NASA DRFC-X41-1 - Students Flight Manual - Flight Testing Newtons Laws PDF

Flight Testing Newton's Laws
Student's Flight Manual

NASA / DFRC - X41 - 1

Flight Testing Newton's Laws
Student's Flight Manual
Table of Contents
Page
Preface - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i
National Science Education Standards - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ii
Curriculum Standards for School Mathematics - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ii
References - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - iii
Acknowledgments - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - iii
1 Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

1.0 Importance of Physics - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.1
2.0 Newton's First Law - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.2
3.0 Newton's Second Law - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.2
4.0 Newton's Third Law - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.4
5.0 Summary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.5
6.0 Measures of Performance - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.5
7.0 Example - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.5
8.0 Suggested Activities - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.5
Operational Supplement - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.6
2 Weight and Balance

1.0 Definitions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.1
2.0 Balancing Forces and Moments - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.1
3.0 Significance of Weight & Balance - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.2
4.0 Weighing An Aircraft - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.3
6.0 Suggested Activity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.6
3 Developing Lift
1.0 Definitions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.1
2.0 Bernoulli's Equation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.1
3.0 Lift and the Rate of Change of Momentum - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.2
4.0 Lift and the Bernoulli Equation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.4
5.0 Summary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.5
7.0 Example - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.5
4 Developing Drag
1.0 Definitions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.1
2.0 Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.1
3.0 Skin Friction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.1
4.0 Pressure Drag - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.2
4.1 Causes of Pressure Drag - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.3
5.0 Summary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.5
5 Thrust
1.0 Definitions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.1
2.0 Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.1
3.0 Principles of Thrust - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.1
3.1 Propeller Aircraft - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.1
3.2 Jet Engines - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.3
4.0 Summary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.5
6.0 Problems - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.5
6 Takeoff Performance
1.0 Definitions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.1
2.0 Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.1
3.0 Test Aircraft Description - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.1
4.0 Determining the Takeoff Speed - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.1
5.0 Determining the Drag - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.2
6.0 Determining the Acceleration - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.2
7.0 Determining the Takeoff Distance - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.3
8.0 Rolling Friction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.3
9.0 Summary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.4
11.0 Example - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.5
7 Climb and Descent Performance
1.0 Definitions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.1
2.0 Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.1
3.0 Theory - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.1
3.1 Simplifying Assumptions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.1
3.2 Climb Rate vs Velocity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.3
4.0 Power Method - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.3
5.0 Energy Method for Climb Performance - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.4
6.0 Data Analysis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.4
7.0 Descents - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.5
8.0 Summary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.5
8 Cruise Performance
1.0 Definitions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8.1
2.0 Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8.1
3.0 What is Range Performance? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8.1
4.0 Determining the Maximum Endurance Airspeed - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8.2
5.0 Determining the Maximum Range Airspeed - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8.5
6.0 How to Keep the Cruise Speed High - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8.6
7.0 Flight Testing Cruise Performance - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8.6
8.0 Summary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8.7
10.0 Problems - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8.7
9 Landing
1.0 Definitions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.1
2.0 Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.1
3.0 Theory - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.1
3.1 Descents - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.1
3.2 Approach - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.2
3.3 Flare - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.3
3.4 Rollout - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.4
4.0 Summary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.6
5.0 Measures of Performance - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.6
6.0 Suggested Activities - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.7
10 Summary and Review
1.0 Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10.1
2.0 Weight and Balance of the Model - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10.1
3.0 Determining Thrust of the Model - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10.2
4.0 Determining Takeoff Speed - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10.2
5.0 Determining the Drag - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10.3
6.0 Determining the Acceleration - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10.3
7.0 Determining Takeoff Distance - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10.4
8.0 Conclusion - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10.5
Preface
The "Flight Testing Newton ’s Laws" NASA Education Series uses aircraft to stimulate the
student’s interest in the physical sciences and mathematics. The main emphasis lies in showing how
Newton’s three laws of motion apply to flight testing an aircraft. However, complementary areas of
trigonometry, vector addition, weight and balance, along with resolution of forces are also employed.
Following a brief review in the first video of Newton ’s Three Laws and the four basic forces of flight, the
presentation follows the typical sequence employed by test pilots and engineers preparing for a test flight.
Aircraft weight and balance, determining takeoff distance, cruise performance, and landing distance are
addressed in turn.
Each lesson guide is presented in the format of a Flight Instructor ’s Manual used by aircraft
manufactures and pilots. This Manual contains certain areas where the teacher should direct the student’s
attention. Each of these areas are identified by their relative importance according to the following criteria:
NOTE: Sidelight information which may add to ensuing discussions but which is not considered
essential to the material content.
Caution: Should the student fail to consider a particular aspect of the topic of discussion, the
result may be the wrong answer to the example problem.
Warning: This block will identify background information the student should already possess.
Knowledge of identified concepts is essential to understanding the material being
presented. The material is not given during this session but is identified to theinstructor
in order to permit discussion of the material prior to undertaking the current lesson.
By way of example, consider the following:

NOTE: In an actual Pilot ’s Flight Manual, the Notes, Cautions, and Warnings are defined as
follows:
NOTE: An operating procedures, techniques, etc., which is considered essential to
emphasize.
Caution: Operating procedures, techniques, etc., which could result in damage to

equipment if not carefully followed.
Warning: Operating procedures, techniques, etc., which could result in personal
injury or loss of life if not carefully followed.
Often information that is not critical to flight safety, but which enhances the pilot’s understanding,
is provided in the form of an Operational Supplement. Throughout this manual, Operational Supplements
are provided at the end of the session to enhance the understanding of the material. When appropriate, a
note is added to direct the reader's attention to the end of session Operational Supplement.
All units in the Flight Instructor ’s Manual are presented in the English system. The rationale
behind this is twofold . First, engineers and pilots in the United States still use the English system
exclusively. All cockpits have instrumentation measured in feet, statue or nautical miles per hour, pounds
per square inch, and foot-pounds. Second, it is felt that if so desired, by converting the example problems
into the metric system, the student will develop a feel for the relative magnitudes of units between the two
systems. The accompanying text often presents both sets of units in its examples and explanations.
Occasionally, the teacher may want to stop the video to reinforce or clarify subjects being
presented. Throughout this guide, there will be areas annotated by**STOP VIDEO** where clarification
may be appropriate. In addition, where definitions are presented at the beginning of the session, it may be
advantageous to review the definitions before showing the video. The recommended areas to start the
video are annotated with **START VIDEO**. All material presented prior to the **START VIDEO**
symbol should be covered before hand.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Education Division supports the National
Education Standards. The activities in Flight Testing Newton's Laws were developed in accordance with
the National Education Standards and satisfy the content requirements for science and mathematics
specified below:
National Science Education Standards

Physical Science
Motions and Forces:
• Objects change their motion only when a net force is applied. Laws of motion are used to calculate
precisely the effects of forces on the motion of objects. The magnitude of the change in motion can
be calculated using the relationship F = ma , which is independent of the nature of the force.
Whenever one object exerts force on another, a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
is exerted on the first object.
• Gravitation is a universal force that each mass exerts on any other mass. The strength of the
gravitation attractive force between two masses is proportional to the masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Curriculum Standards for School Mathematics

Mathematics as Problem Solving
• Use, with increasing confidence, problem-solving approaches to investigate and understand
mathematical content.
• Apply integrated mathematical problem-solving strategies to solve problems from within and
outside mathematics.
Mathematics as Communication
• Reflect upon and clarify their thinking about mathematical ideas and relationships
• Read written presentations of mathematics with understanding
Mathematics as Reasoning
• Make and test conjectures
Mathematical Connections
• Relate procedures in one representation to procedures in an equivalent representation
ii
• Use and value the connections between mathematical and other disciplines
Algebra
• Represent situations that involve variable quantities with expressions, equations, inequalities, and
matrices;
• Operate on expressions and matrices, and solve equations and inequalities;
• Appreciate the power of mathematical abstraction and symbolism;
• Demonstrate technical facility with algebraic transformations, including techniques based on the
theory of equations.
Functions
• Model real-world phenomena with a variety of functions.
Trigonometry
• Explore periodic real-world phenomena using the sine and cosine functions;
• Solve trigonometric equations and verify trigonometric identities
References
NRC (National Research Council). 1996. National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Commission on Standards for School Mathematics. 1989.
Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics . Reston, Virginia: National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics.
It is our intent that through the use of videos and Flight Manuals, the thrill of aviation can be
enjoyed by both the student and the teacher.
Acknowledgments
Endeavors such as "Flight Testing Newton ’s Laws" require the efforts of numerous people. The
NASA/Dyden Flight Research Center’s Education Division and the National Test Pilot School staff would
like to extend a special thanks to the following individuals:
Ms. Lauern Holen of the Tehachapi (CA) Unified School District

Mr. Jim Nickel of the Antelope Valley (CA) Union High School District
Ms. LeAnn B. Tichenor of Desert High, Edwards AFB, CA
The tireless support of these teachers in the review and trial presentations of the "Flight Testing
Newton’s Laws" series is greatly appreciated.
iii
Session 1
Review of Newton's Laws of Motion
1.0 Importance of Physics NOTE:

Testing airplanes requires pilots to know a lot The following types of aircraft are shown in
more than just how to fly the plane; they must also the first video:
know why an airplane flies. The science of flight is SAAB Draken
totally dependent upon physics. In fact, without a (supersonic fighter)

good understanding of physics, Orville and Wilbur

Wright would never have gotten their Flyer off the

ground.

Aeromacchi Impala
(jet trainer)
Wright Flyer
Many "would-be" aircraft designers never took

the time to study Newton ’s Laws, and as a result,
built contraptions that flew worse than they looked.
Sikorsky S-55
(transport helicopter)
"Would-Be" Design
In order to make effective use of Newton ’s Laws, a
Newton’s Laws of Physics are still applied by brief review of each is in order.
aircraft designers every day for every type of
aircraft. Using these laws, designers are able to Warning:
determine such things as the overall shape of the
aircraft, how many engines are required, how far it
The assumption is made that the students have
can go, and how much runway is needed to takeoff
already been taught the development of Newton ’s
and land. All these areas must be addressed for the
Laws. The following presentations are meant to
design to be successful.
serve only as a refresher. Sections 5.1 thr ough 5.4
of the accompanying text should be reviewed prior
to starting the video.
1.1

Session 1
**START VIDEO**
2.0 Newton’s First Law

The First Law of Motion is often referred to as
the Law of Inertia. The formal definition states:
"A body in motion at a uniform speed
will remain in motion at that speed unless
acted upon by an external force, and a
body at rest will remain at rest unless
acted upon by an external force."
Sled Track Test Subject

NOTE:
See the Operational Supplement at the end of this Each belt must be made of the proper material
session for a description of speed and velocity. and to the correct size to provide enough external
force to limit the pilot ’s movement. Determining
A body in motion is exactly what seatbelts are the size of forces is the topic of Newton ’s Second
designed to restrain. Seatbelts are known to save Law.
lives by preventing the vehicle occupant from
continuing forward when the vehicle stops NOTE:
suddenly. The tendency for the occupant to
The rapid deceleration rate caused Col. Stapp’s
continue forward is a classic case of inertia at
eyes to hemorrhage, giving him two completely red
work. The "external force" which acts upon the
eyes.
body comes in the form of theseatbelt.
3.0 Newton’s Second Law

Newton’s Second Law of Motion relates force
to acceleration. The formal definition is:
"Force is equal to mass times acceleration,
or F = ma."
NOTE:
See the Operational Supplement at the end of this
Seatbelts at Work session for discussion of acceleration.
For the speeds experienced in a car, the An everyday example of this law occurs when we
seatbelts/shoulder strap combination should step on the scale to weigh ourselves.
provide sufficient stopping force for the occupant.
However, since aircraft travel at much faster
speeds and are free to move in three dimensions, a
"five point" harness is often used; 2 shoulder
straps, a right and left seatbelt, and a "negative-g"
strap between the legs. The effectiveness of this
arrangement can be seen on the sled track
occupant.
1.2

Session 1
As an aircraft maneuvers, the pilot experiences

a change in the "g-factor." This factor is multiplied
times the standard gravitational acceleration of
32.2 ft/sec2. A mathematical expression of this
would look like
F = ma
Fw = mg ("g" factor)
Caution:
Second Law at Work
The " g" factor is actually a result of centripetal
The force can be measured directly as our acceleration. The equation for this is
weight, refered to as Fw. Additionally, on Earth,
F = mV
2
the acceleration of gravity is found to be 32.2 R
ft/sec2. Substitution into the
However, for this application the "g" factor can be
F = ma,
envisioned as simply a multiplication factor.
equation and rearranging wherea = g
Example: The pilot in the video weighs 155
Fw
m= g pounds. To determine his mass,
this equation yields our mass. NOTE:

Descriptions of this and other acceleration factors
NOTE: are contained in the Operational Supplement.
The development of the universal gravitational Fw = mg
constant is contained in the Operational

Supplement. 155 lbs = m (32.2 ft/sec2)

therefore
The significance of knowing our mass comes to Fw
m = g = 155 lbs/32.2 ft/sec2
light when we are not subjected to the Earth ’s
gravity. A man standing on the Earth has the same or
mass as he would standing on the moon. However, m = 4.8 slugs
on the moon he would weigh 1/6th of what he
would weigh on the Earth. The difference in his
**STOP VIDEO after pilot talks aboutslugs**
weight comes from the differences in the
gravitational acceleration constants between the
Earth and the moon. The moon ’s gravitational NOTE:
acceleration is only 1/6th that of the Earth ’s. As a The use of slugs as a unit of measurement may be
result, his weight is only 1/6th of his Earthly foreign to some students. See page 4.2 of the text
weight. In aviation, the Earth ’s gravitational for a complete definition of a slug and its
acceleration is referred to as a " g." Often times a equivalent in the metric system.
pilot may feel the effect of more (or less) than 1 During a "2-g" turn, the pilot ’s weight can be
"g." found by:
Fw = mg("g" factor)
1.3

Session 1
Thrust is just one of four primary forces which

Fw = (4.8 slugs) (32.2 feet/sec ) (2)

2
act upon an aircraft in flight. The plane can't
Fw = 309 pounds
violate the third law, therefore thrust must be
opposed by an equal and opposite force. This
NOTE: second force is called drag. Drag is the resistance
of the atmosphere to the aircraft, like you feel when
The mass actually comes out to 4.8137 slugs. Due
you put your hand out the window of a moving car.
to round-off error, the 2 g turn results in 309 lbs
When drag and thrust are equal, the aircraft is no
instead of the more exact 310 lbs.
longer accelerating, but remains at the same speed
since these forces are equal. If thrust is increased
**START VIDEO** by adding more power, the aircraft will initially
accelerate to a new speed. However as the plane's
From this example, it can be seen that a " g" speed increases, so does the drag and eventually,
factor is purely a multiplication factor used to thrust and drag will again be equal, but at a faster
determine an increase in weight. Since this speed.
increase in weight acts towards the pilot ’s feet, the
The remaining two forces on the aircraft
force may cause the blood to leave his upper body
highlight how a plane stays in the air. Lift is the
causing him to black out. As a result, he wears an
force provided by the wings as the plane moves
"anti-g" suit to provide an opposing force on his
forward through the air. If lift is the force which
legs keeping the blood in his head and chest.
causes a plane to rise, then it seems logical the
Opposing forces is the subject of Newton ’ third
opposing force would act in a downward direction.
law.
Not surprisingly, this force is the plane's weight.
Now it may seem strange, but lift is always equal
to weight, otherwise the aircraft couldn't stay in the
4.0 Newton’s Third Law
air.
The third law of motion is often thought of as The aircraft is controlled by changing the lift
the law of action and reaction. Specifically it states forces over the wings and tail. Moving the control
stick forward or backward causes more or less lift
on the tail causing the nose to move up or down.
"When one object exerts a force on
Likewise moving the stick from side to side causes
another, the second object must exert an
more lift on one wing, which results in a roll.
equal and opposite force on the first."
The simplest example of this is when we stand
from sitting in a chair. We place our feet on the
floor, use our legs to push against the floor, and
push ourselves up. If the earth, or floor, didn't push
back with an equal amount of force, we would fall
into the earth (earth pushing back with less force)
or we would be propelled into the air (earth
pushing back with more force). The same principle
applies to a jet engine. Thrust is the force
produced by the hot gas coming out the back of the
engine. Since Newton's third law must also be
obeyed here, the air exerts a force equal to the Forces in Flight
thrust but in the opposite direction, propelling the
jet forward in the same manner as the floor
exerting a force on your legs allows you to stand.
1.4

Session 1
All four of these forces are actually dependent

upon each other and in a future session, their w = mg
interrelationships will be explored. 155 pounds = m (32.2 feet/sec2)

m = 4.8 slugs

2. Again using the second law, at a "g" factor of
+12, the force is now
5.0 Summary
w = mg ("g" factor)

Newton's three laws were highlighted here to
provide the student with an exposure into only a w = (4.8 slugs)(32.2 feet/sec2)(12)

few areas where the laws come into play in w = 1855.7 pounds

aviation. The pilot's restraint system reviewed the
principle of inertia, the "g" factors emphasized the 3. This total force can be divided among the seat
change in force with a change in acceleration, while belts.
the jet engine and the forces of flight showed the
concept of action and reaction. All of these laws Caution:
can be demonstrated in the following example.
One of the seatbelts is a "negative g" belt. Since the
question states a "positive g-factor of 12" this belt
6.0 Measures of Performance
should not be included in the calculations.
1 What does Newton's first law state?

1855.7 pounds / 4 belts = 463.7 pounds per belt
2 What does Newton's second law state?

3 What does Newton's third law state?
4. Therefore each belt must be designed to be able
to provide an opposing force of 463.7 pounds
4 What is a "g"?
to contain the pilot's inertia.
5 What is a "g" factor?

NOTE:
7.0 Example
The "negativeg" belt only provides an anchor point
Problem:
for the lap belt and shoulder belt. This anchor
The pilot in the video said he weighs 155 pounds.
prevents the belts form slackening during negative
The restraint system in the aircraft consists of five
g maneuvers.
seatbelts (two shoulder belts, two lap belts and one
negative "g" belt). How much force does each belt
have to withstand to keep him from hitting the
8.0 Suggested Activities
instrument panel if he experiences a positive " g"
factor of +12 when the plane comes to a rapid stop 1 Have each student weigh themselves and
during a crash landing? determine their mass from the relationship
Solution:
Fw = mg
1. The pilot's mass is found by use of the second F
law: m = gw
F = ma
2 Have each student determine how much they
On Earth, one "g" is the acceleration of gravity would weigh during a 2g, 4g and 9g turn.
(32.2 ft/sec2) and the force is equal to his
weight. Therefore, this mass is
1.5

Session 1
Operational Supplement
Speed and Velocity

The simplest kind of motion that an object can have is a uniform motion in a straight line. This
means an object moving in this manner is moving with a constant velocity. Constant velocity implies not
only constant speed, but, unchanging direction as well. For this reason velocity is a vector quantity.
The speed of a moving body is the distance it moves per unit time in any arbitrary direction. If the
speed is uniform, the object moves an equal distance in each successive unit of time. Speed is a scalar
measurement since the direction of motion is immaterial. Whether or not the speed is constant, theaverage
speed is the distance the body moves divided by the time required for the motion:
s - s
V avg = t 2 - t 1 = Ds (1)
2 1 Dt
where Ds is the distance traveled, Vavg is the average speed, and Dt is the elasped time. The British system
unit of speed is the foot per second (ft/sec); the SI unit is the meter per second (m/sec); many other units
are common, such as the mile per hour(mi/hr), centimeter per second (cm/sec), knot(kts), etc.
The terminology used above is very important. The concept of speed does not involve the idea of
direction. A body moving with constant speed may move in a straight line or in a circle or in any one of an
infinite variety of paths so long as the distance moved in any unit of time is the same as that moved in any
other equal unit of time. The concept of velocity includes the idea of direction as well as magnitude.
Hence we must consider thedisplacement of a body and not merely thedistance traveled. The definition of
average velocity, then, is given by:
s - s
V avg = t 2 - t 1 = Ds (2)
2 1 Dt
The defining equation for average velocity (Equation 2) is different from the equation for average speed
(Equation 1) in that v and s are vector quantities. The bar over the symbol is used to emphasize this
fact. Constant velocity is a particular case of constant speed. Not only does the distance traveled in unit
time remain the same, but, the direction is unchanged as well.
Accelerated Motion
Objects seldom move with constant velocity. In almost all cases, the velocity of an object is
continually changing in magnitude or in direction or both. Motion in which the velocity is changing is
called accelerated motion , and the rate at which the velocity changes is called the acceleration. The
velocity of a body may be changed by changing the speed, by changing the direction, or by changing both
speed and direction. If the direction of the acceleration is parallel to the direction of motion, only the speed
changes, while, if the acceleration is at right angles to the direction of motion, only the direction changes.
Acceleration in any other direction produces changes in both speed and direction. For the present, we will
confine our attention to the simplest type of accelerated motion, called uniformly accelerated motion . In
this case the direction is always the same and only the speed changes at a constant rate in the direction of
the original motion. The acceleration in this case is equal to the rate of change of speed, since there is no
change in direction. The acceleration is positive if the speed is increasing, negative if the speed is
decreasing. Negative acceleration is sometimes calleddeceleration.
1.6

Session 1
The acceleration of a body is defined as the time rate of change of velocity. Using algebraic symbols to
represent average acceleration, the defining equation is written:
V f - V i DV
a avg = t = (3)
Dt
where aavg represents the average acceleration, Vf the final velocity, Vi the initial velocity, and t the elapsed
time. Since units of acceleration are obtained by dividing a unit of velocity by a unit of time, it may be
seen that the British unit of acceleration is the foot per second per second (ft/sec2) and the SI unit is the
meter per second per second(m/sec2).
Uniformly Accelerated Motion

