143, 144 compounds, 134 cajsura, 223.
; ; conditional clauses, 194, 216,
with vocative, 144; names Caffirs, 36. 220; mode, 89; conjunction,
1.'54 article with, 17G
; ar- can, 195. ; 208.
rangement, 210. cardinals, 73, 74, 75, 76 syn- ; conformation, 9, 28, 47, 75, S3,
OT-c, 114, 115. tax, ISl, 217. 85, 87.
arrangement of words, 214- case, 34 ; hist, of endings, 35, Congoes, 36.
2-JO ; —of clauses, 220, 221. 39, 55 ; summary, 55 ; ad- conjugation, 78; first, R2+,
arsis, 222, 223, 225. verbs from, 128+ ; agree- 99+, 113, 122, 127; second,
articles, 34 paradigms, 57, 69,
; ment of, 142+ ; cases mix- 103, 113,123,127; third, 10,5,
71 ;comp. etym., 69 syntax ed, 175. ; 113, 127 ; fourth, 107, 114, 123,
with adjective, 173 comp catalectic, 223. ; 127; fifth, lOS sixth, 110; ;

syntax, 174; general syntax causal bases, 79 compounds, Grimm's, 78 Sanskrit, 79. ; ;

of the def. article, 170, 177 134; sentences, 141 parti- conjunctions, 34; etym., 133;
; ;

omission of, 176; indetiiiite, ciples, 201 conjunctions, syntax, 184; co-ordinate,202 ;

discussion of, 180 arrange- 205, 207, 209.

; -205 subordinate, 205-20S ; ;

ment, 217. causative verbs, 127, ISG. omitted, 20S, 209.

«•<!, relative, 179. cause, dative of, 151. connecting vowel, 8.5, 114, 115.
ask, syntax of, 146, 147, 156. cease, syntax of, 157. consecutive clauses, 194, 195.
aspirates, IG; =roHgh, 7, 17. Celtic, 1, 3 rime in, 225. consonants, tables of, 7, 8; de-
;

assibilation, defined, 9, 20 his- eg, 16, 110. ; scription of, 15+, and see
torjr of, 21, 22. ch, 16, 18. names of classes of conso-
assimilation, examples, 7, 39, changes of sound, table of, nants, changes, and stems.
117; defined, 9, 22, 23, 24; 9; laws of, 10, and see the contention, 150.
labial, 20, S3, 109 guttural, ;names of the several chau continuous consonants, 7, 10,
20 ; by p, 14, IS, 114, 102 I, ges. ; 15, 24, 95.
14, IS, 19, 80; m, 11, 12, 13, characteristic, 12!i, 154. contraction, 6, 10, 13, 14, 32, r.O,
15, 51, 80, S3, 87, 100; n, 11, Chaucer, 1, 55, 05, 72, 118, 167, 53, 7S, 97; related to ablaut,
12, 13, 107, 108; r, 20, SO; s, 225. 80, SI.
24, 67, 70 with progression, chief letter, 224.
; co-ordinate letters, 29 clau- ;

27 ecthlipsis, 31 in imper- chords, vocal, 11.

; ; ses, 139, 191, 215; conjunc-
fects, 95 in presents, 96, 97 ; circumflex, use
; of, in this tions, 202-205.
shifting stopped by, 41. book, 13. copula, 137, 198, 214, 220.
association, with dative, 150. cities, names of, declined, 55. copulate, nouns, 142, 173, 176,
asyndeton, 141. classic speech ideal, 11. 185, 220.
atonic, 222. clause, defined, 139; principal, copulative verbs, 137, 142, ISO;
191 in CO -
attraction, 179, ar- ordinate, subordinate,
; sentences, 141 conjunc- ;

rangement, 214, 219, 220. quasi -clauses, 139, 140, 14.5, tions, 202-204, 208.
attributive combination, de- 172, 184, 216; arraugemeut correlatives, adverbs, 129, 130;
fined, 137, 140, 142 nomina- of, 220, 221.
; repeated, 176; arrangement,
tive, 144 genitive, 153 ar- clean, syntax of, 157.
; ; 215.
ticle with, 176; participles, close vowels, 6. countries, names of, declined,
200 arrangement of, 216, coalescence, 119, 1.^4.
; 54.
218, 219 compounds, 134.
; coexistence, 141, 201. crasis, 10, 32.
augment, 82.
cognate letters, 29 accusa- crime, syntax of, 157. ;

author, genitive of, 153; pres- tive, 146 dative, 151 geni- cryptoclites, 52, 53. ; ;

ent tense, 188. tive, 154. customs, syntax of, ISS.

auxiliaries, 84, 86, 87, 89, 195 cognition, with subjunctive, ;

arrangement of, 214, 216,219, 192 with infinitive, 19S ; d, 15, 17, 19, 30, 75, 95, and see
;

220 relation to verse, 225.

; with participle, 201. other index.
collectives, 134, 173, 185. dactyle, 222, 225 in English, ;

h, how made, 15 hist, of, IS, combinations of letters, 7, 16,

; 228.
30, and see index of words. 17 of words, 137, and see Danes, 2. ;

hackliiigs, 128. adverbial, attributive, objec- (Jarklinrj, 128.

Bactrian, 3. tive, predicative. dative, 34, 35; in —/<,41; com-
hnsez^anacrusis. command, 196. pounds, 134 object, 138 ; ;

bbz=flr, 16. comparative, 62-f 173. , syntax of, 148-153 of influ- ;

he,
186.
dative after, 150 ; omitted, comparison, 62-(- double, (54 ; ; ence, 14S
156
;

of interest, 149
+
genitive, 149,
defective, 64, (JS; endings of, ; pos- ;

hef, 136. in prepositions, 131, 132 ; sessor, 150; reflexive, 150;

begin-f-infinitivc, 197 ; +par- S3'ntax in, 152. ethical, 1.50 expletive, 150
; ;

ticiple, 201. compensation (compensative nearness, 150; use, mastery,

htttvixt-e, 161. gemination), 9, 10, 13, 14, 2.5, 150 separation, 151
; ad- ;

I>h:>ni, 39, 45, 49. 47, 0(1, 07, 80, 85, 04, 97, 91), verbial, Wl, 1.^.3; with prep-
bid-|-inflnitive, 198. 110,111,114. osition, 152, 159 absolute, ;
 ENGLISH INDEX. 2i9
IM ; accusative, 175; ellipsis, 141.
for f, 8, 15, IS, 19, 20, 23.
after iuterjection, 202; ar- else, 128. factitive object, 138, 130, 140,
rangement of, 218, 219, aud emotion+genitive, 1E5; +in- 142, 144, 147, 16S, 170; ar-
fee under each declemion. fiuitive,iy7;+i)articiple,201. rangement of, 216; verb,lSO.
decay, phonetic, 36, 55, 65, 72. emphasis, arrangement for, —fmt,vn.
declarative sentence, 139, 191 ; 214, 218, 219. fear, with dative, 150; witll
arrangement of, 214; con- emphatic verb, 186. subjunctive, 192.
junction, 200. empty+genitive, 157. feeling, with genitive, 149,1."5;
declension, table of substan- enallagej"l41. dative, 149.
tive, 37 first, 3S+, 49 ; sec-
; enclitic, 13. feet in verse, 222 order of, ;

ond, 44+, 49; third, 4S+, 49; end, +infinitive, 197; +parti- 226.
fourth, 50-f proper names, ; ciple, 201. feminine, see gender.
54+ adjectives, 50+ de- endings, see case, inflection, figuration, 9, 30.
; ;

monstrative and article, 57 ; stem, tense. final clause, 1U4, 20S ; object,
1. 198,199,201.
participles, 01; infinitive, 61, Englisc,
SS; pronouns, 06+ ; North- English, 1; relation to Anglo- fitness, syntax with, 125, 192.
umbrian, 49, 61, 01 ; English, Saxon, 1, 17 assibilation, Flemish,' 2.
;

55, 65, 72. 21 precession in, 27 com-

; ; —fold,Vl\.
(Jeer, 136. pensation, 26; case-endings foreign proper names, 51+.
defective nouns, 52 ; verbs, in, 55; comparison, 04; de- forget, syntax with, 150.
112+. clension of adjective, 05; French, appositive,144: verse,
definite declension, 50 ; see pronouns, 72 ablaut, 99,; 225 see Norman.
;

article. 100, 102, 103, 105, 107 con- ; friendship, 122.

definitive, 143; object, 146, 216, tracted reduplication, 108, (Old) Friesic, 3, S, IS; comp.
21T, 218. 109,110; weak verb, 111, 112; etym., 39, 41, 42, 44, 45, 49, 0, .'

demonstrative pronouns, 57, diminutive, 125; future, 189 59 pron., 09, 71 num., 70 ; ; ;

09, 70, 72, 173, 170, 217 ; ad- verbals, 201 ; verse 225, 228. verb, 80, 81, S3, 85, 87, SS ;

verb, 183. eo>y,12. conj., 133.

denominatives, IIS, 127, 128. eo, 14, 15. Froissart, 179.
dental, 7, 15, 17, 19, 29 ; =lin- epenthesis, 9, 11, 19, Dl, 45, 57. —ft, origin of, 97.
gual of many grammars. epicene, 38, 130. —full, 121.
derivation, nouns, 11S+, 1.S5; epithesis, 9, fullness, syntax with, 157.
11,31,57.
adjectives, 125+ verbs, ; equivalents, grammatical, 139. future, 78, 84, 85, 86 auxilia- ;

120-|-; adverbs, 12S+; prep- —em, 121. ries, 188 for imperative, ;

ositions and prefixes, ISO-)-; ethical dative, 150. 189; syntax, ISS, 189 ; pas-
particles, 132 coujuctious, ; etymology, 33+. sive, 197.
133; interjections, 133. Etymology, comparative. (At future perfect, 1S9.
descriptives,143: arrangement each reference are discuss-
of, 210,217; compounds, 134. ed the forms in Sanslcrit, g,15,16;<i, 17; <h,/.,lS,19,
determinatives, 134. Greek, Latin, Gothic, Old breaking, 20 shifting, 29+. ;

dh=rf, 17 >d, 19, 29 >s, 19.

: ; Saxon, Old Norse, Old High gg=ng, IT'; eg, 10.
dialects, 1, 17+. German.) The letters, 8; gemination, 7,10, rule for 10;
dimeter, 223. NouiiS) a- stems, 39; ia- examples. 25, 30, 31 41 40, PT', , ,

diminutives, 124, 125. stenis, 42; a -stems, 44; i- 60, 95, 97, 100 quasi -gem., ;

dimorphism, 2S. stems, 45+; n- stems, 48; 43, 53, 75, S3 666 dissimila- ;

diphthong, 0, 14. an-stems, 50, 51 ; Adjec- ted.

direct object, 13S, 197, 201 ; ar- tives, comparison, gender, 35; history of, 36; foni-
57, 59;
rangement of, 214, 218. 02-04; Pronoun, person- ines<neuters, 36; rules for,
disjunctive, 141, 183, 204, 209. al, 66, 67; possessive, 69; de- 37; comparative, 136; forms
disposition, sulHx of, 125. monstrative, 70, 57 article, to express, 135 derivatives,
: ;

dissimilated gemination, 10, 57; interrogative, 71 136; of appositives, 144.