Because they are often encountered, it is convenient to remember and list the equations for the
special cases which apply to a body moving with constant acceleration in a straight line. If both sides of
Equation 3 are multiplied by t, we obtain:
Vf - Vi = at (4)
which expresses the fact that the change in speed is equal to the rate of change in speed multiplied by the
time during which it is changing. The distance traveled during any time is obtained by multiplying
Equation 1 by t:
s = Vavgt (5)
But, the average speed Vavg must be obtained from the initial and final speeds Vi and Vf. Since the speed
changes at a uniform rate, the average speed is equal to the average of the initial and final speeds:
Vi + Vf
V avg =
2
(6)
By combining these equations, two other useful equations can be obtained. Eliminating Vf and Vavg, we
obtain:
s = Vi t + 12 at 2 (7)
If we eliminate Vavg and t, we obtain:

V 2f = V 2i + 2as (8)
Of these five equations, Equation 5 is true for all types of motion; the remaining four equations hold only
for uniformly accelerated linear motion.
Universal Gravitation
In addition to the three laws of motion, Newton formulated a law of great importance in mechanics,
the law of universal gravitation. Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force
that is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the two particles and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them. This relation may be expressed symbolically by the equation:
Gm 1 m 2
F= (9)
s2
1.7

Session 1
where F is the force of attraction, m1 and m2 are the respective masses of the two particles,s is the distance
between them, and G is a constant called the gravitational constant. The value of G depends on the
system of units used in Equation 4. If the force is expressed innewtons, mass in kilograms, and distance in
meters, G has the value 6.67 × 10- 11m3/kg- sec2. If the force is expressed in pounds, mass in slugs, and
distance in feet, G has the value 3.42 × 10- 8ft4/lb- sec4.
Newton checked his law of gravitation by calculation and observation of the orbit of the moon.
With the approximate data at his disposal, he still found reasonable agreement between his computations
and his observations. Careful subsequent experimentation and measurement of the force of attraction
between small bodies in the laboratory has further established the validity of the law of universal
gravitation and led to the determination of the value ofG given above.
Uniform Circular Motion

In uniform circular motion , the velocity vector remains constant in magnitude while the direction
continually changes. Just as a force is required to change the speed of an object, so a force must also act to
cause a change in the direction of the motion. Whenever the net force on a body acts in a direction other
than the original direction of motion, it changes the direction of the motion. Such acceleration is very
common, for it is present whenever a car turns a corner, an airplane changes its direction, or in any other
similar motions.
Central Acceleration
When an object is moving in a circular path with constant speed, its velocity is continually
changing. The acceleration produces a change in direction but no change in speed. Therefore, the
acceleration must always be at right angles to the motion, since any component in the direction of the
motion would produce a change in speed. The acceleration is always directed toward the center of the
circle in which the body moves. It is constant in magnitude but contiually changing direction. In Figure 1
a body is moving with uniform speed,v, and constant angular speed, w, in a circular path. The linear speed
and angular speed are related by the equation:
V = wr (10)
V + DV
DV
B
V V
Dq V + DV
r A
Figure 1 Uniform Circular Motion

1.8

Session 1
where r is the radius of the circular path. The velocities of the object at pointsA and B are, respectively, V
and V + DV, equal in magnitude, but, differing in direction by a small angle Dq. In the vector triangle, DV
represents the change in velocity in the timeDt required for the object to to move from A to B. If the angle
Dq is small, the chord is approximately equal to the arc, and thus:
DV = VDq (11)
But, since:
Dq = wDt (12)
Hence:
2
DV = VzDt = z2 rDt = Vr Dt (13)
and:
DV = z2 r = V 2 (14)
Dt r
As Dt is made smaller, the approximation in this equation becomes less and less, and the direction of Dv
becomes more nearly perpendicular to that of V. A s Dt approaches zero, the instantaneous acceleration is
found to be directed toward the center of the circle and is given by:
dV V2 (15)
ac = = z2 r = r
dt
This equation states that the acceleration increases as the speed is increased and, for a given speed, is
greater for a shorter radius. The acceleration is at right angles to the velocity and hence is directed toward
the center of the circle. If the angular speed in Equation 15 is expressed in radians per second, then the
units of ac then depend upon the units in which r and V are expressed in. If the units of r are in feet and V
in feet per second, then the units of ac are in ft/sec2 . If the units of r are in meters and V in meters per
second, then the units ofac are in m/sec2.
Centripetal Force
According to Newton's laws of motion, any object that experiences an acceleration is acted upon
by an unbalanced force, a force that is proportional to the acceleration and in the direction of the
acceleration. The net force that produces the central acceleration is called the centripetal force and is
directed toward the center of the circular path. Every body that moves in a circular path does so under the
action of a centripetal force. A body moving with uniform speed in a circle is not in equilibrium. From
Newton's second law, the magnitude of the centripetal force is given by:
2
F c = ma c = m Vr = mz2 r (16)
where m is the mass of the moving object, V is its linear speed, r is the radius of the circular path, and w is
the angular speed. If m is in slugs, V in ft/sec, and r in ft, then Fc is in lb. If m is in m/sec, V in m/sec, and
r in m, then Fc is in newtons.
An inspection of Equation 16 discloses that the centripetal force necessary to keep a body in a
circular path, as shown in Figure 2, is directly proportional to the square of the speed at which the body
moves and inversely proportional to the radius of the circular path. If the speed is doubled, keeping the
1.9

Session 1
radius constant, the centripetal force becomes four times as great. If instead, the radius is cut in half, with
the speed remaining constant, the centripetal force increases to twice as great. If at any instant the cord in
Figure 2 breaks, eliminating the centripetal force, the rock will retain the velocity it has at the instant the
cord breaks and travel at constant speed along a line tangent to the circular path at that point. The act of
throwing a baseball follows the exact same principle.
Centrifugal
force exerted by
rock on cord
Centripetal
force exerted by
cord on rock
Figure 2 Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces
Work has been defined as the product of a force and a displacement in the direction of the force.
Since centripetal force acts at right angles to the direction of motion, there is no displacement in the
direction of the centripetal force, and it accomplishes no work. No energy is expended on or by an object
while it is moving at constant speed in a horizontal circular path. This conclusion is consistent with the
observation that, if the speed is constant, the kinetic energy of the body is also constant.
As the speed of a flywheel increases, the force needed to hold the parts of the wheel in circular
motion increases with the square of the angular speed, as indicated by Equation 8.7. If the speed becomes
high enough, the cohesive forces between the molecules of the material that the flywheel is made of are no
longer sufficient and the wheel disintegrates, the parts flying off along tangent lines like mud from an
automobile tire. Whenever news reports of an aircraft engine failure during flight, it is often due to rotating
fan blades in the engine coming apart from the stresses created by the combination of heat and rotational
forces.
When a container of liquid is being whirled in a horizontal circular motion, the container exerts an
inward force on the liquid sufficient to keep it from spilling out. The bottom of the container presses on the
layer of liquid next to it; that layer in turn exerts a force on the next; and so on. In each layer, the pressure
must be the same all over the layer or the liquid will not remain in the layer. If the liquid is of uniform
density, each element of volume with a mass m in a given layer will experience an inward force (mV 2/r)
just great enough to maintain it in that layer and there will be no motion of the liquid from one layer to
another. If, however, the layer is made up of a mixture of particles of different densities, the force required
to maintain a given element of volume in that layer will depend upon the density of liquid in that element.
Since the inward force is the same on all the elements in a single layer, there will be motion between the
1.10

Session 1
layers. For those elements which are less dense than the average, the central force is greater than that
necessary to hold them in the layer; hence they are forced inward. For the elements more dense than the
average, the central force is insufficient to hold them in the layer and they will move to a layer farther out.
As rotation continues, the elements of the mixture become separated, with the least dense nearest the axis of
rotation and the most dense farthest from the axis. This behavior is utilized to our advantage in the
centrifuge, a device for separating liquids of different densities. Very high speed centrifuges may be used
to separate gases of different densities.
Airplane pilots, who put their aircraft into a very tight turn or pull out of a steep dive at high
speed, often experience centripetal accelerations several times as large as the acceleration due to gravity.
Under these circumstances, the flow of blood to the pilot's brain is decreased unless other measures are
taken to counteract these forces. Without a "g-suit" strapped to his torso, these high g-forces can cause the
pilot to lose consiousness ("black out") during such periods of maximum acceleration.
Turns
A runner, in going around a curve, leans inward to obtain the centripetal force that causes him to
turn as shown in Figure 3. The track must exert an upward force sufficient to sustain his weight, while at
the same time it must provide a horizontal centripetal force. If the track is flat, the horizontal force must be
entirely frictional. In that case, the frictional force may not be large enough to enable a sharp turn if the
surface of the track were smooth. If the track is tilted from the horizontal, a portion of the horizontal force
can be sustained by the horizontal component of the reaction force provided by the track surface while the
remainder is still supplied by friction. If the angle of banking is properly selected, the force the track
exerts, which is perpendicular to its surface, will be sufficient to provide the necessary horizontal force
without friction.
C'
A
Fr f w
f
B C A' Fc B'
(a) (b)
Figure 3 A Banked Turn
For this ideal case, as shown in Figure 3, the reaction force Fr of the track is perpendicular to the
surface AC. The force due to the weight of the runner w is directed vertically downward. The resultant
force Fc is the horizontal centripetal force. In the force triangle in Figure3, the angle fis the angle of bank
of the track:
tan v = Fc /w = mV /r = V 2
2
mg rg (17)
Equation 17 indicates that, since the angle of bank depends upon the speed, the curve can be ideally banked
for only one speed. At any other speed, the force of friction must be depended upon to prevent slipping.
1.11

Session 1
Let us now consider the turning flight of an airplane. In particular, we will only examine three
specialized cases: (1) a level turn, (2) a pullup, and (3) an inverted pulldown (split-s). A study of the
generalized motion of an airplane along a three-dimensional flight path is beyond the scope of this series.
A level turn is illustrated in Figure 4. Here the wings of the airplane are banked through the anglef;hence
the lift vector is inclined at the angle f to the vertical. The bank angle fand the lift L are such that the
component of lift in the vertical direction exactly equals the force due to weight of the aircraft:
w = L cos f (18)
and therefore the airplane maintains a constant altitude, moving in the horizontal plane. The resultant ofL
and Fw leads to a resultant centripetal force Fc which acts in the horizontal plane causing the airplane to
turn in a circular path with a radius of curvature equal to R and a turn rate of w.
th
t Pa
igh
Fl
L
R
f
q
Horizontal plane f Fc
Top view (horizontal plane)

w Front view
Figure 4 An Airplane in a Level Turn
From the force diagram in Figure4, the magnitude of the resultant force is:
Fc = L 2 - w2
If we introduce a new term, theload factor n, defined as:
n ” L/w
and combine the above equation with Equation 18 , we can show that load factor can be expressed as a
function of bank angle only:
n= L = 1/ cos v (19)
L cos v
Load factor is usually quoted in terms of " g's"; for example, an airplane with lift equal to five times the
weight is said to be experiencing a load factor of 5g's. Hence, the centripetal force can be written as:
Fc = w n 2 - 1 (20)
1.12

Session 1
The airplane is moving in a circular path at the velocity V; therefore, the centripetal force can also be
expressed from Equation 16 as:
Fc = m V = wV
2 2
(21)
R gR
Combining Equations 20 and 21 and solving for R, we have:
R = Vg n 2 - 1
2
(22)
And, the turn rate w = V/R. Thus, from Equation 21, we have:
g
z=
V
n2 - 1 (23)
For the maneuvering performance of an aircraft, both military and civilian, it is frequently advantageous to
have the smallest possible R and the largest posssible w. Equations 22 and 23 show that, to obtain both a
small turn radius and a large turn rate, we must have:
1. The highest possible load factor (n = L/w)

2. The lowest possible velocity
Consider the second case of a pullup maneuver where the airplane, initially in straight and level
flight, suddenly experiences an increase in lift. Since the lift is greater than the weight of the airplane in
this case, the airplane will begin to accelerate upward in a "vertical turn" or circular path in the vertical
plane as shown in Figure 5. From the force diagram in Figure 5, the centripetal force Fc is vertical and is
given by:
Fc = L - w= w(n - 1) (24)
Fc
w
Figure 5 The Pullup Maneuver
1.13

Session 1
We have from Equation 21:

Fc = m V = wV
2 2
(21)
R gR
Combining Equations 21 and 24 and solving for R we get:
R = V 2/g(n - 1) (25)
And, the turn rate w = V/R. Thus, from Equation 25, we have:
w = g(n - 1)/V (26)
A related case is case 3, the inverted pulldown maneuver, illustrated in Figure 6. Here, an
airplane, initially in straight and level flight, suddenly rolls to an inverted position, such that bothL and Fw
are pointing downward. The airplane will begin to turn, in the vertical plane, downward in a circular flight
path with turn radius R and turn rate w. By an analysis similar to the pullup above, the following results
are easily obtained:
F c = L + w = w(n + 1)= wgR
V2
(27)
R = V 2/g(n + 1) (28)
w = g(n + 1)/V (29)
L
R
Fc
Figure 6 The Inverted Pulldown Maneuver
Considerations of turn radius and turn rate are particularly important to military fighter aircraft;
everything else being equal, those airplanes with the smallest R and the largest w will have definite
advantages in air combat. High performance fighter aircraft are designed to operate at high load factors,
typically from 5 to 9 g's; and if the turn is accomplished at the exact speed where the aerodynamic lift
generated by the wing is sufficient to produce the maximum g at the minimum speed, the tightest turn will
result with the aircraft possessing its highest energy level. This speed is often referred to as the "corner
velocity" of the aircraft.
1.14

Session 1
Curvilinear Motion
Frequently the net force acting on a body is neither parallel to the direction of its motion nor at
right angles to that direction. In this case, neither the speed nor the direction remains constant. Such
motion may be readily studied by considering two components of the acceleration, one parallel to the
original direction of motion, the other perpendicular to that direction.
One of the most common of such motions is planetary motion, in which the force on the moving
body is inversely proportional to the square of the radius and always directed toward a fixed point. The
body travels in an ellipse, the fixed point being at one focus. The speed of the moving body is greatest
when the body is nearest the focus, less when it is further away. This motion is called planetary motion
because the planets move in this manner in their journeys around the sun. Comets have much more
elongated elliptical paths that carry them outside the solar system at their furthest distance from our sun.
Since electrified particles show a similar law of attraction, we should expect them to behave in the same
manner as those moving under the action of gravitational forces.
Another simpler example of curvilinear motion that is closer to home is projectile motion. The
science of the motion of projectiles is called ballistics . The simplest type of ballistic motion is that in
which the projectile is given an initial velocity and then allowed to move under the influence of gravity
alone. True projectile motion is that in which an object is given an initial velocity and then allowed to
proceed under the action of gravity and also air resistance. Other objects which are self-propelled, such as
rockets and missiles, move in the same manner as projectiles except that they do not depend upon an initial
impulse alone, but also upon a sustained force throughout most of its flightpath. The initial speed of the
rocket or missile may be quite low since it is continually gaining speed along its path.
All of these examples of curvilinear motion areoutside the scope of this series. They are
mentioned here to provide a knowledge of their existence
.
Summary
In uniform circular motion: (a) the speed V is constant; (b) the direction of the motion is
continually and uniformly changing; and (c) the acceleration ac constant in magnitude and is directed
toward the center of the circular path. The magnitude of thecentral acceleration is given by:
a c = Vr = z2 r
2
(15)
where V is the linear speed, r is the radius, and w is the angular speed.
The centripetal force, the inward force that causes the central acceleration, is given by:
Fc = m Vr = mz2 r
2
(16)
The proper banking of a curve to eliminate the necessity for a horizontal frictional force is given by
the relation:
tan h= Vgr
2
(17)
1.15

Session 1
The load factor being pulled by an airplane inlevel turning flight is defined as:
n = L/w = 1/cos f (19)
The turn radius is given by:

R = Vg n 2 - 1
2
(22)
and the turn rate is:

z= g n 2 - 1 /V (23)
The turn radius and turn rate for a pullup is given by:
R = V 2/g(n - 1) (25)
w = g(n - 1)/V (26)
And, the turn radius and turn rate for an inverted pulldown is given by:
R = V 2/g(n + 1) (28)
w = g(n + 1)/V (29)
Often in curvilinear motion, the accelerating force is neither parallel nor p erpendicular to the
direction of motion. In this case, the acceleration produces change in both speed and direction of motion.
1.16

Session 2
Weight and Balance
1.0 Definitions NOTE:

Center of gravity (cg) - The point about which the All axes pass through the center of gravity and are
plane would balance if it were possible to suspend perpendicular to each other at that point.
the plane at that point; the mass center of the plane
at which the entire weight of the plane is assumed al
itudin
to be concentrated. Long
Center of gravity limits - The specified forward

and aft points within which the cg must be located
La
Directional
during flight. tera
l
Reference datum line (RDL) - An imaginary
vertical line from which all arm measurements are
taken. Figure 2.1 Aircraft Axis
Arm - The horizontal distance from the Reference
Datum Line to the cg of any particular item.
NOTE:
Moment - The product of a force (or weight of an
item) multiplied by its arm. The total moment of an Session 3 of the text should be reviewed prior to
object is the weight of the object multiplied by the starting the video.
length of the arm from theRDL to the cg.
2.0 Balancing Forces and Moments

During the first session we determined that an
object’s weight is a measure of the force it exerts on
the Earth. We also saw how according to Newton ’s
third law, forces exist in “equal and opposite” pairs.
Any time an out of balance force exists, there is an
acceleration in the direction of the greater force.
Many times when we use a see-saw we are faced
with two forces (or weights) which are not equal.
Then to level the board over the fulcrum, we used
Moments and Arms the concept of balanced moments, as shown in
Figure 2.2
Control - The ability to generate desired F1 F2
movements through the use of forces.
Fulcrum - The pivot point of a lever; balance point
of a beam. a1 a2
Longitudinal axis - An axis of rotation through the F1a1 = F2a2
cg which runs from nose to tail of the aircraft. Figure 2.2 Balanced Moments of a See-Saw
(Figure 2.1)
Lateral axis - An axis of rotation through the cg Recall that a moment is the product of a force
which runs from wingtip to wingtip of an aircraft. multiplied by a distance, or arm. Therefore it
(Figure 2.1) stands to reason that a smaller force acting at a
greater distance could quite easily balance a larger
Directional axis - An axis of rotation force acting at a smaller distance.
perpendicular to the longitudinal and lateral axis
which runs vertically through the center of gravity.
(Figure 2.1)
2.1

Session 2
Weight and Balance
NOTE:
Mechanics often refer to a moment as a “torque” 3. Therefore, the 200 pound person should sit 4.25
and will list automobile performance in the form of feet from the right end of the bench.
“foot-pounds of torque.” Additionally, the “torque 4. If the fulcrum is in the middle, 6 ft are on each
wrench” used in auto repair is simply the side. Therefore the distance from the fulcrum
mechanic’s arm strength applied over the known is 6 - 4.25 ft. = 1.75 ft.
length of the wrench. A gauge indicates “foot
pounds or inch - pounds ” of torque based on the Proof:
amount of force applied by the mechanic. 175 lbs. × 2 ft. = 200 lbs. × 1.75 ft
300 ft-lbs = 300 ft-lbs
The following example highlights how moments
are balanced. In the above example, the arms were measured
Example 1: A person weighing 175 pounds sits 4 with respect to the pivot point. However when
feet from the end of a bench seat. A second person dealing with aircraft we ’re trying to FIND the
weighing 200 pounds wants to sit at the opposite balance point, or more specifically, the center of
end of the bench. If the fulcrum is in the middle of gravity. Therefore the arms are measured with
the 12 foot bench, how far from the end should the respect to the reference datum line (RDL). This
200 pound person sit for the bench to remain level? imaginary line is usually located at the nose of the
aircraft and is used solely as a reference point for
175 lbs 200 lbs
calculating the center of gravity.
4 ft a ft
12 ft 3.0 Significance of Weight &Balance
Determining an aircraft ’s total weight and the
Solution: location of the center of gravity is crucial to
1. Calculate the moments on the left side of the predicting the aircraft ’s performance and
fulcrum: controllability. As we will see in future sessions, an
increase in an aircraft ’s weight has a direct impact
force × arm = moment on the following areas of that plane’s performance:
(175 lbs) × (6 ft - 4 ft) = 350 ft-lbs higher takeoff speed
longer takeoff run
Caution: longer landing roll
The question is asking how far from the END of the How the weight is distributed aboard an aircraft
board should the person sit. Since in this case we is in part determined by the pilot and in part
are balancing the bench with reference to the determined by the designer. The pilot can affect
fulcrum, and the fulcrum is in the middle of the how much fuel, people, and cargo is put onboard
board, the arm is subtracted from half the board but the designer decides where the fuel, people, and
length. cargo are placed. The designer ’s decisions are
2. To balance the bench, the moments on the left based upon being able to balance the airplane and
must equal the moments on the right, therefore: control the aircraft’s movements. Uppermost in the
designer’s concern for balancing the aircraft is the
350 ft-lbs = (200 lbs) × (6 ft - a ft) fore and aft location of the center of gravity along
350 ft-lbs = 1200 ft-lbs - 200 lbs × (a)ft the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. Balancing the
aircraft results when the sum of the moments
(350 ft-lbs) - (1200 ft-lbs) = - 200 lbs × (a)ft around the center of gravity equals zero, often
- 850ft - lbs = 4.25ft = (a )ft written as � Mcg = 0. However, balancing the
- 200lbs
2.2