; Nu-
66,75,83,117. merals, 74+ "Verb, ab- genitive, 34, 35, 37, conijiounds,
;

dissimilation, 9, 24, 95. laut, 79; contracted imper- 134; object, 138; syntax, gen-
distributives, 77, 143. fect, 81 ; compound imper- eral discussion, l'53-158; at-
do, 89. fect, 81 ; active ind. present, tributive, 153, 154; predica-
dog, 13C. 83 (im)perfect, 85 sub- tive, 155; objective, 1.5."), 1.50,
— rfom, 121.
;

junctive present, 87; (im)-

;

157; adverbial, 15S; for da-

double object, 140. perfect, 87 imperative, in-
; tive, 149 ; dative+gen., 149,
urunkard, 122. finitive, gerund, participles, 156 nearness, 1.50 separa- ; ';

dual, 34+, 00+, 82, S3 ; appos- 88: i)r;uteritive verbs, 112; tion, 151, absolute,1.52; snb
iiive
with, 143, 144; other substantive verb, 114; pas- jective, 153 ; objective, 1.5 1 ;

syntax, 174. sive, 116 Suffixes, 110-

; partitive, 143, 1.54, 150 with ;

dutv, syntax of, 197. 122: diminutives, 12.'); Ad-

prepositions, 159 adjective :

Dutch, 3. verbs, 129, 130 Prepo-

with, 173; possessive foi',
;

sitions and prefixes, 130- 175; article omitted, 170; ar-

e,ll,12; =a',ea,12; >y,12. 132; Ooiij 11 netions, rangement, 21S, 219, aud ^ee
«:, 13, 15. 133; IiiterjeetionSjl33; under each defleimon.
ea,>i,12;>e, 12; >y,12, 20; Composition, 135. gentile derivatives, 125.
=eo, 15. eu, 1.5.
German, 3; printinL'()f.\ni:lo-
ca, 14. euphonic variation, 9. Saxon,4; Old Ili^di, letters,
easy, syntax with, 199. every, 181. 8; w, 18; umlaut, 19; as-
ecthlipsis, 9, 10, 18, 19, 31, 51 exciting object, IS-^ISO, 201. sibilation, 21 ; shifting, 2'.';
.57,117. exclamatory sentence, 139,191, u>aw, 41 ; neuter -era, 41 .

eftsoom, 128, 100. 21.''.. abstr.acts in -in, 45: rime in,

ei, 15. expletive })a-r, 1 S3 dative, 150. ; 224, 225, 227, aud see eti/riKiUi-
Egyptian numerals, 75. explosive consonants, 7. (jjl, comparative, and siintax,
elision, 9, 31. expression in verse, 222, 223. comparative.
250 ENGLISH INDEX.
(Low) Gei-., n, 20, 125. !'-stems, w-stenis, see ntcm. iiitcrjerlion, 'M, 133; syntax,
geniud, <S, 88, 89 ; s} ntax, 197, V-unilaut, see xmilaut. 139,178,2(12.
198, 199. i, 13. interrogative pronoun, 70, 71,
pesturc, with dative, 14S. ia=ca. 72, 132 adverbs, 1S3, 184
; ;

•,'ive-)-dativc,148 -f geruud, ia, 14.

; syntax, 178, 179 sentence, ;

199; omitted, ISO. iambus, 222, 223. 139, 191 conjunction, 207
; ;

fjhviiHUi, 122. Icelandic verse, 224. o))jecl in, 219; arrangement,

"go, with dative, 150; as future ictus, 222. 215,219.
sign, 189. ie, 14. intransitive verb, 1.38; perf.,
(inat, 130. i-group of letters, 7, 20. pluperf., 80, 201 ; syntax, 157,
imilcss, qodhi, 122. illative conjunction, 205,209. 180, 189.
"Gothic "(MoBso-), 3; letters, S; imitatiou-)-dative, 1.50. io=eo.
breaking, 20; shil'tiui:, 29; imperative, 77, 78 i-i-stem, 99, ; i<">,
14.
r-stems, }u(-steni?, 4M ab- 108,110; sentence, 139; syn-
;
Iranic, 3.
stracts in -ein,45; au<u,49, tax, 174, 188, 197 ; indicative Irish, 29, 04.
proper names, 54 rullex- for, 189,190 subjunctive for,
; ; irregular nouns, 52 ; verbs,
ive.«, OS dual, 82, S3
; law 191 arrangement of, 215.
; ; 112-1-.
of liual consonants, 9T, and imperfect, 7S ablaut, 80 con- ; ; )Y, ?Ys, 68, 69 ; syntax, 174.
see eti/molagi/, cowparative, tract, 81 compound, 81 in- ; ; Italic, 3, 8.
and si/ntax, comparative. flection indie, 84, 85, 90, 92, iteratives, see how often.
grant, with dat. and geu., 149, 95, 98 subjunctive, 86, 87, ;

150. 91, 93 potential, 89, 91 ; ; j, peculiar character for, 4 ;

gravitation, 9, 20, 30, 30, 45, 47, svncopated, 95 irregulars, ; and see i-cousouant.
49, 51, 8;i, 114. 112-f 2d sing, in -c.s, 110; ; Jutes, 1.
Greek, 3; letters, 8; accent, 30; syntax, 187, 188, 190, 194.
neuters, 30 proper names, imjiersouals-j-accusative, 145;
; —tew?, 121.
54 ; versification, 223, and -fdative, 150 -f genitivc-f- ; kindred, 122.
see ctymolorjij, cmnparativc, dative, 156; subject of, 185, knowledge, 122.
and Hijntax, comparative. 1S7.
Grimm's law, 8, 29; weak ad- incorporation of relative, 180. ], T, 15, 16, 18 ; iiKjl, 15 ; met-
jectives, 59; conjugation, 78. indeclinable nouns, 52. athesis, 19 <d, 30, 75. ;