Session 2
Weight and Balance
aircraft on the lateral axis left and right of the

longitudinal axis is also very important. Each item
in an aircraft has weight and subsequently exerts a
force at a specific location on the plane. Resolving
these forces into one resultant force acting at a
specific location will yield the center of gravity of
the airplane.
Caution:
The student should be familiar with the method

involved in resolving parallel forces into a single Weighing the Aircraft
resultant force. See Example 2 .1 and 2 .2 of the
Operational Supplement for an explanation of Caution:
resolution of forces.
This may seem very basic however it is very
The cg is not necessarily a fixed point for every important to place a scale under each point of
loading condition; its location depends on the ground contact. Failure to do so will result in an
weight distribution of the aircraft. As fuel is erroneous total.
burned throughout a flight or passengers change
seats, the cg shifts accordingly. The designer has Some aircraft have very unusual landing gear
accounted for this movement to a certain degree by arrangements. For example, the U.S. Air Force
providing the pilot with a range of acceptable cg B-52 bomber has an “outrigger” landing gear under
locations where aircraft control may be retained. each wingtip. These support the weight of the
The amount of control a pilot has is a function of wings when they are full of fuel. Therefore, in order
the size of the control surfaces and how large of a to get the total weight of a B-52, a scale would also
moment these surfaces can generate. Control have to be placed under each “outrigger” gear. The
surfaces include the elevator on the tail which video depicts the procedures involved with weighing
creates a force to rotate the aircraft about the lateral NASA’s F-18 High Angle of Attack Research
axis; ailerons on the wing which rotate the aircraft Vehicle (HARV). The aircraft was lifted by a
about the longitudinal axis; and the rudder on the crane and large scales were placed under the
tail which rotates the aircraft about the directional landing gear.
axis. In order to generate a moment, the control
surface must create a force located at a distance
from the center of gravity. When an aircraft is in
flight, any force exerted by a control surface tends
to rotate the aircraft around the center of gravity
making knowledge of the cg location critical.
Determining the location of the cg begins with
weighing the aircraft.
4.0 Weighing An Aircraft

Determining the weight of an aircraft is simply Lifting Aircraft
a matter of summing forces. A scale is placed
under each point where the aircraft touches the Once the total weight of the aircraft is determined,
ground, and the readings of all the scales are then determining the center of gravity location is
added together. accomplished through resolution of the forces into a
resultant force acting at the cg of the aircraft.
2.3

Session 2
Weight and Balance
**STOP VIDEO after two lines item weight arm moment

marked on metal** (lbs) (ft) (ft-lbs)
Nose Wheel 6,000 18.2 109,200
Main Wheels (ea.) 10,000 36.2 362,000
Total 26,000 833,200
Second, by dividing the total moment by the

total weight, the location of thecg is found.
833, 200ft - lbs
26, 000lbs
= 32.04ft from the Reference Datum Line
NOTE:
cg of irregular shape
For the purposes of this example, the Reference
NOTE: Datum Line is assumed to be at the nose of the
aircraft. The arm to the nose wheel is 18.2 feet and
The video also demonstrated an experimental way the arm to the main wheel is 36.2 feet. Therefore,
of determining the cg of an irregular shaped object. the cg is 32.04 feet from the nose.
Further explanation may be found in the
Operational Supplement for this session.
**START VIDEO**
Example 2: Determine the center of gravity
location of the F-18 HARV given the following As stated previously, the designer accounts for
weights and arms: movement of the cg in flight by providing an
item weight arm moment acceptable cg range where control of the aircraft
(lbs) (ft) (ft-lbs) can be maintained. When fuel is burned, weight is
Nose Wheel 6,000 18.2 removed, so there is less force acting at a given
Main Wheels (ea.) 10,000 36.2 point on the aircraft. The cg location will therefore
Total 26,000 change. For the aircraft to be balanced in flight, the
moments forward of the cg must be equally
opposed by the moments aft of the cg. The
36.2' following example will highlight how center of
18.2'
gravity moves in flight.
Example 3: Given the following items and

RDL 6,000 10,000 associated arm lengths, calculate how much the
center of gravity moves when all of the fuel is
F-18 HARV Weights burned from the # 1 fuel tank.
Solution:
Using the relationship that thecg = Sweight
moment
we:
S item weight
(lbs)
arm moment
(ft) (ft-lbs)
First, find the total weight and moment for the Empty airplane 26,000 32.04 833,200
entire aircraft. pilot 155 15.00
#1 fuel tank 2,150 25.00
#4 fuel tank 3,620 36.55
2.4

Session 2
Weight and Balance
New cg location is
36.55'
25' 967, 836ft - lbs
= 32.51ft
29, 775ft
32.51'
15' 32'
RDL pilot #1 #4
airplane
F-18 HARV Loading Diagram RDL

Solution:
Again using the relation that the
The movement of the center of gravity may not
armcg = total moment appear to be very significant, however if the
total weight
airplane is to stay balanced (remain in level flight)
the force that has been lost due to removal of the
1. Calculate the moment for each item:
fuel weight, must be replaced with a force created
pilot 155 lbs × 15.0 ft = 2,325 ft-lbs
by the tail. If the amount of weight removed cannot
#1 2,150 lbs × 25.0 ft = 53,750 ft-lbs
be replaced by a force generated by the tail, the
#4 3,620 lbs × 36.5 ft = 132,311 ft-lbs aircraft experiences what is termed “loss of control
authority.” What this really means is the cg has
2. Determine the currentcg location
moved to a location where the force created by the
item weight moment tail is no longer sufficient to keep the plane level.
(lbs) (ft-lbs)
Empty airplane 26,000 833,200
pilot 155 2,325
#1 fuel tank 2,150 53,750
#4 fuel tank 3,620 132,311
Total 31,925 1,021,586
1, 021, 586ft - lbs
31, 925lbs
= 32 feet from the Reference Datum Line
NOTE: Downforce Created by Tail
As you can see even adding fuel and pilot the cg Consider the following:
only moved 0.4 feet (4.8 inches) compared to the
over all length of the airplane. This is negligible. Example 4: Assuming the fuel has burned out of
Tank # 1, as shown in Example 3, how much force
3. Determine how much the cg moves when the must be generated by the tail to keep the cg in the
fuel in # 1 tank is burned off. To do this, same location (32 feet) if the tail is located 51 feet
simply subtract the weight of the fuel in # 1 from the Reference Datum Line?
tank from the total weight, and subtract the
moment from the total moment. Then calculate
the new cg by dividing the new moment by the
new weight.
31,925 lbs - 2150 lbs = 29,775 lbs
1,021,586 ft-lbs - 53,750 ft-lbs = 967,836 ft-lbs
2.5

Session 2
Weight and Balance
Solution: 6.0 Suggested Activity

total moment
Using the basic relationship armcg = total weight 1 A suggested activity is to have each student
1. Determine the total moment lost when the fuel determine the center of gravity of an object
in # 1 tank burned. found in the classroom by both the
item weight arm moment experimental and the analytical methods.
(lbs) (ft) (ft-lbs) 2 Calculate the cg of a model car or plane.
#1 fuel tank 2,150 25.00 53,750 a Place a postal scale under each wheel. Add
the readings of each scale to get the model
2. Determine the tail force required. total weight.
b Now measure the location of the wheel with
The moment which must be replaced to keep respect to the nose of the model, i.e., find
the cg at 32 feet is found by step 1. Since the tail the arm of each wheel.
has an arm of 51 feet, the force is found by dividing c Generate a chart similar to that of Example
the moment needed by the arm length. 3. Divide the total moment by the total
weight and get thecg location.
moment = force
arm d Suspend the model by a string located at
the calculated cg location and determine if
53, 750ft - lbs the model is level. If not, remeasure and
= 1053lbs
51ft try again.
51 ft
RDL
1,053 lbs
Then to keep the aircraft in level flight, the tail

must generate 1053 pounds of force. The total
amount of force a tail can generate is based on a
number of factors including the speed, distance of
the tail from the reference line, and the size of the
tail. Based on these factors the designer sets the
amount the cg can move in flight since he has
calculated the maximum amount of up (or down)
force the tail can generate. A force generated by an
aerodynamic surface, such as a wing or tail, is
termed lift. How lift is generated is the subject of
the next session.

1 What is a moment?
2 What is the relationship between the flight
control surfaces and the cg?
2.6

Session 2
Weight and Balance
Center of Gravity
We often represent the weight of a body by a single force w , acting downward. Actually, the
earth exerts a force of attraction on each particle of a body; the weight of the body results from adding all
the forces that act on all of the particles of the body. The weight w not only has magnitude and direction,
but, it has a line of action which passes through a special point in the body known as thecenter of gravity.
A single force F acting vertically upward can be used to support a body of weight w . T he first
condition of equilibriumstates the vector sum of all the external forces acting on the body must be zero, so
the magnitude of the force F equals the weight w . This condition, however, is not sufficient to ensure
equilibrium. T he second condition of equilibrium states the vector sum of all the moments which result
from these forces, must equal zero. To accomplish this the forces must be equal in magnitude and opposite
in direction. When only two forces act on a body, this second condition of equilibrium can be fulfilled only
if F and w act along the same straight line. If the force F is applied at any arbitrary point A in the body
shown in Figure 1(a), the body will, in general, rotate about point A as an axis and then ultimately come to
rest in an orientation which places F and w along the same line of action as in Figure 1(b). If the body is
now supported at some other point B, the body will rotate about point B as an axis and ultimately come to
rest in an orientation which again places F and w along the same line of action as in Figure 1( c). The
lines which pass through A and B intersect at a point C which is the center of gravity (cg) of the body. If a
single force F = - w could be applied at the center of gravity C, the body will be in equilibrium no matter
how it is oriented as shown in Figure 1(d).
In many cases of practical interest, the position of the center of gravity of a body can be calculated
with the aid of a simple theorem that states: The moment about any axis produced by the weight of the
body acting through the center of gravity must equal the sum of the moments about the same axis
produced by the weights of the individual particles of the body.
_
F
_ A
F
_ (a) (b)
A w
_ _
F w
_
B A F
C C B
A _ (c) _ (d)
w w
Figure 1 Determining the Center of Gravity
Example 1. Let ’s assume that we want to know the weight and center of gravity of an empty
passenger aircraft sitting on the ground at Kennedy International Airport in New York as depicted in Figure
2. Since the aircraft is at rest, we know that weight of the aircraft is supported by the forces exerted by the
pavement beneath each landing gear. We also know from the above theorem that the sum of the clockwise
2.7

Session 2
Weight and Balance
moments produced by each gear about some axis of rotation, say, the tip of the nose of the aircraft, is
exactly balanced by the counterclockwise moment produced by the weight of the aircraft acting through the
center of gravity. If we pulled the aircraft onto a set of platform scales and measured the gear reaction
forces as 100,000 lb for each of the two main gear and 25,000 lb for the nose gear and the distances of the
main and nose gear aft of the nose of the aircraft were measured to be 50 ft and 10 ft, respectively, we
would get the following results:
Fng Fw ac Fmg
10 ft
x cg
50 ft
Figure 2 Measuring Weight and Center of Gravity
SF = F w + Fng + Fmg = 0
ac
wac = - F wac = F mg + F ng = 2 $100, 000lb + 25, 000lb = 225, 000lb

SM = M w + M ng + Mmg = 0
ac
- M wac = - F wac $x cg = M ng + M mg
225, 000lb $x cg = 2 $100, 000lb $50ft + 25, 000lb $10ft = 10.25 $10 6 ft - lb
x cg = 10.25 $10 6 ft - lb/225, 000lb = 45.56ft
We now know that the aircraft, empty of fuel, passengers, and baggage weighs 225,000lb and has
a cg 45.56 ft aft of the nose. If we then fuel the aircraft with 40,000 gal of jet fuel weighing 6.25 lb/gal in
fuel tanks that have a centroid (center of the volume or mass) location of 40 ft aft of the nose and load the
aircraft with 200 passengers weighing an estimated total of 40,000 lb with a centroid of 55 ft aft of the
nose and 10,000 lb of baggage in a baggage hold with a centroid of 50 ft aft of the nose, what would be the
engine-start gross weight andcg? The results are:
F wtot = F wac + Fw f + F w p + F wb
lb
F wtot = 225, 000lb + 40, 000gal $6.25 gal + 40, 000lb + 10, 000lb = 525, 000lb
M wtot = F wac $x cg + F wf $x f + F wp $x p + F wb $x b
lb
M wtot = (225, 000lb $45.56lb)+ (40, 000gal $6.25 gal $40ft)+ (40, 000lb $55ft)+ (10, 000lb $50ft)
= 22.95 $10 6 ft - lb
x cg = M wtot /F wtot = 22.95 $10 6 ft - lb/525, 000lb = 43.71ft
So, the fully loaded aircraft has a weight of 525,000 lb and a cg 43.71 ft aft of the nose. Notice that the
c.g. is at a location forward of the main gear. What would happen if thecg was aft of the main gear?
2.8

Session 2
Weight and Balance
Example 2. Let's take the same fully loaded aircraft in the above example and look at forces
acting on the aircraft after takeoff and after it has levelled off at cruise altitude with 4,000 lb of fuel having
been burned to get there as shown in Figure 3 . The aircraft is in stabilized, level flight, such that the
weight of the aircraft is supported by the lift forces being generated by the wing and the tail. If the center
of pressure on the wing (where the resultant wing lift force acts) is located at 45.0 ft aft of the nose of the
aircraft and the center of pressure of the tail is 105 ft aft of the nose, what are the magnitude and direction
of the forces acting on the wing and tail? Again, the sum of the lift forces on the wing and tail are equal
and opposite to the weight of the airplane and the sum of the clockwise moments produced by the lift forces
about the nose is exactly balanced by the counterclockwise moments produced by the weight of the aircraft
acting through the center of gravity. We must first recalculate the weight and center of gravity of the
aircraft after 4,000 lb of fuel have been consumed:
Ftail
FWair Fwing
xcg
45 ft
105 ft
Figure 3 Level Flight Forces and Moments
lb
Fwair = Fwgnd - Fwfu = 525, 000lb - 4, 000gal $6.25 gal = 500, 000lb
M wair = F wair $x cg = F wac $x ac + F wf $x f + F wp $x p + F wb $x b
lb
Mwair = 500, 000lb $xcg = 225, 000lb $45.56ft + 36, 000gal $6.25 gal $40ft + 40, 000lb $55ft
+ 10, 000lb $50ft = 21.95 $10 6 ft - lb
x cg = M wair /F wair = 21.95 $10 6 ft - lb/500, 000lb = 43.90ft
We must now express the equilibrium conditions of level flight in terms of the force and moment equations:
SF = Fwair + Fwing + Ftail = 0
SM = Fwair $xcg + Fwing $xwing + Ftail $xtail = 0

Solving these equations simultaneously for the lift forces on the wing and tail, we get:
500, 000lb = F wing + Ftail
500, 000lb $43.90ft = Fwing $45ft + F tail $105ft
And by substitution, we can solve for the lift forces on the wing and tail:
2.9

Session 2
Weight and Balance
500, 000lb $43.90ft = Fwing $45ft + (500, 000lb - Fwing )$105ft
Fwing = 500, 000lb $(105ft - 43.90ft)/(105ft - 45ft)= 509, 167lb
F tail = 500, 000lb - 509, 167lb = - 9, 167lb
So, the lift force on the wing is 509,167 and the lift force on the tail is - 9,167 (a downward force). This is
so, because the center of gravity of the aircraft was forward of the center of pressure of the wing, requiring
a counterclockwise moment by the tail to balance the moment equation.
2.10

Session 3
Developing Lift
1.0 Definitions mathematically explain the pressure relationship

between a moving fluid and a fluid at rest. Bernoulli
Acceleration (a) - The rate of change of velocity
phrased the relationship as;
with respect to time, or the change in velocity over
a given period of time.
"The pressure of a mass of moving fluid in
Airfoil - The two-dimensional profile of a wing an open area is a constant; and that constant is
section. the sum of the static pressure plus the dynamic
Coefficient of lift (CL) - A measure of how pressure."
efficiently a wing transforms dynamic pressure into
a lift force; a proportionality constant which Static pressure is presented to most people
measures how much the pressure changes between daily in the form of the barometer reading given by
the top and bottom of the airfoil. the local weather forecaster. This reading is in the
form of inches (or millimeters) of mercury which
Density (r) (pronounced "row") - The mass of a can be directly converted to a pressure, normally,
substance divided by a unit of volume. 14.7 lbs/sq. in. at sea level. Changes in static
Dynamic pressure (q) - The force exerted by a gas pressure can be felt when our ears feel like they
in motion. have filled up, causing us to "pop" our ears.
Dynamic pressure is perhaps a bit more obscure,
Momentum (mV) - The product of the mass of a but none the less common. When you put your
substance multiplied by the velocity. hand out the window of a moving car, you appear
Nautical mile - 6,076 feet. Equal to a one minute to feel the "force of the wind" pushing your hand
arc of latitude at the Earth's equator. backward. What you are really experiencing is the
dynamic pressure ( q) which is the result of the
Knot - a measure of speed given as nautical miles velocity of the air mass (or in this case, the velocity
per hour. of the car through the air mass). The only time
Static pressure (PS) - The force exerted by a gas at dynamic pressure can be measured is when the flow
rest. of the air mass is brought to rest upon some type of
measuring device. In fact, Bernoulli determined
Total pressure (PT) - The sum of the static and
that dynamic pressure can be given the numerical
dynamic pressures.
value of:
Velocity (V) - The rate of change of distance with
respect to time, or the change in distance over a q = 1/2 (r) V 2
given period of time.
where r is the fluid density andV is the velocity
of the fluid mass.
Wing area - The amount of wing surface an
aircraft possesses.
Then Bernoulli's relationship can be written
mathematically as:
NOTE: constant = PS + q
or
An indepth development of lift is included in constant = PS + 1/2 (r) V 2
sections 7.1 through 7.3 of the text.
where PS is the static pressure of the fluid.
2.0 Bernoulli's Equation Since the constant is just the sum of the static
and dynamic pressures, it is given the name Total
Development of the Pressure Relationship
Pressure or PT. Therefore
In the mid-1800's, a scientist by the name of
Daniel Bernoulli used Newton's second law to PT = PS + 1/2 (r) V 2
3.1

Session 3
Developing Lift
also know that momentum is the product of an

From this relationship, you can see that if the left object's mass multiplied by its velocity, or m
( V).
side of the equation is to remain constant, when one
of the pressures on the right increases, the second Incorporating these relationships into the
pressure on the right must make a corresponding equation for Newton's second law, we can rewrite
decrease. Consider the following example: the law as:
Example: A man is standing still in calm air on the F = (mass) × (DVelocity/Dtime)

or
beach holding a barometer which indicates 29.92 F = m (D V/Dt)
inches of mercury. If one inch of mercury equals
0.4912 pounds/square inch of pressure, what is the If we look at the change in velocity during any
total pressure the man experiences? given period of time as being the difference between
the beginning velocity (V0) and the ending velocity
Solution: (Vf) we can again rewrite Newton'ssecond law as
1. From Bernoulli's equation m(V f - V 0 )
F=
dt
PT = PS + 1/2 (r) V 2
Since we also know mV is momentum, then the
we can see
PT = 29.92 inches of Hg + 0 Second Law can be termed;
so F = Rate of Change of Momentum

PT = (29.92 inches of Hg) (0.4912 inches of
Hg/Pounds per square inch) **STOP VIDEO**
PT = 14.7 pounds/square inch
Early aerodynamicists used this theory to
Caution: predict that if a downward rate of change of
momentum could be achieved, the equal and
The man is standing still in calm air, therefore there opposite force would be in the upward, or "lifting"
is NO dynamic pressure. As a result, the total direction. The difficulty in putting this theory into
pressure is simply equal to the static pressure. practice came from determining how to get a rate of
change of momentum in the downward direction.
In the above example neither the man nor the Here is where the use of an airfoil became
air was moving. Therefore since the velocity was invaluable for a number of reasons.
zero, there was no dynamic pressure to be
considered. The early aviation pioneers built upon Looking at the profile of a wing, (Figure 3.1)
Bernoulli's equation and went back to Newton's we can see the shape looks like an elongated water
second law to develop the origins of lift. drop laying on its side. This shape is referred to as
an airfoil. Usually the top is curved more than the
bottom making the upper surface slightly longer
**START VIDEO** than the bottom. Since air passing over the top and
bottom must reach the rear of the wing at the same
3.0 Lift and the Rate of Change of Momentum time, the air passing over the top must not only
We have written Newton's second law as F = travel faster, but also changes direction and is
ma, however we know that acceleration, a, is the deflected downward. This actually results in lift
rate of change of velocity, V, with respect to time. being generated due to a rate of change of vertical
In other words, acceleration is the measure of how momentum and a difference in static pressure
between the top and bottom of the wing.
the velocity changes written as "DV" or "dV" over a
given period of time written as "Dt" or "dt." We
3.2

Session 3
Developing Lift
At this point it is important to explain several To investigate further, first go back to the
terms used by pilots and engineers. Looking at the second law and look at the vertical rate of change of
airfoil in Figure 3.2 will help clarify these terms. momentum.
a = angle of attack Direction L
of flight
a chord line
Relative
wind
Figure 3.1 Terminology Figure 3.3 Airfoil
To begin, the chord line is an imaginary line Caution:

drawn from the leading edge to the trailing edge of
an airfoil. Secondly, the relative wind is the airflow Recall that momentum is the mass multiplied by the
which acts on the airfoil and is paral lel to but rate of change of velocity in a particular direction.
opposite the direction of flight. The angle between Here we are referring to vertical momentum so we
the chord line and the relative wind is called the are only concerned with the rate of change of
angle of attack. This is called "alpha" and the vertical velocity.
symbol used is a. As the angle of attack increases,
the change of vertical momentum increases. **START VIDEO**
Additionally, as the angle of attack increases, the
coefficient of lift ( CL) increases. The result is an The force, F, we are looking for is the lift and
increase in lift. However, there are limits to how is equal to the mass of the air multiplied by the
much the angle of attack can be increased. Looking change in vertical velocity of the air over the wing.
at a graph of how the lift coefficient changes with Whether a wing moves through stationary air, or air
angle of attack, Figure 3.2 shows that at some is blown over a stationary wing, the physics
higher angle of attack, the lift coefficient begins to involved is the same.
decrease.
Therefore, we can say that in flight there exists
an initial velocity of the air in front of the wing (V0)
Lift Coefficient, CL
which has no vertical velocity. In Figure 3.4 we

can also see that there is a downward deflection of
the air at the rear of the wing (Vf).
Vertical
(Downward )Component
Critical of Velocity
angle of
attack Downward Acceleration
Angle of Attack,a Downward Force
Figure 3.2 Plot of CL vs a Figure 3.4 Airfoil In Flight
The angle of attack where the lift coefficient

begins to decrease is called the critical angle of
attack. Once the critical angle is exceeded, the
wing can no longer produce enough lift to support
the weight of the aircraft and the wing is said to be
"stalled." In other words, the aircraft will stall
when the critical angle of attack is exceeded.
3.3