Sii<P, IS. indefinite declension, 56-}- ; labial, 0, 7, 15, 18, 23, 29, S9, 103.
guua, 9, 27. pronoun, 71, 72, 174, ISO; landscapic, 122.
gutturals, 6, 7, 15, 16, 23, 112. suffixes, 123, 125; adjective, lantern, 121.
172; article, 174, 180; numer- Latin, 2; r)M=p, 18; assibila-
h, 1"; >g, ;), IS, 117 break-
: al, 1S2 ; verb, 185, 193. tion, 21; accent, 30; neu-
ing, 20, 103 ; shifting, 29. independent nominative, 144; ters>feminines, 36 ; proper
30. particles, 184. names, 54 perfects, 82 ab- ; ;

habit+infinitive, 197. Indie, 3, 8. latives, 129; arsis and the-

have, sign for future, perfect, indicative, 77; strong active, sis, 223 ; rime in Low Latin,
pluperf., ISO, 201 ; -hgerund, 82-85 ; passive, 90 ; weak 225 verses of Anglo-Saxon ;

199; -f participle, 201. active, 83 ; form of poten- poets, 225; and see ctijmul-
—head, 121. tial, 89, 91 ; syntax, tenses orjii, comparative, and syn-
Jicadlonri, 128. of, lSS-1- ; mode, 190. tax, comparative.
hcalf, with numerals, 77, 182. indirect object, 138 ; asser- laugh, syntax with, l.'iO.
Hebrew, 60, 08, 75. tion, 192 ; question, 192 lantvcrschichunri^ii\\\i\\Vi^. ;

Hellenic, .3, 8. command, 197. Layamon, declension in, 5,'i ;

help-fgeuitive, 150. Indo-European, 3 ; vowel sys- adjective, 65; comparison,
hemistich, 223. tem, consonant system, S. 65 pronouns, 72 ; verbs, 99, ;

hen, 130. infinitive, 78, 88; in -cnu, 94; 118; jirepoi-^itions, 101, 170;
heudiadis, 141. syntax, 139, 140 ; accusa- u'ho, 1 79 ; hpylc, 179; evcnich,
heptameter, 223. tive-f-, 142, 147; general dis- 181 verbals, 201. ;

her, 69, 175; hern, hcorun, 175. cussion, 197-t- ; adjective less, svntax with, 105.
heteroclites, 52, 04. with, 172. 190, 198. let,

heterogeneous, 52. inflection, by vowel changes, letters, 4; sounds of, 5.

hexameter, 223. 79-82 ; mode sufBxes, "82 like (— ;?c), 70, 122, 181. ;

llevse, 59. personal endings, 82-|- ; in- likeness, syntax with, 150.
hi<iht, ISO. die, present, 83, 84 : imperf., lingual, 7, 23.
/iiN, 09, 175. 84, strong verb, 82-91 liquid, 7.
85 ; ;

syntax, 174, 14.'!.

hit, it, weakverb, 92-95 variation listen, synta.x with, 150.
;

himit, 128 ; -ward, 122. in jjresent, 96, 97

; in imper- Lithuauic, 3 instrumental, ;

-hood, 121. fect, 98; tables of variation, 39 weak adjective, 59 ; ;

horse, 130. 97-118; irregular, 112-118; thousand, 70.

how often, 77. Northumbrian, 117 decay local, see place.. ;

—7(^ origin of, 97, 112. of endings, English, 118; re- locative case, 3.5, 39, 4.5, 49, 50,
hundred, the great, 70. lation to versification, 228. 57,67,148,150, 152,153.
hypallage, 141. influence, object of, 148, 149. logical subject; predicate, 139.
hyperbaton, 141. in.separablc prefixes, 6. long vowels, nature, origin, ;

hypercatalectic, 223. inserted clauses, arrangement 12; proof of, 13; monosylla-
hyi)othetic relative, 1 93 ; in, 215. bles, 13, 41 . See prorireiitiion,
clause, 197. instrument, suflix of, 123. einnpciination, and the vow-
hysteron proteron, 141. instrumental case, 35, 38, 39, els.
129; syntax of, 14S, 150-154, —lU, 129.
i, how made, 11 ; >ra, y, 12 ; 17.3.
umlaut, 19; breaking, 20,75; intellectual states, syntax m, 7, 8, 11, 1.5, 83 <bh, ; 45, 49.
consonant, 15, 17 shifting, with, 150. See cn(jriition.
; make, syntax with, 147, 198.
30; change with n, p, 117. interest, nb'ect of, 149. man, 130.
 ENGLISH INDEX. 251
«w)!, 34, 4?, 53,*ri, is;. iudic. present, S3 ; imperf.,! particular interrog., 183 ; ne-
manner, adverbs of, 130; syn- 85. gation, 184.
tax of, 151, 15S; subjunctive noscling, 128. partitive appositive, 143 gen- ;

in clauses of, 193 connect- notional, 33, 119, 186.

; itive, 154, 150; =acijecuve,
ives, 208 arrangement, 210. noun, 34, 134 : of multitude,
; 173.
masculine, 37. See gender. 142 -uuderstood, 172. See ;
passive voice, 90, 91, 116, 187,
mastery, syntax with, 150, 151 strong iwuns, iveak nm^ns,
.
ISS-f ; origin of form, 201.
material, suffix of, 126; com- substantive, adjective. patrial adjective, 125.
pounds of, 134; syntax of, number, 34, 78, 143. patronymics, 125.
154, 15T. numerals, 73-77 syntax, 154, pentameter, 223.
;

vHiy (mseg), 195. 177,181,185; arrangement, people's names declined, 54.

means, suffix of, 123 ; syntax, 216, 218. perfect, 7S, 82 ; transitive, 84^
151, 16S. 85,86; intrans., 84, 86; syn-
measure.syntax of,152,154,157. o, 11, 12. tax, 189; origin ofform,2iil.
meet, syntax with, 150. 6, 13. periphrastic perf., 82 condi- ;

mental action, syntax with, obey, svntax with, 148. tional, 89; future, 198.
155. See cognition, /eelinff. object, direct, 145, 197, 201 ; de- person, 7S endings of, 82'
;

metaplast, 52. tinitive, 146, 201 ; double, proper names, 54.

metathesis, 9, 11, IS, 19, 30, 32, 146 of influence, 148, 149 personal pronouns, see 'pn,-
; ;

41, CT, 103, 111. interest, 149 genitive (ex-

; nouns; object, 138.
meter, 223. citing), 156, 201 partitive, perspicuity affecting arrange-
;

middle mutes, 7, S, 29 ; voice, 156 ; separation, 156, 157 ; ment, 219.

146, 150, 1S7. with passives, 187; of cog- phonetic decay, 36, 82.
Milton, verse, 148, 22G. nition, 102; desire,192; final, phonolosry, 6-32.
mimetic variation, 9, 2S. IPS arrangement, 21S,- ; 219. pitch, 222.
miss, syntax with, 157. See factitive. place, nouns of, 125; adjec-
mode, 77, 82; syntax, 190-202. objective combinations, 137, tives of, 120 adverbs, cor-
;

Moeso-Gothic, see Gothic. 138, 140, 145, 148, 1.W, 218 ; relative, 129; in compounds,
monometer, 223. componuds, 134 ; verb, 138 ; 134; syntax, accusative of,
monosyllables, long, 13, 41. genitive,154 ; participle,201. 148; d'at. of, 152; gen., 1.57,
viot, 195. officers, syntax of, 153. 158; mode, 193; connectives
move, sjTitax with, 150, 201. oi, 15. of, 207 arrangement, 216,
;

multiplicatives, 77. omission of substanlive, 172, 219, and see locative.

multitude, noun of, 142. 186; article, 176; relative, Piatt Deutsch, 3.
mutes, 7, 24, 29, 95. ISO verb, 186, 195 coujuuc-
; ; pleasant, syntax of, 199.
tion, 208, 209. l)leonasm,"l41.
n,7, 8,15; >f7,16; >?, w, 29 one, 59, 71. ; pluperfect, 78, 84. S.''), SO 8\-n- ;

stops umlaut and shifting, ouomatope, 34. tax, 188, 189, origin of form,
102. open vowels, 6. 201.
name, appositive 154 ; syn- opposition (contention), 150.
of, plural endiugs, 30, 82 for sin- ;

tax with, 147. optative, 82, 87. gular, 174.

narrative, syntax with, 188. ordinals, 73, 76, 77 syntax, polysyndeton, 141. ;

See verse. 182. possessive, 68, 69; compounds,

nasals, 7, 15, 24 nasalizing, Ormulum, declension in, 55
; 134; arrangement, 218. ;

4.\ 49, 100, 111. adjective, 65; comparison, possessor, dative of, 150 gen- ;

nc, 17. 65; pronouns, 72; numerals, itive of, 153.

-nd<-nt, 75. 73 conjugation, strons.', 99, potential mode, 78,83,89; syn-
;

J!</-stcms, see ste^n. 105 ; weak. 111 endings, tax, 19.5, 197. ;

nearness, syntax with, 150. 118; prepositions, 101, 107, Prakrit, 67.
need, syntax with, 157. 170 niiatt, 178; iclio, 179. pray, syntax of, 150.
;

needs, 128. orthography, 4. precession, 0, 9, 20, 27; exam-

negation, particles of, 132 ox, 136; oxen, 51. :
ples, 45, 57, 67, 75, 83, 85, 114,
geu'r'l, particular, strength- 131, etc.
•
ened,lS3, 1S4; rcpcatcd,lS4; p, IS, 18,29. predicate, 137; grammatical,
condition, 194; article with, paeon, 222, 225. logical, 139; agreement of,
170. palatal, 0, 7. See guttural. 142 nominative, 144, 170 ; ;

neuter, 30, 39; strengthened Ijaragoge, 9. accusative, 147 ; genitive,

by -er, 41 ; weak, 50; -t, 57 parallelism, 21.5. ; 155; adverb, 183.
>feminiue, 36. parasitic sounds, 20, 30 g, p, predicative combination, de- ;

nominative, 35; syntax of, 18 ; ?, 11, 20 ; h, 29. fined, 137, 139 agreement ;

144; yields, 175. parasyiithcta, 6, 134. in, 142; participles, 200; ar-
normal sentence, 141. I'arenl Speech, 3, 8 case-end- rangement, 214 quasi —
Norman <ju<ip, IS «, 51. ;
—
ings, :',5; gender, 36; Teu- 137,^142, 152, 155.
; ; ,

(Old) Norse, b>f, 18 umlaut, tonic, 50

; declension of j/.s, jireflxes, 6, 130+.
;

19, and see etymology, com^ jn, jixta, 56; comparison in, preposition, 33, 34, 1.30-1- svn- ;

parafivc, and syntax, com- 02,03,64; pronouns in, 66, tax, 158-172 article aficr, ;

parative. 67, 68 ; numerals, 75, 76 170 arrangement of, 210, ; ;

Northumbrian, 1 ; vowel tense stems in, 82 : para- 219, 220 relation to verse, ;

sounds, 14 gutturals, 18
; digm of indie, present, S3;
; 22!5.