Session 3
Developing Lift
to measure the vertical velocity over an airfoil, but

measuring the velocity of the air the airfoil was
moving through was very simple. This is where
they employed Bernoulli's work to help with their
research.
Change in Vertical Momentum

Employing the second law, the rate of change of
vertical momentum over the wing the equation
becomes: Lift Force Opposite Downward

m(V f - V 0 ) Change of Momentum

F=
dt
m(V f - 0 )
F=
dt
4.0 Lift and the Bernoulli Equation
or
m(V f )
Bernoulli equated the total pressure to the sum
F=
dt
of the static and dynamic pressures. The dynamic
pressure is a function of the air velocity and the air
Caution:
density.
Keep in mind these velocities are measured in
Density is directly related to temperature, which
the vertical direction.
can be directly measured, and since the air velocity
can also be measured, researchers had the dynamic
Aerodynamicists knew that density is equal to
pressure part of Bernoulli's equation well in hand.
mass divided by a unit of volume of the air.
q = 1/2 (r) V 2
(r) = m/v
However, this was only half of the equation.
Recall that since the upper surface of the wing is
Taking a unit volume of air then v equals 1, so the
longer, the air must move faster over the top of the
equation becomes
wing. Measuring the air velocity would only get the
(r) = m/1 = m dynamic pressure, not the change in vertical
velocity over the wing. Remember the total pressure
In this case, the density equals the mass, then is the sum of the static and dynamic pressures; and
the force equaiton can be written. the total pressure must remain constant. So as one
increases the other decreases. Then what is needed
qvert is how much the static pressure changes over the
F=
Dt top of the wing. Since the change in static pressure
will be different for different wing shapes, scientists
Then according to Newton's third law, the used wind tunnels to measure that static pressure
upward force, or lift, would be equal and opposite changes between the top and bottom of different
to the downward rate of change of momentum. wing shapes, assigning each a value referred to as
Scientists found, however, that it was very difficult the "Coefficient of Lift" or CL. Now they had a
3.4

Session 3
Developing Lift
means of determining all the pressures necessary to

find lift. A force, however, is a pressure multiplied
by an area.
F = (PT) ( area)
Since researchers were dealing with airfoils, and a

wing is just several airfoils side-by-side, the logical
area to use was the wing area, given the symbol Solution:
"S." At last they had all the ingredients necessary 1
1. The lift equation is: L = 2 q
V 2 SCL
to define lift. The equation is:
2. We are asked to find the velocity, therefore we
L = 12 V SCL
q 2 must rearrange the equation and solve for the
or velocity term:
1
L = q S CL V = 2L
2
qSC L
3. We are given the weight and since lift must
5.0 Summary equal weight we can simply put the weight
We have seen how using Newton's third law, directly into the equation.
scientists conceived how lift could be developed. 4. Substituting the appropriate values into the
Taking that conceptual notion, they employed equation:
Bernoulli's pressure relationships to determine how 1
2
to predict the amount of lift generated by a wing. 2 ( 26, 000lbs )

V= slugs
We know that lift and weight are equal and opposite 0.002378 ft 3 (600ft 2 )(0.8 )
forces so let’s look at one final example to tie all of
this together. NOTE:
Recall that a slug/cubic foot is equivalent to a
lb-sec2/cubic foot.
6.0 Measures of Performance 1
2
52, 000lbs
1 What is momentum? V=
1.14 lbs-ftsec
2 How does momentum relate to Newton's second
V = 213.4 ft/sec
law?
3 What is lift? 5. Now we usually don't speak of aircraft speeds
in feet per second, so to convert to miles per
hour, multiply feet per second by 0.6818.
7.0 Example Then;
Problem: ft
)(0.6818 miles/hour
V = (213.4 sec ft/ sec
)
To what speed must an aircraft be propelled
before it can become airborne given the following V = 145 mph
information:
Then assuming we keep the wing area,
Aircraft weight: 26,000 pounds
coefficient of lift, and air density constant, we can
Wing area: 600 square feet
change the amount of weight we can lift by simply
Air density: 0.002378 slugs/ft3
changing the aircraft's velocity. Changing the
Lift Coefficient: 0.8
airplanes velocity requires changing the engine
thrust, which is the subject of the next session.
3.5

Session 3
Developing Lift
8.0 Suggested Activity

Take an thread spool and hold a piece of
cardboard (like from the back of a tablet) with a pin
stuck through it in the hole at the bottom of the
spool. Holding the spool vertically, blow air
through the hole in the top of the spool and watch
what happens to the paper.
Spool
Reduced
Pressure
Cardboard
Atmospheric
Pin Pressure
A jet of air moves horizontally from the hole at the
bottom and spreads out over the surface of the
cardboard. If air is blown through with sufficient
speed, the outward movement of the air at the
bottom of the spool will create a low static pressure
at the base of the spool. The higher pressure from
the atmosphere under the cardboard will hold it
close to the spool so you can now let go of the
cardboard. This shows the pressure force
overcoming the weight of the cardboard.
3.6

Session 4
Developing Drag
1.0 Definitions
Coefficient of drag (CD) - A measure of how
much of the dynamic pressure gets converted into
drag.
**START VIDEO**
2.0 Introduction
The previous section started with a discussion
of the change in momentum of a particle of air. As Figure 4.1 Change in Momentum
the air hit the wing, its new trajectory was split into
two components; one parallel to the original Figure 4.1 shows that the air particle's
direction (relative wind) and one perpendicular to it. horizontal momentum decreases as it moves along.
The new perpendicular momentum was shown to be Since its mass isn't changing, we can conclude that
related to the lift. The change in horizontal only the speed is decreasing. The profile drag is the
momentum was mentioned only briefly. The mass times the deceleration (of the air).
emphasis of this session is to correlate this change DV horiz
Profile Drag = m % a horiz = m
to profile drag. Dt
The cause of this deceleration is the loss of energy

Caution: from skin friction and from pressure.
An airplane must fight its way through two kinds of

drag in order to maintain steady flight; profile drag 3.0 Skin Friction
is the same kind of drag experienced from all Skin friction is a function of the surface area
objects in a flow. Cars, rocks, and hockey pucks wetted by the airstream. Any increase in surface
must all overcome profile drag. Objects that create area will increase skin friction drag. In addition to
lift must also overcome induced drag, also known this area in contact with the flow, skin friction drag
as drag-due-to-lift. Discussions of induced drag are is also affected by what's happening at the contact
saved for later. The video footage uses the wor d point between the fluid and the surface. More
"drag" instead of "profile drag." specifically, it is affected by the fluid's speed and
The concepts from the previous session all viscosity (stickiness) and by the roughness of the
apply to drag, so many of the calculations are surface.
repeated as well. As before, the aerodynamic force
generated can be calculated as the rate of change of NOTE:
momentum. Since drag is defined to be along the
The Operational Supplement at the end of this
direction of the relative wind, then we need only to
session defines the various types of friction.
look at this component of momentum.
Some of these effects can be demonstrated with
experiments. To eliminate the effect of pressure
drag, we need to use an object with constant weight
and aerodynamic properties. A puck from an air
hockey table should work nicely.
4.1

Session 4
Developing Drag
To determine how much skin friction drag exists, low-speed tilt) on an air hockey table, but requires a
we must measure the force needed to overcome it. lot more tilt when using a more viscous fluid. The
Place the puck on a flat piece of sheet metal or a increase in required tilt angle demonstrates the fact
smooth board (Figure 4.2). If you tilt the board that the speed of the flow also affects the drag.
slowly at an increasing angle until it starts to move, Technically, some of the increase in tilt is due to the
the weight of the puck will overcome the Breakout extra pressure drag at the higher speed, but this is
Friction. This is of course greater than the running such a small difference at the low speeds in this
friction. experiment that it is practically unmeasureable.
Since aircraft skin friction is more like running To demonstrate the effect of surface roughness,
friction, it would be appropriate to show this the experiment can be conducted with a highly
measurement with the puck. To do so, tilt the polished board (or glass), a rough board, and a
board, hold it, slide the puck slowly and see if it board with sandpaper. The above series of
continues at the same speed. If it slows down, tilt experiments can be conducted with a large
the board more and try again. If the puck combination of speeds, roughness, and fluids.
accelerates after the push, the reduce the tilt of the
Since aircraft only fly in air, skin friction is due
board and try again.
only to the speed and skin roughness. Many race
pilots and ground crews spent time waxing their
A planes to get the smoothest possible surface.
Sliding puck
H
Boa
rd NOTE:
H There is a small change in the viscosity of air as it
Figure 4.2 Coefficient of Friction, C f = tan c= A
warms up. Unlike liquids, air actually gets more
viscous as it heats up. The difference is not
Since the puck's weight increases the friction
significant for general aviation aircraft like Cessnas
force and the propelling force, the weight effect
and Beechcraft, but is more important for
essentially cancels out and the tangent of the angle
fast-movers like the Concorde and SR-71 because
of the board is used to define the friction
they fly so fast that they heat the air around them.
coefficient.
With a measurement capability in place, we can
show the effect of changing fluid viscosity. With 4.0 Pressure Drag
the dry board as a baseline measurement, reduce the
viscosity by adding a light oil or running water to The other component of profile drag is pressure
the board. Once the puck starts moving, much less drag. Pressure drag is a function of the size of the
tilt is needed to keep it going. The test can be wake behind an object in an airstream; it can be
repeated with a thick, high viscosity fluid such as reduced by streamlining the object in order to delay
grease or molasses and will show a need for higher separation of the flow. A side effect of streamlining
tilt. An extremely low viscosity fluid such as air is an increase in the wetted (exposed) area and
requires very little tilt at all: If an air hockey table hence the skin friction, so it is important to ensure
is turned on, the puck will barely slow down at all that a net reduction in drag is actually achieved
once set in motion. Only a very slight tilt is needed when adding streamlining. Figure 4.3 compares the
to keep the puck moving at constant velocity. drag coefficients of various shapes which are
immersed in the sameairstream.
To illustrate the impact of speed on skin
friction drag, this same series of experiments can be
repeated with a higher initial velocity on the puck.
Keeping the puck moving at a constant high speed
requires only a little more tilt (compared to the
4.2

Session 4
Developing Drag
Separation point
Relative
Flat plate (Broadside) drag force
length = d
CD = 2.0
Separation point
Cylinder diameter = d
CD = 1.2
Separation point
Streamline body
thickness = d
CD= 0.12
Same total drag
Separation point
Cylinder diameter = 10
1d
Skin-friction drag
CD= 1.2 Pressure drag
Figure 4.3 Drag Coefficients of Various Bodies
The flat plate has almost no skin friction drag Proper streamlining of the same basic diameter
because the flow is attached to the plate only a reduces the total drag to 6% of the flat plate drag.
short distance at the edge. The plate does, however, The skin friction component is almost four times as
generate a strong, turbulent wake, so pressure drag large as in the flat plate's friction but, because the
is very high. Because a flat plate normal to the flow stays attached for almost all of the surface
airstream creates so much drag, aerodynamicists area of the streamlined shape, the wake and,
avoid such additions to aircraft or automobiles. therefore, the pressure drag, are minimized.
Figure 4.4 Large Flat Plate Figure 4.5 Streamlined Shape
The "blunt" motorhome is a good reminder that 4.1 Causes of Pressure Drag
designers sometimes must make compromises to
have an all-around good package. The C-23 If there was no such thing as friction, then the
Sherpa aircraft looks blunt from the front view, but flow across a surface would retain its original
is shaped enough in the side view to allow it to fly energy and wouldn’t separate from the surface. If
at 200 mph. this was true, then the pressure change across an
airfoil would look like the ideal curve in Figure
If a cylindrical cross-section is used instead of 4.6(a). This ideal situation is called "total pressure
a flat plate, the airflow stays attached to the surface recovery" since the pressure at the trailing edge is
almost to the shoulder producing more skin friction the same as that at the leading edge. In this ideal
drag. When the strength of the wake is reduced, so situation, all the pressures acting in the drag
is pressure. The diagram shows that the total drag direction are exactly offset by the pressures in the
is 40% lower than that of the flat plate. thrust direction (Figure 4.6(b)) and t herefore, no
drag exists. Our experience tells us this ideal case
does not exist.
4.3

Session 4
Developing Drag
Airfoil Airfoil
leading trailing
Static pressure
edge edge
Real fluid
r Ideal fluid
Pressure
Separation destribution
greatly
modified
0
Distance along flow
(a) Airfoil upper surface static-pressure distributions
Equal and opposite
Parallel to freestream Net downstream force = Pressure drag
Shoulder Shoulder
(b) Ideal fluid air foil (no pressure drag) (c) Real fluid airfoil (net pressure drag) more
Sum of horizontal pressures = 0 drag pressure than thrust pressure
Figure 4.6
reality, friction robs some of the energy of the flow When the Wright Brothers were designing the first
(transforming it into heat and noise). When this airplane, they needed to determine what shapes gave
happens, the flow will have insufficient energy and the lowest drag. Instead of trying to measure the
will separate from the airfoil surface. The actual actual drag force in pounds, they placed the test
pressure within the separated flow is typically article on one end of a weathervane device and
random and changes quickly, but averages out to be placed a flat plate on the opposite end at the same
the same as atmospheric pressure. This is radial distance. The entire unit was placed inside a
illustrated as the line for the real fluid in Figure wind tunnel. The wind was forced through the
4.6(a). tunnel by a fan after being straightened by a simple
grid. The straightened flow then blew on the
Since there is not total pressure recovery at the
weathervane which pivoted about its vertical axis.
trailing edge, a pressure differential will exist
For each shape tested, they increased or decreased
between leading and trailing edges. This pressure
the size of the flat plate until its drag force was the
differential will produce a retarding force called
same as the shape. They knew the drag forces were
pressure drag (Figure 4.6(c)). For any given
equal when the weathervane didn’t move when
airspeed, the pressure drag is essentially
released. With this method they determined the
proportional to the size of the wake behind the
"equivalent flat plate area" drag for a great man y
body. The force also increases with the square of
airfoil and propeller shapes, (Figure 4.8).
velocity, (Figure 4.7).
Figure 4.7 Drag Increase with Velocity

Figure 4.8 Equivalent Flat Plate Area

4.4

Session 4
Developing Drag
The Wright Brothers were very careful to eliminate D = CD 12 q

V 2S
unwanted effects. They made sure there were no
other drafts in the room, and nothing upset the 2. If an airplane flies so high that the air densityis
delicate test rig. Section 7 of this session describes only 1/10 of sea level density, then how does
an experiment similar to that performed by the the drag compare?
Wright brothers. 3. What is streamlining?
4. Why are some vehicles not streamlined?
5.0 Summary
The students should realize that the total
change in momentum yields a total force called the 7.0 Suggested Activity
resultant aerodynamic force (RAF). This is An experiment to demonstrate profile drag can
vectorally divided into the more common lift and be set up with the same idea the Wright Brothers
drag forces (Figure 4.9). There is nothing special used.
about the drag force, it is still measured as the rate
1) A leaf blower or one or two electric fans (in a
of change of momentum - just in the drag direction.
row) can be used for power. (Figure 4.11(a))
An aircraft designer tries to arrange the shapes so
the RAF points in the lift direction as much as 2) The flow straightener can be made from boxes
possible. that are used for shipping wine or beer bottles
or food jars. The cardboard dividers inside can
be used side-by-side or in a row depending on
RAF
their size. The airflow can be checked for

L straightness by taping a few 3" pieces of yarn
to the cardboard dividers. (Figure 4.11(b) and
D 4.11(c))
3) Instead of a weathervane, you can use the front
wheel of a small (motocross-type) bicycle. The
D Vertical Momentum Lift
D Horizontal Momentum Drag wheel must have good quality, well-adjusted
bearings that rotate freely. The wheel must be
Figure 4.9 Resultant Aerodynamic Force mounted so that its axle is perfectly horizontal.
The wheel can be mounted separately or by just
flipping the bike upside-down and leveling it.
A bike wheel is used because it is readily
available and has good bearings. Another
device with a good axle will work also. (Figure
4.11(a))
4) Attach the test article to the wheel. This can be
done at the spokes or the rim. Either way, it is
good practice to laterally separate the article
from the wheel by a couple of inches to avoid
airflow interference. The separating mount is
Figure 4.10 Overall Drag Equation called a sting. The wheel's aerodynamic
interference can be further minimized by
wrapping cellophane or mylar around it.
6.0 Measures of Performance (Figure 4.11(c))
1. If an object's speed is tripled what happens to 5) Hook a small container (w) to the wheel (at the
its drag? same radial distance as the sting for simple
4.5

Session 4
Developing Drag
Sting
Head on view Bike Wheel
(a) Flow straightening grids (b)

False sting
Cellophane window Fans
Taped joints
Side view
Yarn tufts
(c)
Figure 4.11
calculations). When the test article is at the top actual sting) should be placed on the wheel
(directly above the axle), the weight should be opposite to the actual sting.
on some point in front of and horizontal to the
8) If the tunnel is not large enough for the entire
axle. (Figure 4.12)
wheel, then remove the test article only and
6) Next, the wheel must be statically balanced so perform step 6 without the test article. Next,
that it will stay in any angular position in which submerge as much of the wheel as practical into
it is placed. If it isn’t balanced, then it will the tunnel and turn on the fan. With the sting at
always have a tendency to rest with the heavy the top, place additional "speed weights" on the
side on the bottom. Balancing the wheel is wheel to prevent its rotation (due to wheel and
easy: when the heavy end rotates to the bottom, sting drag). See Figure 4.12. Speed weight
simply tape some weights near the top of the balancing must be accomplished for each fan
wheel to offset the heavy part. speed setting, After balancing, turn off the
7) A useful rectangular wind tunnel can be built fan and install the test article on the wheel and
using cardboard boxes taped together rotate the wheel so the test article is at the top.
end-to-end. The purpose of the tunnel is to Be sure the article is fixed at the desired angle
constrain the air so the fan's energy isn't wasted of attack.
by blowing around the test region. A powerful
fan allows the use of a large refrigerator box D
R
tunnel, but a smaller fan requires a more 1r 1
narrow tunnel. Both ends must be open. Fans W

are typically placed so they blow into the "Static" "Speed"
balance weight
tunnel, but some are built so the fan "sucks" air weight
into it. A slot must be cut in the bottom for the Figure 4.12
wheel. It must be wide enough to allow for the
test article as well as the wheel. A small flap 9) When the fan is turned on, the aerodynamic
may be employed to close especially wide drag on the test article tries to force the wheel
openings. A cellophane window can be cut into to turn. This can be prevented by adding some
the side of the tunnel at the test section. To weight (lead shot, sand) to the container.
prevent the wind from spinning only one side of
the wheel, the tunnel should be large enough so If the container is placed at the same radial
that the entire wheel fits inside (Figure 4.11(a)). distance as the sting (R1= r1), then the weight
A false sting (aerodynamically similar to the of the sand is exactly equal to the drag force. If
the distances are different, then;
4.6

Session 4
Developing Drag
sand weight(HORIZONTAL distance to weight )

Profile Drag= (M) calculated previously can be added to the
VERTICAL distance to sting
weight to get total lift:
We can use this equation to simplify the M
test procedure: instead of adding and deleting L = w+ horizontal radius to weight
mass from the container, slide the hook
(moment arm) to compensate for profile drag. Once the experiment equipment is established, a
wide variety of tests can be accomplished: lift,
drag & pitching moment, measurements; effects
NOTE: of different shapes & surface roughness ; the
The test article should be exactly at the top at all influence of test article frontal area and
times, otherwise it’s off-center weight and lift will airspeed on drag.
tend to rotate the wheel as well the change in
Such a matrix of tests would be daunting for a
aerodynamic drag.
single class, but a good local database can be
established after only a few classes. Of course
10) Repeat the test for different angles of attack
it would be important to be able to recreate the
and different shapes, i.e., balls, cylinders,
same test set-up and retain test article for future
model airplanes, flat plates, airfoils, molded
classes.
clay shapes, etc.
11) If any of the test articles create lift, then they Alternate Approach:
will also probably create their own pitching To avoid the destabilizing effect of the test
moment (M) that tends to rotate the wheel. If article moving off from the vertical, the test can be
precise tests are to be done to eliminate this rigged with the wheel horizontal (vertical axle).
effect, then the test should be repeated with the
In this case, the balance weight is connected
sting at a different radius (R2) and the same
through a string and pulley. As shown in Figure
balancing weight (w) at whatever new radius 4.13.
(r2) is required to maintain a vertical sting
position. This twin test gives two equations The "speed weight" test is performed with all
with two unknowns, M and D: parts connected except the test article. When the
test article is added, any additional weight
w × r 1 + M = D × R1 compensates for the profile drag. This test
and apparatus is more elaborate, but is easier to work
with.
w × r 2 + M = D × R2
solving simultaneously yields the profile drag
and the pitching moment:
w[r 1 - r 2 ]
D=
[R 1 - R 2 ]
(r 1 - r 2 )R 1
M=w - r1
(R 1 - R 2 )
With the wheel rotated so the sting is directly in

front of the axle, weight can be tied to the sting
to determine the lift of the airfoil section.
Again, the weight required will be affected by
the pitching moment. The nose-over moment
4.7

Session 4
Developing Drag
Head-on view
Axle Test article
Pulley Spokes Sting
Tunnel
Weight W
Side view
Test article
Sting
W Axle
Top view

Spoke
R1
r1
String
Spoke
Pulley
Figure 4.13

4.8

Session 4
Developing Drag
Friction Forces
Friction forces always act to oppose the motion of one body over another when parts of their
surfaces are in contact. These forces are caused by the adhesion of one surface to the other and by the
interlocking of the irregularities of the rubbing surfaces. The magnitude of frictional force depends upon
the properties of the surfaces and upon the normal force (force perpendicular to the surface). The effects of
friction are often undesirable, because friction increases the work necessary to do a task, causes wear in
machinery parts, and generates heat. To reduce this waste of energy, friction is minimized by the use of
wheels, bearings, rollers, and lubricants. Automobiles and airplanes are streamlined in order to decrease
air friction. On the other hand, friction is desirable in many cases. Nails and screws hold boards together
by means of friction. Power may be transmitted from a motor to a machine drive-wheel by means of a
clutch or a friction belt. In walking, driving a car, striking a match, tying our shoes, or sewing fabric
together we find friction a useful tool. Cinders or sand are scattered on icy streets, grooves are cut into the
tires of automobiles and aircraft, and special materials are developed for use in brakes - all for the purpose
of increasing friction where it is desirable.
Sliding Friction. When we slide a box across a floor, we must continually apply a steady
horizontal force to cause the box to slide uniformly over the horizontal surface. Newton's third law states
there is a force, parallel to the surfaces in contact, opposing the motion. This opposing force is called
friction. The frictional force is generally the result of the roughness of the two surfaces in contact, which
causes interlocking between them. This interlocking gives rise to a force that resists motion. If the applied
force is just equal to the opposing frictional force, the box will continue to move uniformly; if the applied
force is greater than the frictional force, the body will accelerate.
The observations we can make regarding sliding frictional force are these:
1. It is parallel to the surfaces in contact.
2. It is proportional to the force which is normal (perpendicular) to the surfaces which presses them
together.
3. It is generally independent of the area of the surface contact and independent of the speed of the
sliding, provided that the resultant heat does not alter the condition of the surfaces or fluids are not
introduced between the surfaces.
4. It depends upon the properties of the substances in contact and upon the condition of the surfaces,
e.g., polish, roughness, grain, wetness, etc...
Sliding friction is sometimes calledkinetic friction.