dentals, 99 ; ecthlipsis, met of imperfect, 85 subjunc- present, 78; active indie, 83; ;

nthesis, epenthesis, prost he tive pres., 87 passive, 116 subjunctive, 80, 87

; weak, ; ;

sis, 19 labials, 19
;
dcchui derivation in, 118-)-.
; 94, 90, 97; reduplicate, 115;
sion, strong, 49; weak, 51 parts of speech, 3^1. ; forms of, 187-)-.
irregularities, 51 ; pronoun, Ijarticiples, 78, S8, 95; svntax, preteritive verb, S."?, 112-114.
fiO; possessive, C8 ; article, 1.39, 140, IS.'i, 200, 201,210. price, syntax of, 151, 1.57.
C9; demonstrative, 70; in- particles of interrogalioi), ne- principal parts of verb, 78.
terrogative, 71 ; verb, 117 ; gatior, etc., 132. procliiics, 13.
252 ENGLISH INDEX.

prosrressioii, 6, 9, 2.), T?, 100, nasal, 100 two consonants, >f. 30, 117; ff>?, .30, 75; f,'>
lOi, lOS, Kiit, 111,11-2, lU. 102,103,108; !— ,103;
;

— — u— , >(., 30; A->/, 75; )/!>«, 67; 6/t

progressive forms, 18S-)-, 197 105, —a—, —a—, 107,— 108, >«i, 45, 49 rf>s,
origin of, •101.
;

109 ; —d—, — ea— ^-, 83 s>r, 30.

; z, 19, 30,

prouoineii revereutise, 174.

—e— —
(>— , —a—
,

109, 110; short vowels,

;

6, 8, 11.
pronouns, i!;!, ;u, 174; person-
,

—('>—, 111: — u— , 112; iu de- sideling, 128.

:il, C6, 7-2, 174, 17.% 179 pos- : rivation, lis. simple words, 118 sentences, ;

sessive, OS, 09, 72, 17o, 175, rough mutes, 7. 139; subject, 185.
and see deinoiistratice, relcv- riickumlaut, see uvilaut. simulatiou, 9, '28, 131.
tive, intcrrofjative, indefinite. runes, 4, 18. singular, 78, 142, 185.
proper names, 54. size, syntax of, 154.
prosody, '222-2-28. s, 5, 8,15 ; <rf, 19, 30, 83 ; >r, 30 ; Slavonic, 3 ; assibilation, 21 ;

Jjrosthesis, 9, 30. >st, 83 =z, IS. instrumental, 39 weak ad-

jirotasis, 194.
— s, Norman,
;

51. jective, 59 thousand, 76. ;

;

pi-othesis,9, 18, 19, ol. same, 70. smooth mutes, 7.

jjunctiiation, 5. Sandwich Islanders, 15. some (sum), with numerals,77 ;
piirpose,134; S3'utax with, 199. Sanskrit, 3; letters, S; accent s\aitax, 143, 181 ; some deal,
pyrrhic, 223. in, 30; «>a(.'j 41 reflexive, ; 123.
68; conjugation classes, 79, sonants, 7, 15, 23 ; rules for
(\\\—cp, 5. 114-116; beginnings of ab- change of, 10.
(luality, 12, 13: suffix of, 124; laut, 79-|- ; assimiTation by source, syntax of, 163, 166.
syntax, 1.53, 154. m, n, I, r, SO; periphrastic space, syntax of, 148; 157, 159.
quantity, 12, 13, 222, 223. perfect in kar, 82; dual, 8-2, See place.
quantitatives, 217, 21S. 83; causative, 79, 127; versi- specification (adjunct), 151, 157.
quasi-clauses, quasi feet, qua- fication, 223 and see etymol- ; spirant, 7.
si-predicative, quasi-suliix- o(jii,covi.parative, and syntax, spondee, 222.
cs, see clause., feet, etc. comparative. —St, law for, 97.
questions, 183, 184; strengtli- Saxon, 1, 3: Old Saxon, 2, 3; steadfast, 121.
eued by cpedan, sccfjan, etc., vowels, 8; labials, 18; ab- stem (nouns), deflned,34; end-
183; indirect, 192. See in- stracts (=Goth. -eins), 45 ; ings, 36; iu -a, 39+, 57; -ia,
tcrrogativcs. verse, 224, 227. See cti/molo- 41,4-2,43,47,60; -ga, 41; -ha,
(jy, comparative, and syntax, 41, 61 -pa, 41, 61
; -d, 44, ;

r, 7. S, 15, 16, IS. See breaking, comparative. See also Semi- 45 -?, 42-17, 57 -M, 48, 49,
; ;

s'em. Saxon, M'est Saxon, Anglo- 60, 54, 47 -an, 50, 51, 59 ; -r,
;

radicle, 33 ; in pronouns, Co Saxon. ; 43,53; -nd, 43,53; relics of

numerals, 75 derivation, sc, 16, 21+
; breaking, 20. ; other consonant stems, 53.
118; suffixes, 119. Scandinavian, 3, 29. See Ice- VERB-stems, 78 with gem- ;

ready, sjTitax, 199. landic, Norse. ination, 97 iu -ia, 99, 108, ;

reality, 190. section, in verse, 223. 115; tense stems, 82; n In-
receive, syntax, 150. seldom, 128. 8erted,116; reduplicated,11.5,
reciprocals, 175. self, 70, 177. 116 relational
; adverbial,
reduplication, 6; contracted, Semi-Saxon, 1, 4 j, 4, and see ; 129. See tlieme.
13, 14, 32 in numerals, 75
; Layamon,Ormulum.
; strengthening s to st,8Z stems ;

verbs. 82, 85, 108, 109 pres- Semitic, 75, vowel change in
; by -er, 41 pronouns, 175 ; ;

ents, il5, 116; iu derivation, inflection, SO syntax, 214 ; ; negatives, interrogatives,

lis. and see Hebrew. 183.
reflexive, 68 syntax, 146, 150, semi- vowel (/', g; u, p), gemi-
; stress, "22.
1.50,174,175,186. nation, 47,61. strong nouns, 36, 49 ; adjec-
refuse, syntax, 149, 156. sensation, syntax of, 145. tives, 56 syntax, 173 ; verbs,
;

regard, syntax, 147. sentence, kinds of, 139 ; 78,S3+,98, 1'26.

relational, 33, 1-29 genitive,;
abridged, 140 . and see cknise. subject, 137; grammatical, log-
153; verb, 186. separation, syntax of, 151, 156, ical, 139;repeated,143; nom-
relative pronoun, 70, 72 s}ti- 157. inative, 144 ; accusative, 147 :

tax,
— personal as, 175, 179,
;

sex, 136. simple,185; compound, cop-

178-180 ; demonstrative as,
Shakespeare, double compari- ulate, 185; omitted, 186; ar-
178 interrog., 179
: incor- son, 64 ; adjective endings,
:
rangement of, 214, 220.
poration, ISO, omission, ISO; 65; verb endings, 118; pre- subjective verb, 138 ; genitive,
order, 219, 220. fix ge-, lis. 153.
relative clauses, adverbs iu, shall, 189, 196. subjunctive, 77; present, im-
184; subjunctive in, 193. sharing, syntax of, 156. perfect, 86, 87 endings iu ;

relics,49,53, 68, 116. she, 6S,"177. auxiliaries, 87 potential, 89, ;

remain, syntax, 150. sheep, 13(i. syntax, 190 +; iu leading

remember, 156. shifting (Jautverschiebrmg), de- clauses, 191; insubordinate
repeated subject, 114, 174. fined, 9, '28, 29 ; vowels substantive, 192 adjective, > ;

repetition, 152. vowels, 2S ayx, 11, 27, 41, 193 ; adverb, 193-195 for im-
; ;

respect of, 151, 199. 45, 58, 60, 63, 97, 99, 197 perative, 197. ; «>
result, suffix, 124, mode, 193, xyc, 100, 102; rt>o, 27; «>(, sub-letters, 224.
195. See consecutice. 67 ; «><'&>e, 27, 60, 103, 110 subordinate clause, 139 ques- : ;

Rhyming Poem, 226. ca>e, 13, 14, 105 ; f'fl>e, 14, tions in, 184 ; subjunctive
rnythni, 222, 225. 1.5, 10.5, lOS, 109; ?/>l, 112; in, 192-195 arrangement of, ;

rliythmical accent, 30. vowels>consonants, 29: i> 21.5,220; conjunctions, 20.5-

ri'/htemis, 122. g, 30 u>v, 41 ; consonants
; 208.
riine (rhyme), 223; letters, 224. >vowels, 28, 29 ; consonants substantives, equivalents of,
}{omau populace, 1.5. >co- ordinate consonants, 139; clauses, 140, 192, W,-.
Romanic, 156, 216, 218, 22.5. '29; consonants to cognate arrangement of, 215, 220. See
roots, 33, 34; mixed, 64; iu -ft, consonants (Grimm's law), voun.
97; —
fi— , 100; liquid, 100; '29, 07, 75. 83, 85, S7, 88 f<>/ stich, 70. ;
 ENGLISH INDEX. 'Aoo

suffering object, 13S. Lat.), 178 relative (Sansk.,

; stopped l:y n, 102 ; n-um-
suffixes, relational, 33 of com-
; Gr., Lat., Goth., 0,H.G.,Ger., laut, examples, 12, 19. 83, 97,
parison, 62-|- ; mode, 82 de- ; Semi-Sax., Engl.), 178, 179; 99, lUO, 102, 103, 105, 114 ; !-
rivation, 121, 122, 123-12S. article (Gr,, Lat., Goth., Ger,, umlaut, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 43,
superlative, 62-64 in numer- ; O, Norse), ISO ; Adverbs 45, 47, 60, 02, 97, 100, 105, 1C7,
als, 75, 76; prepositions and (Gr., Lat., Teut.), 183, 1S4 ; 108, 109, 110, 111, 112; v-nm-
prefixes, 132; sj-ntax, l&l .
Verb, subject of (Lat., Gr., laut, 11,12,20,41.
176. Engl., etc), 185, 186; voice underneath, 170,
supremacy, syntax of, 157. (Sansk,, Greek, Lat., Goth., use, syntax, 150, 151, 157.
surd, 7, 15, 23 ;" rules for change. Teut.), 77, 146, 15(l,lS7 tense ;

10; roots, 95. (Lat., Engl.), 189, 190; mode v=u, IS.
swearing, sjTitax of 152. (Gr., Latm), 190-201 ; Ar- value, syntax, 154.
swine, 136. rangement of words variation, 9, 97, 98 table of, in ;

synseresis, 10, 11, 32. (Lat., Ger.), 214; predicative verbs, 99-103, 117.
synalepha, 10, 32. comb, (Indo-Europ., Semi- verb, 34, 77 conjugation, see
; ;

sj-ncope, 9, 30, 31, 41, 47, 60, 70 :

tic), 214, (French, Romanic) preteritive, see irregular, ;

in imperfects and p. -part., 95. 216; attrib. comb, (Gr,, Lat, 114-118; thesubstantive,114;
eynesis, 141, 142, 144, 173,.1S5-|-. Teut., Romanic), 216, (Gr., derivation, lis compound, ;

svnizesis, 10, Sfi. Lat, Engl., Ger., Fr., Span., 134 ; syntax, 185-201 kinds ;

syn tax, 137-221 figures of,141.