When one body is in uniform motion on another body, the ratio of the frictional force, F, to the
perpendicular force pressing the two surfaces together, N, is called the coefficient of kinetic friction, m. It
can be expressed by the following equation:
mk = F/N (1)
When the two surfaces are lubricated, the lubricant fills the surface irregularities, reducing the friction.
The ratio F/N, however, is no longer a simple constant, but, depends upon the properties of the lubricant,
the area, and relative speed of the moving surfaces.
Static Friction. When a body at rest on a horizontal surface is pushed gently by a horizontal
force, it does not move because there is a frictional force just equal to the applied force. If the applied
force is increased slowly, the frictional force increases to oppose motion until a limiting force is reached.
4.9

Session 4
Developing Drag
If the applied force exceeds the limiting friction force, the body "breaks out" into accelerated motion. The
coefficient of static friction is the ratio of the "breakout" frictional force to the normal force.
ms = Fbo/N (2)
For any two surfaces the coefficient of static friction, ms, is somewhat greater than the coefficient of kinetic
friction mk.
Rolling Friction. Rolling friction is the resistance to motion caused chiefly by the deformation
produced where a wheel, bearing, or roller pushes against the surface on which it rolls. The deformation of
an automobile tire in contact with the pavement is readily visible. Even in the case of a steel wheel rolling
on a steel rail, there is some deformation of the two surfaces. The deformation of the two surfaces produce
internal friction in the two bodies. The force of rolling friction varies inversely with the radius of the roller,
and decreases as more rigid surfaces are used. Rolling friction is ordinarily much smaller than sliding
friction.
Viscous Friction. The friction forces encountered by solid objects in passing through fluids and
the frictional forces set up within liquids and gases in motion are examples ofviscous friction. The laws of
fluid friction differ greatly from those of sliding and rolling friction. The amount of frictional resistance
encountered by an object moving through a fluid depends on the size, shape, and speed of the moving
object, as well as on the properties of the fluid itself. The frictional resistance encountered by a man falling
through the air increases with his speed until he reaches a terminal speed, about 120 mi/hr, at which time
the retarding force of friction equals his weight. When he opens his parachute, the greater surface it
presents increases the retarding force of friction and reduces the terminal speed to 14 ft/sec.
Viscosity is that property of a fluid, its internal friction, which causes it to resist flow. Viscosity is
due fundamentally to cohesion and molecular momentum exchange between fluid layers, and, as flow
occcurs, these effects appear as shearing forces (parallel to the layers) between the moving layers.
Consider a layer of liquid in a shallow pan, onto which a flat plate, A, is placed, as shown in Figure 1. A
force F is required to maintain the plate at a constant speed V with respect to the other surface B. On the
surface of each solid, A and B, there will be a layer of liquid that adheres to the solid and has zero speed.
The next layer of liquid moves slowly over the first, the third layer moves slowly over the second, and so
on. This distribution of speeds results in a continual deformation of the liquid. This internal (or viscous)
friction distorts the cube of fluid,C, into a new shape, R, as the force moves the upper plate.
V
F A
5
4
C R 3
2
1
B
Figure 1 Viscous Friction
The viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in temperature. A liquid that flows as slowly as
the proverbial molasses in January at low temperature may pour freely at higher temperature. Lubricating
oil may fail to form a desired protective film at low temperatures; hence, when starting a car on a cold day,
it is wise to allow the engine to idle for a time until the oil is warmed. Theviscosities of gases, unlike those
4.10

Session 4
Developing Drag
of liquids, increase with increase in temperature. The internal friction of liquids is attributed to the
cohesive forces between closely packed molecules. In the case of gases, whose molecules have much larger
separations, cohesive forces are much smaller and some other mechanism must be sought for internal
friction. This other mechanism is in the form of a continual migration of molecules from one layer to
another. Molecules diffuse from a fast-moving layer to a slower moving layer, and from the slower moving
layer to the faster. Thus each layer exerts a drag on the other proportional to the mass of the molecules and
their speeds. This description of gas viscosity accounts for the fact that an increase in temperature, which
increases molecular speeds, results in an increase in the viscosity of a gas.
4.11

Session 5
Thrust
1.0 Definitions 3.0 Principles of Thrust

Compressor - The part of an engine which forces The explanation of thrust is based entirely on
the same amount of mass into a smaller volume, Newton's second law. Recall that force equals the
increasing the air density. rate of change of momentum:
Combustion - The controlled explosion of a (5.1)
fuel-air mixture.
Students will recognize the simplified version of
Disk area - The area described by a propeller as it this law that applies when the mass is constant:
turns through a full circle.
F = ma
Turbojet - An engine which has a small intake area
(for low drag purposes) that greatly compresses the for thrust analysis, however, we use equation (5.1)
air, adds fuel and generates rapid air velocities by in another form:
combustion of the fuel/air mixture.
D(mV )
Turbofan - A engine which is essentially a large F= = F = Dm DV (5.2)
Dt Dt
fan encased in a shroud mounted on the end of a
turbojet shaft. Dm
Dt isknown as the mass flow and is sometimes
abbreviated as Q. DV is simply the total change in
velocity of the airflow.
2.0 Introduction
F = Q DV (5.3)
The previous sessions have developed three of
the forces of flight; weight, lift, and drag. Drag was The amount of force, or thrust, generated is
shown as the force acting opposite the flight path of dependent upon two primary factors; 1) the amount
the aircraft, therefore the opposing force, thrust, of mass flow, and 2) the change of the air flow
must act in the same direction as the flight path. speed.
However, an engine produces a force which acts
toward the rear of the aircraft. Through an Each of the primary factors influencing thrust
application of Newton's Third Law, this force can be varied by different means. If more thrust is
creates an equal and opposite reaction which required, either the mass flow can be increased or
"thrusts" the aircraft forward. For this reason, the the change in velocity of the air mass as it flows
force produced by the engine is called thrust. This through the propeller can be increased. To create a
session will describe the origins of thrust and given amount of thrust, a large amount of mass
highlight how various engines produce thrust. flow can be accelerated a little or a small amount of
Thrust may be the most important force because mass flow can be accelerated a lot. This concept
regardless of the type of aircraft being studied (or was demonstrated in the video by the use of paper
tested) ALL need some type of thrust to propel fans.
them aloft. Even unpowered aircraft such as gliders
need a tow plane to provide an external force to pull 3.1 Propeller Aircraft
the aircraft into the air, where it can obtain airflow For a propeller powered aircraft, it can be
over the wings to provide the necessary lift to proven through the use of the kinetic energy theory
remain airborne. Hang gliders use foot power to and the Bernoulli pressure relationship, that the
initiate movement prior to "leaping" off a cliff. The total change of the air flow speed(DV) is a function
most common means of developing thrust on of the aircraft's forward speed and the change in the
powered airplanes comes from propellers or jets. speed of the air as it immediately passes through the
Both of these types employ the same principle of propeller area. This is expressed as:
operation involving Newton'ssecond law. DV = 2 Du + DVu2 (5.4)
**START VIDEO**
5.1

Session 5
Thrust
The Du is the change in velocity between the qv

Q= = qAV (5.6)
air in front of the propeller and the air immediately Dt
behind the propeller, as shown in the video. Recall the area of a circle or disk is:
od 2
Propeller disk area, A = (5.7)
4
If we assume the density of the air and the
propeller diameter remain essentially constant, then
equations 5.3, 5.6 and 5.7 can be combined:
F = T = QDV = q od
2
V(DV )
4
Solely for the purpose of helping students relate
Figure 5.1 Change in Air Velocity
with accelerations, the video replaced the V(DV)
Directly behind Propeller
product with a "pseudo-acceleration" ,a:
F = T = q od a
2
(5.8)
Caution: 4
If the air's acceleration (a) is replaced with
The Du in this relationship should not be confused V(DV) [ DV shown in equation's 5.5 and 5.4] then
with the total change in velocity, DV, shown in a = 2 Vk(RPM ) + (k RPM )
2
. The thrust equation
equation 5.3.
identified in the video combine this and equation 5.8
The additional velocity imparted by the to get
propeller was given in the video to be equivalent to F = T = q od
2
2
2 Vk(RPM ) + (k RPM )
a propeller constant, " k" times the engine RPM, 4
(5.9)
giving the relationship:
This equation can be quite "messy" therefore,
Du = k (RPM) (5.5) an example may clarify the important points.
NOTE: **STOP VIDEO**

The propeller constant "k," contains the conversion
factor from "revolutions per minute" (RPM) to
Example 1:
revolutions per second. "k" is a different constant
An aircraft has an engine that can turn 2750
for each given flight speed and propeller design.
rpm. How much thrust will be generated at 100
mph (147 feet per second) if the propeller diameter
is 5 feet and has a "k" value of 0.0044 at an altitude
where the density is 0.0022 slugs per cubic foot
lb sec 2
(which can also be written as 0.0022 ft 4 )?
Solution: By directly substituting into equation 5.8

the thrust can be determined.
F = T = q od
2
2
2 Vk(RPM ) + (k RPM )
4
(5.9)
slugs o
T = 0.0022 ft 3 5 ft 2
2
Figure 5.2 Volume of Air 4
ft
Mass flow (Q) is dependent upon the density 2{147 sec (0.0044)(2750 RPM)
speed and area of the air as shown by the + (0.0044)(2750 RPM) 2}
relationship:
5.2

Session 5
Thrust
slugs ft (5.9)
T = 0.0022 2[147 sec (12.1 ) + 146.41 ] 2
T = 0.0022 ft 3 o5 ft 2
ft slugs
T = 166 lbs 4
ft
2{147 sec (0.0044)(3000 RPM)
2
Now to show the effect propeller size has on + (0.0044)(3000 RPM) }
thrust, consider a forty percent, that is two feet,
slugs ft
increase in the propeller diameter. T = 0.0432 ft 2[147 sec (13.2 ) + 1174.241 ]
Example 2: T = 182.7 lbs

Using the same aircraft in Example 1, how This example shows that a 9% increase in
much thrust can be generated if the propeller RPM (which is really a 9% increase in the change
diameter is increased to 7 feet? of the flow velocity through the propeller) over that
in Example 1 yields a 10% increase in thrust.
Solution: Again by direct substitution into equation Highlighted here is the effect of increasing the
5.9, the thrust can be determined. acceleration of the airflow. Comparing this to
2 2 Example 2, it would appear that the most effective
F = T = q o4d 2 Vk(RPM ) + (k RPM )
way to increase thrust is to increase the size of the
(5.9)
propeller, which really means increase the mass
T = 0.0022
slugs o7 2 ft 2 flow through the propeller. However, as shown in
ft 3 4 the video, there are practical limits on propeller
ft
2{147 sec (0.0044)(2750 RPM) size. These limits come from the fact that propellers
+ (0.0044)(2750 RPM) 2} mechanically accelerate the air. This type of
acceleration also limits the amount of thrust that
slugs ft
T = 0.08467 ft 2[147 sec (12.1 ) + 146.41 ] can be developed. Jet engines, on the other hand,
use an increase in acceleration of the air to create
T = 325 lbs much larger thrust values.
This shows that a 40% increase in propeller **START VIDEO**

diameter increased the thrust by 95% as a result of
an increase in the mass flow. However, this
3.2 Jet Engines
increase in thrust creates an unbalanced force in the
In a turbojet engine, the inlet area is small when
horizontal direction. Recall that in unaccelerated
compared to that of a propeller. As a result, there
flight, thrust and drag must be equal, according to
is a smaller amount of mass entering the engine.
Newton's Third Law. The aircraft will therefore
Recall previously we assumed the density remained
accelerate to a new speed where the drag and thrust
constant. Now in the case of a turbojet, in order to
are again equal. This concept will be covered in
allow for combustion the air density must be
further detail in Session 8. For now let ’s see what
increased. This is done by the compressor section
happens when the mass flow is kept the same, that
of the engine, as shown in the video. As the air
is keep the same propeller size, but change the
progresses toward the rear of the engine, it is forced
acceleration of the air by changing the RPM.
into the smaller and smaller spaces between the
blades of each compressor ring. This compacting
Example 3:
of the air results in an increase in the air pressure
Using the same aircraft as in example 1, what
and density as well as an increase in the air
is the increase in thrust if the propeller RPM is
temperature.
increased to 3000?
Solution: The answer can again be found by direct

substitution into equation 5.9.
2 2
F = T = q o4d 2 Vk(RPM ) + (k RPM )
5.3

Session 5
Thrust
As stated earlier, air density decreases as

altitude increases. Since propeller s are simply
airfoils, they have a tendency to become less
effective as the air gets thinner. Additionally,
although Examples 2 and 3 proved that increasing
the prop size and speed increased thrust, as
propellers get bigger and turn faster, the tips begin
to reach supersonic speeds. At these tip speeds,
shock waves begin to develop and destroy the
effectiveness of the prop. It would seem, therefore
that the most efficient engine would be a
Figure 5.3 Jet Engine Compressor combination of the turbojet and a large, slow
turning prop. In recent days, these engines have
As the air exits the compressor section of the been developed and are called "high by-pass ratio
engine, it enters the combustion chamber where fuel turbofans."
is added. This densely packed air/fuel mixture is The engines use a turbojet as a "core" to serve
ignited and the resultant "explosion" accelerates the two purposes: 1) produce a portion of the total
gases out the rear of the engine at a very high rate thrust, and 2) to turn a huge fan attached to the
of speed. This chemical acceleration of the air main shaft. The engine can operate at higher
(combustion) adds to the thrust produced by the altitudes because the jet core can compress the thin
engine. Most jet fighters have a system called air. The thrust produced by the core is
afterburners, which adds raw fuel into the hot jet supplemented by having a VERY large fan section
exhaust generating even more thrust through higher attached to the main shaft of the core. The fan
accelerations of the air. draws in huge amounts of air and therefore can turn
So the jet generates large amounts of thrust by slow enough to prevent the flow at the blade tips
chemically accelerating the air as the result of from becoming supersonic. The overall result is: 1)
combustion. The fact that the jet compresses the the fan mechanically generates a little acceleration
air as much as 40 times (depending upon the to a large amount of air mass, and 2) the jet core
number of compressor rings) allows the jet aircraft compresses thin air and chemically generates large
to fly at higher altitudes where the air is too thin for accelerations to relatively small amounts of air.
propeller driven aircraft to fly. These altitudes Since the fan is mounted to the same shaft as the
permit the jet aircraft to fly over most weather core, the by-pass ratio of these engines is
systems giving passengers a smoother ride. There determined by dividing the amount of air flowing
is a price to pay for the ability to fly at higher through the fan blades by the amount of air passing
speeds and altitudes. That price comes in the form through the engine core. This can be written as:
of higher fuel consumption, or i n more everyday
(area of fan - area of core)
terms, lower fuel mileage. ratio =
area of core
One type of engine is a combination of both the
turbojet and a propeller called, appropriately, a Consider the following example using the G.E.
turboprop. A turboprop is a small turbojet engine 90 engine shown in the video.
which turns a propeller. The turboprop uses the
jet's ability to compress the thin air found at higher
altitudes combined with the larger volume of air Example 4:
associated with a propeller to produce modest If the G.E. 90 engine has a fan diameter of
amounts of thrust at medium altitudes. Although it 10.25 feet, and a core diameter of 3.34 feet, what is
burns less fuel than a turbojet, it cannot fly as high, the bypass ratio of the engine?
nor a fast. Both of these limitations are the result
of propeller inefficiencies.
5.4

Session 5
Thrust
Figure 5.4 GE 90 Engine Figure 5.5 Equal Forces in the Balloon
Solution: The area of the fan is: However, when the stem is released, the air
escaping from the balloon causes an unbalanced
2
A = od force at the front of the balloon, propelling the
4 balloon forward. The same principle applies to the
2 thrust produced by an aircraft engine. The
A = o10.25 ft unbalanced force propels the aircraft forward,
4
creating airflow over the wings which generate lift,
A = 82.52 ft 2 causing the aircraft to become airborne. The first
The area of the core is: step to getting airborne is the takeoff, which it just
2 so happens is the topic of the next session.
A = o3.34 ft
4
A = 8.78 ft 2
1 What is the basic principle of operation behind
Then the bypass ratio is: thrust?
(82.52ft 2 - 8.78ft 2 ) 2 What are the two primary factors which
ratio =
8.78ft 2 determine the amount of thrust which can be
ratio = 8.4 to 1 generated?
This means over eight times as much air moves 3 What are the two ways the thrust can be
around the outside of the engine as moves through increased on a propeller driven aircraft?
the engine. Since this air is producing thrust but
NOT using fuel directly, the efficiency of the engine 4 By what means does a propeller accelerate an
is greatly increased. air mass?
5 By what means does a jet accelerate an air
4.0 Summary mass?
As we have seen, whether an aircraft has a 6 What makes a turbofan engine so efficient?
propeller, a turbojet, or a turbofan, all of these
produce thrust by accelerating a mass of air to the 6.0 Problems
rear of the aircraft. Let ’s finish this session by
proving that the movement of this air to the rear 1 A propeller driven aircraft requires 200 pounds
creates an unbalanced force pushing the aircraft of thrust to fly at 110 miles per hour (161.4
forward. In the video, a balloon was used to show ft/sec). If the engine is capable of turning at
how when the pressure is equal in all directions 3000 RPM, and the propeller constant ( k) is
there is no net force. 0.005, how large does the propeller have to be
to fly at an altitude where the density is 0.0021
slugs/ft3?
5.5

Session 5
Thrust
2 What is the size of the "fan" portion of a

turbofan engine i f the core has a diameter of
2.75 feet and the by-pass ratio is 6.3:1?
5.6

Session 6
Takeoff Performance
1.0 Definitions trainer at the National Test Pilot School. The

aircraft has the following features:
Coefficient of friction (m) - A measure of the
resistance to movement of two surfaces which are 1. Weight: 7887 pounds (includes pilots and fuel)
in contact. 2. Wing Area: 205.33 square feet
Takeoff distance - The distance required to 3. Maximum Lift Coefficient: CL max = 1.51
4. Static maximum thrust at Mojave Airport: 2200
accelerate an aircraft to takeoff speed
pounds
Takeoff speed - The speed where the wings of 5. Drag coefficient: CD = 0.06
an aircraft generate enough lift to just equal the
weight of the aircraft. NOTE:
The air density ( r) at Mojave Airport is usually
about 0.0022 slugs per cubic foot.
2.0 Introduction
Previous sessions have applied Newton's Laws This information is necessary to calculate the
to the forces of flight; weight, lift, drag and thrust. takeoff performance.
In this session, those same laws are applied to
determine the takeoff performance of an aircraft.
The primary consideration when analyzing takeoff 4.0 Determining the Takeoff Speed
performance is measuring the distance required to The minimum lift required for flight, that is to
become airborne. In other words, determining the just become airborne, occurs at a speed where the
distance required to accelerate a stopped aircraft to lift and weight just become equal.
an airspeed where the wings can generate enough
lift to cause the aircraft to become airborne. This NOTE:
evaluation begins by considering the four forces
At speeds above that where the lift and weight
associated with the test aircraft.
just become equal, the aircraft will be able to climb
or accelerate. At speeds below this there will not be
**START VIDEO** enough lift generated to become airborne.
3.0 Test Aircraft Description To calculate the takeoff speed for the Impala,
begin with the lift equation.
Whenever a test report is written about an
aircraft, the first thing given is a description of the
test aircraft. In the video, the test aircraft is the
Aermacchi MB-326 Impala jet trainer. w = L = 12 q
V 2 SCL (6.1)
Taking the numbers from the aircraft description

above and rearranging Equation 6.1, the speed to
just become airborne, that is the takeoff speed, is
found by the following:
V= 2w
qSC L
2(7887lbs )
V= slugs
Figure 6.1 Impala Jet Trainer 0.002 ft 3 (205.33ft 2 )(1.51 )
This aircraft is used by a number of air forces V = 152.1 ft/sec (or 90 knots)
throughout the world and is used as a flight test
6.1
Session 6
Takeoff Performance
To propel the aircraft forward to achieve this

speed, the aircraft must have enough thrust to m = w/g
overcome the drag. Then inserting this into equation 6.3 gives;
g(T - D )
5.0 Determining the Drag a= w (6.4)
Session 4 demonstrated that drag varies with
speed. Recall the drag equation is written as: Using the appropriate values from the test
aircraft description:
D = 12 q
V 2SCD (6.2)
32.2 secft 2 (2200lbs - 153.7lbs )
a=
However, as the aircraft accelerates for takeoff, (7887lbs )
the speed is constantly changing so what speed is
entered into equation 6.2? Through experience, a = 8.35 ft/sec2
engineers have learned that if 70% of the takeoff This acceleration rate can be used as the slope
speed is used to calculate the drag during takeoff, of a straight line to construct a graphic plot of
the results are very close to the actual drag. The velocity (in feet/second) versus time (in seconds).
takeoff speed for the Impala has just been Assuming this acceleration rate is constant, at the
calculated at 152.1 feet per second. Then to end of one second, the velocity is 8.35 ft/sec; at the
calculate the drag, a value of 106.5 feet per second end of 2 seconds, the velocity is 2 times 8.35, or
(70% of 152.1) is used in equation 6.2. Using the 16.7 ft/sec. This method can be continued for as
values for density, drag coefficient and wing area, long as desired, but since the velocity at takeoff has
the drag which must be overcome during the takeoff already been calculated from equation 6.1 and
is: found to be 152.1 ft/sec, then if the speed is divided
D = 12 qV 2 SC D by the acceleration rate, the time required to reach
1 slugs ft 2
that speed can be determined.
D= 2 0.0022 ft 3
(106.5 sec ) (0.06 )
takeoff speed
D = 153.7 lbs time =
acceleration rate
ft
This drag must be subtracted from the total 152.1 sec
time =
thrust, since these forces act in opposite directions. 8.35 secft 2
Additionally, since the thrust and drag are not
equal, the unbalanced force (thrust) will cause the time = 18.21 sec
aircraft to accelerate. To determine the rate of
To construct the graph, perform the following:
acceleration, Newton's second law is used.
- at time zero the speed is zero, then place a
dot at the origin
- place another dot at the point where the
6.0 Determining the Acceleration
speed is 152.1 ft/sec and the time is 18.21
To calculate the acceleration rate from the F sec
= ma equation, the forces must be inserted. - connect the two dots
F = T - D = ma
This equation can be rearranged to solve for the
acceleration;
a = Tm
- D (6.3)
Recall from session 2 the mass is the aircraft's

weight divided by the acceleration of gravity:
6.2

Session 6
Takeoff Performance
Figure 6.2 Plot of Velocity vs. Time Figure 6.3 Takeoff Distance
Determination from Chase Aircraft

The predicted takeoff distance is simply the area
under the line which was just drawn. After the flight, the test team realized they had
forgotten to account for the rolling friction of the
aircraft.
7.0 Determining the Takeoff Distance
8.0 Rolling Friction
Since a, the acceleration, is assumed to be
constant, the resulting slope is a straight line. It can NOTE:
be seen in Figure 6.1 that by locating the point on
Further explanation of rolling friction can be found
the line associated with the takeoff speed then
in Session 4's Operational Supplement.
dropping straight down to the times axis, the area
under this curve is equal to the area of a right It takes much less force to push a hockey puck
triangle. The equation for the area of a right across the ice than it does to push that same puck
triangle is: across asphalt. This is because there is less friction
to resist the movement of the puck when it is
area = 12 (base % height ) = takeoff distance
pushed across the ice. Air hockey games blow air
The base of the acceleration plot is the "time" up through holes in the table surface so the puck
axis and the height is the "velocity axis. By then rides on a cushion of air. This eliminates
substituting into equation the appropriate values almost all the friction allowing the puck to move
from the curve, the area is found to be: with very little force applied. Each type of surface
has certain friction factor called the "coefficient of
ft
area = 12 [(18.21 sec )(152.1 sec )] friction" and given the Greek symbol " m". This
coefficient has been determined experimentally for
area = takeoff distance = 1384.9 feet each type of surface and the values placed in a
Then the calculated takeoff distance is table. In this application, the coefficient for rubber
approximately 1385 feet. The actual takeoff tires on a concrete runway is approximately 0.05.
distance exceeded the predicted distance by a The force required to overcome friction and
considerable amount. move an object depends on the object's weight and
the surface on which it rests as shown in the
following equation:
Friction = mw (6.5)
Then for the Impala on a concrete runway, the

friction force which must be overcome before
movement can begin is:
Friction = (0.05)(7887 lbs)

6.3

Session 6
Takeoff Performance
Friction = 394.4 lbs area = 12 (base % height ) = takeoff distance

Since the rolling friction resists movement, it ft
area = 12 [(22.6 sec )(152.1 sec )]
actually acts in the same direction as the drag and
must therefore be subtracted from the thrust. takeoff distance = 1718.7 feet
Including the friction into equation 6.4, the new
acceleration can be calculated: A subsequent takeoff test revealed the takeoff
distance to be approximately 1750 feet so the
g(T - D - Friction ) theory appears correct.
a= w (6.6)
32.2 secft 2 (2200lbs - 153.7lbs - 394.4lbs )

a=
7887lbs
a = 6.74 ft/sec2
This acceleration rate is significantly slower
than the 8.35 ft/sec2 rate determined earlier. Using
this new acceleration rate as the slope, a new curve
can be generated in the same manner as the
previous acceleration curve. The takeoff speed will
remain the same since the speed depends on the Figure 6.5 Takeoff distance
aircraft weight, which hasn't changed. The final determination from chase aircraft

point then corresponds to a time of 22.6 sec.
9.0 Summary
Takeoff performance is mainly concerned with
the distance required to accelerate the aircraft to a
speed where the lift just begins to exceed the
weight. The weight, drag and thrust of the aircraft
are used in the F = ma equation to determine the
acceleration rate. Neglecting the rolling friction
yields an acceleration rate which is too high, since
the friction acts as a drag force. Assuming the
Figure 6.4 Plot of Speed vs. Velocity calculated acceleration rate is constant, it is used as
the slope of a line on a graph of speed versus time.
NOTE: The lift equation determines the takeoff speed and
the time required to accelerate to that speed is found
The time required to accelerate to the takeoff speed by intersecting the acceleration line at that speed
can also be found using the following relation: and dropping down to the "time" axis. The area of
the triangle formed by this procedure is equal to the
velocity
time = takeoff distance.
acceleration rate
ft
(152.1 sec )
time = ft
6.74 sec2
time = 22.6 sec Warning:
To calculate the revised takeoff distance using the In all of the above calculations, there has been
same relationship as before (recall the area for a more thrust available than required. In other words,
right triangle), the distance should be:
6.4

Session 6
Takeoff Performance
there is excess thrust available. This excess thrust V = 202.2 ft/sec (or 119.7 knots)
is used to accelerate the aircraft above takeoff
speed and is also used to allow the aircraft to climb. Step 2: Determine the drag by using the drag
equation and 70% of the takeoff speed calculated
in step 1.
Once the aircraft finally becomes airborne, it V = 0.7 (202.2 ft/sec)
begins to climb to altitude. The forces involved in V = 141.5 ft/sec
climbs and descents are the subject of the next
session. D = 12 qV 2 SC D (6.2)
1 slugs ft 2
10.0 Measures of Performance D= 2 0.0023 ft 3
(141.5 sec ) (342ft 2 )(0.05 )
1 Define "takeoff speed." D = 393.7 lbs

2 Why do engineers use 70% of the predicted Step 3: Determine the friction force based on the
takeoff speed to determine the aerodynamic aircraft weight and a coefficient of friction of 0.06.
drag during the takeoff?
3 Why is the acceleration rate the slope of a line Ffriction = (m) w
on the graph of velocity versus time? Ffriction = (0.06) (18,500 lbs)
4 Why does rolling friction increase the takeoff Ffriction = 1100 lbs
distance?
Step 4: Determine the acceleration by subtracting
5 If an aircraft only has enough thrust to the forces calculated in steps 2 and 3 from the total
accelerate it to takeoff speed, what is the thrust.
consequence? F = ma
F = T - D - F friction = w
ga
11.0 Example g
Problem: a = w F = (T - D - F friction )
Determine the takeoff distance for an aircraft
32.2 secft 2
with the following characteristics: a= (6000lbs - 393.7lbs - 1100lbs )
(18, 500lbs )
Weight (w): 18,500 lbs

Thrust (T): 6000 lbs
a = 7.84 ft/sec2
CLmax: 1.15

CD: 0.05
Step 5: Determine the time required to accelerate
Wing area (S): 342 ft2
to the takeoff speed.
Coefficient of friction(m): 0.06
takeoff speed
Air density (r): 0.0023 slugs/ft3
time =
acceleration rate
Solution:
ft
Step 1: Determine the takeoff speed.
202.2 sec
time =
7.84 secft 2
w = L = 12 q
V 2 SCL (6.1)
time = 25.79 sec
V= 2w Step 6: Determine the takeoff distance assuming

qSC L the acceleration calculated in step 5 is a constant.
2(18,500lbs)
V= slugs NOTE:
(0.0023 (342ft2 )(1.15)
ft 3
6.5

Session 6
Takeoff Performance
This assumption results in a straight line slope Problem 2: How much thrust is required to
which permits the use of the right triangle formula takeoff on a 3500 foot runway if an aircraft has the
to calculate the area under the curve. following characteristics:
area = 12 (base % height ) Weight (w): 3500 lbs

Thrust (T): ? lbs

takeoff distance
CL: 1.21

= 12 (takeoff speed % time to reach takeoff speed )
CD: 0.05

1 ft Wing area (S): 90 ft2

area = (25.79 sec ) % (202.2 sec )
2 Coefficient of friction(m): 0.03

area = takeoff distance = 2607.5 ft Air density (r): 0.0021 slugs/ft3

Problem 1: An aircraft with the following

characteristics is operated from a runway 3000 feet
long. Can the aircraft takeoff ?
Weight (w): 1800 lbs

Thrust (T): 850 lbs

CL max: 1.21

CD: 0.05

Wing area (S): 48 ft2

Coefficient of friction(m): 0.03

Air density (r): 0.0021 slugs/ft3

6.6

Session 7
Climb and Descent Performance
1.0 Definitions
Rate-of-climb - The straight-up vertical velocity,
measured in feet per second. The abbreviation for
rate-of-climb is RC.
Climb angle - The number of degrees between the
horizon and the flightpath of the aircraft. The
abbreviation for climb angle is the Greek letter
gamma, g .
2.0 Introduction Figure 7.2 Climb Angle

The climb performance of an aircraft is an
important safety of flight consideration as it Video Example: aircraft is flying at 200 knots [or
determines the capability of the aircraft to clear an 338 ft/sec]. If the climb angle is 10 degrees, then
obstacle after takeoff , enroute terrain avoidance, RC = V sin g= 338[ft/sec] sin 10° = 58.7[ft/sec]
and go-around capability from an aborted landing .
Due to the safety of flight considerations, the
Federal Aviation Administration (F.A.A.) has 3.1 Simplifying Assumptions
minimum angle of climb criteria for those flight The first simplifying assumption is used only at
modes close to the ground such as takeoff and the basic level to illustrate the principle factors in
landing and also for the engine out (emergency) climb performance: The aircraft's angle of attack
phase of flight for multi-engineaircraft. is small.
Figure 7.1 Takeoff Figure 7.3 Angle of Attack is Small
NOTE:
3.0 Theory A non-trivial angle of attack complicates the
From basic trigonometry, equations a bit, but is used for all accurate analysis:
Summing up the forces along the direction of the
sin g= RC/V
flightpath, the tilt of the thrust line must be
included:
7.1

Session 7
Thrust The aircraft is climbing at a constant speedso

that DV/Dt = 0.
V a
D With no mass or velocity change, the sum of
RC w
Flightp
ath the forces is zero:
g
Figure 7.4 SF = T cos a - D - w sin g T - D - w sin g= 0 or [T - D]/w =sin g
.
The numerator [T - D] is called the excess
Along the flightpath:
thrust because it i s the extra thrust available after
SF = T cos a - D - w sin g the aircraft's drag is overcome.
The video stated that there are several ways to

measure the drag; it repeated the method in Session
4 with the glider and calculated its drag at a
particular airspeed. This gliding test works great
on sailplanes, but not on big airplanes because it
isn't safe to shut down all the engines. In this case,
flight testers use knowledge of engine thrust which
is opposite to the drag force. The thrust prediction
provided by the manufacturer is usually very
complicated, but a simplified version was used in
Figure 7.5 Mass is Constant the video.
The next simpifying assumption: The

aircraft's mass is constantis quite reasonable for
all propeller aircraft and most jets. This
assumption simplifies the equation to:
T - D - w sin g= m DV/Dt
Figure 7.7 Thrust Prediction
At any one altitude, the thrust changes just a

little as the airspeed increases. For any given
airspeed, the thrust gets smaller as altitude
increases. For the example in the video, the flight
condition was 300 ft/sec and 5,000 feet altitude.
Figure 7.6 Airspeed is Constant

The thrust was 1000 lbs., the drag was 400 lbs.
and the aircraft weight was 4200lbs. Putting all of
The equations used if the "constant mass"
this together gave:
assumption is not valid, can be found in the "energy
method" section of this guide. This section also [1000 lbs. - 400 lbs.]/4200 lbs. = sin g
shows how to look at a plane's ability to climb and
or 0.1428 = sin g
accelerate at the same time. To avoid complication,
the video made a third simplifying assumption: solving for ggave g= sin-1 0.1428 = 8.2 o
7.2

Session 7
The above relation for sin gcan be inserted into the the climb rate and angle will be about half of the
rate-of-climb equation (RC = V sin g ) to give sea level climb capability.
Climb Rate Equation:

4.0 Power Method
RC=V T -w D
C limb performance is directly related to the
so, RC = 300 ft/sec (0.1428) = 42.8 ft/sec. excess power available. This is the difference
between the power required for level flight and the
3.2 Climb Rate vs Velocity power available from the propulsion system at a
Drag increases with the square of velocity. particular airspeed and density altitude. The video
Compare the drag to the engine thrust available at showed that climb performance is a function of
sea level. The vertical distance between the two excess thrust available, which is also true. The
curves is the excess thrust, F - D. As the airspeed connection between the two is quite simple: t hrust
increases, the excess thrust gets smaller and times velocity equals power(P = TV).
smaller. At very low speeds there is a lot of excess The video showed that climb rate is where is
thrust, but the velocity is small, so the climb rate is the specific excess thrust. Climb rate is velocity
moderate. At medium speeds, there is not quite as times specific excess thrust or simply specific
much excess thrust, but multiplying it by the higher excess power. In a similar fashion, since the sine of
speed gives a good climb rate. Finally, at high the climb angle is the specific excess thrust, then it
speed, the excess thrust is very small. Even though is also the specific excess power divided by the
the speed is high, the product of the two y ields a speed.
poor climb rate. This should sound reasonable
since most of the available thrust is needed just to
(F - D )V 1
overcome the drag, leaving little excess thrust for sin c= F -w D = w
climbing. V
Figure 7 .7 illustrates this for both a jet and a

propeller aircraft. The excess power can be used to
either climb or accelerate the aircraft; therefore,
knowledge of the excess power available at each
altitude and airspeed will define the aircraft climb
performance, level acceleration performance, or any
combination of the two. Conversely, measurement
of the climb and/or acceleration performance of an
aircraft will define the specific excess power.
(Prop)
Figure 7.8 Execss Thrust Pavailable
)
(jet
Power
le
ilab
To determine the altitude effect on climb P ava
t)
performance, first go back to the engine chart. raf
Airc
Since the air is less dense at high altitude, the oth
(B
d
maximum thrust of the engine will also be less. At ire
Prequ
23,000 feet where the density is half of that at sea Velocity (Knots)
level, the thrust will also be about half of the Figure 7.9 Maximum Rate of Climb, Prop and Jet

sea-level value. Of course, the profile drag will
also be about half of the sea-level value. Since both
the thrust and drag are reduced by 50%, then the
excess thrust reduction will be the same. Finally,
7.3

Session 7
5.0 Energy Method for Climb Performance To measure the excess power available at any
altitude, it is necessary to measure the rate of climb,
If an energy approach is used where the total dH dV
energy of an aircraft is expressed as the sum of the dt and the flight path acceleration, dt . The
potential and kinetic energy, basic physics states common technique is to keep one of the variables
that a change in energy requires that work be done constant and measure the rate of change of the
(Figure 7.8). other. The excess power can thus be measured by
the rate of climb (sawtooth climb) test or by the
w level acceleration. The term "sawtooth" climb is
used to describe a series of climbs where the pilot
Energy
Change
climbs through an altitude band at some constant
H Requires
H dV = 0 then descends, then
airspeed (so that
w
Work dt
repeats the climb at another constant airspeed and
so forth.
Figure 7.10 Power Available - Physics
T he rate of change of energy requires the dH/dt

application of power which is the work done per
time interval. Since the total energy of the aircraft
is changed by the excess power available then: Figure 7.11 Sawtooth Climb Technique
Excess Power Available During each climb, the pilot records the airspeed
d [Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy] and weight and times the ascent with a stopwatch to
dt get the climb rate. The results of a series of
= d wH + w V 2 sawtooth climb tests can be plotted as shown in
dt 2g Figure 7.11.
= w dH + H dw + V w
g
dV + V 2 dw
dt dt dt 2g dt
Rate
This complete equation is needed for rockets and of
Climb
aircraft with extreme fuel flow rates such as the (Ft/min)
F-22 in full afterburner. For most general aviation
commercial transport aircraft however, the rate of
ds
change of weight dt is very small and can be Velocity (Knots)
neglected with the result that: Figure 7.12 Plot of Sawtooth Climb Data
Excess Power =X s P = w
dH + wV dV
dt g dt
6.0 Data Analysis
dH dV
where dt is the time rate of change of altitude,
dt When the rate of climb data is taken at different
is the time rate of change of true velocity in ft/sec altitudes, corrected it can be presented as seen in
and V is the velocity in ft/sec. The unit of power is Figure 7 .11. The top of each curve gives the
ft.-lb. per second. Since an aircraft has a fixed maximum rate of climb at particular altitudes and
amount of excess power at any given flight the speed that must be held to obtain that maximum
condition, this equation can be used to show the rate of climb. The tangents from the origin give
plane's ability to climb at constant velocity, the velocities for the maximum angle of climb. The
accelerate at constant altitude, or some combination speeds for maximum angle of climb and maximum
of both climb and acceleration. rate of climb are defined as Vx and Vy respectively.
A typical plot of the variation of Vx and Vy with
7.4

Session 7
altitude is given in Figure 7.12 where it can be seen angle. Note that the climb angle is directly related
that at the absolute ceiling of the aircraft Vx = Vy. to the specific excess thrust.
[T - D]/w = sin g
Vx Vy
Rate of Climb
ng And finally, combining these two gave the rate of

asi
ncre
e I climb equation. Note that the climb rate is directly
itud
Alt related to the specific excess power.
RC = V[T - D]/w
Airspeed

Figure 7.13 Climb Data as a Function of Altitude
Examples 5.1 and 5.2 in the textbook give further

illustrations of these lessons.

Aircraft Ceiling
Altitude
Vx Vy 9.0 Measures of Performance
1 What happens to the climb rate and climb angle

of an aircraft if the weight increases?
Airspeed 2 Why does the climb rate decrease at high
Figure 7.14 Variation of Vx and Vy with Altitude altitudes?
3 What climb measurement is directly related to
specific excess thrust?
7.0 Descents
4 For the simplified math presented in the video,
This very same rate and angle of climb what were the assumptions?
equations also work for an aiplane that is
descending at a constant airspeed. All the pilot has
to do is decrease the thrust until it is less than the
drag. This means that the excess thrust is a
negative value. Substituting a negative value into
the climb rate equation means the aircraft is
descending. If the excess thrust is a large negative
value, then the airplane will descend faster. This
concept was shown with the glider in Session 4
(although the intent of that video segment was to
illustrate the change in drag). The brakes added
more drag thereby making a more negative excess
thrust.
8.0 Summary
Assuming a small angle of attack,
RC = V sin g
Then, s tarting from Newton's second law and
assuming a constant mass and velocity, simple
calculations give the equation for predicting climb
7.5

Session 8
Cruise Performance
1.0 Definitions 3.0 What is Range Performance?