; It), 217, (Romanic) 218 ob- ; of, 186 agreement, 185, 186
; ;

syntax, comparative, api»os- jective comb, (Germanic), omission, 186 arrangement, ;

itlve (Sansk., Lat., Ger.. 219; adverbial comb, (Ger- 214, 218,
O. H. G., O. Nor., Fr.), l43, manic), 220. verbal, in -ung, -ivff, -ende, 201 ;

144; Nominative, facti- syntax, 153,' 201 accent, 222, ;

tive (Sansk., Gr., Goth., M. t, T, 8, 15, 29 Gothic, verse, 222, 223

; <d, 19 ;
common nar- ;

H. G.), 144; Vocative, 97, rative, 225 long, 227,

—
;

(Sansk., Lat, Fr.), 144, 145; t, neuter ending, 37, 57, vocal chords,ll; utterauce,11.
Accusative reflexive take, syntax, 150. vocative, 34, 35 syntax, 139, ;

(Sansk., Gr., Goth.), 146; cog- tavern, 121. 144,145,173,

iiate(San8k.,Gr.,Ger.,Eng.); teach, sjTitax, 146, 147, 193. voice,77; middle, 14C, 150, 187;
double object (Sansk., Gr. tenses, 78 stems in Parent
; syntax, 187,
Lat., Goth., O. H. G.),146, 147 Speech, 82; sj'ntax, 187; pro- vowels, 6 Indo-European ta- ;

with infinitive (Sansk., Gr., gressive, 188 sequence, 190.; ble, 8; groups, C, 7; Anglo-
Lat.), 147 factitive (Sansk.),
; tetrameter, 223. Saxon, 11-15 ; changes, 19-
147 in adverbial combina-
; Teutonic, 3, 29, 30, 76, 129, 152. 32. See each vowel.
tions (Sansk., Greek, Lat. th=/>, 17; rf, 97. vriddhi, 27.
Goth.), 148; Dative, of in. thank, sjmtax, 149, 156.
fluence (Sansk., Greek, Lat., the more, 177, W</',1S,19.
Goth., O. H. G.), 149 of pos- ; theme, 34 ; of nouns in -ad, want:=Ji«crf, 157.
sessor (Sansk., Greek, Lat.), -ed, -els, -sc, 41 ; plurals in watch, s}^ltax, l.'iC.

150; nearness (Sansk., Gr -er, 41 ; -wirr< 47 ; i, eo, pyv way, sj-utax, 158.
Lat., Goth.), 150 ; mastery! >o, h, 61 ,
verb, 78 ; in -cc, weak nouns, 36, 50 •
adjectives,
use (Lat., Goth., O. Sax., < -II, -c. 111 ; nasal, 111 ; gut- 56, 59, 60, 173 ; verlis, 78, 63,
Norse,O.H.G.,M.H.G.),].':i ; tural, 112. 85, 92-1-, 94 ; mixed, irreg,,-
separation (Lat., Gr.), 151 ; thesis, 222, 223, 225. 116, 117, 120, 127,
adverbial (Sansk., Gr., Lat- they, their, them, C8, C9, 177, wealth, syntax, 153.
in), 151 agent (Sansk., Gr.,
; thousand, 76. weathering of endings, 36, 55,
Lat.), 151 after compara- till, 1G7.
; 65,72,118,131.
tives (Sansk., Gr., Lat., Teu time, sufiix of, 1^5; adverbs, wedlock, 122.
tonic), 152 ; absolute (San- 130; compounds, 134; svu- weight, syntax, 154.
skrit, Gr., Lat., Teut)., 152 tax, 152, 157, 153, 201, 207:
; weladnii, 133. ^

Instrumental (Sansk.. subjunctive in clauses of, West Saxons, 1.

Gr., Lat., Goth,, O. Sax., O. 19.3, ; arrangement, 216 in ; what, 178.

IL Ger.), 153 Ccuitive, verse, 222 and see terntc.
; ; u'hilom, 128.
general (Sanskr.), 153; cog- ?o, 167-1- ; with the infinitive, ivho, 179.
nate (O. Norse), 154 aggre- 197: -r/av, 128,
; whole, see partitive.
gation (Sansk.), 154 char- tonic, 222, 225. ; wilt, 189, 190.
acteristic (Sansk., Gr., Lat.), touch, syntax, 1.5G. wintii/vic, 122,
154; of name (Gr., Lat., Fr., transitive verbs, 138, 14.'), 156, wish, syntax, 1.50,

Semi-Sax.), 155; predicative 186; i)erfect, ])luperfect, 86, woman, 122,

(Gr., Lat.), 155; exciting ob- 201. See direct object. word, 33.
ject (Sansk., Gr., Lat., Teut.), tribrach, 222. worthv, syntax, 199.
156; partitive (Romanic), trills, 16. VVydiffile, 1, 179.
156; Prepositions trimeter, 223.
iGoth., O. IL G., O. Norse, O. trochee, 222, 223, 225. X, .5, 7, 17.
Sax., Lat., Greek, Layamon, truth, 1S8.
Orra., Chaucer, Wydiffe, V, 11 : <u, ea, eo, i, e, tc, 12.
Spenser), 1159-172 ; Adjec- U, 5, 0,7,8,11,12; >.'/,!•:!; e<'> i/, 14.
tive (Goth., IL Ger.), 174; 14; —V,\S; yar,vp,i\ 4~. !llc, 70.
Pronoun (Nonnan,O.IL M-dedeusion for Latin, Greek lion, .59.
<;.,O. Norso), 174, 144; pos- a-decl,,54, oiyore, 128.
i^essivc (Layamon, English). jz-trroup, 7, 26,
175; demimstr. and article umlaut, 0, 19, 23; rule, 10; in z,7, IS, 19.
(Goth., O. IL G., Lat., (ier.), verl)s,96-f ;
stems from, 123: zeugma, 141.
1T6, 177 ; iuterrog. (Onn., concealed, riickumlaut, 95 ;

THE END.
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