Endurance - A measure of how long an aircraft is Range performance can be presented in the
able to remain airborne on a given amount of fuel. form of a ratio between distance travelled and fuel
used. A ratio is found by dividing one term by
Fuel flow - The number of gallons (or pounds) of
another. Ratios can also be graphically represented
fuel used per hour of flight time.
by plotting the numerator on the ordinate and the
Maximum endurance airspeed - The airspeed (for denominator on the abscissa. From this graph, the
a given weight and altitude), where the fuel flow is slope of the line drawn is the ratio. In other words,
the minimum. The low fuel flow permits the the ratio gives the rate of change of one parameter
aircraft to remain aloft longest. with reference to another. For example, to find a
Range - A measure of how far an aircraft can go car's fuel mileage experimentally, you might
with a given amount of fuel. proceed in the following manner:
Maximum range airspeed - The airspeed that a) fill the car with fuel
results in the best ratio of fuel flow to airspeed. b) drive for 100 miles
This airspeed results in the maximum distance for a c) refill the car with fuel
given amount of fuel. d) divide the number of milestravelled (100) by
the amount of fuel you just put in (possibly
4 gallons)
2.0 Introduction e) the result would be 25 miles per gallon
Many performance parameters tested on a car To look at this problem graphically, plot miles
or an airplane are ancillary to the overall purpose of on the vertical axis and gallons on the horizontal
the vehicle. Evaluating the horsepower available, axis. Then place a mark at the point which
the takeoff distance, or the acceleration rate are all corresponds to 100 miles and 4 gallons. Drawing a
secondary factors for the real purpose of a line from the origin to this point graphically shows
motorized vehicle; the primary being how efficiently the ratio between miles driven and fuel used, as
does it get from point A to point B. That efficiency shown in Figure 8.1.
is usually measured in miles per gallon because it
directly relates to miles per dollar. If the fuel 100 Data point
mileage of the vehicle is low, it costs more dollars

Miles Driven
per mile to operate. So even though an aircraft may

75
be able to achieve Mach 2, it cannot remain at

Mach 2 for very long because it uses a lot of fuel
50
Slope = 100 = 25 mpg
when flying at high speeds.
4
25
The cruise performance of an aircraft is
measured in two specific areas; 1) howlong can the
aircraft remain airborne on a specific amount of 1 2 3 4
Fuel Used
fuel (commonly referred to as itsendurance) and 2)
Figure 8.1 Ratio of Miles
how far can the plane travel on a given amount of Driven vs. Fuel Used
fuel (referred to as the aircraft's range). This
session investigates the factors influencing an The slope of the line is the "miles-per-gallon."
aircraft’s cruise performance and describes how to The usefulness of a graph like this can be seen
determine the best cruise speed for both endurance when considering a trip of less than 100 miles. To
and range. determine the amount of gas need for a 58 mile trip,
enter the graph on the vertical axis at "58 ," go
across until it meets the slope line, then drop down
8.1

Session 8
Cruise Performance
to the horizontal axis. The value will be 2.32 The point at top of the curve is the speed and
gallons (Figure 8.2). fuel mileage for the car's best range. This allows
the farthest distance between fuel stops.
Miles Driven

100
You've just completed a test to find the cruise
75 performance of your car and presented the data in a
manner which is useful to the owner.
58
50
25
Caution:
Each of the tests must be conducted on the same

1 2 3 4
2.32 Fuel Used section of road. Conducting one test on a flat road
and another on a hill will obviously interfere with
Figure 8.2 Determining Fuel for Trip the results. Additionally, if the tests are conducted
on the same day, atmospheric effects (wind and
However, the above test was performed at only density changes) and road surface conditions (wet,
one speed. To find the best speed, a similar test icy, etc.) can be minimized.
would have to be accomplished for several speeds
resulting in a series of graphs. Determine the slope Although the terminology is a little different,
of the graph for each speed tested as in Figure 8.1. the cruise performance of an aircraft is determined
To determine the best speed to travel for the in much the same manner.
maximum gas mileage, make another graph. For
each of the speeds tested plot the slope versus the
speed from which it came. This procedure yields a 4.0 Determining the Maximum Endurance
curve similar to that shown in Figure 8.3. Airspeed
When an aircraft is in level, unaccelerated
4
flight, it is usually thought of as being in a cruise
mpg condition. Since the plane is not accelerating in any
3
(×10) given direction, Newton says the forces acting on
2
the airplane are balanced. Recall from earlier
sessions this means the lift equals the weight and
1
the thrust equals the drag. Then the force equations
Best Best which describe cruise flight are written as:
Endurance Range
1 2 3 4 5 6
L = w = 1/2 r V 2 SCL (8.1)
mph (×10)
And
Figure 8.3 Miles per Gallon
D = T = 1/2 r V 2 SCD
vs. Miles per Hour
The way to determine how efficient the aircraft
Two valuable pieces of information are is in the cruise configuration is look at the amount
available from this curve: a tanget from the origin of drag at some weight. This is logical because
to the curve (that is to a point where the line just more thrust required means more fuel burned,
touches the curve) shows the speed and fuel mileage which in turn costs more money. To accomplish
which will result in the car's best endurance. In this, a ratio of lift to drag (or weight to thrust) is
other words, for a given amount of fuel, traveling at created. Equation 8.1 can be used to show the
this speed will result in the longest time between similarity between the lift-to-drag ratio and the CL
fuel stops. to CD ratio:
8.2

Session 8
Cruise Performance
The slope of the tangent line is the maximum

1
2 pV SC L CL to CD ratio. By drawing a line from the tangent
2
L CL
D = 1 =
CD point to the CL axis, the optimum lift coefficient is
2 pV SC D
2
determined. Inserting this value of CL into
The values are put into the coefficient form Equation 8.2, the optimum velocity is found. This
because it is a more general reflection of the speed yields the maximumCL to CD ratio.
relationship between lift and drag. Rearranging
Equations 8.1 to solve for the coefficients of lift and V= 2w (8.3)
drag yields the following relationships: pSC L
C L = 2w2 (8.2) This velocity is the "maximum endurance

pV S
airspeed" and gives the pilot the greatest amount of
and time airborne for a given amount of fuel. This is
the speed the pilot would fly if stuck in a holding
C D = 2T2 pattern.
pV S
By p utting these measurements into Equation 8.2 ,

the lift and drag coefficients can be determined. NOTE:
Plotting the values of CL and CD for a plane results After considering the problem , it should seem
in a curve which takes on the shape of a parabola, logical that the best endurance occurs at the plane's
as shown below. From this drag curve we can best lift-to-drag ratio (same as CL/CD ratio):
obtain the same information for endurance that we
1. The best endurance occurs when the fuel
did for the car.
flow is as low as possible.
CL 2. Since fuel flow is directly related to thrust,
the best endurance should come at the
condition for minimum thrust.
3. Since thrust equals drag in cruising flight,
the thrust (and fuel flow) will be lowest
CD when the drag is lowest.
Figure 8.4 Drag Curve 4. For any given weight, the lowest drag occurs
when the lift-to-drag ratio is highest.
Drawing a line from the origin to the tangent, 5. Since L/D = CL/CD, then the highest CL/CD
the point of intersection occurs where the ratio of ratio (tangent point) yields the best
CL to CD is the maximum. This is illustrated endurance.
below:
Consider the following example:
CL
Example 1:
CL for (CC )
L
D max During a test flight, the following data is
collected:
CL
CD
CD
Figure 8.5 Determining Tangent

8.3

Session 8
Cruise Performance
Velocity Weight Thrust

(ft/sec) (lbs) (lbs) Step 2: Plot a graph of CL vs. CD
591 10,000 1,350
1.2 o
513 9,850 925 CL o
1.0
440 9,700 600 o
366 9,550 400 0.8
293 9,400 250 0.6
257 9,250 215 0.4

o
o
220 9,100 200 o
0.2 o o
o
205 8,950 205
190 8,800 220 CD
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
184 8,650 240
If the aircraft has a wing area of 205.33 square Step 3: Draw a tangent line from the origin to the
feet and is flying at an altitude where the density is curve.
0.002 slugs per cubic foot, what is the maximum
endurance lift coefficient and airspeed for a 9000 CL
1.2
pound aircraft? 1.0
0.8
Answer:
Step 1: Compute the lift coefficient (CL) and drag 0.6
coefficient (CD) for each point in the table above

using Equation 8.2.
0.4
C L = 2w2
0.2
(8.2)
qV S CD
and 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
C D = 2T2
qV S
Step 4: From the tangent point, determine the
Velocity Weight Thrust CL CD optimum CL by drawing a line to the vertical axis.
(ft/sec) (lbs) (lbs)
591 10,000 1,350 0.14 0.019 1.2
CL
513 9,850 925 0.18 0.017 1.0
0.88
440 9,700 600 0.24 0.015
0.8
366 9,550 400 0.35 0.015

0.6
293 9,400 250 0.53 0.014
257 9,250 215 0.68 0.016
0.4
220 9,100 200 0.92 0.02 0.2
205 8,950 205 1.04 0.024 CD

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
190 8,800 220 1.19 0.03
184 8,650 240 1.24 0.035
8.4

Session 8
Cruise Performance
absolute lowest fuel flow possible. Flying at this

condition turns out to be a fairly slow speed.
Step 5: For this value of CL, use Equation 8.3 to
If the pilot adds more thrust, then both the fuel
determine the velocity for an aircraft which weighs
flow and speed increase. The key is that the fuel
9000 pounds.
flow increases only a little, but the speed increases
2w a lot. This means an increase in mileage. If,
V= (8.3) however, the pilot adds too much more thrust, then
qSC L
just the opposite happens and the milage goes
2(9000 lbs ) down. Experience and analysis shows that the
V= proper amount of extra thrust occurs when the CL is
(0.002 slugs/ft 3 )(205.33 ft 3 )(0.88 )
only 70% of the CL for best endurance
V = 223 ft/sec (152 miles/hr)
The following example will highlight the
relationship between maximum endurance and
However, this speed only applies to the weight
maximum range airspeeds.
entered into Equation 8.3. As fuel is burned, the
weight will decrease, therefore the lift required also Example 2: Using the same aircraft and test data

goes down. The result is the speed associated with from Example 1, what is the maximum range

the optimum CL is lower. Therefore, to achieve the airspeed for the 9000 pound aircraft?

maximum endurance, the aircraft should fly at a Answer:
slower speed.
Step 1: Since the CL for maximum endurance has

While traveling large distances, instead of already been determined then simply multiply this

maximizing the time spent airborne, the mileage is number by 0.70.

the main area of interest. To optimize the mileage,
an aircraft will fly at the optimum airspeed for (0.88) (0.70) = 0.62
range.
Step 2: Place this value of CL into Equation 8.3.
5.0 Determining the Maximum Range Airspeed

V= 2w (8.3)
When an aircraft flies at its maximum range
qSC L
airspeed, it travels the maximum distance for a 2(9000 lbs )
given amount of fuel. In other words, it yields the V=
(0.002 slugs/ft 3 )(205.33 ft 3 )(0.62 )
best fuel mileage and is therefore most cost V = 265 ft/sec (181 miles/hr)
efficient. Through experience, engineers have
determined that the CL for maximum range airspeed
Notice how this speed is higher than that for
is approximately equal to 70% of the CL for
maximum endurance. Because the lift coefficient is
maximum endurance. By inserting this value into
smaller, the speed must be higher.
the lift equation the maximum range airspeed is
calculated. Here again, as fuel is used and the weight
decreases, so airspeed for maximum range also
decreases. Then whether the flight is made at
NOTE: maximum endurance airspeed or maximum range
airspeed, as fuel is burned off, the plane's speed
The details of this approximation are outside
should decrease.
the scope of this course . There may be some
question as to why the point of best CL/CD is not The whole reason we fly in aircraft from point
also the best range condition. The qualitative A to point B is to be there quicker. For this reason,
explanation is: The condition of best CL/CD is the its not really desirable to fly slower as the plane
8.5

Session 8
Cruise Performance
lightens. In order to keep the speed high, a climb to 12,000 feet in order to keep the optimum
reexamination of the lift equation is in order. CL and airspeed for the maximum range.
6.0 How to Keep the Cruise Speed High This is the procedure aircraft use when flying
As the weight (and subsequently the lift long distances. The pilot will cruise at a specific
required) decreases and the velocity is kept the altitude until he burns a certain amount of fuel.
same, what other items can be changed to maintain Then he will climb to another altitude until more
fuel is burned, then repeat the process until the
the optimum CL? To answer this, look again at
point is reached where the descent for landing
equation 8.1.
should begin. This procedure is called a "step
climb" profile and works especially well for jet
L = W = 1/2 r V 2 SCL (8.1)
aircraft which burn large amounts of fuel.
Obviously, it's difficult to change the wing The descriptions in Sections 3, 4, and 5
area, S, and the goal is to still fly at the optimum describe how engineers predict the cruise
CL. Therefore, to keep the velocity the same, the performance of an aircraft. Flight testers then
only factor left to decrease is the air density. The verify these predictions using a slightly different
pilot can decrease the density quite easily by flying technique.
at a higher altitude. To illustrate this, look at the
following example.
7.0 Flight Testing Cruise Performance
Example 3: The test instrumentation used on a test flight
Again using the aircraft in Example 1, greatly assists in verifying the engineering
assuming the aircraft maintains the optimum CL predictions. A test aircraft will be outfitted with a
and airspeed for maximum range, what should the fuel flow meter which measures the amount of fuel
flying altitude be if 2000 pounds of fuel is burned? the engine (or engines) use per hour.
Answer:
Step 1: Rearrange Equation 8.1 to solve for the

density.

L = w = 1/2 r V 2 SCL (8.1)
q= 2w
V 2 SC L
Step 2: Insert the appropriate values from Example

2.
2(7000 lbs )
q= ft 2 Figure 8.6 Fuel Flow Meters on Test Aircraft
(265 sec ) (205.33ft 2 )(0.62 )
r = 0.0016 slugs/ft3 At each altitude, the aircraft is flown at various

airspeeds and the fuel flow at each of those speeds
is recorded. This data is then plotted to create a
Step 3: The engineers would then use the "Standard graph similar to the one shown below.
Atmosphere Chart" to determine what altitude
corresponds to this density. Recall the original
density was 0.002 slugs/ft3. From the table this
corresponds to an altitude of 5,000 feet. Similarly,
a density of 0.0016 slugs/ft3, corresponds to an
altitude of 12,000 feet. As a result, the pilot would
8.6

Session 8
Cruise Performance
Fuel
o
8.0 Summary
Flow o
o
o Predicting cruise performance is really straight
o o
o forward once you realize that the critical fuel flow
o o o o o value is related directly to thrust and drag. Since
the forces are balanced in cruise flight, thrust
Velocity equals drag. The lowest fuel flow occurs at the
speed for lowest drag. The best range occurs at the
Figure 8.7 Plot of Flight Test Data
lowest ratio of drag to velocity (Figure 8.8).
During the course of a flight test, by measuring the
This single curve will verify the predicted
velocity and fuel flow, a graph can be quickly
speeds for both maximum endurance and maximum
generated to verify the predicted results. Once it
range. Draw a tangent from the origin tangent to
has been determined how to efficiently cruise to
the curve. At the tangent point, a line is draw
your destination, the next step is to land.
straight down to the "airspeed" axis and another line
Determining landing performance is the topic of the
is drawn over to the "fuel flow" axis. The axis
next session.
values are the maximum range airspeed and the fuel
flow associated with that airspeed. Figure 8.8
illustrates this procedure:
Fuel 1 What is the definition of endurance?
Flow o
o 2 What is the definition of range?
o
o
FFmax range o 3 As fuel is burned and the aircraft's weight
o oo
o o o o decreases, what is the best course of action a
Vmax range pilot can take?
Velocity
Figure 8.8 Determining Maximum 10.0 Problems
Range Airspeed and Fuel Flow
1. A jet airplane yields the following flight test
data. The aircraft weighs 3600 pounds, has a wing
The bottom of the curve shows the maximum
area of 125 square feet, and is flown at an altitude
endurance airspeed and fuel flow, as shown in
where the density is 0.0019 slugs/ft3. What are the
Figure 8.9.
predicted maximum range and endurance airspeeds?
Fuel
Neglect any changes in weight.
Flow
o
o
o
o
FFmax endurance o Velocity Thrust
o oo (ft/sec) (lbs)
o o o o
132 230
Vmax endurance 147 220
Velocity
161 200
Figure 8.9 Determining Maximum
176 205
Endurance Airspeed and Fuel Flow
190 240
Each altitude will have a curve constructed so 205 260
the pilot can determine how much fuel he will need 220 300
and what airspeed he should fly at that altitude.
8.7

Session 9
Landing
1.0 Definitions force during the level cruise, but that balance is
upset in the dive.
Descent: moving from the cruising altitude to just
above the runway. You may have guessed that a steeper dive
Approach phase: The point where the pilot guides generates a greater thrust-due-to-gravity, and
the airplane around to join the airport traffic pattern therefore gives a faster acceleration and a higher
and lowers the landing gear and the flaps. diving speed. This kind of high speed descent may
create a problem. By doing this, you might either
Traffic pattern: an invisible path in the sky overspeed the plane by diving too steeply, or, more
around runways that the pilots are supposed to use likely, end up right near the runway with too much
to smooth traffic flow airspeed.
Flare: the process of increasing the angle of attack You can have a real problem if you try to land
of the wing and increase its lift. The purpose of the with too much speed on the plane. One problem is
flare is to arrest the sink rate of the airplane just that a fast vehicle of any kind is more difficult to
above the runway. control than a slow one. Another problem is that if
Rollout phase: starts when the plane touches down you land fast, then you'll need more runway to stop.
and ends when it stops rolling.
If you fly near the airport and just push over,
2.0 Introduction you'll end up too fast. Instead, pull the throttle
The landing process has three distinct steps or back to idle when pushing over. By reducing the
phases: the approach, the flare to touchdown, and engine's thrust force, you can cancel out the extra
the ground roll after touchdown. Most of the math thrust force from gravity. R educing the thrust
in this session is simply a variation of what was reduces the tendency to speed up in a descent. You
already described in the sessions on lift, drag, still could fly too fast by nosing over too much, but
takeoff, and descents. it is easier to keep things under control this way.
There i s another way of descending that you
have already experienced in an airliner. Airline
3.0 Theory pilots fly along at cruise altitude until they're about
3.1 Descents 100 miles away from the destination airport. At
The technical look at descents is exactly the that point you may hear the plane's engines reduce
same as that for climbs except that the excess thrust power slightly.
is a negative value and therefore gives a negative At the same time the captain will nose over so the
climb rate. Although descents are not part of the speed doesn't change at all. Of course the plane
landing session video, it is useful to understand the will start descending because it ’s now pointed
basic methods used to get down to the airport downward. This kind of descent begins long before
vicinity. you see the airport and can take 20 or 30 minutes.
Consider yourself flying at cruising altitude To summarize descents, there are several ways
until you see the runway below. If you simply of getting down: You can drop down steeply with
push the plane into a dive straight for the runway idle power and high speed, or descend gradually
and watch what happens, you'll see the airspeed with partial power and moderate speed, or descend
increase very rapidly. That i s because from the by nosing over to a high speed with full power.
moment you push the nose of the airplane downhill, Whichever way you get down, the descent phase is
you get the extra thrust due to the weight of the complete when you're close enough to the airport to
aircraft. This was discussed in more detail in the prepare to land.
previous sessions on drag and climb performance.
The thrust force was set to exactly cancel the drag
9.1

Session 9
Landing
3.2 Approach they have a lot of wing surface that allows them to
fly very slow.
The next step, called the approach phase, is the
point where the pilot guides the airplane around to The stall speeds are faster for heavier aircraft
join the airport traffic pattern. Sometimes pilots than for light ones. The reason for this is the ratio
fly "straight-in" approaches rather than fly in a of the weight (w) compared to the wing area (S).
pattern. This is the usual airline approach . To be This ratio (w/S) is called the "wing loading ." A
sure of being over the runway with just the right sheet of paper (with a lot of area compared to its
combination of speed, altitude and sink rate, the weight) will easily be lifted by a gentle wind, but a
pilot must be considerably more precise when flying (bound) pad of paper will not because it weighs 50
the approach as compared to descending. While or 100 times as much. This is the principle of wing
in the approach phase, the pilot also has to lower loading and is applied to minimum flying speed for
the landing gear and the flaps. heavy and light aircraft. A typical general aviation
aircraft (such as the Cessna 172) may have a wing
loading of only 11 lbs/ft2 and a typical airliner may
be more like 120 lbs/ft2. This yields a considerable
difference in minimum flying speed.
To further illustrate this idea, consider a simple
wing that, due to its cross-sectional shape and
maximum angle of attack, has a maximum lift
coefficient, CLmax, of 1.6. We can use the definition
of CL to calculate the minimum flying speed for
various wing loading ratios:
Figure 9.1 The Approach
Since by definition CL = 2w/rV 2S , then
All of the detailed procedures the pilot must
follow in the approach phase are designed to do one Vmin = [2/rCLmax]1/2 × [w/S]1/2.
thing: get the plane into position for the landing
flare. To accomplish a safe flare, the plane must Picking the standard sea-level value of .002377 for
be within a range of values for speed, sink rate, and density (r), we can calculate the minimum speed
height above the runway. This "window" of for the Cessna as
numbers must be consistently attainable. To help
the pilots be consistent, the approach phase is Vmin = [2/(.002377 x 1.6)]1/2 × [11]1/2 = 76 ft/sec
broken into several steps such as first getting to a
specified speed, then lowering the gear, then Using the same maximum CLmax and density, the
lowering partial flaps, then slowing to another effect of the higher wing loading is a stall speed of:
speed and so forth.
Part of the video discusses the invention and Vmin= [2/(.002377 x 1.6)]1/2 × [120]1/2 = 251ft/sec
application of flaps. Review the lift discussion in
This considerably higher stall speed leads to higher
Session 3 where the lift is affected by the wing's
landing speeds and to two problems; more difficult
velocity, angle of attack and curvature. To get lift
handling as the pilot tries to precisely guide the
at the normal flying speed, the wing has a little bit
aircraft a t high speeds, and greater runway
of curvature and the pilot flies with a little angle of
requirements for the ground roll.
attack. To land, the pilot would want to slow down.
To fly slower and still create the same lift, the pilot
has to increase the angle of attack. This simple
To get slower stall speeds, the first idea may be to
procedure works for typical, light aircraft because
decrease the wing loading by putting on a much
9.2

Session 9
Landing
larger wing. A modern transport would look above the runway by pulling on the wheel to
unusual if the wing was four or five times its smoothly increase the angle of attack and the lift of
current size. More importantly, it would have huge the airplane. This extra lift stops the plane's
amounts of drag and would therefore fly very descent. This increase in angle of attack (and lift)
slowly. Designers had to go back to Newton's laws. from the approach to the flare is illustrated below.
They knew that they could use more curvature on Stall
CL max

the wing to create more lift at low er speed s, but
then, again, they would have too much drag at high CL
speeds. This drag discussion was covered in Flare to CL max

Session 4.
Approach condition
Of course, the answer was the development of
flaps that could be used to change the camber
(curvature) of the wing only when it was desired.
Angle of Attack
Flaps don't weigh much and are very useful for
Figure 9.3
increasing the value for CLmax anywhere from 20%
to 60% (Figure 9.2). The advantage in decreased
While doing this, gradually decrease the thrust
stall speed can be calculated using the previous
to idle. With no thrust, the plane can't sustain flight
equation.
a foot above the runway because the drag force
Basic Wing acting on the plane's mass wants to decelerate it.
Typically a pilot will let the plane decelerate all the
Full Flap way to stall speed and gradually sink the last foot.
The pilot’s timing is crucial. The pilot has to judge
Full Flap when and how much to pull the wheel and throttle.
CL Depending on its size, speed, and handling
Basic Wing characteristics, each plane has its own method.
Angle of Attack
Figure 9.2
To ensure a smooth flight, most flight manuals

call for a series of steps where the pilot
incrementally extends the flaps, changes speed, and
steers the plane around until it's lined up with the
runway about 50 ft. above the ground and ready for Figure 9.4 The Flare
the next phase, the flare.
If the pilot pulls too aggressively, then the plane
3.3 Flare might "balloon up" back into the air and might
The landing flare is the simplest to talk about, even come crashing back to the ground if he doesn't
but the most difficult to do, and takes a lot of react quickly. To recover from this situation, the
practice to be good at. The flare procedure goes pilot would have to add power to keep the plane
something like this: the plane is approaching the from slowing and/or sinking too quickly. If the
runway at 80 mph on a 3 degree downhill slope pilot doesn't pull enough during the flare, then he
(also known as the glideslope). Once in this won't stop the sink rate, and the plane might hit the
position the pilot begins the flare about 50 feet ground with the nose gear first or too hard.
9.3

Session 9
Landing
The last part of the landing, the ground roll, is

least susceptible to pilot technique and so it is
easiest to determine using Newton's Laws. The
forces are similar to those for the session on takeoff
performance.
Once the wheels touch, the wing doesn't have to
support the aircraft's weight any more, so the pilot
can feel free to decrease the angle of attack and
speed as quickly as he wants to. The next task is
decelerate the airplane to a full stop. To get an idea
Figure 9.5 The Balloon of the ability to slow down, go to Newton's second
law, F = ma. Since we're looking for a deceleration,
Another complicating factor is turbulence. A a should be negative. This means that to get the
gust of wind can upset any part of the approach or most possible deceleration, we would like the
flare phase. It ’s just like riding a bike or driving a largest forces possible in the negative (or drag)
car with precision - the faster you're going, the direction and the smallest mass possible. Since we
harder you have to work at it (see Suggested can't change the mass of the plane on most flights,
Activities for a demonstration of this). we need to concentrate on the decelerating drag
forces. To create drag forces, we have the brakes,
One of the characteristics of a flare is that you the air, and the engine.
pass by a lot of runway before touching down. If
you point at the end of the runway during the Brakes generate a drag force by converting the
approach but level off just above the runway, then momentum of the plane into heat. Calculating the
you'll be flying along it, passing it by (Figure drag force they generate is simple: The braking
9.6(a)). drag is the braking coefficientm times the weight on
the wheels. m decreases if you're braking on snow
This is acceptable for most kinds of flying
or ice (m= .25) , but is more or less a constant
because the runways are long. But suppose you
number for normal tires on normal, dry runways
don't have a long runway? Suppose you want to
land on an aircraft carrier? There's no room to
(m=.75). In the takeoff se ssion, m was used to
flare. The pilot flies the airplane straight onto the illustrate brakeless rolling friction and is typically
ship with a pretty high sink rate, (Figure 9.6(a)). about .05.
Eliminating the flare gives thepilot pinpoint landing A class experiment to illustrate the concept of
capability, but every landing is a hard "controlled friction coefficient was discussed in the teacher's
crash." All carrier capable aircraft are built with a guide in Session 4 (Drag). Technically, the
super strong structure and landing gear so they can experiment discussed was for sliding friction -
slam onto the deck without being destroyed. Of which is the case for a plane that is skidding, not
course, the aircraft do have limits on how much rolling with braking force, as is normal.
sink rate they can handle.
3.4 Rollout If the wing isn't lifting at all, then the entire weight
of the plane is supported by the wheels. A heavy
weight on the wheels gives a lot of braking force to
Steady descent
Begin
flare
Level off No flare
Wasted Runway carrier landing
(a) (b)
Figure 9.6
9.4

Session 9
Landing
the plane. This wheel weight is often called the

"reaction" force (R) in reference to Newton's third NOTE:
law. Some aircraft wings are still lifting after the Session 4 of the text provides expanded information
plane touches down. This means that the brakes on kinematics.
are not getting the full weight and are therefore not
as effective since Fbrakes = mR. As the plane slows
further after touching down, the wing lift decays Use Newton's second law to help see why it is
and the reaction force increases, thereby increasing important for large aircraft to use everything
the braking force. available to slow down the plane. K eep in mind
that the biggest problem is the length of the runway.
Most of the time we're trying to minimize air If it is too short, then the plane can't fly in. To
drag force as much as possible, but to improve relate Newton's second law to required runway
deceleration, we like drag. So, instead of keeping distance, review basic kinematics in class.
the airplane aerodynamically clean, the big heavy
planes have spoilers (or air brakes) that pop out at If desired, the kinematic relationship for any
touchdown. This desire for drag also encourages the object can be developed as follows: From an initial
use of full flaps for landing: planes can descend speed (Vo) assume a constant deceleration (a) all
slower and steeper without speeding up if they have the way to a stop. This can be illustrated
extended flaps. This extra drag is why planes don't graphically as follows:
takeoff with full flaps, although some takeoff with Vo
partial flaps. Some military planes even use
parachutes called "drag chutes" to help slow them V 80

down. This is done only on military planes because 75

70

it is expensive to have extra ground crew to pick
up, pack and reload the chutes.
Another drag force can be created by the
engine. Some propeller aircraft can be put in a 1 2 3 time (sec)
"reverse" mode which changes the blade angle so it
Figure 9.8 Kinematic Relationship
accelerates the air forward and slows the plane.
These are a little complicated and more expensive
to build, so not all planes have them. In a jet For the first second of travel, the average speed
engine, they're called thrust reversers. Basically, a is 80 ft/sec which gives a distance of {80ft/sec x 1
reverser "bucket" forces the exhaust towards the sec} = 80 ft. For the next second, the average
front in the direction opposite of the plane's motion speed is 75 ft/sec which gives a distance of
(Figure 9.7). Newton's law about "equal and {75ft/sec x 1 sec} = 75 feet traveled and a
opposite reaction" shows that if the bucket forces cumulated distance of 80 + 75= 155 ft. This
the air to the front, then the air forces the bucket process can be continued step-by-step to get the
-and the rest of the plane- to the rear, the drag total distance traveled. Note that for each time
direction. Again, this can be seen on airliners and slice, the distance is the area under the curve.
other transport aircraft because those types of
A simple method is to recognize that the total
planes need the most help to decelerate.
area under the curve is the total distance traveled
during the deceleration. Since the area of a triangle
is 1/2 base x length , then the distance S = 1/2Vo x
time to stop . Since we know DV/Dt = a , then the
time to stop is t = Vo /a. Combining gives the
kinematic equation for distance traveled:
Figure 9.7 Bucket Swings
S = Vo2/2a.
9.5

Session 9
Landing
4.0 Summary
To apply this calculation to Newton's second
law, determine the acceleration which gives a = To land an airplane you need to descend to the
F/m. Putting it all together gives a neat little airport, reconfigure the airplane for landing then
equation for estimating ground roll distance: approach the end of the runway with the proper
sink rate, flare the plane just over the runway to
Sground roll = mVTD2/2 FDrag stop the descent then allow it to land in the last foot,
and finally, decelerate the plane on rollout. Each
step can be explained with basic physics.
This says that the landing distance increases with
the mass and the square of touchdown velocity It’s the test pilot's job to figure out the best
procedures for descending, that means
(VTD). The distance decreases as the drag forces go
measuring the dive angle when thrust is reduced
up. It's important to realize that this equation is
by 10 or 20%. During the approach it means
valid only if the decelerating forces are constant. In
figuring out the safest speed to fly each step of
reality, all of the forces in the drag direction change
the way when the gear goes down and when the
a little, so the equation is not exact.
flaps go down. During the flare it means
The old biplanes were so light and landed at figuring out just when to throttle the engines
such low speeds that most of them didn't even need and start the flare. Finally, a test pilot has to
brakes - especially since they landed in grass fields perform a series of ground rolls to see how
that created lots of drag on the wheels. much runway the plane really needs, not what
Approximate values to show a calculation of this is predicted from approximations.
for a Fokker Triplane are VTD = 60 ft/sec , w =
1200 lbs, average drag from rolling wheels over
grass = 90 lbs, average aerodynamic drag = 80 lbs. 5.0 Measures of Performance
1 What are the three phases of the landing
S = [1200/32.2]{602}/2[90+80] = 395 ft process?
2 During the flare, why does the aircraft descend?
A big transport on the other hand, has a lot of
mass and a high landing speed like 150 mph. The 3 What are three ways to create drag forces to
decelerate?
"velocity squared" effect shows that big planes
would have huge landing distances unless they
created a lot of drag. That's why we put big
brakes, big spoilers, and thrust reversers on them.
The landing distance equation is one of the primary
reasons that we're trying to land as slowly as
possible--- to shorten the required runway distance.
In reality, each of these drag forces changes a
little during the ground roll. You can feel this when
you get jerked around in your seat after touchdown.
That jerking around is you experiencing Newton's
first law: bodies in motion tend to remain in motion
unless disturbed by an outside force. You are the
body in motion. The seatbelt -which is attached to
the rest of the plane- exerts an outside force on you
that slows you down along with the plane.
9.6

Session 9
Landing
6.0 Suggested Activities
The difficulty of landing at high speeds can be

demonstrated by having students ride bikes into a
runway-like "chute" at different speeds. Like
landing on a calm day, this is not much of a
challenge if the rider is lined up with the chute long
before he or she gets there, even at high speed.
The task is made challenging ( especially at high
speed) if the rider follows a path that is laterally
offset from the ideal path and is allowed to
maneuver into position only immediately before
entering the zone. This is like having a plane get
bumped off-track by a wind gust.
To simulate a pilot flying in the weather and
"breaking out of the clouds" just before touching
down, the students can ride approximately towards
the chute with eyes closed until someone shouts
"BREAKOUT!" just prior to entering the chute.
This simple exercise will illustrate the benefits of
slow approach speeds in poor weather.
Painted lines or traffic cones
Runway
Ideal Centerline Path "chute"
Offset Path

9.7

Session 10
Summary and Review
1.0 Introduction
The previous sessions showed that Newton's

Laws of Motion are used during aircraft flight
testing. During this final session, the same
techniques used to evaluate a full size aircraft are
used to predict the performance of a radio
controlled (R/C) model aircraft. The scope of
testing is limited because there is no pilot on board
and instrumentation, such as airspeed and fuel
flow, is not available. As a result, the focus of this
session is on weight and balance, thrust Measuring Landing Gear Arms
determination, and takeoff performance. The
procedures described can be accomplished by any The aircraft is then weighed. Recall from
student having access to a R/C model. Session 2 that a scale is placed under each landing
gear, the weights are recorded and then added
together to obtain the total aircraft weight.
2.0 Weight and Balance of the Model
To determine the aircraft's weight and location Caution:

of the center of gravity, use the same procedures It is important that the aircraft be level to achieve
described in Session 2. Begin by establishing a the proper weight distribution on each landing gear.
Reference Datum Line (RDL) at the forward end of
the propeller hub. This can be done by placing a
carpenter's square at the end or by placing the
model flush against a wall. From the RDL,
measure the horizontal distance to the point where
the nose wheel (or tail wheel, depending on the type
of model) touches the ground. This is the arm
length for the nose gear. Accomplish the same
procedure for the main landing gear.
NOTE:
Weighing the Aircraft
Since the assumption is that the aircraft is
symmetric, only one main gear need be measured.
Now, to determine the cg location, the weight
recorded at each landing gear is multiplied by the
arm length from the RDL for that gear. For the
The following lengths were found using the
model under evaluation, this yields the following:
model shown in the video:
Item Arm Weight Moment
Nose Landing Gear Arm = 5.75 inches (Gear)
Main Landing Gear Arm = 14.25 inches Nose 5.75 in 0.88 lbs 5.06 in-lbs
Left Main 14.25 in 1.75 lbs 24.93 in-lbs
Right Main 14.25 in 1.56 lbs 22.23 in-lbs
Total 4.19 lbs 52.22 in-lbs
10.1

Session 10
Summary and Review
Then, divide the total moment by the total weight to

determine the location of the cg. Here, the cg is
located 12.46 inches from the RDL, which locates
it on the wing within the range of cg's specified by
the model maker.
3.0 Determining Thrust of the Model
The next step in the flight test sequence is to

predict the thrust available from the engine. Session
5 gave the relation: Measuring Engine Thrust
2 2
T = q o4d 2 2Vk(RPM ) + k(RPM )
The model maker has provided the following NOTE:

information for use in this equation: This is 21% less power than predicted. This
highlights an important aspect of testing. The
Propeller diameter (d): 9 inches (0.75 ft) numbers for RPM and propeller efficiency
provided by the manufacturer are for a brand new
Propeller efficiency (k): 0.00066
engine under carefully controlled test conditions.
Max engine RPM: 1250 RPM
The engine on the model is a number of years old
and the propeller has a considerable number of
"nicks" on the blades. Each of these factors
NOTE:
detracts from the amount of thrust the engine can
For most models, propeller constants range
produce. This is why we test the thrust using a
between 0.00044 and 0.00070. Tests to determine
scale.
actual k values are very involved. Therefore,
should you decide to conduct a test similar to the
one shown in the video, an average propeller
4.0 Determining Takeoff Speed
constant of 0.00057 can be used.
Recall from Session 6 that the lowest speed at
The air density at the test site is 0.002 slugs/ft . 3 which the lift just equals the aircraft's weight is the
By examining the equation, we see a velocity term takeoff speed. This speed is determined by the
in the second set of brackets. However, for a static relationship:
thrust check, the velocity is zero. Therefore,
substituting into the thrust relationship gives:
w = L = 12 q
V 2SCLmax
slugs o0.75ft 2
2
Rearranging this equation to solve for takeoff
T = 0.002 2 0 + 0.00066(1250 ) speed gives:
ft 3 4 1
V = 2w
2
T = 1.82 lbs qSC L

To verify this value, a spring scale is attached In order to determine the wing area, the video
to the model. With the engine operating at depicted measuring;
maximum RPM, the scale reading is 1.5 lbs. To - the chord length, c, (distance from leading
predict the takeoff performance, the 1.5 pounds of edge to the trailing edge of the wing)
static thrust determined experimentally should be - the wing span, b, (distance from one wingtip
used in the calculations. to the other)
10.2

Session 10
Summary and Review
1
To determine the area of the rectangular wing, 2
simply multiply the chord length times the span 2(4.19lbs )

V= slugs
length, or 0.002 ft 3 (3.07ft 2 )(1.1 )
S = c ·b V = 35.2 ft/sec (24 MPH)

For the model being tested, the chord length is This speed will be used in determining the drag
8.5 inches (0.7083 ft) and the wing span is 52 on the aircraft during the takeoff roll.
inches (4.33 ft). Multiply these values and we find
the wing area is 3.07 square feet.
5.0 Determining the Drag
Session 6 said that engineers have learned

through experience, if seventy percent of the
takeoff speed is used to calculate the drag during
takeoff, the results are very close to the average
drag. Seventy percent of the speed just calculated
is 0.70 times 35.2 ft/sec or 24.6 ft/sec.
Next the drag coefficient, CD, should be
determined. Again, this is usually found in a wind
tunnel. However, for the type of model used in this
Determining Wing Area test, a good estimated value ofCD is 0.06.
The drag equation is:
Caution: D = 12 q
V 2SCD
It's important to convert all units into feet and Using the values for wing area, density, 70% of
pounds prior to performing the calculations for takeoff speed, and drag coefficient, the predicted
takeoff speed, lift, drag, and thrust. average drag during the takeoff is:
The next item needed for the takeoff speed D= 1
0.002
slugs ft 2
(24.6 sec ) (3.07ft 2 )(0.06 )
2 ft 3
calculation is the air density. For the temperature
and air pressure measured on the day of the test, D = 0.1115 lbs
the density, r, was found to be 0.002 slugs/ft3.
This value and the measured value for thrust
This may vary for your test. All we need now is
are used to calculate the expected acceleration
the overall lift coefficient.
during takeoff.
The lift coefficient is usually found by wind
tunnel analysis. In this case, the model maker
didn't provide this data. A conservative number for 6.0 Determining the Acceleration
an aircraft without flaps and a rectangular wing is Using Newton's F = ma equation, we can
CL = 1.1 . This is a reasonable assumption and can define acceleration in the same manner as outlined
be used for most model applications. in Session 6. This yields:
Applying these numbers to the takeoff speed
F = T - D = ma
equation:
1
when we rearrange the equation, we can solve
V= 2w 2
qSC L for the acceleration:

a = Tm
- D
10.3

Session 10
Summary and Review
g(T - D ) ft
area = 12 (35.2 sec % 3.3 sec )
a= w
area = takeoff distance = 58 ft
Inserting the appropriate values (remember
g = 32.2 secft 2 ) gives: During the first takeoff of the model, the
takeoff distance was measured at 85 feet. To
1.5lbs - 0.1115lbs account for the increased takeoff roll, we must
a = 32.2 secft 2
4.19lbs account for rolling friction.
a = 10.67 secft 2
To determine the time required to accelerate to

takeoff speed, use the following relationship;
takeoff speed
time =
acceleration rate
ft
35.2 sec
time =
10.67 secft 2
time = 3.3 sec
In Session 6, it was stated if we assume the Rolling Friction
acceleration rate is constant, a plot of velocity
versus time can be constructed. The acceleration From Session 6, the rolling friction is given as:
rate is the simply slope of this curve. So if we use Friction = mw
this relationship, the takeoff distance is determined.
where m is the coefficient of friction for the surface
the aircraft is rolling over. The surface of the
7.0 Determining Takeoff Distance "runway" used in the video is dirt with rocks and
holes throughout. The handbook value of m is 0.1,
Since the acceleration is assumed to be for surface conditions of the runway. To account
constant, the slope of the plot is a straight line. for friction we use Newton's equation again:
Using the right triangle equation, Session 6 showed
that the area under the triangle is equal to the F = (T - D - mw) = ma
estimated takeoff distance.
Vtakeoff and calculate the new acceleration rate:
g(T - D - lw )
Velocity
a= w
32.2 secft 2 [1.5lbs - 0.115lbs - 0.1(4.19lbs )]
a=
4.19lbs
a = 7.45 secft 2
time

So, to estimate the new time required to
area = 12 (base % height ) accelerate to takeoff speed:
area = 12 (takeoff speed % time required to takeoff ) takeoff speed

time =
= takeoff distance acceleration rate
ft
35.2 sec
time =
Substituting the a ppropriate values into this 7.45 secft 2
equation:
10.4

Session 10
Summary and Review
time = 4.72 sec

Taking these factors into consideration, the
new estimated takeoff distance should be:
1
area = (
2 takeoff speed % time required to takeoff )
= takeoff distance
ft
area = 12 (35.2 sec % 4.72 sec )
takeoff distance = 83.1 ft
This takeoff distance was within 2 feet of the
actual distance required for the first takeoff. On a
subsequent takeoff the distance required was 86
feet. This further substantiates our analysis.
8.0 Conclusion
The techniques used to flight test aircraft rely
heavily upon Newton's Three Laws of Motion.
Although some simplifying assumptions have been
made to the aerodynamic relationships, the basic
concepts remain valid regardless of the size of the
aircraft. We demonstrated this by testing of a R/C
Model. Further experiments are outlined in the
section titled “Culminating Activities. ” We hope
you find them interesting and challenging.
10.5

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Flight Testing Newton's Laws

Student's Flight Manual

1 Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

2 Weight and Balance

By way of example, consider the following:

Caution: Operating procedures, techniques, etc., which could result in damage to

National Science Education Standards

Curriculum Standards for School Mathematics

Ms. Lauern Holen of the Tehachapi (CA) Unified School District

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

1.0 Importance of Physics NOTE:

Many "would-be" aircraft designers never took

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

2.0 Newton’s First Law

Sled Track Test Subject

3.0 Newton’s Second Law

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

As an aircraft maneuvers, the pilot experiences

this equation yields our mass. NOTE:

constant is contained in the Operational

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

Thrust is just one of four primary forces which

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

All four of these forces are actually dependent

interrelationships will be explored. 155 pounds = m (32.2 feet/sec2)

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

Speed and Velocity

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

If we eliminate Vavg and t, we obtain:

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

Uniform Circular Motion

Figure 1 Uniform Circular Motion

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

Figure 2 Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

Top view (horizontal plane)

Figure 4 An Airplane in a Level Turn

If we introduce a new term, theload factor n, defined as:

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

Combining Equations 20 and 21 and solving for R, we have:

1. The highest possible load factor (n = L/w)

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

We have from Equation 21:

Combining Equations 21 and 24 and solving for R we get:

w = g(n - 1)/V (26)

Figure 6 The Inverted Pulldown Maneuver

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

Review of Newton's Laws of Motion

n = L/w = 1/cos f (19)

The turn radius is given by:

and the turn rate is:

w = g(n - 1)/V (26)

w = g(n + 1)/V (29)

Weight and Balance

1.0 Definitions NOTE:

Center of gravity limits - The specified forward

NOTE: STOP VIDEO

This shows that a 40% increase in propeller START VIDEO